MLE4208 Lecture 1 PDF

Photovoltaic Physics and Materials
Lecture Note
2009/2010 Semester 2
WANG, QING
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
National University of Singapore
About this module:

1. Main Reference: The Physics of Solar Cells. J. Nelson. Imperial
College Press, 2003.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Assignments (10%)
Tutorials: recitation/discussion/Q&A (10%)
Project Report (30%)
Final Exam: open book (50%)
I assume you have the basic knowledge of thermodynamics,
semiconductor physics.
7. A web blog will be built for this module (http://blog.nus.edu.sg/
msewq/). You are welcome to write to me for any questions you have
for this module. (EMAIL: [email protected])
The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek

(phos) meaning "light", and "voltaic",
meaning electric, from the name of the Italian
physicist Volta, after whom a unit of electrical
potential, the volt, is named. The term "photovoltaic" has been in use in English since 1849.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell
What we will discuss...

1. Introduction and Characteristics of Solar Cells
2. Photon in, Electron out: Basic Principle of PV
3. Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors
4. Generation and Recombination
5. Junctions and Analysis of p-n Junction
6. Monocrystalline Solar Cells
7. Thin Film Solar Cells (I)
8. Thin Film Solar Cells (II)
9. Photoelectrochemical Cells (I)
10.Photoelectrochemical Cells (II)
11.Over the Limit: Third Generation Photovoltaics (I)
12.Over the Limit: Third Generation Photovoltaics (II)
Lecture 1
Introduction and Characteristics of Solar Cells
References:
1. The Physics of Solar Cells. Jenny Nelson. Imperial College Press,
2003.
2. Photovoltaic Materials, Series on Properties of Semiconductor
Materials, Vol.1, Richard H. Bube, Imperial College Press, 1998.
3. Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page).
Our Energy Challenges

Energy Sources: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow
Schollnberger 1998 after Shell International Ltd 1996
At MINIMUM we need 10 Terawatts from some new clean energy source

by 2050. For worldwide peace and prosperity we need it to be cheap.
We simply can not do this with current technology.
Our energy challenges are real and here!
World Solar Energy Map
http://cleantechlawandbusiness.com/
Solar energy supply to the earth: ca 3 million exajoules per year. Current
energy demand of the world is 474 exajoules. This could be fully met by
covering 0.15 % of the earths surface with PV panels having 10% efficiency.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_energy_resources_and_consumption
Utilization of Solar Energy: Ancient Day
Archimedes Burning Mirror

(Death Ray), 514 A.D.
A Mouchot solar concentrator, Paris, 1880
Power of Light-The Epic Story of Mans Quest to Harness the Sun, Frank T. Kryza, McGraw-Hill, 2003.
The Photovoltaic Effect

Metal
UV light
light
Current
e-
eLoad
Photoelectric effect
Photovoltaic effect
hc
Light is made up of packets of energy, called photons.
E=
Energy of light depends only upon its frequency or color.

Blue or ultraviolet light provides energy for electron to escape from
the surface of a metal---Photoelectric effect.
Built-in asymmetry in photovoltaic device pulls the excited electrons
to the external circuit before they can relax.
10
Brief History of Solar Cells

1. Photovoltaic effect was first reported by AlexandreEdmond Becquerel in 1839. The first photoelectrochemical cell.
2. The first solid state photovoltaic devices were
constructed by William Adams and Richard Day in
1876. Pt/Se/Pt
3. The first large area solar cell was prepared by Charles
Fritts in 1894. Au/Se/M
Cu/CuO, Pb/PbS, Tl/TlS
The early cells were thin film Schottky barrier devices.
First revealed by Goldman and Brodsky in 1914, and later during the
1930s, the theory of Metal/Semiconductor barrier layers was
developed by Walter Schottky, Neville Mott and others.
http://www.swiscontrol.com/SWISCONTROL/Mapas%20de%20Bocas%20del%20Toro/PAGINAS%20HTML/HYSTORIA%20PV.html
11
Brief History of Solar Cells

4. The first silicon p-n junction solar cell was reported by Bell Lab
researchers D.M. Chapin, C.S. Fuller and G.L. Pearson in 1954.
5. In the 1950s, CdS, GaSe, InP, CdTe p-n junction photovoltaic
devices were studied experimentally and theoretically.
6. In 1958, the first PV-powered satellite (Vanguard I) was launched,
despite the production cost of ~$200 per Watt.
7. In the 1970s, the energy crisis led to intense interest for R&D of
photovoltaics. Various strategies and routes for cheaper and more
efficient photovoltaics were explored. Our understanding of the
science of photovoltaics is mainly rooted in this period.
8. In the late 1990s, by expanding the production scale photovoltaics
first became competitive in contexts where conventional
electricity supply is most expensive.
9. Benefitted from the advances of silicon technology for the microelectronics industry, silicon remained and remains the foremost
photovoltaic material.
http://www.swiscontrol.com/SWISCONTROL/Mapas%20de%20Bocas%20del%20Toro/PAGINAS%20HTML/HYSTORIA%20PV.html
12
41.6% @364X
13
Global Solar Cells Production

