Introduction to the Bible

In this essay, I will be addressing an introductory exploration of the historical context and
literary styles of the Bible. As a Christian, to study the Holy Bible, to understand its history
and the manner in which it was written, and spread to the world is critical to a deeper
understanding of ones Christian faith. I plan to cover four basic areas applicable to gaining
this understanding; these are:

How to develop an ability to interpret each of the various sections of the Bible
independently, without the aid of commentaries, dictionaries, etc.

Become able to articulate and critique various contemporary methods of

exegeting (understanding) a Biblical text

Develop the ability to describe the history and transmission of the various
manuscripts of the Bible

Become able to evaluate and assess the numerous English translations available
today.

By gaining the understanding and ability to absorb and internalize this information, a committed
Christian can improve his/her comprehension of his/her faith. This paper will attempt to show
how I acquired the information, give examples of my understanding of the information, and
demonstrate that I can employ the information in venues outside of the learning environment.

Over the course of 50 plus years, most of the information I will address was gained by formal
church-base Bible study and just about a full year of formal Bible study courses taken as a young
girl in England. I also was assisted in gaining this knowledge by use of informal self-initiated
avocational reading at home alone or with my family using (initially) written material such as
various versions of the Bible, commercially available study-guides, as well as other printed
material provided by the church I was attending at the time. Today, within the last 10 years or
so, I have been using Internet-accessible material.

(CO-1) Interpret each of the various sections of the Bible independently, without the aid of
commentaries, dictionaries, etc. .

While living in Stamford, Lincolnshire, England, when I was a young girl, just around age 12, I
was enrolled in Roman Catholic catechism class in preparation for my Roman Catholic
confirmation rite, establishing me as a practicing member of the Roman Catholic Church. It was
during this period of preparatory religious study that I learned the Roman Catholic Church uses a
translation of the Holy Bible (Douay-Rhiems Catholic Bible). This, like all Christian Bibles is
divided into two parts, the Old Testament, and the New Testament. I later learned that the
Douay-Rhiems Catholic Bible contains seven books that the Protestant faiths do not consider as
true parts of the Bible, rather they are termed as being Apocrypha, i.e. : not authentic and valid
books of the Biblical canon. (Oh, the interesting arguments a Protestant and a Catholic can get
into over this!!!) This initial exposure to the Holy Bible was not too terribly extensive, if I recall
correctly.

It was just over three years later when I became very interested in matters religious. This interest
occurred following a bit of soul-searching after some conversation I had with a few of my fellow
employees at the Midland Garden Times newspaper and a burgeoning spiritual awakening. I
subsequently enrolled in a mail-based correspondence course of Bible study with the Seventh
Day Adventists British branch of the Voice of Prophecy Bible School program. While I was
an active participant in the Voice of Prophecy Bible School, I learned some interesting
information about the Bible and its history. I discovered that the Old Testament is actually the
Hebrew (Jewish) Bible which consists of three sections, the Torah (The Teaching), the Neviim
(Prophets-both major and minor), and the Ketuvim (Writings). (My Jewish Learning, 2015)

The Torah contains the five books of the Law, as given to Moses by GOD (aka: YHVH) on Mt
Sinai, according to our Abrahamic religious beliefs. (My Jewish Learning, 2015),
(AllAboutGOD, 2002-2015) These books, also called the Pentateuch, contain the first five
books of the Abrahamic holy scriptures. Within it, we find the stories of GODs, aka: YHVHs
(possibly pronounced Jehovah or Yaweh) creation of our world, the choice and progression of
the household of Abraham and Sarah in connection to GOD in the land of Canaan, the casting
out of and restoration from Kingdom of Egypt of that family group known as Israel, and their
journeys through the wilderness of Sinai until the Israelites regain their rightful place in the land
of Canaan. The Pentateuch also discloses that along the way back to Canaan, the Israelites enter
into a pledged and bonded relationship with YHVH, and YHVH discloses many of the directions
for governing a just social order and for creating appropriate practices for the worship of YHVH.
(My Jewish Learning, 2015), (AllAboutGOD, 2002-2015)

Within the Old Testament, one also finds the books of the Neviim (Prophets), According to
Westminster Colleges Dr. Bryan S. Rennie, the Neviim is organized into two sections, each of
four books. (Rennie, Unknown"(but likely NLT 2014)) These books are grouped as follows:

the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings (in Protestant Bibles, this is
further separated into First and Second Kings))

the Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel),

the Twelve, or Minor, Prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum,
Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi). (In the Catholic Bible, one will
also find the book of Baruch located in the Minor Prophets, a book considered
apocryphal in protestant cannon. In the Neviim, it is shown that GOD sent prophets as
messengers to communicate His desires and directions for His people. God enters a new
covenant with Israel. (123HelpMe, 2015)

While I was reviewing my recollection of the events in the books of the Prophets, I refamiliarized myself as to its content by using the internet source Jewish Virtual Library
(American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise, 2015) In attempting to understand and interpret the
meaning of the Neviim (the Prophets) the reader must note that this selection of books presents
the history of Israel as its own nation on its own land. The ancient Israelites are seen within
these books to conquer and settle the territory of Canaan. They are subsequently beset by the
military forces of various indigenous foes and eventually by the regional imperial powers of the
old Middle East. As this is occurring, political and prophetic leaders vie for hearts of the

Israelite tribes; and we modern readers see the supporters of the Covenant of God fight against
the greatly disturbing and unwelcomed paganism of neighboring groups and, in some cases, see
fighting among their fellow Israelis who fall into religious error and began the worship of pagan
gods. In this section of the Bible, we also learn about how an Israelite kingdom, its capital city,
and its holy Temple were built and eventually destroyed by war (and some would say by a
falling away from the true faith). At the end of Neviim, the modern reader will learn of the
Israeli prophets who lived through the period of exile instruct their humbled fellow Israelis in a
renewed belief in the one true GOD, and thus recovering their position as the People of the
Covenant. (American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise, 2015)

As a practicing Christian, I also was interested in the third of the three sections, what the Hebrew
Bible calls the Ketuvim (Writings). This section contains three subsections, the books of
Wisdom: Psalms, Proverbs, and Job; the books of the Megillot (the Five Scrolls): Song of Songs,
Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther, and the four books of the Histories: Daniel, Ezra,
Nehemiah, and Chronicles (sometimes shown as two books, i.e.: First and Second Chronicles).

