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European Journal of Sport Science

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What is the optimal composition of an athlete's diet?

a

Elizabeth M. Broad & Gregory R. Cox

Tallebudgera, Queensland, ACT, Australia

Department of Sports Nutrition, Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, ACT, Australia

Available online: 25 Mar 2008

To cite this article: Elizabeth M. Broad & Gregory R. Cox (2008): What is the optimal composition of an athlete's diet?,
European Journal of Sport Science, 8:2, 57-65
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European Journal of Sport Science, March 2008; 8(2): 57
65

REVIEW ARTICLE

What is the optimal composition of an athletes diet?

ELIZABETH M. BROAD1 & GREGORY R. COX2

Tallebudgera, Queensland, and 2Department of Sports Nutrition, Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, ACT, Australia

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Abstract
Designing the most suitable diet for an athlete requires an intimate knowledge of the relevant scientific literature, the
training and competition demands of the sport, the individual athletes preferences and social situation. The scientific
literature contains an abundance of information on nutritional demands of athletes undertaking endurance or strength
training programmes, but much less information is available on sprint/power sports, team, racquet, weight-making, aesthetic
(diving, gymnastics), and skill-based events. Furthermore, most research has been undertaken on adult males, with the
assumption that females and adolescent athletes follow the same patterns of fuel usage and requirements. Consequently,
assessing the optimal composition of an athletes diet relies at best on an informed interpretation of the scientific data, plus
individually collected observations. The aims of this article are to provide an overview of the current evidence on
macronutrient requirements for day-to-day training for a range of different athletes, provide some recommendations
regarding formulating an athletes diet, and highlight areas where more research is required.

Keywords: Carbohydrate, fat, protein

Introduction
Designing the most suitable diet for an athlete
requires an intimate knowledge of the relevant
scientific literature, the nature of the training and
competition demands of the athlete, and the athlete
him or herself. Over the past 20 years, we have
developed a greater understanding of the macronutrient demands of exercise of various intensities and
durations. We have also developed a greater understanding of the biochemical and physiological factors
that occur with exercise training, and with varying
conditions (heat, cool, pre-exercise diet), which
subsequently alter the macronutrient demands for
a given exercise task. However, our understanding of
the issues central to the specialized discipline of
sports nutrition is far from complete. This has at
times created confusion about the most appropriate
advice for athletes to maximize their exercise capacity while concurrently promoting the greatest physiological adaptations to training and protecting their
immune function and health. To complicate things,
many athletes need to alter their body composition

at the same time, either gaining lean body mass or

losing body fat or mass. Athletes and coaches often
lack the ability to discriminate between the scientific
evidence regarding exercise training demands from
information directed towards the general, nonexercising, population. The skill of a sports nutrition
specialist lies in his or her ability to interpret the
scientific evidence and design the most appropriate
diet for athletes to achieve all of their requirements
simultaneously, and to alter their diet over time
according to changes in those goals/requirements.
The aim of this article is to provide an overview on
the current scientific evidence on macronutrient
requirements for various types of exercise with
the focus on day-to-day training requirements of
athletes, and to consider how these requirements
may vary under different exercise conditions. The
intention is not to provide an exhaustive review of
the literature, as this has been undertaken elsewhere
(e.g. IOC Consensus Conference on Sports Nutrition, 2003), but to provide a practical interpretation
of this body of literature and, when appropriate,
highlight deficiencies in the current literature.

Correspondence: E. M. Broad, 44 Tallebudgera Creek Road, Tallebudgera, QLD 4228, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]
ISSN 1746-1391 print/ISSN 1536-7290 online # 2008 European College of Sport Science
DOI: 10.1080/17461390801919177

58

E. M. Broad & G. R. Cox

Daily energy requirements

The fundamental difference in dietary intake between an athlete and non-athlete is that athletes
must consume adequate energy to meet the demands
of intense training and competition (Tarnopolsky &
Gibala, 2005). Determining daily energy requirements for an athlete to match the demands of
training, while simultaneously maintaining/achieving
body weight and body composition targets, is a
primary consideration for sports nutrition professionals when consulting an athlete.

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How to establish daily energy needs?

