FORMATION EVALUATION AND INTEGRATION

1. An Overview of Well Logging

Introduction
Col. Edwin Drake gets the credit for drilling the first well in 1859 in Pennsylvania. He
th

found oil at a depth of 69 ft (21m). On January 10 ,1901 Anthony Lucas and Patitto
huggins drilled a well at Sprindletop which blew at a phenomenol rate, some say
100,000 bbl/day, raining oil down on the country side. Thus the oil hunts began.
On a fine September day in 1927, Henri Doll lowered an experimental resistivity
sonde at a well Dienfenbach 2905, Tower 7 and attached it by wire to a winch. The
sonde was lowered to the bottom of the hole and resistivity measurements were
made at 1m intervals. Doll plotted the resistivity readings against depth on a piece of
graph paper and, by joining successive readings with lines, drew the first electrical
well log.
Thus a log records the characteristics of rock formations (together with the fluid it
contains), versus depth, by a measurement device in a well bore. The formation
characteristics may be electrical, nuclear or acoustic, etc. The initial uses of well
logging were for correlating similar patterns of electrical conductivity from one well to
another, sometimes over large distances.( In fact, the first experiment, that Doll
carried out, was aimed at to locate the top of a bed of marls which was often missed
in drilling). No doubt, at that time the electrical log was aptly called electrical coring.
As the measuring techniques improved and multiplied, applications began to be
directed

to

the

quantitative

evaluation

of

hydrocarbon

formations.

New

measurements have been continuously evolved which have found applications in all
the areas of hydrocarbon explorations.
1.1 Evolution of well logging
First Phase
From 1927-1945, saw the introduction and wide use of so called ES (Electrical
surveys). These logs, which were quite repeatable, were often difficult to interpret.
Others log available in this period were SP and GR. The sidewall core gun was first
introduced in 1942. The temperature log, used to detect the entry of gas into well
bore, was made available in 1936.

G. E. Archie, in 1943, published his famous work on the relationship among

porosity, resistivity and the water saturation, which is better known as Archie s
Equation.
Second Phase
The second phase, from 1945-1970, was a major tool development era. With the
progress made in electronics to withstand the rigours of downhole environment
numerous tools were designed and tested successfully. Focused electrical devices
were introduced having good bed resolution and various depth of investigation. The
induction log, which can measure formation resistivity in a hole drilled with air oilbased/fresh water mud, was introduced in 1949. A variety of acoustic and nuclear
tools were developed to provide porosity and lithology information. The formation
tester was introduced 1957
With the wealth of data acquired from these newly developed tools much
laboratory and theoretical works were done to place log interpretation on a sound
footing. M.J. Wyllie published his time average equation in 1956.
Third Phase
The third phase, from 1970-1990, may be called the log processing era. With
progress made in computer technology it has become possible to analyze the wealth
of data sent uphole by the logging tools in much greater detail. Computer became
an integral part of a logging truck and a number of logging tools could be combined
and recording could be done in a single run.
Fourth Phase
The fourth and current phase, which began in mid 90 s, can be termed as imaging
era. The tremendous improvement in data handling capacity a full array of data is
brought uphole in digital form and processed to obtain an image log, which can be
an electrical or acoustic one. Another important development during the present
phase is in the field of nuclear magnetic resonance domain and the successful
launch of a log which can predict permeability, fluid typing, and irreducible water
saturation.

1.2 The role of a log analyst

Most of the information we need from logs must be gained by data analysis, since
few logs measures directly any of the things we really want to know. Thus the role of
the log analyst was born. A log analyst is a scientist, a magician, and a diplomat. He
is a scientist because he has to have good knowledge of geology, geophysics,
mechanics, atomic physics, sedimentology, petrophysics, mathematics, chemistry,
electrical and electronic engineering. He is a magician because with all the scientific
reasoning often he has to depend on his imagination, inspiration and inventiveness.
The numerical figures he gets out of his computer/calculators still need his
interpretation or judgments to arrive at meaningful results. The job is not just to do
the algebra but to decide what the numbers really mean.
G.E. Dawson-Grove, a well known consulting petrophysicist, likens the role of
the log analyst to that of the spider in the web. He claims that the petrophysicist
(log analyst) plays a vital central, potentially controlling position. The range of his
or her influence is wider than any other discipline within the oil industry, with the
possible exception of the financial wizard. To be successful in this role, however, the
analyst has to realize the importance and potentially powerful position he or she is in
and be able to sell ideas to management.
Because of the multidiscipline approach required, the analyst must maintain a
web of communication with many seemingly unrelated functions within the
organization. The analyst must be sensitive to the vibrations coming along each
strand of the network and respond accordingly. That response might be in the realm
of geophysics, geology, reservoir engineering, petroleum economics or corporate
managements.
Dawson-Grove goes on to explain that there is no short cut to a log evaluation
and a log analyst can contribute maximum to the organization by doing a full
evaluation.
1.3 Applications of information derived from logging surveys.

