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    Geodesy and Map Projections

    Uploaded by

    Javier Gismero
    - Geodesy defines the shape of the Earth and establishes datums that define coordinate systems. Map projections transform the curved Earth onto flat maps by preserving certain properties like area, shape, or direction. Common projections include conic, cylindrical, and azimuthal. - Coordinate systems like UTM and State Plane define standardized projected coordinates over zones. UTM uses the Transverse Mercator and divides the Earth into 60 zones. State Plane uses Lambert or Transverse Mercator within state boundaries. - An Earth datum consists of an ellipsoid that approximates the geoid and an axis of rotation. Datums like NAD83 establish reference systems for latitude, longitude, and elevation.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Geodesy and Map Projections

    Uploaded by

    Javier Gismero
    124 views46 pages
    - Geodesy defines the shape of the Earth and establishes datums that define coordinate systems. Map projections transform the curved Earth onto flat maps by preserving certain properties like area, shape, or direction. Common projections include conic, cylindrical, and azimuthal. - Coordinate systems like UTM and State Plane define standardized projected coordinates over zones. UTM uses the Transverse Mercator and divides the Earth into 60 zones. State Plane uses Lambert or Transverse Mercator within state boundaries. - An Earth datum consists of an ellipsoid that approximates the geoid and an axis of rotation. Datums like NAD83 establish reference systems for latitude, longitude, and elevation.

    Original Description:

    Coordinate systems in geodesy

    Original Title

    geodesy and map projections

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    - Geodesy defines the shape of the Earth and establishes datums that define coordinate systems. Map projections transform the curved Earth onto flat maps by preserving certain properties like area, shape, or direction. Common projections include conic, cylindrical, and azimuthal. - Coordinate systems like UTM and State Plane define standardized projected coordinates over zones. UTM uses the Transverse Mercator and divides the Earth into 60 zones. State Plane uses Lambert or Transverse Mercator within state boundaries. - An Earth datum consists of an ellipsoid that approximates the geoid and an axis of rotation. Datums like NAD83 establish reference systems for latitude, longitude, and elevation.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    124 views46 pages

    Geodesy and Map Projections

    Uploaded by

    Javier Gismero
    - Geodesy defines the shape of the Earth and establishes datums that define coordinate systems. Map projections transform the curved Earth onto flat maps by preserving certain properties like area, shape, or direction. Common projections include conic, cylindrical, and azimuthal. - Coordinate systems like UTM and State Plane define standardized projected coordinates over zones. UTM uses the Transverse Mercator and divides the Earth into 60 zones. State Plane uses Lambert or Transverse Mercator within state boundaries. - An Earth datum consists of an ellipsoid that approximates the geoid and an axis of rotation. Datums like NAD83 establish reference systems for latitude, longitude, and elevation.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    of 46
    At a glance
    Powered by AI
    The key takeaways are that there are two basic locational systems - geometric/Cartesian and geographic/gravitational coordinates. The Earth's shape is approximated using an ellipsoid to define an earth datum. Standard coordinate systems are used to project locations onto maps.

    The different types of coordinate systems discussed are global Cartesian, geographic, and projected coordinates.

    Some standard ellipsoids used to define the Earth's shape are the Clarke (1866) and GRS80 ellipsoids.

    Geodesy, Map Projections and

    Coordinate Systems
    Geodesy - the shape of the earth and
    definition of earth datums
    Map Projection - the transformation of a
    curved earth to a flat map
    Coordinate systems - (x,y) coordinate
    systems for map data

    Types of Coordinate Systems


    (1) Global Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) for
    the whole earth
    (2) Geographic coordinates (f, l, z)
    (3) Projected coordinates (x, y, z) on a local
    area of the earths surface
    The z-coordinate in (1) and (3) is defined
    geometrically; in (2) the z-coordinate is
    defined gravitationally

    Global Cartesian Coordinates (x,y,z)


    Z
    Greenwich
    Meridian

    X
    Equator

    Geographic Coordinates (f, l, z)


    Latitude (f) and Longitude (l) defined
    using an ellipsoid, an ellipse rotated about
    an axis
    Elevation (z) defined using geoid, a surface
    of constant gravitational potential
    Earth datums define standard values of the
    ellipsoid and geoid

    Shape of the Earth


    We think of the
    earth as a sphere

    It is actually a spheroid,
    slightly larger in radius at
    the equator than at the poles