The basic premise behind suggesting a fuelling mix
for an athlete is underpinned by our understanding
of what amount of energy intake is required to keep
pace with their daily energy expenditure. Energy
expenditure is difficult to measure in free living
athletes outside of a laboratory, particularly as
many athletes will be attempting to lose or gain
weight at the same time as training to achieve
maximum adaptations to their event. Therefore, it
is important to have a mechanism of estimating an
athletes expected energy expenditure per se, and
then be able to take into consideration the additional goals of body composition changes, before
advising the athlete on what to eat for maximum
training benefit.
The components of energy expenditure are essentially grouped in three categories:
. basal metabolic rate, which is largely related to a
persons active tissue mass, and accounts for
60
80% of daily energy expenditure;
. thermic effect of feeding, which is essentially
the metabolic cost of the body dealing with the
consumption of food; and
. the energy expended in normal daily and
exercise activities.
This latter component is highly variable between
people and between days, and includes all activity
from home-life, to work and exercise, as well as
adjustments for climactic changes (heat, cold).
Although some variables can be accurately measured in laboratory conditions, or using isotope
techniques, the practitioner is essentially limited to
using prediction equations and some educated
refinement to come up with a figure for energy
expenditure. The Harris-Benedict equation is one
such predictor of resting metabolic rate, although it
is recognized to under-predict true values in an
active population (Frankfield, Roth-Yousey, & Compher, 2005; Manore & Thompson, 2006). From this
figure, estimated energy intake requirements are
derived by multiplying first by a daily activity factor

(sedentary activity) of 1.4 to account for most daily

activities (Manore & Thompson, 2006) plus adding
in a value for exercise energy expenditure. This is
estimated once a training diary has been collected
and training session type, intensity, and duration
have been averaged and multiplied by a body mass
and sport and exercise-specific expenditure figure
(McArdle, Katch, & Katch, 1991, p. 804). Finally,
after weight change goals are factored into this value,
an approximate energy intake target can be determined. Refinement of this energy intake target will
occur following assessment of the athletes progress
towards his or her goals following implementation of
a meal plan.
Daily patterns of energy intake of athletes
Decisions how to distribute an athletes food intake
throughout the day will be influenced by: total energy
requirements; the number of training sessions
scheduled throughout the day; how practical/necessary it is to consume energy before or during training;
the physiological and performance objectives of an
exercise session; appetite; and post-training nutrition requirements. For instance, understanding the
types of movement involved within a session,
the intensity of exercise to be undertaken, and the
athletes experience/risk of gastrointestinal distress
during exercise will influence the timing, type, and
volume of food consumed before, during, and after
exercise.
In general, studies indicate that athletes tend to
eat several times a day, most commonly on 5
9
occasions (Burke et al., 2003; Lindeman, 1990).
Burke et al. (2003) found a positive relationship
between energy intake (kJ kg 1) and the number of
eating occasions each day for male and female
athletes. This pattern of grazing can be useful in
assisting athletes to meet the additional energy
requirements associated with daily training. Studies
typically report that foods and fluids consumed as
snacks outside of main meals contribute significantly
to overall daily energy intake (23
35%) (Burke
et al., 2003; Butterworth, Nieman, Underwood, &
Linsted, 1994; Saris, van Erp-Baart, Brouns,
Westerterp, & ten Hoor, 1989).
It would appear that athletes need to be organized,
well supported, and educated about the benefits of
nutrition, as the time available for eating (Nogueria
& Da Costa, 2004) and the suppression of appetite
after exhaustive exercise (King, Burley, & Blundell,
1994) may limit the athletes ability or desire to
consume adequate energy to meet daily fuel requirements. Furthermore, Blundell and King (1999)
suggest that there is no strong biological imperative
to match energy intake to activity-induced energy
expenditure. Complicating things further, many

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Optimal composition of an athletes diet

