A Paper Submission

To the
ASIAN MEDIA COOPERATION AND CULTURAL EXCHANGE
2010 CONFERENCE

Virgilio M. Maguigad

Affilitations:
Assistant Professor UP Asian Institute of Tourism, Diliman, Quezon
City

Contact details:
Office 9818500 local 2798
Cellphone 09088995582
Email [email protected] ; [email protected]

The airport as a cultural and functional showcase: Case of the

Ninoy Aquino International Airport

Introduction
Nothing compares than traveling by air - the ultimate in earth bound transport
that propels humans in thin aluminum tubes up to 35,000 feet into the
atmosphere and let them find themselves in sometimes totally different environs
a few hours later.

Flying still generally evokes adventure and excitement. A plane on landing approach

That experience often begins and ends with an equally astounding human
achievement in design and construction - the airport. For some, the
improvements in transport has led thinkers to declare the end of geography and
others talking about the end of distance. (Flyvbjerg, Bruzelius and Rothengatter
2003)
While it is generally acknowledged that airports serve an almost utilitarian
purpose in pursuit of trade, governments around the world are scrambling to
allocate expensive budgets in a race to create the most cutting edge,
revolutionary, inspirational and invariably the most modern of airport

terminals.

(Dempsey

2000)

The

airport

has

assumed

prominence

in

infrastructure planning and budgeting for mostly economic reasons a citys

pursuit for being a logistics and cultural hub, to support an existing tourism
industry, assure adequate air transport service for big events like the Olympics or
World Cup and for the most part, replace ageing facilities.

The major airport in Manila has seen two transitions in terms of location
and has undergone a various reincarnations, mostly due to the demands of
commerce and global trade. Have we reached this level of hubris that has been
with the likes of Bangkok, Hong Kong, Incheon and Kuala Lumpur?

A sunny terminal, a sunny Philippines? NAIA 2

It assumed that airports offer the first glimpse of a countrys culture or a

taste of the proverbial dinuguan before the banquet, the appetizer before the
main course. The question is whether our own main international gateway can be
considered as a cultural showcase in architecture as defined by prevailing
academic and popular media discussions in the Philippines.

Is our airport ostentatious enough to be considered as an architecture of

display that self-consciously depicts aspects of culture projected to hapless

travelers who are captive experiential consumers of the airport services? Can
the existing operating terminals, NAIA 1 and NAIA 2 be considered as functional
or symbolic showcases? (As NAIA 3 is excluded as it is a relatively new addition
to the NAIA airport terminal system.) In what levels can these be considered as
showcases?

The utility of airports

The airport can be rightly called a building that functions as a machine one that
provides an interface and processes passengers on its landside going into the
airside where the aircraft are parked. (Wells 1986) It varies in size and capacity
with some airports operating more than five runways at a time. It is a transport
building that takes its role beyond the obvious utilitarian purpose it serves and
celebrates physical travel, social and cultural connections.

The economic importance of an airport cant be underestimated. No

metropolitan region in the world is without an airport and some even have
several. Some cities even have their fortunes almost tied to that of their operating
airports like Dubai and Singapore that it makes economic sense to ensure their
airports remain as showcases for efficiency. The economic costs of building
these new temples of modernity is reflected in the amount of monies spent in
Kansai International Airport in Osaka estimated at US$15-20 billion. (Hooper
2002)

It has been said that governments involved in mega-projects such as

these gigantic airports routinely underestimate environmental impacts, overstate
economic benefits and generally underestimate project financial costs in order to
get them built. (Flyvbjerg, Bruzelius and Rothengatter 2003)

A culture of

corruption pervasive in public works projects are of course is never far behind.

In the Philippines, the country is served by existing international airports

based on design standards (primarily on runway length and terminal size)
Manila, Mactan-Cebu, Davao, Clark, Subic, Laoag, new Iloilo Airport,
Zamboanga and General Santos cities. More airports are set to be upgraded as
a response to the call of tourism as a sustainable development strategy and the
pursuit of the Medium Term Philippine Development Plan (2001-2010).