The information obtained from logging surveys can be used in three broad areas.

Petrophysical and geological investigations of sub-surface rock strata with

reference to its lithology, rock texture, stratigraphy, sedimentology,

diagnesis, compaction studies, paleo-environments, tectonics, basin

evolution, geochemical studies etc.

Identification of reservoirs, reservoir fluid type determination, locating fluid

contacts, estimation of inplace and recoverable hydrocarbons and
descriptions of reservoirs rocks.
Conceptual and mathematical modeling of reservoir for simulation of
reservoir volumetric and reservoir fluid flow behaviour.

Over and above a well log helps 1) a geophysicist to tie well with seismic 2) a drilling
engineer to calculate hole volume for cementing purpose and to know the quality of
hole.

2.Fundamental Properties of Reservoir Rocks.

Great G.E.Archie, whose understanding of rocks helped to start the quantification of
log analysis and formation evaluation enunciated, A term to express the physics of
rocks.. Should be related to petrology much as geophysics is related to geology.
Petrophysics is suggested as a term pertaining to the physics of particular rock
types.. This subject is a study of the physical properties of rock which are related to
the pore and fluid distribution.
Introduction
Formation evaluation of a petroleum reservoir is the practice of finding out the
amount of hydrocarbon and its producibility. The volume of hydrocarbon can be
found out by determining reservoir parameters such as porosity, hydrocarbon
saturation, reservoir thickness etc. Lithology of the reservoir should be known
precisely to determine above mentioned parameters as well as permeability to
predict its producibility. These parameters can be known indirectly from well logs.
Most of the petroleum reservoirs are found in sedimentary rock. Any sedimentary
rock, which is a reservoir, has two components: solids and pore space. The major
task of a log analyst is to know rock pore system and type of fluid it contains. A
logging tool receives combined response from solid as well as pore space. The
fundamental problem, hence, is to separate response into the two components.
Therefore, formation evaluation requires a clear understanding of both rock solids
and pore-space properties. The physical character of the solid part is called lithology.
A lithology is characterized by its mineral composition and texture.
4

2.1 Clastic rocks

These are generally defined as those created by physical sedimentations. Debris
arising from the alternation and decomposition of pre existing rocks and may be
transported often a considerable distance by wind, water, or ice from the site of
erosion to the site of deposition.Table-1 shows the major classes of detritel /clastics
rocks of the sandstone type with respect to grain size (Wentworth-Lane class
limits).

TABLE-1: Classification of Sandstone reservoir according to grain size (After

Pettijohn)
Grain size
m

256,000
64,000
4,000
2,000
62.50
3.906

Grain
size
(mm)

Component

Aggregate

boulder

boulder conglomerate

cobble

cobble conglomerate

pebble

pebble conglomerate

granule

granule conglomerate

Sand

Sandstone

Silt

Siltstone

256
64
4
2
1/16
1/256

mud
clay

Mudstone(nonlaminated)
or

Claystone Shale (laminated, fissile)

Sandstone:
Sandstone is composed of at least 50% sand-size particles. Three mineral
components used to classify sandstone reservoirs are 1) quartz 2) feldspar and 3)
rock or lithic fragments (igneous rocks, chert, limestone, slate etc). Table 2 outlines
the classification of sandstone based on above components.
Siltstone:
Siltstone is composed of at least 50% silt-size particles that are generally less rich in
quartz than is sandstone. The most common minerals are quartz, mica, feldspar and
5

heavy minerals. Siltstone can be a petroleum reservoir but is difficult to coax for
production.