athletes are faced with the added challenge of
organizing their food and fluid intake around
training, work, sponsor commitments, study, and
family responsibilities (Lindeman, 1990).
Although daily exercise/activity patterns vary for
athletes in response to daily training loads, a
common practice among sports nutrition professionals is to develop a food and fluid intake plan
based on an average daily energy expenditure for an
athlete, rather than design specific strategies for each
daily variation in training load. Although athletes
may fail to meet estimated energy requirements on
heavy training days when using this model, light
training days or rest days offer athletes a time to
catch up on energy they have been unable to
consume on high exercise/activity days.
An alternative approach is to develop a daily meal
plan that can be easily manipulated by the athlete to
compensate for daily changes in training load.
Additional energy (namely in the form of carbohydrate) can be included before, during or after
training to support daily exercise performance and
recovery between exercise sessions. Saris and colleagues (1989) found that male cyclists contesting the
Tour de France modified their daily carbohydrate
and energy intakes to reflect daily energy expenditure when supported by a professional team. Despite
a mean predicted energy expenditure of 25.4 MJ
daily, athletes consumed sufficient energy to maintain body weight and body composition over the 22day event. Cyclists in this study consumed 94 g of
carbohydrate each hour while racing, which accounted for almost half (49%) of their total daily
energy intake. By comparison, Burke et al. (2003)
found that male team and endurance athletes
reported consuming only 3
5% of their total
energy intake during training. It is likely that the
striking disparity between these two studies reflects
the organized support offered to elite cyclists by their
professional team and the emphasis on maintaining
best performance from one day to the next
throughout the course of the event.
Failure to compensate for a large energy deficit
within a few days of when it was incurred may result
in excessive fatigue and reduced training potential,
as can a cumulative energy deficit over time (e.g.
over 2
3 weeks of heavy training). On the other
hand, short-term energy (or specifically carbohydrate) deficits may enhance training adaptations,
and therefore planned compensation either on the
day or on a rest day scheduled soon after may not be
warranted (see Baar and McGee, 2008, in this
issue).
Psychological and sociological issues surrounding
daily food and fluid intake are also important issues
to consider when advising athletes. Some athletes
may fail to adequately compensate on rest days or

59

during weeks of lighter training, or implement pre-,

during or post-exercise nutrition strategies on a daily
basis for fear of gaining weight and/or body fat.
Female athletes, involved in weight category sports
or body mass important sports, and athletes
competing in aesthetic sports are particularly prone
to reporting inadequate dietary energy intakes
(Loucks, 2004). Through specific education regarding the manipulation of pre-, during and postexercise fuel, and recovery day/week eating, the
practitioner can help an athlete adjust the variations
in day-to-day energy expenditure more effectively to
maximize training adaptations while minimizing the
accumulation of substantial energy deficits. This can
be undertaken while maintaining a relatively consistent base to the overall dietary prescription (e.g.
main meals), reducing the requirement of detailed
weekly or monthly meal plans.
Finally, athletes are faced with the added challenge of eating socially among family members,
friends, team-mates, and work colleagues (for nonprofessional athletes). As clinical as sports nutrition
guidelines may appear, athletes do not eat solely to
support exercise performance and promote recovery
between exercise sessions. Athletes must strike a
balance to ensure they optimize their intake to
support training and competition performances,
while maintaining a flexible approach and attitude
towards food to engage in social activities away from
sport.

Guidelines for carbohydrate intake for athletes

Over many years, it has been repeatedly observed
that carbohydrate, from blood glucose and muscle
glycogen stores, is an important fuel for exercising
muscle, particularly at higher exercise intensities
(Coyle, 1995; OBrien, Viguie, Mazzeo, & Brooks,
1993). A useful summary of such effects, both in
relation to intensity of exercise and prolonged (2 h)
exercise, is presented by Romijn et al. (1993). As
the intensity of exercise increases, both energy
expenditure and the contribution of carbohydrate
to work production increase. In contrast, over
prolonged exercise, the contribution of carbohydrate tends to fall, perhaps in relation to decreasing
fuel stores (Romijn et al., 1993). In essence,
carbohydrate is an essential fuel for most athletes;
however, because our ability to store this commodity is limited (Coyle, 1995), daily consumption is
required to maintain adequate levels. It has also
been shown that at any given exercise intensity,
exposure to heat increases carbohydrate utilization
in unacclimated individuals (Jeukendrup, 2003).