    Ellipse
    An ellipse is defined by:
    Focal length =
    Distance (F1, P, F2) is
    constant for all points
    on ellipse
    When = 0, ellipse = circle

    b
    O

    F1
    For the earth:
    Major axis, a = 6378 km
    Minor axis, b = 6357 km
    Flattening ratio, f = (a-b)/a
    ~ 1/300

    F2

    Ellipsoid or Spheroid
    Rotate an ellipse around an axis
    Z

    b
    a O a
    X

    Rotational axis

    Standard Ellipsoids
    Ellipsoid

    Major
    Minor
    Flattening
    axis, a (m) axis, b (m) ratio, f

    Clarke
    (1866)

    6,378,206 6,356,584 1/294.98

    GRS80

    6,378,137 6,356,752 1/298.57

    Ref: Snyder, Map Projections, A working manual, USGS


    Professional Paper 1395, p.12

    Horizontal Earth Datums


    An earth datum is defined by an ellipse and
    an axis of rotation
    NAD27 (North American Datum of 1927)
    uses the Clarke (1866) ellipsoid on a non
    geocentric axis of rotation
    NAD83 (NAD,1983) uses the GRS80
    ellipsoid on a geocentric axis of rotation
    WGS84 (World Geodetic System of 1984)
    uses GRS80, almost the same as NAD83

    Definition of Latitude, f
    m

    S p
    n
    r

    (1) Take a point S on the surface of the ellipsoid and define


    there the tangent plane, mn
    (2) Define the line pq through S and normal to the
    tangent plane
    (3) Angle pqr which this line makes with the equatorial
    plane is the latitude f, of point S

    Cutting Plane of a Meridian


    P

    Prime Meridian

    Equator

    Meridian

    Definition of Longitude, l
    l = the angle between a cutting plane on the prime meridian
    and the cutting plane on the meridian through the point, P
    -150

    180E, W

    150

    -120

    120

    90W
    (-90 )

    90E
    (+90 )

    P l

    -60
    -30

    -60
    30

    0E, W

    Latitude and Longitude on a Sphere


    Meridian of longitude

    Greenwich
    meridian
    l=0

    Parallel of latitude
    P

    l
    Equator

    =0

    l - Geographic longitude
    - Geographic latitude
    Y
    R - Mean earth radius
    O - Geocenter

    Length on Meridians and Parallels


    (Lat, Long) = (f, l)
    Length on a Meridian:
    AB = Re Df
    (same for all latitudes)

    R Dl

    Re
    Length on a Parallel:
    CD = R Dl = Re Dl Cos f
    (varies with latitude)

    C
    Df B
    Re
    A

    Example: What is the length of a 1 increment along


    on a meridian and on a parallel at 30N, 90W?
    Radius of the earth = 6370 km.

    Solution:
    A 1 angle has first to be converted to radians
    p radians = 180 , so 1 = p/180 = 3.1416/180 = 0.0175 radians
    For the meridian, DL = Re Df = 6370 * 0.0175 = 111 km
    For the parallel, DL = Re Dl Cos f

    = 6370 * 0.0175 * Cos 30

    = 96.5 km
    Parallels converge as poles are approached

    Representations of the Earth


    Mean Sea Level is a surface of constant
    gravitational potential called the Geoid
    Sea surface

    Ellipsoid

    Earth surface

    Geoid

    Geoid and Ellipsoid


    Earth surface

    Ocean
    Geoid

    Geoid Separation

    Geoid Separation is the elevation difference between


    a standard shape of the earth (ellipsoid) and a surface
    of constant gravitational potential (geoid)

    Definition of Elevation
    Elevation Z
    P

    z = zp

    z=0

    Land Surface

    Mean Sea level = Geoid


    Elevation is generally measured from the Geoid

    Vertical Earth Datums


    A vertical datum defines elevation, z
    NGVD29 (National Geodetic Vertical
    Datum of 1929)
    NAVD88 (North American Vertical Datum
    of 1988)
    takes into account a map of gravity
    anomalies between the ellipsoid and the
    geoid

    Converting Vertical Datums


    Corpscon is the standard
    http://crunch.tec.army.mil/software/corpscon/corpscon.html

    Point file attributed with the


    elevation difference between
    NGVD 29 and NAVD 88

    NGVD 29 terrain + adjustment


    = NAVD 88 terrain elevation

    Geodesy and Map Projections


    Geodesy - the shape of the earth and
    definition of earth datums
    Map Projection - the transformation of a
    curved earth to a flat map
    Coordinate systems - (x,y) coordinate
    systems for map data