Table 2: Classification of clastic rocks according to composition

Nomenclature

Framework Fractions Properties

1. Arenites- Less than 15% interstitial material less than 30 m size

A. quartz arenites

More than 95% quartz

B. I. Arkoses

More than 25% feldspar; percent feldspar greater

than percent rock fragments.

II. Subarkoses

2.5% to 25% feldspar; percent feldspar greater than

percent rock fragments.

C. I. Lithic arenites

More than 25% rock fragments; percent rock

fragments greater than percent feldspar.

II.Sublithic arenites

2.5% to 25% rock fragments; percent rock

fragments greater than percent feldspar.

2. Wackes- More than 15% interstitial material less than 30 m size

A. Quartz wackes

More than 95% quartz.

B. Feldspathic

Percent feldspar greater than percent rock

graywacke
C. Lithic graywacke

fragments.
Percent rock fragments greater than percent
feldspar.

Claystone:
Claystone is composed of at least 50% clay size particles, generally clay minerals
(hydrous aluminum silicates). Claystones are generally not considered as reservoir
rock.
Shale / mudstone:
Shale or mudstone is a mixture of clay-size particles (mainly clay minerals), silt-size
particles (mainly quartz, occasionally feldspar or calcite), and perhaps some sandsize particles (mainly quartz, occasionally feldspar or calcite). Shale or mudstones
are generally not considered as reservoir rock.
Clay:
Minor amount of clay minerals (or shale) often have a major influence on reservoirrock properties, such as, porosity, permeability (hence producibility) and also on
logging tool response. Knowledge of type clay mineral as well as their distribution is
6

important for formation evaluation. Hence 1) its mode of distribution 2) its effect on
logs have been discussed in detail below.
Table-3 outlines a classification scheme based on the structure of clay crystal unit
layers.
2.2 Distribution of clays in sandstone
The clay minerals contained in sandstones can have two distinct origins. They may
have formed at some point outside of the sandstone framework (detrital origin or
allogenic), or they may have formed locally within sandstone framework (digenetic
origin or authigenic).
Detrital clays:
Detrital clay minerals are usually incorporated into sandstone at the time of
deposition and range in size from discrete clay size particle to sand size aggregates.
Detrital clays may be of two types- laminated and structural. In laminated clay type
Individual clay size particles deposited as intercalated lamina separated by thin bed
of sandstones. This shale lamina affects vertical permeability while leaving the
permeability unaffected in the horizontal direction. As far as porosity is concerned,
presence of laminated clay will not effect the porosities of sandstone lamina but there
is an overall reduction of the bulk porosity of the total rock. The structural type of
clays are also deposited as sand-size or larger particles in the sand fraction and do
not have affect on porosity and permeability(Fig-1)
Diagenetic clays:
Diagenetic clays are developed subsequent to sediment deposition by precipitation
of clay crystals from pore fluids or by the interaction between pore fluid and the
mineral component of the rock.
Three types of diagenetic clays have been identified.(Fig-2)
i) Discrete particle
ii) Pore lining
iii) Pore bridging
i) Discrete particle or pore-filling: Formation of kaolinite in sandstone is a such type
of example. It usually develops as platy crystal attached as discrete particles to pore
walls or occupying intergranular pores. The crystal platelets may be stacked face-toface forming long Book-like crystal aggregates. Kaolinite crystals may be scattered
(patchy) throughout the pore system and don t form intergrown crystal framework.
(Fig-2a)
7

ii) Pore lining: Pore-lining clay minerals, essentially illite, chlorite and montmorillonite,
coat (12 microns) the pore walls with a thin layer of flakes that are parallel or
perpendicular the pore wall, but growth does not reach far into the pore space. A
large amount of microporosity can be present between flakes. This type of
authigenic clay greatly reduces permeability and also influences electrical properties
because it can considerably increase surface area.(Fig-2b)
iii) Pore bridging: Formation of illite fibers in sandstone is such type of example. In
addition to being attached to pore wall surfaces, the illite fibers intergrown far into
the pore space or extend across a pore to create a bridging effect. This type causes
major reductions in permeability (due to tortuous fluid flow pathways) but porosity is
less affected because microporosity is preserved between the very fine fibers.