Airbridges at NAIA2 that connect the aircraft on the airside onto the landside of the airport terminal

The airport as a transport infrastructure has taken a new role as

harbingers of economic prosperity of countries and as trophy projects that would
be fought over by the worlds leading architectural firms, especially in the late
80s up to present. New airports around the world are moving away from the idea
of airports as a machine to that of enablers of culture and economics. It has
evolved from one that is flexible, easily put-up, and torn down to that of being a
landmark building. (Edwards 2005)

In this vein, airport projects have become some of the most celebrated
civil works projects of all time. It has attracted some of the biggest and most
exciting architectural undertakings: Kansai in Osaka, Japan (by Renzo Piano),
Chek Lap Kok in Hong Kong (by Norman Foster), Kuala Lumpur, Incheon, Korea
and Bangkok Suvarnabhumi. All of these projects momumentality and

grandiosity would put Imelda Marcos Cultural Center of the Philippines Complex
(CCP), the acknowledged torch bearer of Philippine showcase architecture, to
shame at least in terms of sheer size.

Ironically, the more gigantic the newly completed airport projects, the more
it functions both as a machine and as enabler of cultural exchange and
economics. According to Airport Council International (ACI), a total of 3.5 billion
passenger movements were recorded in 2003. This translates to a total of 66.7
million aircraft movements (takeoffs and landings) that had to pass through
airports. (Page and Connell 2008)

The new airport developments across the globe serve as bragging rights
that firmly puts the host cities into the worlds social, cultural and economic radar
screen a showcase.

New airport capacity is going to be needed that the

International Civil Aviation Authority (ICAO) estimates that additional investments

amounting to US$25 billion will be spent to meet demand by 2010. (Hooper
2002)

The departure hall of NAIA 1, reminiscent of the CCP Complex Lobby

Airports as cultural showcases in architecture

Brian Edwards (2005) puts it deftly, The airport is a cultural memory. It is the
story of modernity acted out in space, speed, light and flight. National image is
reflected more directly in the design of airports than any other building type, with
the passenger terminal the key element in the public perception. It is an
opportunity and a very tempting creative canvass for governments, planning
agencies, architectural firms and other stakeholders to consciously mold the look
of the airport according to prevailing tastes and design sensibilities. Thus, the
design mantra to evoke the spirit of flying is reflected in the designs of the Chek
Lap Kok and Incheon terminals of Hong Kong and Incheon, South Korea with its
terminal designs seemingly like a bird with outstretched wings in flight.

The importance of defining architectural designs has taken prominence

during the past two decades to underscore a majority of Asian economies
heralding of new economic might. Kai Tak airport in Hong Kong has long been
overtaken by towering office buildings that surrounded the facility making it one
of the scariest airports for travelers to land into and challenging for most pilots.
Chek Lap Kok Airports construction required the leveling of two small islands
and reclamation of the sea to create an airport fit to cement Hong Kongs
supremacy of being Southern Chinas hub for transport and estimated to have
cost about US$15-20 billion. (Hooper 2002) The airport project has initially been
dismissed by the communists as a showcase of British imperialism as the project
has been initiated and finished in 1998 before the handover of Hong Kong to
China. It has been called a fiasco after it has not performed as expected in the
few months of its operations, although that is now seen as just a start-up
problem, albeit a costly one. (Flyvbjerg, Bruzelius and Rothengatter 2003)

The image of Singapore on the other hand, as a hyper-efficient city is

reinforced and projected to travelers as they arrive at Changi Airport, consistently
rated by air travelers as one of the most efficient and traveler-friendly. The

dominance of wood carvings, elephant motifs and the abundance of orchids in

Bangkoks old Don Muang International Airport offer images of tropical exoticism
that are new sights for Western tourists. Anecdotes of horror stories within and
outside of New Delhis Indira Gandhi International Airport further reinforce
impressions of a nuclear power that has not fully addressed its transport
backwardness.

One need not look beyond our shores to find what prevailing notions of
what a cultural showcase an airport could become. The existing Ninoy Aquino
International Airport had its fair share of critics. Philippine Panorama (31 July
1994) mentions in a story:
Two years ago, incoming passengers from other regional
airports like Changi and Bangkok felt sad and utterly hopeless
at their experience at the NAIA. Not only is our 13-year old
airport international passenger terminal small and outdated, its
toilets smell to high heavens! Finally the exhausted
passengers had to barrel their way through a phalanx of
hawkers, transport solicitors, illegal porters and dips outside of
the congested arrival area. Because of these unnecessary
hassles, many departing foreigners swore theyd never set foot
at the NAIA anymore.