In the course of my Bible study (both formal and informal), I found that in reading the Ketuvim,
the name of the third section of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), the modern reader learns that its
Hebrew name means just Writings. I reconfirmed my understanding originally of this material
acquired in my off and on study of the Holy Bible by visiting the website My Jewish Learning,
(Hebrew Bible, 2015) This simple title hardly does justice to the diversity of spiritual expression
found within its pages. The Ketuvim, or Writings section of the Bible contains many different
themes: examples of poetry, descriptions of the ritual used in the Temple, depictions of private

prayer, tales of wisdom, stories on national tragedy, even love-stories. Also seen within its pages
are intriguing examples of philosophical exploration: what is the wisest path in a persons
existence, what is the import of GODs goodness and justice. And lastly, the books of the
Writings contain fascinating retellings of historical events. The title "Ketuvim is would actually
better be interpreted as the anthology, i.e.: the canonical collection from the post-prophetic
age. (My Jewish Learning, 2015)

According to the information I have researched to refresh my memory, I rediscovered that most
of the separate books in the Ketuvim were created or at least finalized in the ancient country of
Judea in the period of Persian and Hellenistic control, from around 500 - 200 BCE. The Temple
of Solomon in Jerusalem, destroyed during the Babylonian conquest of 586 BCE, had been
reconstructed around 515 BCE. The actual text of the Torah was standardized not long after, but
there was never any more prophecy after the book of Malachi was written and compiled. Most
biblical scholars have found certain clues of language, literary style, and content which have led
them to see most of the material in the Ketuvim as Second Temple works. (My Jewish
Learning, 2015)

During the initial course of my exposure to the Holy Bible, I learned that the next section of the
Christian Bible is titled the New Testament. This part of the Bible contains the books of what
believing Christians call the New Covenant. It can be divided into three distinct components.
These are the Historical Books, the Pauline Epistles, and the Non-Pauline Epistles. (Slick,
2014) . In certain Protestant Bibles there is also a separate section which typically follows the
New Testament which contains the Deuterocanonical books (aka: The Apocrypha), seven books

which in the Catholic Bible are interleaved within the other named sections of the Bible, in both
Old and New Testament. Protestants do not consider the books labeled Deuterocanonical as a
valid part of the biblical cannon.

The Historical Books of the Bible consist of the gospels of Mathew, Mark, Luke, John, and the
book of Acts. These books provide (at least to Christians) the genealogy/history of the life of
Jesus, his activities as the leading religious prophet/purported Messiah, challenger to the
established religious status quo, accounts of Jesuss activities which would lead to belief in him
being the long awaited King of the Jews, and the accounts of his purported accession into
Heaven plus the travels of the Apostle Paul. (Slick, 2014)

The Pauline Epistles

The books of the Pauline Epistles (writings and letters attributed to the Apostle Paul) were
collected into 13 different books. These are as follows: Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians,
Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, and lastly,
Philemon. (Slick, 2014)

Paul included in the book of Romans a methodical examination of the reason to justify, sanctify,
and glorify the life and actions of Jesus of Nazareth. He also put forth the plan GOD had for
both Gentile and Jew alike. (Slick, 2014)

The writings of the books of Corinthians consist of a letter from Paul (1st Corinthians) dealing
with factions within the burgeoning company of the followers of Jesus Christ as well as any
needed correction because of lawsuits, immorality, and abuse of the sacrament of the Lords
Supper. This missive also addresses the use of idols, the importance of marriage, and the
resurrection of the body when Christ comes again. In 2nd Corinthians, Paul provides a solid
defense of his apostolic position, which some had challenged. (Slick, 2014)

The next book in this portion of the New Testament is the book of Galatians. In this portion of
Pauls writings, he repudiates the faults of legalism (a slavish obedience to the EXACT letter
of the current religious laws). In Galatians, Paul also scrutinizes the appropriate place of (divine)
grace in the Christians life. (Slick, 2014)

In Pauls next set of letters, he writes in the book of Ephesians what the proper position a
believer should hold on Christ and provides information as to how to conduct Spiritual warfare
and win.

Paul wrote in Philippians, his next set of letters, about his imprisonment on the Isle of Patmos
and how his love for the believers in amongst the Philippians. He strongly encourages them to
stay true to the precepts of godliness and warns them against the lure of legalism. (Slick,
2014)

In the book of Colossians, his next missive on proper understanding of our faith in Christ, Paul
emphasizes the preeminence of Jesus in the story of creation, in the redemption of believers, and
the need for godliness in our daily lives. (Slick, 2014)

The next two Pauline Epistles were titled 1st and 2nd Thessalonians. First Thessalonians was a
missive on Pauls ministry to the Thessalonians. It consisted of his teachings on the importance
of pure living and told of the return of Christ. (Slick, 2014) 2nd Thessalonians speaks to the
corrections on the Day of the Lord. (Slick, 2014)

The next two part set of books are those known as 1st & 2nd Timothy. In 1st Timothy, Paul
provides instructions to Timothy on the ways to properly lead the believers and how to deal with
false teachers, along with information on the role of women, the use of prayer, and what the
requirements are to be an elder or deacon within the body of believers. (Slick, 2014) In 2nd
Timothy, Paul writes an encouraging letter to Timothy to maintain his belief and to remain
strong in his faith in Jesus. (Slick, 2014)

The next to last of the Pauline Epistles is Titus. In this book, we read about how Paul left Titus
in Crete to care for the churches there. He also issued some more requirements for elders within
the new church of believers. (Slick, 2014)

The last of Pauls Epistles is the letter he wrote to Philemon, the owner of Onesimus, a runaway
slave. In this letter, Paul appeals to Philemon to forgive the slave. (Slick, 2014)

Non-Pauline Epistles

The next set of eight books of the New Testament are called the non-Pauline Epistles, i.e. : letters
written by someone other than the Apostle Paul. These are a set of letters, seven of which are
termed the General or Catholic Epistles, while the book of Hebrews is excluded from this
description. The term Catholic Epistles was employed by Bible scholars in the context of
meaning general or universal to distinguish them from the Pauline Epistles which were addressed
to churches or persons. (Slick, 2014)

Hebrews: This is an epistle directed to wavering Hebrew believers of Jesus who were in danger
of losing their faith in Christ and his message and subsequently returning to their traditional
Jewish practices. This epistle validates the supremacy of Jesus over the system contained within
the Old Testament. Within the epistle, the Melchizedek priesthood is addressed. (Some biblical
scholars think that Hebrews may have been written by the Apostle Paul. There is still
considerable debate on who actually wrote the Book of Hebrews. ) (Slick, 2014)

James: The next book of the General Epistles is a practical call for believers in Jesus to live a
life evidencing Christian regeneration. This book urges self-examination of the proof of the
changed life. (Slick, 2014)

1st& 2nd Peter: The next two books of the General Epistles are 1st and 2nd Peter. The Apostle
Peter wrote 1st Peter to hearten the receivers of this letter in the time of their suffering and
persecution and to be humble in it. In this letter, Peter also mentions the rite of baptism and its

10

place in the Christian faith. In 2nd Peter, the epistle addresses a believers situation on an inward
level, warns against deceitful teachers, and addresses the importance of the Day of the Lord.
(Slick, 2014)