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E. M. Broad & G. R. Cox

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Carbohydrate intake guidelines in the everyday training

diet
Experts have recently refined dietary prescription
regarding daily carbohydrate intakes to encourage
athletes to achieve a carbohydrate intake to meet the
fuel requirements of training and to optimize restoration of muscle glycogen stores between training
sessions (Burke, Kiens, & Ivy, 2004). It is now
widely acknowledged that general recommendations
for daily carbohydrate intake should be expressed as
grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of the athletes
body mass, rather than a percentage of total dietary
energy (Burke, Cox, Cummings, & Desbrow, 2001).
Suggested carbohydrate intake guidelines for athletes based on daily exercise patterns and expressed
relative to an athletes body weight have recently
been developed (see Table I). Interpretation of these
guidelines into individual dietary prescription should
consider the athletes overall daily energy requirements, specific training volume and intensity, and
requirements for growth and development (for
children and adolescent athletes). Without an inherent knowledge of a sport, these guidelines can be
easily misinterpreted. For example, it is common for
a gymnast to train for 6
7 h per day, over two
training sessions. If you consider the duration of the
training sessions alone, their carbohydrate requirements would be 10
12g kg 1 day1. However,
when the absolute amount of activity is calculated
within these hours, the estimated amount of energy
expended in that time period is quite small and
suggested to be approximately 0.066 kcal min 1
kg 1 (McArdle et al., 1991). The net result of
true exercise energy expenditure in the sessions for
an average 50-kg gymnast adds only 1200 kcal
(5000 kJ) to their daily energy requirements. However, if the athlete consumed the amount based on
training time alone (10
12 g carbohydrate kg 1
day1 as suggested above), this would far exceed
the energy expenditure of exercise, and thus the need
to know your sport. Although we have no definitive assessment of carbohydrate usage during gymnastics training, it is likely that daily requirements
are within 5
6 g kg 1 day1.
Table I. Guidelines for carbohydrate intakes in everyday training
Activity
Immediate recovery after
exercise (0
4 h)
Daily recovery: moderate-duration/
low-intensity training
Daily recovery: moderate to heavy
endurance training
Daily recovery: extreme exercise
programme (4
6 h day1)
Source: Burke et al. (2004).

Carbohydrate intake
1.0
1.2 g kg 1 h 1
5
7 g kg1 day1
7
12 g kg 1 day1
10
12 g kg1 day1

As an alternate example, a 110-kg rugby union

prop who trains twice a day in both strength- and
field-based sessions incorporating high-intensity
bouts of exercise would theoretically have carbohydrate requirements of 7
12 g kg 1 day1. If we
consider first the intake represented by the 7 g level
and multiply by the players large body mass
(110 kg), the result is a theoretical requirement of
770 g of carbohydrate per day. It is unlikely
athletes would tolerate this amount given their daily
training schedule. In practice, these athletes typically
manage to consume 5
6 g kg 1 day1, which in
absolute terms for a 110 kg player is 550
660 g of
carbohydrate.
Little is mentioned in carbohydrate intake guidelines of the needs of strength or resistance training
athletes, and only a few studies have assessed carbohydrate requirements. It has been shown that resistance exercise relies primarily on anaerobic energy
sources
phosphocreatine and glycogen (EssenGustavsson & Tesch, 1990; McArdle et al., 1991;
Robergs et al., 1991)
but also on some intramyocellular lipids (Essen-Gustavsson & Tesch, 1990).
Reductions in muscle glycogen stores over a 30- to
45-min resistance training session have been shown to
be similar in magnitude to a 60-min bout of endurance
exercise at 70% maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) or
2
3 h of prolonged, lower-intensity endurance exercise (Essen-Gustavsson & Tesch, 1990; Koopman
et al., 2006; Robergs et al., 1991). Therefore, likely
carbohydrate requirements for athletes undertaking
resistance exercise are 6
7 g kg 1 day1.
Effect of chronic carbohydrate intake on daily training
performance and training studies
Despite the focus on carbohydrate in education
messages to athletes and coaches, few studies have
directly investigated the benefits of consuming a
higher carbohydrate diet on daily training performance and mood-state throughout a period of
endurance training (Achten et al., 2004; Costill
et al., 1988; Kirwan et al., 1988; Lamb, Rinehardt,
Bartels, Sherman, & Snook, 1990; Sherman, Doyle,
Lamb, & Strauss, 1993; Simonsen et al., 1991; Vogt
et al. 2003). Although some researchers have shown
a better performance outcome for the high carbohydrate trial or training group (Achten et al., 2004;
Kirwan et al., 1988; Simonsen et al., 1991), this
finding has not been universal (Lamb et al., 1990;
Sherman et al., 1993; Vogt et al., 2003).
One possible explanation for this lack of consensus from chronic training studies investigating varying carbohydrate intakes is that athletes adapt to
lower muscle glycogen stores resulting from lower
carbohydrate intakes, such that it does not impair
training or competition performance (Sherman &