    Earth to Globe to Map

    Map Scale:

    Map Projection:

    Scale Factor

    Representative Fraction
    = Globe distance
    Earth distance
    (e.g. 1:24,000)

    Map distance
    Globe distance
    (e.g. 0.9996)

    Geographic and Projected Coordinates

    (f, l)

    Map Projection

    (x, y)

    Projection onto a Flat Surface

    Types of Projections
    Conic (Albers Equal Area, Lambert
    Conformal Conic) - good for East-West
    land areas
    Cylindrical (Transverse Mercator) - good
    for North-South land areas
    Azimuthal (Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area)
    - good for global views

    Conic Projections
    (Albers, Lambert)

    Cylindrical Projections
    (Mercator)

    Transverse

    Oblique

    Azimuthal
    (Lambert)

    Albers Equal Area Conic Projection

    Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

    Universal Transverse Mercator Projection

    Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area Projection

    Projections Preserve Some


    Earth Properties
    Area - correct earth surface area (Albers
    Equal Area) important for mass balances
    Shape - local angles are shown correctly
    (Lambert Conformal Conic)
    Direction - all directions are shown correctly
    relative to the center (Lambert Azimuthal
    Equal Area)
    Distance - preserved along particular lines
    Some projections preserve two properties

    Geodesy and Map Projections


    Geodesy - the shape of the earth and
    definition of earth datums
    Map Projection - the transformation of a
    curved earth to a flat map
    Coordinate systems - (x,y) coordinate
    systems for map data

    Coordinate Systems
    Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) - a
    global system developed by the US Military
    Services
    State Plane Coordinate System - civilian
    system for defining legal boundaries
    Texas State Mapping System - a statewide
    coordinate system for Texas

    Coordinate System
    A planar coordinate system is defined by a pair
    of orthogonal (x,y) axes drawn through an origin
    Y

    Origin
    (xo,yo)

    (fo,lo)

    Universal Transverse
    Mercator
    Uses the Transverse Mercator projection
    Each zone has a Central Meridian (lo),
    zones are 6 wide, and go from pole to pole
    60 zones cover the earth from East to West
    Reference Latitude (fo), is the equator
    (Xshift, Yshift) = (xo,yo) = (500000, 0) in
    the Northern Hemisphere, units are meters

    UTM Zone 14
    -99
    -102

    -96

    Origin
    -120

    -90

    Equator
    -60

    State Plane Coordinate System


    Defined for each State in the United States
    East-West States (e.g. Texas) use Lambert
    Conformal Conic, North-South States (e.g.
    California) use Transverse Mercator
    Texas has five zones (North, North Central,
    Central, South Central, South) to give
    accurate representation
    Greatest accuracy for local measurements

    Texas Centric Mapping System


    Designed to give State-wide coverage of
    Texas without gaps
    Lambert Conformal Conic projection with
    standard parallels 1/6 from the top and 1/6
    from bottom of the State
    Adapted to Albers equal area projection for
    working in hydrology

    ArcGIS Reference Frames


    Defined for a feature
    dataset in ArcCatalog
    Coordinate System
    Projected
    Geographic

    X/Y Domain
    Z Domain
    M Domain

    Coordinate Systems
    Geographic
    coordinates (decimal
    degrees)
    Projected coordinates
    (length units, ft or
    meters)

    X/Y Domain
    (Max X, Max Y)

    Long integer max value


    of 231 = 2,147,483,645

    (Min X, Min Y)
    Maximum resolution of a point = Map Units / Precision
    e.g. map units = meters, precision = 1000, then
    maximum resolution = 1 meter/1000 = 1 mm on the ground

    Summary Concepts
    Two basic locational systems: geometric or
    Cartesian (x, y, z) and geographic or
    gravitational (f, l, z)
    Mean sea level surface or geoid is
    approximated by an ellipsoid to define an
    earth datum which gives (f, l) and distance
    above geoid gives (z)

    Summary Concepts (Cont.)


    To prepare a map, the earth is first reduced
    to a globe and then projected onto a flat
    surface
    Three basic types of map projections: conic,
    cylindrical and azimuthal
    A particular projection is defined by a
    datum, a projection type and a set of
    projection parameters

    Summary Concepts (Cont.)


    Standard coordinate systems use particular
    projections over zones of the earths surface
    Types of standard coordinate systems:
    UTM, State Plane, Texas State Mapping
    System, Standard Hydrologic Grid
    Reference Frame in ArcInfo 8 requires
    projection and map extent

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