All travelers are consumers of place and the tourism industry that is
heavily dependent on airport infrastructure can rightly be called an industry of
selling experiences. Part of selling the tourism experience is to ensure that
seamless travel is available to visitors from the moment they arrive at the airport
terminal and governments and their government-owned airport corporations,
being responsible for such infrastructure, initiate these projects to ensure that
such experience is sold hook-line-and sinker the moment passengers arrive. It is
part of the phenomenon that is described as part of the frictionless society
where capitalism ensures that services needed is provided at the right place,
time, price and convenience. (Flyvbjerg, Bruzelius and Rothengatter 2003)

Whether for seemingly straightforward stories on passenger comfort to

stories that affect perceptions on business worthiness, the Ninoy Aquino
International Airport has for some reason become a showcase of various sorts. In

another story on the then newly-opened NAIA Terminal 2 by Philippine

Panorama (12 March 2000):
With the NAIA 2 already in operation, air traffic in the countrys premier
airport has vastly improved. But this is just the first step towards making
the facilities of the NAIA at par with the worlds best.

It is interesting to note that after the initial awe and astonishment that new
airport developments are accorded, the user-friendliness and the overall
efficiency parameters take over and could sometimes overshadow the initial
hoopla surrounding the opening of the airport.
.

The relatively new NAIA 3 (foreground) with the Makati skyline in the background

An airport therefore becomes automatically a cultural showcase by

default, more so if one becomes a passenger ever given the chance to traverse
the halls, gates and lounges of the facility. It becomes the city or in most cases,
the country for that snapshot of a time, even for a passenger transiting to catch
another flight to another part of the globe. It reveals (or hides) some snippets of a
country wittingly or unconsciously to those especially in its halls.

Gerard Lico (2003b) in his book, Edifice complex: Power, myth and
Marcos state architecture, offers some of the more interesting insights on
architecture, while not losing sight of the fact that former President Marcos and
his First Lady Imelda have used architecture to great effect in their pursuit of
showcasism. He says:
Mythologizing the past needs a concrete artifact and architecture plays
a major role in the mechanization of this process since it has been one
of the main reservoir of long-term memory.

This has been of course in direct reference to the Marcosian obsession of

establishing the Philippines, but specifically Manila as a center for culture in
Southeast Asia. (Lico, 2003b) This has brought about the well-documented
establishment of the Cultural Center of the Philippines as a showcase for
Philippine culture. Can parallelism be drawn on the economic front with the
pursuit of the government in making NAIA as a hub for air transport in
Southeast Asia? Will architecture play the central role in such pursuit or is it just
one of the factors to mark its existence?
In another interpretation of architecture as showcase, Michael Pinches
(1994) says that, it symbolically and functionally seems to address the affluent
West as a statement of progress, national identity and state power. It
communicates an aesthetic of development, state power and national
prideconceived something of the mystique of patronage the countrys leaders
sought to fabricate around themselves Also, architecture can never be an
innocent or neutral representation of human desires (Lico 2003) as he argues
that the design and the design process in itself is laden with human interest and
belief systems on what best represents or interprets the prevailing human values.

Such statements can be dissected and applied to determine at what level

the NAIA symbolically and functionally serves as a showcase considering the fact
that airports have to contend with economic, business and technological realities
more than that of the CCP for example, upon which the Philippine experience on

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cultural showcase architecture revolves. Despite the fact that the NAIA or the
airport in general become functional showcases, it could not particularly shake off
the notion that it symbolically represents something more than meets the eye.

Shades of an edifice complex? : NAIA 1

If airports are considered as functional showcases by default, would it not be far

behind if such also has to culturally symbolize something?
The entire international airport complex in cities of Pasay and Paraaque
is managed by an independent authority, the Manila International Airport
Authority (MIAA). Before the present site of the airport, the old Nielsen Airport in
Makati was considered as the countrys main airport, with the present Makati and
Ayala avenues as runways. After World War 2, the airport has been relocated to
its present site, which was formerly a US Air Force base. In 1963, the
intersecting runways, with the major runway (Runway 06-24) oriented northeastsouthwest in order to take advantage of the amihan/habagat winds, were
constructed. This is no coincidence as technical requirements of the United
Nations International Civil Aeronautics Organization (ICAO) and the US Federal
Aviation Authority (FAA) requires, that runways should be oriented so that
aircraft may be landed at least 95% of the time with crosswind components not
exceeding 15mph.

Reasons for the transfer in 1948 were fairly straightforward. The present
site in Paranaque and Pasay cities was expansive enough at 630 hectares. The
site has relatively flat terrain with less than 5% slope, elevated at seven meters
above sea level and an existing US Air Force base runway, the present domestic
runway 13-31.

The main runway (Runway 06-24) has a total length of 3.7

kilometers and the secondary runway (Runway 13-31) is 2.3 kilometers long.