Cost and production
of PV modules
Source: JRC PV Status Report 2009
14
Global Solar Cells Production
15
16
Types of Solar Energy Converter

Photovoltaic converter:
Means of charge separation
excited state
Convert the incident radiant energy
mainly into electrochemical potential
energy.
Eg
h
Absorption of photon promotes
electron to higher energy (excited
ground state
state), which should be separated
from the ground state by an energy
Solar thermal converter:
gap (e.g. band gap in
The radiant energy absorbed is converted
semiconductors).
mainly into internal energy and raised the
Charges are separated, collected and temperature of the cell.
extracted to external circuit and do
It operates as a heat engine and does work.
electrical work.
It utilizes the full range of solar wavelengths.
It extracts solar energy only from
It is thermally insulated from the ambient.
photons with energy sufficient to
Photochemical converter:
bridge the band gap.
radiant energy absorbed results in a
It is designed to be in good thermal The
permanent increase in chemical
contact with the ambient.
potential. e.g. photosynthesis.
The excited electron population drives a
chemical reaction.
17
A Comparison with Battery
BATTERY
Solar Cell:
EMF: Temporary change in
electrochemical potential
caused by the light.
Power delivered depends on
the incident light intensity.
Never exhausted since it can
be continually recharged with
light.
Current generator
Voltage
Battery:
EMF: Permanent electrochemical
potential difference between two
phases in the cell.
Power delivered to a constant load
is relatively constant.
Exhausted as it is completely
discharged. It can be recharged for
rechargeable batteries.
Voltage generator
SOLAR CELL
battery e.m.f.
RL
Increasing light intensity

RL
Current
18
Some Important Definitions
Current Density, J
Open Circuit Voltage (VOC): The voltage developed as the terminals are
isolated (or with infinite load resistance).
Short Circuit Current (ISC): The current drawn as the terminals are connected
(or with zero load resistance).
SOLAR CELL h
JSC
Jm
RL
Vm
Bias Voltage, V
VOC
For any intermediate load

resistance RL, the cell develops a
voltage V between 0 and VOC, and
delivers a current I with
V = IRL
Both I (photocurrent) and V (photovoltage) are determined by the illumination

and the load.
19
Characteristics of Solar Cells

Photocurrent and Quantum Efficiency
Relation between photocurrent density and quantum efficiency:
J SC = q bs ( E )QE ( E ) dE
bs(E): the incident spectral photon flux density. The number of photons
of energy in the range E to E+dE which are incident on unit area in unit
time.
QE(E): the quantum efficiency. The probability that an incident photon
of energy E will deliver one electron to the external circuit.
QE depends on the absorption coefficient of the solar cell material,
the efficiency of charge separation and efficiency of charge
collection. It is a key quantity in describing solar cell performance.
20

Photocurrent and Quantum Efficiency
1240 nm
E=
(eV )
Incident Photo-to-Electron Conversion Efficiency (IPCE) Spectrum/Action

Spectrum
J SC = q bs ( E )QE ( E ) dE
21

Dark Current and Open Circuit Voltage
Dark current: in the opposite direction to the photocurrent, generated by a
potential difference developed between the terminals of the cell in the
presence of a load. Analogue to the current Idark (V) which flows across the
device under an applied voltage V in the dark.
V
JSC
Jdark
Most solar cells behave like a diode in the dark and show rectifying behavior
since an asymmetric junction is needed to achieve charge separation. For an
ideal diode,
qV
J dark (V ) = JO exp
1
kB T
JO is reverse saturation current, kB is Boltzmanns constant (1.3810-23 JK-1).
22

qV
J dark (V ) = JO exp
1
kB T
Dark Current and Open Circuit Voltage

Superposition approximation:
At open circuit voltage VOC, no current flows

across the cell, for an ideal diode,
Light Current
Current
J = J SC
qV
JO exp
1
kB T
ISC
VOC
k B T J SC
=
ln
+ 1
q JO
Here voltage is defined so that the photovoltage

occurs in forward bias, where V>0.
h
At V<0, the device acts as a photodetector,
consuming
power to generate a photocurrent.
Light dependent/bias independent.