1st, 2nd, & 3rd John: These three books are attributed to the Apostle John. In 1st John, the author
of the book describes true fellowship of the believers in Christ with other Christians and with
GOD. GOD is shown as the embodiment of light and love. The material in this book
encourages a Christian to maintain a holy path before GOD. It contains considerable discourse
on Christian love. The book of 2nd John contains the message of praising believers walking in
the path of Christ as well as a reminder to always maintain your walk in the love of GOD. The
epistle 3rd John, is where John thanks a believer named Gaius, a Christian church leader, for his
kindness to Gods people and rebukes Diotrephes, a former member of Gaius church
congregation, for his exceedingly bad, selfish, and mean-spirited behavior. (Slick, 2014)

The next to last book in the New Testament, the epistle of Judehas information on the need to
expose false teachers and employs Old Testament references to validate the judgment which
GOD lays upon them. It also contains information as to how best to contend for the faith.
(Slick, 2014)

Revelation is the last book of the New Testament and is a highly symbolic visualization of the
future rebellion, judgment, and consummation of human life itself. (Slick, 2014) It is thought by
some Christian theologians to have been written by the Apostle John, although this idea is still
subject to much debate.

11

While I was searching for a church home in the various locations I have lived in over the years, I
made sure that I engaged the members of this prospective church home as well as the clergy of
the church in conversations regarding my Christian faith and how their interpretations of their
understanding would tally up to my own understanding. I wanted to be sure I would be mentally
and spiritually comfortable with any prospective church family. It was important to me to
understand what it was these folks thought and taught about the various books of the Holy Bible,
as I did not want to be encouraged/compelled to agree to unbiblical teachings.

(CO-2) Articulate and critique various contemporary methods of exegeting

(understanding) a Biblical text

Textual criticism

In order for a true student of the Bible to engage in textural criticism in order to understand what
it actually means requires that student to be fluent in Hebrew and Greek, especially as used in the
days of the events described in the Bible. I can make no claim to being such a student, as all my
knowledge of things biblical is derived by my many years of reading and studying various
English translations of the ancient Hebrew and Greek versions of the Holy Scriptures. It would
have been better for me to have taken on the study of these languages so I could better
understand the REAL meaning of the Word of GOD when I was a teenager or young adult, but I
did not even think of such a thing when I was younger.

12

In order to appreciate what textual criticism consists of, it is helpful to first define it.
According to one of my sources (Faith Bible Church Online), it is as follows: Textual Criticism
is the science of studying ancient manuscripts to determine the authentic text of the Bible. This
term is occasionally called Lower Criticism (Faith Bible Church Online). The use of this
functionality is required as we no longer have the original writings of Moses, Paul and others.
What remains to use for true understanding is the Hebrew and Greek translations of the Holy
Scriptures. Textual Criticism is the method used in order to derive at the actual meanings of
these texts as English translations are too fraught with potential error for certainty of its true
content. When one looks at Textural Criticism, we must be aware that because of the great
amount of material and the problems of understanding the numerous other languages involved, it
is considered as one of biblical scholarships most difficult sciences. (Faith Bible Church
Online) Another source I discovered (Got Questions Ministries , 2002-2015 ) when I went to
learn about the actual particulars of Textural Criticism informed me that this concept could be
defined as the following: Simply stated, textual criticism is a method used to determine what
the original manuscripts of the Bible said. According to this source, there are three primary
methods to textual criticism:

Textus Receptus

According to one source (Textual criticism - what is it?, 2002-2015 ), the first method of textual
criticism is called Textus Receptus. The term Textus Receptus actually refers to a particular
manuscript of the Holy Bible that was assembled by a person whose name was Erasmus. Way
back in the 1500s AD, he compiled this version of the Bible when he took the small number of

13

manuscripts he had access to and assembled them into what ultimately became known as the
Textus Receptus. The Textus Receptus is the textual basis behind the King James Version and
New King James Version. (Textual criticism - what is it?, 2002-2015 )

Majority Text

The second technique of textual criticism is identified as the Majority Text method. The
Majority Text technique reviews all of the scriptural manuscripts existing nowadays, compares
the dissimilarities, and selects the best possible true interpretation based on which interpretation
occurs most frequently. To date, the Majority Text method of textual criticism has yet to be used
for any major Bible translations. (Textual criticism - what is it?, 2002-2015 )

Critical or Eclectic Method.

The third means of textual criticism is identified as the Critical or Eclectic Method. This is
where the consideration of both the external and internal evidences so to determine the most
probable text as the original text. When we use external evidence, this method forces us to ask
the following questions: What is the number of manuscripts in which the reading occurs? When
did the manuscripts get written? What was the location in which these manuscripts were found?
Internal evidence prompts these questions: Why did these readings have varying meanings?
What was the reading that could possibly explain the origination of all the additional readings?
There are three widely used translations that use this method of textural criticism: The New
International Version, New American Standard, and the New Living Translation. It is interesting

14

to note that the majority of the other Biblical translations employ the Eclectic Text method as
well.

Historical and cultural backgrounds for the author, the text, and the original audience

When one looks at the Bible, one quickly realizes that it is not a single work written by a single
person, but rather it is a library of 66 books (15 more if the Apocryphal books are factored in),
written by 40 authors (plus the various additional writers of the Apocryphal books), written in
three languages from three different continents over a long period of time, some 1500 years, or
so. (Carlson & Carlson, 2015) The student of the Bible must keep these facts in mind, for in an
attempt to gain understanding of these collected religious texts, a failure to remember that the
time frame of the Bible covers a period of time as long as it was from the days of the fall of the
Roman Empire until today. In that span of time, cultures change, populations alter their
composition, technology causes societal shiftseverything is DIFFERENT than what it was at
its beginning.

Classification of the type of literary genres present in the text

When learning about the books of the Bible, it is helpful to realize that these 66 books contain an
assortment of literary types, ranging from poetry, history, wisdom literature, prophecy, letters,
and even apocalyptic texts, just to name a few. (Carlson & Carlson, 2015) By knowing what
genre a given Biblical text is formatted as, one can gather a better understanding as to what it
actually meant.

15

For instance, according to one source (Concise Old Testament Survey, 2006) the books of the
Bible that comprise its poetical offerings are Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of
Solomon. When I examined the content of these books during the course of my home Bible
study over many years, I realized that these five books were more concerned about the condition
of the human heart. According to the Concise Old Testament Survey (The Poetical Books,
2006), the identification of these books as poetical does not propose to say that these books are
merely fashioned from the whole cloth of human imagination. Rather, they attempt to depict a
very real experience as lived by the people in those far away days, while the content
demonstrates that these people had to struggle with tough problems, and to show that they were
dealing with huge realities. (Concise Old Testament Survey, 2006) These five books, upon
review, show that the experiences they depict focus on the activity of the godly, and demonstrate
how to live while dealing with lifes changing and challenging conditions.