Fig-1: Distributions of clays in sandstone

From the discussion it is obvious that the knowledge of the type of distribution
(laminated, structural or dispersed), and of the nature of the clay minerals is of the
utmost importance to predict the porosity & permeability range and the existence
and distribution of permeability barriers. Presence of diagenetic dispersed clay
deteriorate the petrophysical characteristics of the formation. Severe reduction in
permeability and porosity occurs in the presence of montmorillonite clay. Similarly
illite and chlorite tend to significantly reduce effective porosity and permeability,
although to a lesser degree than montmorillonite. Kaolinite reduces porosity and
permeability to a significantly lesser degree than other clay minerals. Detrital
kaolinite crystals frequently are of angular form and substantial size, which is
favorable for the creation of large interconnected pores.

Fig-2: Three types of diagenetic clays

Fig-2a: Book-like crystal aggregates of kaolinite. (Tipam sand)

Fig-2b: Pore bridging illite (Tipam sand)

Fig-2c: Pore bridging montmorillonite (Tipam sand)

10

TABLE 3-CLASSIFICATION OF CLAY MINERALS (after Grim)

2.3 Effect of clays on log responses

Resistivity log: The electrical properties of clays are of particular interest in well log
interpretation.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
In the crystal lattice of many clay minerals, atoms of lower positive valence often
replace ones of similar size but higher positive valence. This results in a net

11

negative charge at the substitution site. Broken bonds around the edges of the

silica-alumina units also contribute to

net negative charge. The excess
negative charge is countered by
surface adsorption of hydrated
cations too large to fit into the
interior of the crystal lattice.
These

counter

ions

can

exchange with other ions in the

solution and is responsible for
the

so

called

clay

surface

conductivity.
The

cation

exchange

capacity (CEC) is a measure of

the

amount

of

such

exchangeable cations on the

surface of any clay. So, CEC,
expressed in meq/100gm of dry
clay, is defined as the amount of
positive

ion

substitution

that

takes place per unit weight of dry

rock.
In case of kaolinite substitution of
Fig-3

cations does not occur within a

single layer and so theoretically it

has a CEC of zero. But some broken bonds around the edges give rise to
unsatisfied negative charges and which must be balanced by cations. As a result,
kaolinite has a very low CEC of 0.03 to 0.10 meq/gm. Substitution within the lattice
as well as broken bonds account for most of the CEC observed in illite. Illite
commonly has a CEC range of 0.10 to 0.40 meq/gm. A very high CEC is measured
on montmorillonite with values ranging from 0.8 to 1.5 meq/gm. About 80% of the
CEC is the result of lattice substitution, while rest is attributed to broken bonds. In
case of chlorite the CEC value reported to be almost negligible (Table-4))

12

The net negative charge on many clay mineral surfaces attracts positive counterions
from the surrounding ionic solutions, establishing a nonuniform distribution of net
positive charge (modeled as an electrical double layer). Fig-3a is a simple
representation (the Guoy model) of this double layer. For the first few molecular
layers away from the clay surface the cations are concentrated and relatively
immobile. Their concentration decreases with distance from the clay surface (the
diffuse layer) finally equaling the number of anions. A more sophisticated model (The
Stern model), Fig-3b considers that the counterions are kept a bit away by 1)
adsorbed water on the clay surface and 2) hydrated water around the cations.
CEC
meq/g
Montmorillonite 0.8-1.5

CNL

(av)

K% (av)

0.24

g/cc
2.45

Illite

0.1-0.4

0.24

Chlorite

0-0.1

Kaolinite

0.03-0.06

Clay Type

0.16

U (av)
ppm
2-5

Th (av)
ppm
14-24

2.65

4.5

1.5

<2

0.51

2.8

0.36

2.65

0.42

1.5-3

6-19

Table-4: Clay properties of concern in logging.