At V>VOC, the device acts as light emitting
JSC
diode, again consuming power.
VOC
Dark Current
Bias Voltage
+
V
Jdark
23

Efficiency of Solar Cells
The cell power density is given by
P = JV
Efficiency of the cell: the power

density delivered at operating point
as a fraction of the incident light
power density Ps.
J mVm
=
PS
Relating to JSC and VOC,
JSC
Current Density, J
P reaches a maximum at the cells

operating point or maximum power
point at Vm and Jm. The optimum
load
has resistance of Vm/Jm.
Maximum Power Point
Jm
Power Density
Vm
VOC
Bias Voltage, V
J SCVOC FF
=
PS
FF is the fill factor describing the squareness of the J-V curve, defined as
J mVm
FF =
J SCVOC
24

These four quantities: JSC, VOC, FF and are the key performance
characteristics of a solar cell. All of these should be defined for particular
illumination condition.
Performance of the Mainstream Solar Cells
Cell type
Area (cm2)
Voc (V)
Jsc (mA/cm2)
FF
Efficiency (%)
crystalline Si
4.0
0.706
42.2
82.8
24.7
crystalline GaAs
3.9
1.022
28.2
87.1
25.1
poly-Si
1.1
0.654
38.1
79.5
19.8
a-Si
1.0
0.887
19.4
74.1
12.7
CuInGaSe2
1.0
0.669
35.7
77.0
18.4
CdTe
1.1
0.848
25.9
74.5
16.4
25

Parasitic Resistance
For a real cell, two parasitic resistances used to account for the power
dissipation through the resistance of the contacts and through leakage
currents around the sides of the device. One is in series (RS) and one
is in parallel (Rsh) with the cell.
Rs
Rsh
JSC
J = J SC
Jdark
q(V + JARS ) V + JAR

S
J 0 exp
1

kB T
ARsh

26

Effect of Parasitic Resistance
Rs increasing
Bias
Current
Current
The series resistance arises from the resistance of the cell material to
current flow, a particular problem at high current densities. The parallel
or shunt resistance arises from the leakage of current through the cell,
a problem in poor rectifying devices.
Rsh decreasing
Bias
Both RS and Rsh reduce the fill factor of the cell. For an efficient cell, RS
should be as small and Rsh should be as large as possible.
27

Non-ideal Diode Behavior
In real device, it is common for the dark current to depend more weakly on
bias. The actual dependence on V is quantified by an ideality factor, m.
J = J SC
qV
JO exp
1
mk B T
The ideal diode equation assumes that all the recombination occurs via band
to band or recombination via traps in the bulk areas from the device (i.e. not
in the junction).
The presence of other recombination mechanisms renders the deviation of
m from 1. Typically, 1<m<2.
28
Solar Cells, Modules and Systems
The solar cell is the basic building block

of solar photovoltaics.
To produce useful dc voltage, the cells

are connected in series and encapsulated
into modules.
String
+V
0V
+12V
29
Solar Cells, Modules and Systems

PV
generator
Power
conditioning
Load
Storage
Battery-dc/Grid-ac
Residential grid-connected PV system
Grid Tie with Backup Power (battery based)
30
Summary
History and current status of solar cells.

Equivalent circuit of solar cells.
Some important parameters for solar cells: dark current,
short circuit current, open circuit voltage, maximum
power point, fill factor, efficiency, quantum yield,
parasitic resistance, PV module.
Diode equation.
31

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Photovoltaic Physics and Materials

About this module:

The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek

What we will discuss...

Our Energy Challenges

Schollnberger 1998 after Shell International Ltd 1996

At MINIMUM we need 10 Terawatts from some new clean energy source

World Solar Energy Map

Utilization of Solar Energy: Ancient Day

Archimedes Burning Mirror

A Mouchot solar concentrator, Paris, 1880

The Photovoltaic Effect

Energy of light depends only upon its frequency or color.

to the external circuit before they can relax.

Brief History of Solar Cells

Brief History of Solar Cells

Global Solar Cells Production

Source: JRC PV Status Report 2009

Global Solar Cells Production

Types of Solar Energy Converter

A Comparison with Battery

Increasing light intensity

Some Important Definitions

For any intermediate load

Both I (photocurrent) and V (photovoltage) are determined by the illumination

Characteristics of Solar Cells

Characteristics of Solar Cells

Incident Photo-to-Electron Conversion Efficiency (IPCE) Spectrum/Action

Characteristics of Solar Cells

Characteristics of Solar Cells

Dark Current and Open Circuit Voltage

At open circuit voltage VOC, no current flows

Here voltage is defined so that the photovoltage

Light dependent/bias independent.

Characteristics of Solar Cells

Efficiency of the cell: the power

P reaches a maximum at the cells

Maximum Power Point

Characteristics of Solar Cells

Characteristics of Solar Cells

q(V + JARS ) V + JAR

Characteristics of Solar Cells

Characteristics of Solar Cells

Solar Cells, Modules and Systems

The solar cell is the basic building block

To produce useful dc voltage, the cells

Solar Cells, Modules and Systems

Residential grid-connected PV system

Grid Tie with Backup Power (battery based)

History and current status of solar cells.

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