To look at another literary genre contained in the Holy Bible, twelve books deal with the history
of the people of GOD, These books are Joshua, Judges, Ruth, First Samuel, Second Samuel, First
Kings, Second Kings, First Chronicles, Second Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther.
I learned that the historical books of the Old Testament examine the life of the Hebrew nation,
beginning with their possession of the Land of Canaan through the Jewish peoples two
deportations and loss of their promised land due to disobedience and unbelief. According to
Concise Old Testament Survey (The Historical Books, 2006), the twelve historical books span a
period of about 800 years. These books address the stories of the conquest and acquisition of the
Land of Canaan, the time in power of the Judges of Israel, the creation of the concept and rule of

16

the Kings of Israel, the separation of Israel into the northern and southern kingdoms, the loss of
the northern kingdom to the fierce Assyrians. These books also address the conquest of the
southern kingdom by the Babylonian Empire and subsequent enslavement of its people and their
exile into Babylon, and their triumphant return to Jerusalem under the wise leadership of great
men such as Nehemiah and Ezra.

Analysis of grammatical and syntactical features in the text itself.

When one examines the Holy Bible for its use of grammar and its employment of understandable
and meaningful syntax, it is vital for the true student of the Bible to be able to read the original
Hebrew and Greek texts. To attempt to employ grammatical and syntactical analysis from the
versions subsequently translated into English places that student completely at the mercy of the
accuracy of the translator. As a result of my inability to read the original Hebrew and Greek
texts, I cannot personally attest to how I could properly examine the Holy Bible for proper
grammar and use of understandable and meaningful syntax. There is hope for some greater
understanding of the impact of grammar and syntax, though. In my current research on this type
of approach to Biblical understanding, I did encounter a well thought out and presented work that
examines the book of Jeremiah for grammar and syntax usage, without apparently needing to
operate in the original Hebrew and Greek. This work by Dr. Bob Utley, Professor of
Hermeneutics, from Bible Lessons International, Marshall, TX, uses the New American Standard
Bible (NASB), which is considered by many Biblical scholars to be the most accurate English
translation, given to the use of literal translation of the original Hebrew and Greek text into
modern English. The book of Jeremiah, being a book of the Old Testament, was, of course,

17

written in the ancient Hebrew. According to this source (YOU CAN UNDERSTAND THE
BIBLE, 2012),
[t]he Hebrew text used is Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia from the German Bible Society,
1997, which is based on the Leningrad Codex (A. D. 1009). Occasionally, the ancient
versions (Greek Septuagint, Aramaic Targums, Syriac Peshitta, and Latin Vulgate) are
consulted if the Hebrew is ambiguous or obviously confused.

As an example of how different Hebrew is to English, the reader needs to examine the time
concept of that language. According to Utley (YOU CAN UNDERSTAND THE BIBLE, 2012),
the Hebrew language is a language devoid of tenses in the English language sense. With
Hebrew, it is not a matter of when something occurred or will occur, but rather if the action
was perfect (i.e.: complete) or imperfect (in the process of being developed). So, in Hebrew,
it was more concerned with the state of the action, rather than the timing of the action.
(Utley, 2012)

As I searched for my church home in the locations where I live, I tried to make sure that the
preachers who led the churches I was visiting had some direct knowledge of the original Hebrew
and Greek texts. By this inquiry, I wanted to make sure that the words coming out of the mouths
of these preachers had some greater closeness to the original words of the Old and New
Testaments than merely them regurgitating a translation from a third party. I figured that if the
preacher could read and write both Hebrew and Greek, he is LIKELY to be a SERIOUS bible
scholar and his words would, at least for me, carry much more weight. Not being able to read the

18

original texts in their original language, I must, perforce, be dependent on the knowledge and
scholarship of my pastor.

(CO-3) Describe the history and transmission of the various manuscripts of the Bible

When I first began to study the Holy Bible back when I was about 12 -13 years old, I wondered
how the Word of God had spread throughout the western world at the start of the Christian era.
I knew that it had not been written in English originally, so how it got established in our culture
interested me. I have since learned that the transmission of the books of the Holy Bible out of
the Middle East occurred somewhat gradually, not, as some might think, in the form of a
completed, collected work of theology which arrived on the scene in a given year.

As we study the manner in which the Bible assumed its written form, we need to keep in mind
how such piece of theology is written. There are but three ways any religious literature becomes
a published work. They are the following (Ringer, 2007):

Autographs: The original texts were written either by the author's own hand or by a
scribe under their personal supervision.
Manuscripts: Until Gutenberg first printed the Latin Bible in 1456, all Bibles were hand
copied onto papyrus, parchment, and/or paper.
Translations: When the Bible is translated into a different language it is usually
translated from the original Hebrew and Greek. However some translations in the past
were derived from an earlier translation.

19

Old Testament

According to Ringer (History of the Bible: How The Bible Came To Us, 2007), who validates
my understanding of the origin of the Holy Bible, the Bible comes from two basic sources.
These are the two divisions in the Christian Bible, the Old Testament and the New Testament.

The 23,000 verses contained within the Old Testament were written in two languages, mainly
Hebrew, with a just few hundred verses written in Aramaic. (Lewis, 2015) Please note that there
are no known actual Autographs of any of the books of the Old Testament in existence, so
what has come down the lanes of history are a variety of manuscripts written by authors
(typically unknown, but often credited to biblical personalities) in the ancient Hebrew (most
frequently) and the ancient Aramaic (much, much less frequently). (Ringer, 2007)

The traditional date for the creation of the book of Genesis, credited with being written by Moses
using the Hebrew language, was around 1450-1400 B. C. . The first five books of the Jewish
Bible were written in almost exclusively in Hebrew and comprise the Torah or the Law of
the Jewish people. But around 250 Bible verses primarily portions of the Book of Daniel
(Dan 2:4-7:28) and fifth-century B. C. E. official court documents embedded in Ezra (Ezra 4:86:18, Ezra 7:12-26)are in a related language, Aramaic. (Lewis, 2015)

The next method of transmission of the Holy Books of the Jews was by the use of manuscripts,
collections of religious writings gathered into a sequence of verses and books, and written in

20

either Hebrew (most likely) or Aramaic (not so likely). The following list of manuscripts
identify the oldest Hebrew manuscripts of the Old Testament. (Lewis, 2015):

The Dead Sea Scrolls: These scrolls date from 200 B. C. to 70 A. D. and contain the
complete book of Isaiah and some of every other Old Testament book but the book of
Esther.

Geniza Fragments: These are portions of the Old Testament in Hebrew and Aramaic,
written on parchment now crumbling, discovered in an old synagogue in Cairo, Egypt, in
the year of 1947; these fragments date from about 400 A. D.