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In 2001, the MIAAs vision for NAIA was, to make the Ninoy Aquino
International Airport globally competitive and at par with the best airports in the
world, where the facilities and services are of the highest standards and the staff
is made up of professional, dedicated and caring individuals. (MIAA 2000) In
2002, this changed to, The Hub of Choice of Asia.

This change in policy direction in itself is a direct socio-economic and even

political manifestation of the increasing confidence that the Manila has to retake
its pre-eminent position in the Asian aviation hub competition. (Mascardo and
Roberto 2004)

That funnel feeling. Aerial view of funnel-shaped NAIA 1

Work on the development of the Pasay/Paraaque site started in 1973

with a feasibility study funded by the Asian Development Bank and in 1974, the
Philippine government adopted the final engineering design by the RenardetSauti/Transplan/F.F. Cruz consortium on a terminal design by the future National
Artist for architecture, Leandro Locsin and Associates. Although the construction
has started years after in 1978 and the opening four years later (March 4, 1982),
it has largely escaped the critical eye of most architectural critics in terms of

12

branding the terminal on the same level as the CCP complex in terms of
monumentalism and showcasism.

(It is interesting to note that at the same time in Manila, the Leandro
Locsin-designed CCP Complex was being constructed with some sections at
breakneck speed.)

In fact, there has been a total absence about the airport project in Licos
(2003b) seminal book on Marcos state architecture. There has been an absence
of a vigorous criticism that centers on the perceived symbolic weight that the
terminal conjures. Criticism in the later years focused heavily on the functional
aspects of the terminals design and operational capabilities, especially when
operating capacity was being reached, and eventually breached.

In August 1983, a little over a year after opening, the terminal has been
mute witness to one of Philippine historys tipping point with the assassination of
opposition senator Benigno Aquino who was returning from exile on board a
China Airlines flight. It is for this reason that the Manila International Airport has
been renamed Ninoy Aquino International Airport by virtue of Republic Act 6639.

The late senators blood that has been spilled on the tarmac virtually seals
the fate of the Locsin-designed terminal as a historical showcase although one
that is overshadowed by the likes of EDSA Shrine in Ortigas. Was this perhaps
the reason why critics refuse (by omission) to attach or extend the Marcos
edifice complex to this structure? Or it is for the simple reason of the terminals
relative accessibility and economic utility to the traveling masses that somehow
washes the sins of the patron?

Architecturally, it has been described as an extension of the CCP

Complex (Mascardo 2003) perhaps due to similarities in design. It follows the

13

dictum, function follows form and rightly so because it functions like a funnel
from the main departure/arrival halls onto the departure and arrival gates.

The elevated approach from the Ninoy Aquino Avenue to the departure
area evokes the similar approach of the CCP complex from Roxas Boulevard.
The feeling of a massive overhang waiting to collapse but somehow defies
gravity by way of cantilevering at the departure level is quite similar to the feeling
when one is at the Philippine International Convention Center. For an airport
terminal, the design evokes less of the expectation of flight and seems to content
on hugging the ground.

That heavy feeling: the massive effect of a column-free departure area similar to that of the CCP complex
buildings

Despite being Filipino culture-based, the original design of the building

ironically failed to consider the hatid-sundo culture of Filipinos. (Mascardo and
Roberto 2004) The departure area is too small for car-dependent send-off/hatid
parties and these are promptly shooed away by guards. The arrival hall is too
small so much so that an arrival extension hall has been constructed outside the
terminal building area in order to better accommodate the arrival/sundo parties.

Functionally, it has been unable to keep up with the continued upswing of

international travel in the Philippines. It was originally conceived to handle a
nominal annual capacity of 4.5 million passengers and was breached in 1991.

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According to Atutubo (2007), perception of congestion in airport terminals starts

when 85% of design capacity is reached. The entire NAIA Complex (NAIA
terminal 1, 2 and the Domestic Terminal) is currently operating at 135% of design
capacity and even with the opening of the contentious Terminal 3, the NAIA
complex will still be operating above the perceived congestion threshold. Despite
the breaching of the original design capacity, improvements and the tweaking of
the original design, the nominal capacity of NAIA 1 has been increased to 7.5
million passengers per annum (Aeroports de Paris, 1996)

The showcase mentality does not end however (or just plain economic
expediency) when Terminal 1 will be closed and the NAIA Complex will be
downgraded when the Diosdado Macapagal International Airport will be primed
as the new gateway for Luzon by 2015-2020. Plans are afoot to convert the
complex as the NAIA Business City- where the best deals take-off and land.
(MIAA 2000)

Given the intertwined fate of the airport as a historical building and a

transportation hub, the NAIA Terminal 1 therefore symbolically stands as
showcase both by default and as a result of a conscious strategic corporate effort
by any sitting Philippine government in order for it to succeed on what it was
designed to do.