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Optimal composition of an athletes diet

Wimer, 1991). Several methodological differences
between studies, and the difficulties associated in
detecting small differences in performance that are
likely to be important in real-life sport and everyday
training, are further explanations for this disparity in
research findings. The calibre of the athlete, the
duration of the study (5
35 days), and the mode of
exercise (swimming, running, cycling, rowing) have
varied across previous studies. The shorter time
frame employed in many of the chronic training
studies (5
10 days) may provide insufficient time for
differences in training to translate into metabolic
adaptations or performance changes. Differences in
the dietary methodology implemented further complicate interpretation of previous study findings,
with, for example, the daily amount of carbohydrate
provided to participants varying between studies in
the moderate and high carbohydrate treatment
groups. This inconsistency has resulted in an overlap
between what was considered high and moderate
intakes of carbohydrate in existing studies.
One important methodological issue overlooked
when feeding individuals higher carbohydrate diets is
the effect of consuming the additional carbohydrate
during the scheduled daily exercise sessions. Studies
have either failed to mention when the additional
carbohydrate was consumed throughout the day
(Costill et al., 1988) or have had participants
consume the additional carbohydrate outside of
scheduled exercise times (Achten et al., 2004;
Kirwan et al., 1988; Lamb et al., 1990; Sherman
et al., 1993; Simonsen et al., 1991). Exercise
performance trials, which doubled as training sessions scheduled throughout the dietary intervention
periods, were performed under conditions of low
carbohydrate availability (overnight fast, consuming
water only during the exercise) in the high carbohydrate group or treatment in some previous studies
(Achten et al., 2004; Kirwan et al., 1988). Failure to
incorporate the additional carbohydrate during daily
exercise bouts may mask the full potential of consuming the additional amount, given the acknowledged acute benefits of consuming carbohydrate
before and during exercise in prolonging continuous
exercise capacity and performance.
Some previous studies have manipulated daily
energy intake to ensure body weight maintenance
throughout the dietary treatment period. However,
other studies have routinely set daily carbohydrate
intakes in the moderate and high carbohydrate
groups/treatments independent of daily training
volume. For example, despite daily fluctuations in
training load over the 11-day dietary intervention
period, Achten et al. (2004) set daily carbohydrate
intakes of 5 g kg 1 day1 and 8 g kg 1 day1
for the moderate and high carbohydrate treatments,
respectively.

61

Carbohydrate intake guidelines for recovery between

training sessions
The guidelines for carbohydrate intake in the recovery period, as outlined in Table I, assume that the
athlete is training at least once a day, and undertaking a form of exercise that impacts substantially
upon muscle glycogen stores. It is well documented
that muscle glycogen resynthesis is faster in the first
2 h after exercise compared with a longer delay
(Friedman, Neufer, & Dohm, 1991), and for athletes training again within 12 h this provides the
advantage to refuelling muscles in preparation for
the next training bout. This muscle glycogen resynthesis is specific to the muscle groups in which
glycogen stores have been depleted by the exercise
bout. Thus if the subsequent exercise bout involves
different muscle groups (for example, swimming vs.
running in a triathlete, or upper vs. lower body
muscles in resistance training), the need for rapid
muscle glycogen replenishment is less important.
Recent research has questioned whether active
muscle glycogen restoration is potentially dampening the biochemical adaptations to exercise training
(see Baar & McGee, 2008, in this issue). Training in
a glycogen-depleted state increases the rates of
transcription and translation of key mitochondrial
and fat transport/energetic enzymes (Volek, Kraemer, Bush, Incledon, & Boetes,1997), giving rise to
suggestions that training in a higher fat/lower carbohydrate environment may provide benefits in terms
of training adaptations. Although studies investigating performance differences when training on a high
fat diet have generally shown no benefits to exercise
performance compared with training on a high
carbohydrate diet (and potentially some negative
impact: Burke et al., 2004), a more acute glycogen
deficit (e.g. for 2
3 training sessions a week) is a
relatively untested notion. Whether this needs to be
deliberately manipulated or is currently already
undertaken inevitably by athletes in heavy training
phases is open for debate. Any attempt to manipulate muscle glycogen stores to maximize training
adaptations must account for practical issues, such
as the need to undertake quality training sessions at
specific times in a training programme (especially
in an environment such as a team sport, where
pressure for selection for the next game can be an
issue). Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest
that maintaining an adequate carbohydrate intake
(8.5 vs. 5.4 g kg 1 day1) helps maintain running
speed and reduce symptoms of stress during heavy
phases of training (Achten et al., 2004), indicating
that the timing of trialling of some training sessions
in a glycogen-depleted state needs to be carefully
selected.