Ben Asher Manuscripts: From 700-950 A. D. , over the course of five or six generations,
this Ben Asher family made several copies of the Jewish Holy Books, writing in the
Masoretic Hebrew language The following are two examples of the Hebrew Masoretic
text-type manuscripts.
o

Aleppo Codex: This manuscript, dated around 950 A. D., includes the whole Old
Testament. Regrettably, over 25% of this Codex was destroyed during antiSemitic riots in 1947.

Codex Leningradensis: The last member of the Ben Asher family copied the
complete Old Testament in Hebrew in A. D. 1008.

Translations

The next method of transmission of the Jewish Holy books was by the use of various early
translations of the ancient Hebrew into Aramaic and Greek. The Holy Books of the Jewish faith
were first translated into Aramaic around 400 BC. According to Lewis (What Was the Original

21

Language of the Bible?, 2015), this particular translation was called the Aramaic Targums. The
Aramaic Targums was initially translated from Hebrew into the Aramaic tongue in order to assist
the Jewish people, who had effectively lost the ability to read and speak Hebrew due to their long
captivity in Babylon. (Lewis, 2015) This language was the language spoken by the Jews in the
first century Palestine of Jesus' day, according to Lewis. (What Was the Original Language of
the Bible?, 2015), Aramaic was still the commonly spoken language. For example
maranatha, "Our Lord has come, as seen in 1st Corinthians 16:22, is an example of an
Aramaic word that is used in the New Testament. (Lewis, 2015)

I remembered from my home studies, that later on, around 250 B.C. the Old Testament was
translated into the langue franca of the Mediterranean world, Greek. According to Lewis (What
Was the Original Language of the Bible?, 2015), [t]his translation is known as the Septuagint.
It is sometimes designated "LXX" (which is Roman numeral for "70") because it was believed
that 70 to 72 translators worked to translate the Hebrew Old Testament in Greek. Frequently,
when New Testament writers quoted from the Old Testament, they would use the Septuagint as
their source of scripture. The LXX was the translation of the Old Testament that was most
often used by the early Christian Church. (Lewis, 2015)

The following titles are a list of the oldest Old Testament Greek LXX translations that remain in
existence (Lewis, 2015):

Chester Beatty Papyri: Contains nine Old Testament Books in the Greek Septuagint and dates
between 100-400 A. D.

22

Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus individually comprise virtually the whole Old Testament
of the Greek Septuagint and they both were written around 350 A. D.

I recall from my home Bible Study that following the ministry of Jesus came the writing and
compiling of the disciples letters and epistleswritings that ultimately became the New
Testament, so the form of the Christian Holy Bible came into being.

According to Mr. Lewis (What Was the Original Language of the Bible?, 2015), the New
Testament was written in Greek, the langue franca of the Mediterranean world. It is in this
language that it (and the rest of the Holy Bible) was spread around the Mediterranean littoral and
later, all of the European continent. It is thought that the books of the Epistles of Paul, the
Gospels of Mark and Luke, and the book of Acts were all written about the same time, around
45-63 A. D. by the named individuals (or at least, that is what is accepted religious thought),
which gives them the form of an Autograph. It is thought that the Gospel of John and the
Revelations of John were likely written somewhat later, perhaps even as late as 95 A. D..

The use of the Greek language for the New Testament allowed for people literate in Greek to
copy and recopy the existing Greek manuscripts for the benefit of the burgeoning Christian faith
community and the large and growing body of Believers, most of whom spoke Greek, to
understand the words of comfort and faith contained within these manuscripts. According to
Mr. Lewis (What Was the Original Language of the Bible?, 2015), so many early Greek
manuscripts were written that today there are still over 5600 in existence. The earliest ones were
written on papyrus while the newer ones were copied onto a type of leather known as parchment.

23

The following are a list of manuscripts dating from 125 AD to about 350 AD (Lewis, 2015):

125 A. D. : P-52 (the "p" stands for papyrus. ) is the name for the New Testament
manuscript copied around 125 A. D, which makes it date as the manuscript which was
written most closely to the original autograph, i. e. : within 35 years of the original. It
contains a small portion of John 18.

200 A. D. : Bodmer P- 66 this is a manuscript written on papyrus (hence the P

designation) which comprises the greatest part of the Gospel of John.

200 A. D. : Chester Beatty Biblical papyrus P-46 this papyrus scroll covers the Pauline
Epistles and Hebrews.

225 A. D. : Bodmer Papyrus P- 75 encompasses the complete Gospels of Luke and John.

250-300 A. D. : Chester Beatty Biblical papyrus P- 45 contains certain segments of the

four Gospels and Acts.

350 A. D. : Codex Sinaiticus was a parchment book which contains the entire New
Testament and nearly the entire Old Testament in Greek. It was discovered by the
German academic Tisendorf in 1856 at an Orthodox monastery at Mt. Sinai.

350 A. D. : Codex Vaticanus {B} manuscript contains practically the whole New
Testament. It was recorded as having been in the Vatican Library since 1475.

I remember reading long ago during my formal home Bible Study, that the next method of
transmission of the New Testament to the Holy Bible into the wider world of the Western
European landmass as well as its further spread along the African littoral areas was by the use of
the various early translations of the original Greek into languages that the people of the local
areas could understand. According to one source (Stearns, 1992) Rome's decline brought

24

vital new religious influences to societies around the Mediterranean. Christianity moved
westward from its original center in the Middle East

These early translations of the New Testament from the Greek into other languages, such as
Latin (spoken throughout the Roman Empire), Syriac (spoken through the area of the Holy
Land), and Coptic (spoken throughout the nation of New Testament era Egypt).

According to Lewis (What Was the Original Language of the Bible?, 2015), these early
translations of the books of the New Testament are able to give us crucial knowledge of the
original Greek manuscripts from which they were converted into a readable language for use by
the local people. The use of these manuscripts spread over the Mediterranean Basin in the
course of 1200 years, from 180 A.D. to 1380 A.D. various translations have been used as the
foundation of the then current popular version of the Bible for that particular language group.

(Figure 1: Map showing spread of Christianity in the Mediterranean Basin) (Ridling, 2015)
25

These translations, as stated, apparently started around 180 AD, with the conversion of the Greek
into Latin, Syriac, and Coptic versions. (Lewis, 2015) Shortly afterward, the first translation of
both the Old and New Testament into Latin was completed, around 195 AD with the copying of
the original Greek into the translation termed The Old Latin. Just over a hundred years later,
another significant translation was completed, with the Greek being translated into Syriac, in a
translation termed The Old Syriac in about 300 AD. Around the same time, the original Greek
New Testament was translated into the four Coptic dialects spoken in Egypt. (Lewis, 2015)

About 80 years later, in 380 AD, St. Jerome translated the Old Testament from Hebrew and the
New Testament from Greek into the Latin language version titled The Latin Vulgate. This
translation became the Holy Bible of the Western Church until the Protestant Reformation in the
1500's. It continues to be the authoritative translation of the Roman Catholic Church to this day.
The Protestant Reformation saw an increase in translations of the Bible into the common
languages of the people.