Inside looking out, a ground-hugging NAIA1

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A functional and design showcase? NAIA 2

The economic and level-of-service pressures on the overburdened NAIA 1 had
led to the hiring of Aeroports de Paris to conduct new studies on the future
developments of the NAIA Complex in 1989/1990. Again, the economic
importance of upgrading the facilities were the paramount concerns of the MIAA
during the time and by 1995, the construction of NAIA 2 began. The terminal was
designed primarily as a stop-gap measure to siphon of excess international
passengers from NAIA 1 and excess domestic passengers from the equally
congested manila Domestic Terminal.

The nominal design capacity has been reduced to 7.5 million passengers
per year (5 million/year for domestic and 2.5 million/year for international
passengers). The original purpose of turning this terminal into a purely domestic
terminal will be realized when Terminal 3 just across runway 13-31 will be
opening possibly by end-2008.

The airy and light-suffused corridors leading to air bridges of NAIA 2

16

More than the functional rationality of the way the NAIA 2 has been
designed is the refreshing welcome that the building has been accorded by the
traveling public as well as the media. In a study conducted by the Japan Bureau
of International Cooperation (2002) of frequent fliers, it has found the following
results:
Two-thirds of both international and domestic passengers where aware
that the waiting times have been reduced for the departure check-in
period, for landing and baggage retrieval, and 60% to 90% of the
passengers appreciate NAIA 2s higher service level. The improvement
in service is perceived more on arrival than departure, more by
domestic passengers than by international travelers.

Does this mean that the NAIA2 has become a cultural showcase of
efficiency and better service for a traveling public that has so long endured the
bus terminal-like confines of the Manila Domestic Terminal?

Aside from the perceptions of service efficiency, the NAIA 2 has also been
a showcase of sorts for its refreshing use of the natural Philippine light in the
overall design concept. It is light-flooded with the entire structure seemingly
welcoming the sunny Philippine climate by letting the light in and keeping the
heat out. According to the MIAA, this has in fact reduced electricity consumption
compared to the older NAIA 1, although this is partly due to the fact that many of
the new facilities are more energy efficient.

The design primarily evokes an international feel that wouldnt be out of

place if the terminal had been operating in France. However, the design of NAIA
2 took into consideration the hatid/sundo culture of Filipinos by integrating a
bigger area for well-wishers. Incorporated into the design was a passenger to
send-off and welcoming party ratio of 1:6 that was not incorporated in the original
design of NAIA 1. (Mascardo and Roberto 2004) This is perhaps a prime
example of a showcase in functional efficiency.

NAIA 2 symbolically represents a country that is open, culturally sensitive

and transparent while NAIA 1 represents one that stays close to its roots and

17

unchanging. Indeed, one can transplant NAIA 2 into the Makati or Ortigas setting
and wouldnt be out of place in the same way that NAIA 1 can always fit into the
generally heavy-set buildings of the CCP complex. Design, while important for
landmark buildings such as airports however become subservient to more
functional concerns as passenger comforts, convenience and capacity to process
the throngs of travelers who consume the place.

Increasingly, terminals like NAIA 2 are guided by the fact that travelers
need to get to and from their destinations in as much little friction as possible on
the ground. This friction is created when facilities that are meant to ease
passenger mobility create problems on the said mobility. NAIA 2 has not been
spared as the former design of the stairwells going to the arrival area (typically on
the first floor of the building) did not include escalators. The design oversight had
been corrected with the installation of the needed escalators.

A showcase of efficiency: NAIA 2 is generally preferred over NAIA 1 by most travelers

The open, light-permeable glass curtain walls while not unique to the
Philippines has raised the bar of transport terminal design. However, such design
is always and would always be subject to the more pressing operational and
capacity issues, concerns and problems that would surely be encountered as air
passenger growth continues in the Philippines.

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Ironically though, the maintenance of such service standards for both

NAIA 1 and NAIA 2 lies in their relationship as two functional terminals that are
designed to function as a system. If not for the additional capacity of the NAIA 2,
NAIA 1 would forever be condemned and ridiculed for congestion and
backwardness, no matter if it was designed no less than by a national artist. On
the other hand, had NAIA 1 been closed and all operations transferred to the new
terminal, NAIA 2 would have suffered the same fate. Indeed, the buildings had to
deliver their intended purpose, with the architectural design becoming merely an
amenity to be enjoyed.