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E. M. Broad & G. R. Cox

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Summary
In summary, including adequate carbohydrate for
training requirements remains a priority when designing an optimal diet for an athlete. The choice of
carbohydrate sources should be such that they
combine other nutrient requirements as well
such
as those that are useful sources of protein, antioxidants, and micronutrients. Where carbohydrate
requirements are high (e.g. 8 g kg 1 day1),
the inclusion of more refined carbohydrate sources is
also beneficial so as not to dampen the appetite
excessively, allowing attainment of total energy
requirements. It is important to take advantage of
faster muscle glycogen replenishment rates in the
1
2 h after a training session, especially when
undertaking a phase of very heavy training. However, there may be times during other training phases
(e.g. base preparation) when allowing this to lapse is
more appropriate for encouraging optimal training
adaptations.

Protein requirements to support daily training

requirements
There has been much debate about the optimal
protein intake for athletes. The general consensus
now appears to be within the range of 1.2
1.7 g
kg 1 day1, regardless of type of exercise (resistance vs. endurance) (Tarnopolsky, 2000; Tipton &
Wolfe, 2004). Dietary intake surveys of athletes
frequently report that protein requirements are
more than adequately met (Burke et al., 2003;
Tarnopolsky, 2006). However, some athletes have
become over-zealous with their focus on consuming
protein, and reduce carbohydrate intake in an
attempt to reduce their body fat (personal observation). Although there are no convincing arguments
regarding the danger of excessive protein intakes, it is
known that excess protein cannot be stored and that
it is simply oxidized (Tipton & Wolfe, 2004). Protein
intakes higher than recommended may well be
consumed as part of a balanced, high-energy diet,
and we currently have no evidence to suggest that
this should be discouraged. However, if higher
protein intakes result in an insufficient carbohydrate
intake, increasing the likelihood of a negative impact
on training capability when training loads are high,
then this aspect of the athletes diet must be
addressed. The role of dietary protein in recovery
after exercise and optimizing muscle hypertrophy is
discussed elsewhere in this issue (Tarnopolsky, 2008;
Tipton, 2008).

Dietary fat intake to support daily training

requirements
Fat is an abundant source of fuel stored in the
human body, and can be utilized by exercising
muscle, with maximal rates of fat oxidation occurring at exercise of 60% VO2max (Romijn et al.,
1993). Dietary fat is also a source of essential fatty
acids and fat soluble vitamins (Burke, 1996; McArdle, Katch, & Katch, 1999). The recommended
levels of dietary fat intake for athletes are around 20

25% of total energy intake (Burke, 1996), primarily
based on prioritizing carbohydrate and protein
within total energy requirements. Athletes, however,
are frequently reported to consume more than this
(Burke et al., 2003). Lower dietary fat intakes are
correlated with reduced resting serum testosterone
concentrations in males (Hamalainen, Adlercreutz,
Puska, & Pietinen, 1984; Reed, Cheng, Simmonds,
Richmond, & James, 1987; Volek et al., 1997) and
females (Goldin et al., 1994; Ingram, Bennett, Willcox, & de Klerk, 1987), as well as with serum
oestrogen concentrations in females (Bagga et al.,
1995; Ingram et al., 1987). Yet it is recognized that
athletes may restrict dietary fat, either for cultural
reasons (Onywera, Kiplamai, Boit, & Pitsiladis,
2004) or in an attempt to maintain low body fat,
especially in such sports as endurance running
(Horvath, Eagan, Leddy, & Pendergast, 2000;
Loucks, 2007) and aesthetic sports (Jonnalagadda,
Bernadot, & Nelson, 1998). By doing so, they
generally also consume a low total energy intake
(Loucks, 2007), which as outlined by Loucks (2004)
can result in menstrual dysfunction and its associated disorders in females, growth hormone resistance, an exacerbation of lower testosterone
concentrations (Loucks, 2004), plus have a negative
influence on immune function (Venkatraman,
Leddy, & Pendergast, 2000). The dietary fat requirements of athletes have received little attention
in the scientific literature.
Recent investigations have highlighted the potential role of intramuscular triglyceride (IMTG) stores
as a source of fuel for exercising muscle. Early
indications are that this fuel depot, both within and
between muscle fibres, could contribute up to 50%
of total fatty acid fuel (Stellingwerff et al., 2007).
Intramuscular triglyceride contributes to exercise
fuels in resistance training (Essen-Gustavsson &
Tesch, 1990; Koopman et al., 2006) as well as
endurance exercise (Stellingwerff et al., 2007; van
Loon et al., 2003), with female athletes having higher
stores (Roepstorff, Vistisen, & Kiens, 2005). It is
now known that dietary fat intake influences IMTG
concentrations. Coyle and colleagues found that a