There were several other languages into which the Old and New Testament Hebrew and Greek
were translated, so to provide Holy Bibles in the vernacular of the people of the region. These
were the new languages used: Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Slavic, and Gothic. (Lewis, 2015)

The previously mentioned versions were the available Bible translations used for almost 1000
years, according to Lewis (What Was the Original Language of the Bible?, 2015), until the first
English translation was written in 1380 AD by John Wycliffe, a noted philosopher, church
reformer, and English theologian. (Stacey, 2015) It must be made clear that Wycliffe had to base
this first English Holy Bible on the Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible as he was not literate in
Hebrew or Greek, and could not use the originals. (Lewis, 2015)
26

I remember from my self-education in the Bible and matters religious, after the advent of the
Guttenbergs movable type printing press and his successful first run of 200 Holy Bibles in
1455-56 A.D. (the year is in some dispute), the transmission the now much less expensive Holy
Bible throughout Europe became possible. A heavily illuminated Bible such as was first
printed by Guttenberg need not cost a kings ransom to create, as it was merely just expensive
(three years wages for an average clerk), but well within reach of the well-to-do. (Kreis, 2000 )
The spread of this innovative printing technology occurred in spite of Guttenbergs desire to hold
the concept close to his chest, and just before 1500 A.D. over 2500 cities in Europe had at least
one movable type printing press. Printing revolutionized the way books were made. From now
on books could be published in great numbers and at a lower cost. (Lewis, 2015)

Following the spread of printing technology, many other religious works, including one of the
most well known New Testaments, printed in 1514 A.D., with some minor modifications, by
Desiderius Erasmus, perhaps the most brilliant and most important leader of German humanism,
based on only five Greek manuscripts, titled Textus Receptus or the "received texts. (Sauer,
1909), (Lewis, 2015) About eight years later, another religious work by Erasmus was published
titled the Polyglot Bible. In this work, the Old Testament was printed in three languages,
Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, and the New Testament was printed in Greek and Latin. Erasmus
later used the Polyglot Bible to revise his later editions of the New Testament. Also, the English
theologian and scholar, William Tyndale Overview used the Polyglot Bible in his own
translation of the Old Testament into English tongue, although he did not finish this work as he
was martyred in 1534 AD for heresy and treason. (Lewis, 2015), (Greatsite Marketing, 2013)
In 1604, King James I of England directed that a new translation of the Holy Bible into the
English language be created. The Authorized Version, or King James Version, quickly became
27

the standard for English-speaking Protestants. (Bible Gateway, 2015) This is most well-known
of all translations of the Holy Bible, and was translated from the original Hebrew and Greek into
English and was completed in 1611 A,D, just 85 years after the first translation of the New
Testament into English appeared (Tyndale, 1526). (Bible Gateway, 2015) (This is the version of
the Holy Bible I am most familiar with as it is the one I used in my home Bible study program,
and of which I have several copies!) The King James translators of the New Testament used the
Textus Receptus as the basis for their translations. (Lewis, 2015)

According to Lewis (What Was the Original Language of the Bible?, 2015), the next three most
important religious works translations began in the second half of the 20th Century. The first of
the three was the United Bible Societies 4th Edition of the Greek New Testament which was
published in 1968 A.D.. This version made use of the oldest available Greek manuscripts dating
from as far back as 175 A.D. This was the Greek New Testament text from which the New
American Standard Version (NASV) and the New International Version (NIV) were translated.

Lewis (What Was the Original Language of the Bible?, 2015) tells us that the second translation
in this selection was published in 1971 A.D. and is named the New American Standard Version
(NASV). This particular translation makes use of the large amount of the much older Hebrew
and Greek manuscripts available today that were not obtainable at the time of the KJV was
translated. The NASV demonstrates in its wording and sentence structure to closely follow the
Greek manuscripts in a more word-to-word style.

The third translation in this series is the 1983 AD published New International Version (NIV).
According to Lewis (What Was the Original Language of the Bible?, 2015), the oldest Greek and
Hebrew manuscripts are used in the NIV translation. This version is considered to be better at
28

representing a "thought-for-thought" translation, integrates the understood background

information normally assumed to be known by the ancient reader, and the sentence structure and
grammar usage incorporated by the NIV allows it to be read more easily by the modern reader
than the NASV.

During the course of my years of Bible study, I have endeavored to maintain a relatively open
mind regarding the worth and truth of the various translations of the Holy Bible I own and read.
I have in my house the King James Version, the New Living Translation, the New International
Version, and the Roman Catholic used Douay-Rheims Holy Bible. All of these are of a certain
degree of value to me in my home bible study, but I have found that the King James Version has
a flow and sonorous feel to it that the other bible versions do not. As a result, I tend to read my
King James Version more than the others.

(CO-4) Evaluate and assess the numerous English translations available today.

In the course of my home Bible study, I realized that there were numerous translations of the
Bible to choose from to use in the course of self-paced learning efforts. I never really knew just
HOW many different versions of the Christian Holy Scriptures there actually were until just
recently.

Today, most people interested in the study of the Christian faith in general and the Bible in
particular, hold to the idea of there being 16 major translations; these are considered the best
known, as well as recognizing that there are at least ten additional significant translations used by
some Christian churches in the world. These best known translations are listed below:
29

a. American Standard Version ASV

b. Common English Bible CEB
c. English Standard Version ESV
d. GOD'S WORD Translation GW
e. Good News Translation GNT
f. Holman Christian Standard Bible CSB
g. Jubilee Bible 2000 JUB
h. King James Version KJV
i. Lexham English Bible LEB
j. Douay-Rhiems Catholic Bible RHE
k. New American Standard Bible NAS
l. New International Version NIV
m. New King James Version NKJV
n. New Living Translation NLT
o. New Revised Standard NRS
p. Revised Standard Version RSV.
q. The Message Bible MSG

The ten other significant modern translations are named in the list below:
r. Hebrew Names Version HNV
s. New Century Version NCV
t. New International Reader's Version NIRV
u. Orthodox Jewish Bible OJB

30

v. The Bible in Basic English BBE

w. The Complete Jewish Bible CJB
x. Third Millennium Bible TMB
y. Today's New International Version TNIV
z. World English Bible WEB
aa. Young's Literal Translation YLT

In the interest of brevity, I will address/discuss the first five of the most popular and widespread
translations currently in use as determined by units sold during the year of 2012 (the most current
year I have data for). (Rainer, 2013) (I cannot determine the penetration into the market the
large number Holy Bibles that are given away for free by various organizations such as the
Jehovahs Witnesses (the 1950 New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures) or the Gideons
(the New International Version [NIV])) I will also address/discuss use of the Douay-Rhiems
Catholic Bible (RHE) because it incorporates the seven Deutero-Canonical books, known to
Protestants as the Apocrypha.