Conclusion

Airports are de facto showcases for most countries and all perform the
same functions as transport terminals. However, it could not be insulated from
the visions of the governments that created it.

The buildings stand for the

embrace of travel as social, cultural and economic necessities and airports have
become symbolic, stood witness and responded to the political and the all-too
pervasive economic pressures that airports have to play in the life of a country.

NAIA 1 is symbolic and witness to the countrys Martial Law past while
NAIA 2 presents a vision of what the country could possibly be clean, bright
and efficient. In both cases, the existing operating NAIA terminals functionally
and symbolically represent what is Filipino in terms of experience, culture and
responsiveness to the world that is literally flying into and out of the country.

It is to be emphasized however that although these terminals have been

created by almost divergent design sensibilities of a Filipino architect and a
French airport terminal corporation, both have to be subjected to the operational,
cultural and political dynamics that is inherent in the operations of an airport.
Design showcases as they are in their own right, play second fiddle when
uncomfortably too many passengers pass through the arrival and departure halls,

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board the aircraft gates, park their cars or even use the toilets. Function and
design, in that order dictates how passengers the ultimate and the most direct
stakeholders of the said terminals are to determine if such become cultural
showcases or not.

References

Aeroports de Paris. (1996) Ninoy Aquino International Airport Master

Development Study (Final Report), Manila: Aeroports de Paris
Atutubo, V. (Speaker). (September 2007) Aviation Security Management. Paper
presentation at the 2007 Tourism Educators of Schools, Colleges and
Universities (TESCU) Convention at Traders Hotel Manila
Dempsey, P.S. (2000) Airport planning and development handbook. New York:
McGraw Hill-Professional
Edwards, B. (2005) The modern airport terminal: New approaches to airport
architecture. Taylor and Francis Publishing
Flyvbjerg, B; Bruzelius, N.; Rothengatter, W. (2003) Megaprojects and risk: the
anatomy of ambition. Cambridge University Press
Hooper, P. (2002) Privatization of airports in Asia. Journal of Air Transport
Management, 8(5): 289-300
Japan Bureau of International Cooperation. (2002) Ninoy Aquino Airport Terminal
2 Development Project. Tokyo: Japan Bureau of International Cooperation

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Lico, G. (2003a) Designing Modernity and Constructing the Spaces of identity:

Tropes of the Philippine in Modern Architecture. In Bulawan 9: Journal of
Philippine Arts and Culture, National Commission for Culture and the Arts (pp.
27-47)
Lico, G. (2003b) Edifice complex: Power, myth, and Marcos state architecture.
Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press
Maguigad, V. and Sabio, A. (2004) Ninoy Aquino International Airport ComplexA Typology Study. A group paper submitted to masters site planning class.
Quezon City: University of the Philippines School of Urban and Regional
Planning
Manila International Airport Authority, Corporate Management Service
Department. (2000) Ninoy Aquino International Airport Master Plan Development
Study (Update Report). Pasay: Manila International Airport Authority
Mascardo, L. and Roberto (2004) Manila International Airport Authority,
interviews conducted on February 2004
Page, S., Connel J. (2008) Tourism: A modern synthesis. London: Thomson
Learning
Pinches, M. (1994) Modernization and Quest for Modernity: Architectural Form,
Squatter Settlements and the new Society in Manila. In M. Askew and W. Logan,
(eds.). Cultural Identity and Urban Change in Southeast Asia: Interpretative
Essays. Deakin University Press. (pp 13-38).
Wells, A. (1986) Airport Planning and Management. TAB Books
Zapanta, A. (2005) 100 Years of Philippine Aviation (1909-2009): A Focus on
Airline Management. ALZ Publishing

_________. (1993, March 16) Government plans to make NAIA one of worlds
best. Manila Chronicle
_________. (1993, March 16) NAIA to be world class airport . Manila Bulletin
_________. (1993, June 16) NAIA: culture defeats infrastructure. Manila
Chronicle
_________. (1994, July 31) NAIA: In the midst of evolving into world class
airport. Philippine Panorama
_________. (2000, March) Enhancing NAIA as world class intl gateway.
Philippine Panorama

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_________. (2003, May 12) Fraport at wits end over NAIA 3. Philippine Graphic

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