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Optimal composition of an athletes diet

2% fat diet for 7 days reduced total fat oxidation
during 1 h exercise at 67% VO2max by 27% due to
the reduction in IMTG stores alone compared with a
22% fat diet (Coyle, Jeukendrup, Oseto, Hodgkinson, & Zderic, 2001). In contrast, increasing dietary
fat intake from 22% to 60% total energy intake for
2 days increased IMTG concentrations by 36%,
which was then responsible for a 72% increase in fat
oxidation during 1 h exercise at 50% VO2peak
(Zderic, Davidson, Schenk, Byerley, & Coyle,
2004). It is thus important for exercising individuals,
especially females, to ensure dietary fat intake is no
lower than 20
25% total energy intake in order to
promote higher fat oxidation, and conserve muscle
glycogen, during exercise bouts. Indeed, once carbohydrate and protein requirements are adequately
met, there is no reason why the remainder of total
energy intake cannot be derived from fat to ensure
adequate IMTG stores. Some athletes may therefore
require active encouragement not to over-restrict
dietary fat intake.
Differences between the sexes in macronutrient
requirements for training
The majority of scientific studies on macronutrient
requirements of athletes have been undertaken on
males, partly due to the complexity of controlling for
menstrual cycle variations. It can therefore be
assumed that guidelines pertaining to macronutrient
requirements during exercise have been based on
male data, generally without reference to possible
variations for female athletes.
The limited research available indicates that
females utilize more fat, and less carbohydrate, as a
fuel at the same relative exercise intensity as males
(Carter, Rennie, & Tarnopolsky, 2001), and have
higher intramuscular triglyceride stores than males
(Roepstorff et al., 2005; Tarnopolsky et al., 2007).
Endocrine hormone levels are suggested to be the
main reason for this (Braun & Horton, 2001).
Dietary surveys indicate that females are less likely
than males to meet their recommended carbohydrate
requirements (Burke et al., 2001), and although
arguments have been put forward that this shows
they require less carbohydrate than males, the
counter-argument is that their failure to achieve
absolute energy and carbohydrate requirements,
most likely due to attempts to control body fat/
mass (Burke et al., 2001), may prevent optimal
training progression. In strength-training female
athletes, the case has been argued that the intake
of very high carbohydrate (e.g. 8
9 g kg 1
day1) should be reduced to prioritize protein and
fat intakes for optimal training adaptations (Volek,
Forsythe, & Kraemer, 2006) compared with men,
although no specific recommendations were made.

63

Only one study has shown a reduced glycogen

utilization during resistance exercise in women
compared with men (Bell & Jacobs, 1989). It would
appear that female-specific nutritional recommendations are warranted, although further research is
required.

Conclusions
Many variables require assimilation when formulating the optimal diet for an athlete. The diet must be
specific to the type, intensity, frequency, and duration of the training undertaken, and be specific to
each individual athletes food preferences and social
situation. Achieving daily carbohydrate and protein
requirements to support training and health should
always be a high priority, without excessive reduction
of dietary fat. An athletes daily food and fluid intake
will vary across a training season, according to the
priorities of optimizing training adaptations (including changes in lean muscle mass or body fat) and
sustaining a high training load. More research is
required in many areas of sports nutrition to assist in
understanding the specific macronutrient requirements for individual sports. Further research should
also be directed at females to better understand
potential differences that may assist between the
sexes. And lastly, the interaction of nutrient availability on daily exercise performance and the
favoured metabolic adaptations that occur within
muscle in response to daily training warrants further
investigation.

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