(#1) New Living Translation NLT: The NLT was written to create a translation that is correct
with the intent of the original languages, yet lively and dynamic. (Marlowe, 2001-2012) The
challenge for the translators was to create a text that would make the same impact in the life of
modern readers that the original text had for the original readers. (Bible Gateway, 2015) This is
the Bible whose penetration into the Christian community is most widespread, at least in terms of
sales volume as of 2012. (Rainer, 2013) This Bible translation was so well received by the
public it had reached the top of the sales charts in 2012. (Rainer, 2013)

31

(#2) New International Version NIV: The NIV offers a balance between a word-for-word and
thought-for-thought translation and is considered by many as a highly accurate and smoothreading version of the Bible in modern English. (Lewis, 2015) According to Marlowe (Marlowe
M. , 2011), the New International Version (NIV) was created by a committee of religious
scholars associated with various evangelical denominations in the USA. These individuals
began work on this version in 1965. This translation was not a modification of any earlier
existing account, but instead was an entirely new version in idiomatic twentieth-century English.
The NIV committee members were aware of the reasons for conservative dismissal of the
Revised Standard Version (RSV), and so they intentionally sidestepped the liberal" features of
that version. The most objectionable feature of the RSV was its practice of interpreting the Old
Testament without any concern for how the Old Testament passages were construed in the New
Testament, and so the NIV translation committee members on Bible Translation Committee in
1968 stipulated in their Translators Manual that the translation shall reflect clearly the unity
and harmony of the Spirit-inspired writings. This translation was sold in sufficient volume to
achieve the second place position by sales in 2012. (Rainer, 2013)

(#3) King James Version KJV: The KJV is the first version of Holy Scripture sanctioned by the
English Protestant church and ordered created by England's King James I. (Bible Study Tools,
2014) In 1604, King James I of England commissioned a new translation of the Holy Bible into
English. It was completed in the year 1611, just eight and a half decades after the first
translation of the New Testament into English appeared (Tyndale, 1526). The preface to the
1611 edition, the translators of the Authorized Version, or King James Version, state that

32

was not their resolve to make a new translation . . . but to make a good one better. The King
James Version rapidly became the standard Holy Bible for English-speaking Protestants to use
for worship and study. The KJVs prose rhythms and flowing language enabled it to have a
profound influence on the literature the English speaking world for the past 400 years, and in
spite of its age, achieved the ranking of third most popular by sales volume in 2012. (Got
Questions Ministries, 2002-2015 ), (Rainer, 2013)

(#4) New King James Version NKJV: The NKJV is a contemporary language update of the
original King James Version. It keeps much of the sentence structure and customary
interpretation of the KJV Bible. (Bible Study Tools, 2014) The NKJV is a conservative
modification of the King James version that does not make any changes on the basis of a revised
Hebrew or Greek text, but follows the interpretations accepted to inspire the King James version.
In the New Testament, the KJV follows the Greek Textus Receptus of the early published
editions of the sixteenth century. The other ancient Greek manuscripts, upon which crucial
editions of the Greek text were based for nearly two centuries now, are almost fully ignored
(except in the marginal notes); this Bible version was the fourth best-selling Bible in the USA in
2012. (Marlowe M. , New King James Version, 2009), (Rainer, 2013)

(#5) English Standard Version ESV: The ESV Bible is a relatively new Bible translation that
combines word-for-word precision and accuracy with literary excellence, beauty, and readability.
The ESV occupies a spot within the characteristic mainstream of English Bible translations over
the past 500 years. The fountainhead of that stream of translations was the New Testament of
1526, written by the noted biblical scholar, William Tyndale; marking its path were the King

33

James Version (KJV - 1611), the English Revised Version (RV - 1885), the American Standard
Version (ASV - 1901), and the Revised Standard Version (RSV 1952/1971). In that stream,
faithfulness to the text and vigorous pursuit of accuracy were combined with simplicity, beauty,
and dignity of expression, making this the fifth most popular Bible sold in the year 2012. (Bible
Gateway, 2015), (Rainer, 2013)

(#6) Douay-Rhiems Catholic Bible (RHE): The Douay-Rheims (1582-1609) is the Bible
translation nearly all English Catholic Bible versions are based upon. It includes the seven
Deutero-Canonical books (also known as the Apocrypha), inter-leavened within its pages. (Bible
Study Tools, 2014) The RHE is a translation of the Bible made from the Latin Vulgate into
English by members of the Catholic seminary English College, Douai, France. It is the basis
upon which almost all English Catholic versions of the Bible are still based. It was translated
chiefly by Gregory Martin, a scholar trained at Oxford, working within a select group of English
Catholic exiles on the European Continent, under the patronage of William (later Cardinal)
Allen. (Bible Gateway, 2015) The New Testament portion appeared at Rheims, France in 1582;
the Old Testament portion appeared at Douai, France in 1609. The translation, although
competent, showed a taste for Latinisms that was not unusual in English writing of the period but
seemed disproportionate in the view of later generations. The New Testament of the RHE
influenced the Authorized Version (aka: King James Version). (Bible Gateway, 2015) Between
the years 1749 and 1752, Richard Challoner, an English bishop, substantively revised the
translation with the goal to improve comprehensibility and readability. The RHEs first
American printing was in 1790 by Mathew Carey of Philadelphia. There were several American
editions which followed in the 19th and early 20th centuries; conspicuous among them was the

34

Douay-Rheims 1899 American Edition Version, the version currently used by most Roman
Catholics in the USA today. (Bible Gateway, 2015)

Over the course of many years, I have encountered a variety of Bibles I could and did use for
education and instruction in matters of faith. I have several bibles I keep at home, which I have
previously mentioned, but the reason why I think it is important to recognize the utility of more
than one favorite translation is because a complete dependence on just one version can lead one
into theological error. Of the many Bibles that are available, I have read many verses (in some
cases, several books) in an effort to compare and contrast. I rather like using the translations that
do a verse by verse side-by-side comparison. That way, I can better evaluate what seems MORE
true to ME. This being the case, the use of the website Bible Study Tools, is a tremendous
website to use. (Compare Bible Verses in All Translations, 2014) This website allows one to do a
compare and contrast reading of any bible verse desired amongst numerous translations.

Summary and Conclusion

During the course of this paper, I have attempted to discuss in sufficient detail the course
objectives (CO) one through four of the AMU course, Introduction to the Bible (RELS311). The
paper addressed CO-1, i.e.: Interpret each of the various sections of the Bible independently,
without the aid of commentaries, dictionaries, etc.. It also dealt with CO-2, i.e.: Articulate and
critique various contemporary methods of exegeting (understanding) a Biblical text. The paper
subsequently addressed CO-3, i.e.: Describe the history and transmission of the various
manuscripts of the Bible. Lastly, it dealt with CO-4, i.e.: Evaluate and assess the numerous

35

English translations available today. where an attempt was made to appraise and consider the
numerous English translations available today. In this essay, I wanted to show how, as a
Christian, to study the Holy Bible, to understand its history and the manner in which it was
written, and spread to the world is critical to a deeper understanding of ones Christian faith.
In conclusion, this paper has given evidence to my understanding of the coursework for
Introduction to the Bible (RELS311), an understanding that I have picked up over much formal
and informal study of the Holy Bible over the course of many years.

36

References
Bible Gateway. (2015) Retrieved Sep 6, 2015, from www.biblegateway.com:
https://www.biblegateway.com/versions/English-Standard-Version-ESV-Bible/
123HelpMe. (2015, jul 5). Jewish Ideals In The Torah And Nevi'Im. Retrieved Jul 5, 2015, from
www.123HelpMe.com: http://www.123HelpMe.com/view.asp?id=163213
AllAboutGOD. (2002-2015). Names Of God. Retrieved Jul 5, 2015, from
www.allaboutgod.com: http://www.allaboutgod.com/names-of-god.htm
American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. (2015). Jewish Holy Scriptures: The Prophets
(Neviim). Retrieved Jul 7, 2015, from www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org:
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/neviim.html
Bible Gateway. (2015). 15Retrieved Sep 6, 2015, from www.biblegateway.com:
https://www.biblegateway.com/versions/New-Living-Translation-NLT-Bible/
Bible Gateway. (2015). Versions / English Standard Version. Retrieved Sep 6, 2015, from
www.biblegateway.com: https://www.biblegateway.com/versions/English-StandardVersion-ESV-Bible/
Bible Gateway. (2015). Versions: Douay-Rheims 1899 American Edition. Retrieved Sep 6, 2015,
from www.biblegateway.com: https://www.biblegateway.com/versions/Douay-Rheims1899-American-Edition-DRA-Bible/
Bible Gateway. (2015). Versions: King James Version. Retrieved Sep 5, 2015, from
www.biblegateway.com: https://www.biblegateway.com/versions/King-James-VersionKJV-Bible/
Bible Study Tools. (2014). Bible Versions and Translations. Retrieved Jul 5, 2015, from
www.biblestudytools.com: http://www.biblestudytools.com/bible-versions/
Bible Study Tools. (2014). Compare Bible Verses in All Translations. Retrieved Sep 11, 2015,
from www.biblestudytools.com: http://www.biblestudytools.com/compare-translations/
Carlson, J., & Carlson, R. (2015). Is the Bible the Inspired Word of God? (C. M. International,
Producer) Retrieved Aug 15, 2015, from www.christianministriesintl.org:
http://www.christianministriesintl.org/articles/Bible-the-Inspired-Word-of-God.php
Concise Old Testament Survey. (2006, Feb 21). The Historical Books. Retrieved Aug 19, 2015,
from https://bible.org: https://bible.org/seriespage/4-historical-books
Concise Old Testament Survey. (2006, Feb 21). The Poetical Books. Retrieved Aug 19, 2015,
from https://bible.org/: https://bible.org/seriespage/5-poetical-books
37

Dr. Ridling, Zaine. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.ultimatebiblereferencelibrary.com:

http://www.ultimatebiblereferencelibrary.com/001_The_Bible_Atlas.pdf
Faith Bible Church Online. (n.d.). TEXTUAL CRITICISM OF THE BIBLE. Retrieved from
www.faithbibleonline.net: http://www.faithbibleonline.net/textual-criticism-of-the-bible/
Female Agent of GOD: Exogenios. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://legendmakers.files.wordpress.com:
https://legendmakers.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/the-book-of-ruth.pdf
Got Questions Ministries . (2002-2015 ). Textual criticism - what is it? Retrieved Aug 10, 2015,
from www.gotquestions.org: http://www.gotquestions.org/textual-criticism.html
Got Questions Ministries. (2002-2015 ). What is the King James Version (KJV)? Retrieved Sep
6, 2015, from www.gotquestions.org: http://www.gotquestions.org/King-James-VersionKJV.html
Greatsite Marketing. (2013). English Bible History: William Tyndale. Retrieved Sep 4, 2015,
from www.greatsite.com: http://www.greatsite.com/timeline-english-biblehistory/william-tyndale.html
Kreis, S. (2000 ). The Printing Press. Retrieved Sep 4, 2015, from www.historyguide.org:
http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/press.html
Lewis, N. D. (2015). What Was the Original Language of the Bible? Retrieved Aug 23, 2015,
from www.bibleodyssey.org: http://www.bibleodyssey.org/en/tools/bible-basics/whatwas-the-original-language-of-the-bible.aspx
Marlowe, M. (2009, Oct). New King James Version. Retrieved Sep 6, 2015, from www.bibleresearcher.com: http://www.bible-researcher.com/nkjv.html
Marlowe, M. (2011, October). A Review: The New International Version. Retrieved Sep 6, 2015,
from www.bible-researcher.com: http://www.bible-researcher.com/niv.html
Marlowe, M. D. (2001-2012). The New Living Translation (1996). Retrieved Sep 6, 2015, from
www.bible-researcher.com: http://www.bible-researcher.com/nlt.html
My Jewish Learning. (2015). Hebrew Bible. Retrieved Jul 4, 2015, from
www.myjewishlearning.com: http://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/hebrew-bible/
Rainer, T. S. (2013, Mar 20). Christion Post. Retrieved Jul 2, 2015, from
www.christianpost.com: http://www.christianpost.com/news/top-10-bible-translations-inthe-united-states-92219/#bVciGPqr6TqZ1goe.99

38

Rennie, B. S. (Unknown"(but likely NLT 2014)). UNDERSTANDING THE BIBLE. Retrieved

Jul 5, 2015, from www.westminster.edu:
http://www.westminster.edu/staff/brennie/jewscrip.htm
Ringer, W. (2007, Sep 18). History of the Bible: How The Bible Came To Us. Retrieved Aug 20,
2015, from www.godandscience.org:
http://www.godandscience.org/apologetics/bibleorigin.html
Sauer, J. (1909). Desiderius Erasmus. Retrieved Sep 5, 2015, from www.newadvent.org:
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05510b.htm
Slick, M. (2014, Dec 22). Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry: New Testament Books.
Retrieved Jul 10, 2015, from carm.org: https://carm.org/new-testament-books
Stacey, J. (2015). John Wycliffe: English theologian . Retrieved Sep 4, 2015, from
www.britannica.com: http://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Wycliffe
Stearns, P. (1992). A History Christianity: Development And Spread Of World Religions. (R. A.
Guisepi, Ed.) Retrieved Aug 28, 2015, from http://history-world.org: http://historyworld.org/world%20religions%20development_of.htm
Utley, R. (2012). YOU CAN UNDERSTAND THE BIBLE. Retrieved Aug 19, 2015, from
https://bible.org/: https://bible.org/assets/pdf/Utley_13AJeremiah.pdf

39

40