Surface Area
To evaluate the volume occupied by the salt free water, one needs to know the area
of the surface of contact between clays and water. It is expected that there should be
a relationship between CEC and the specific surface area (area per unit weight).
Moreover, the finer is the clay, the higher will be the specific surface area. Hence
CEC will be more for finer clay than coarser clay. The higher CEC value of illite and
montmorillonite as compared to kaolinite or chlorite can be explained on the basis of
their higher specific area or finer than the latter. So montmorillonite and illite have a
pronounced effect on resistivity of the formation, while, kaolinite and chlorite have a
negligible effect. The conclusion is that clay typing is very important in the log
interpretation.
Neutron-Density log:
In a limestone compatible scale, discounting the effect of basic Lithology, i.e.
sandstone, limestone or dolomite, the variations in the separation between density
and neutron log responses are mainly due to two factors: the volume and the type of
clay presents.
Basically, clay minerals fall into two categories differentiated by significantly
different HI (Hydrogen Index)-values. Chlorite and kaolinite have a HI of 0.36 to 0.38,
whereas, both illite and montmorillonite have a HI of 0.12 to 0.13. Clay minerals with
13

low index of HI of dry clay, particularly montmorillonite, usually have a substantially

greater amount of bound water than clays with high HI. As a result of the low content
of bound water in chlorite and kaolinite, the neutron log can measure similar
porosity in all the above three types of clay, while density porosity will be higher in
montmorillonite. In contrast, neutron porosity readings in illite are lower than that of
other three types of clay, while the density porosity should be lower than in
montmorillonite but higher than in chlorite and kaolinite.
Gamma ray log
All the clays, except chlorite, show high gamma ray activity. High gamma ray value
of illite is attributed to the presence of radioactive potassium in its structure and it is
much higher than the potassium content in kaolinite and montmorillonite. The
thorium content of illite is less than that of kaolinite and montmorillonite.
SP log
When the thickness of a clean sand is large enough the deflection of SP log reaches
a limiting value which is called static SP. Against shaly sand the deflection of SP
log is smaller than the static SP and is termed as Pseudo-static SP . The static
SP against a shale is taken as base-line.
The static SP of a clean sand basically depends on the salinity of its connate
water with respect to that of mud, but it does not depend on the resistivity of the
sand. On the contrary, the pseudo-static SP of a shaly sand depends not only on the
salinity of its connate water with respect to that of the mud, but also on the
percentage of clay and on the resistivities of 1) the clay 2) uncontaminated part of
the sand and 3) the zone invaded by the mud filtrate.
If the three resistivities above were equal, the pseudo-static SP would be
proportional to the percentage of the sand in the shaly sand; its departure from the
static SP of a clean sand having the same connate water would be proportional to
the percentage of clay.
When, however, the sand is on the average substantially more resistive than the
clay, the amount of departure of the pseudo-static SP from the static SP of clean
sand is much larger than the percentage of clay. For this reason, the magnitude of
the SP log opposite shaly sands are systematically smaller when the sands are oil
bearing than when they are water bearing, provided all the other conditions
remaining same.

14

3. Texture & its influence on reservoir characteristics

Texture deals with the size, sorting, shape, roundness, and packing of the rock
solids. Porosity and permeability are the main petrophysical characteristics of a
reservoir. Therefore, the influence of different component of texture on these
parameters will be discussed.
Textural Parameters

Porosity

Permeability

Grain size (sphere) - Increases

Does not effect Increases

Grain sorting Increases

Increases

Increases

Grain shape sphericity increases, angularity

Decreases

Decreases

decreases
Sphere grain-packing-

Open (less compacted)

Maximum

maximum

effect of compaction

Closed( compacted)

Minimum

Minimum

Orientationnon-spherical grain

Does not effect Effects

Cementation Increases

Decreases

Decreases

Table5: Effects of textural parameters on porosity & permeability

3.1 Grain size
It measures the approximate diameter. For nonspherical grains the diameter of the
minimum cross-sectional area is taken.
Porosity is theoretically independent of grain size. Sphere (representing grain)
with uniform size will have the same porosity regardless of size. The situations arise
in case of sands with maximum sorting, such as, washed or winnowed sand or oolitic
sand. (Fig-4).
A few studies showed that porosity decreased slightly with increase with grain
size. (Fig-5 & 6). This can be explained on the fact that finer sands tend to be more
angular and are likely to be organized according to a less dense arrangement.
Permeability increases when the size of the grain increases. This is easily
understood because the size of pores and the canals (throats) which connect the
pores to one another are governed by grain size (Fig-7).

15

Fig-4 : Relationship between porosity

and mean grain size (Paluxy
Formation,Texas) (from Dodge et

Fig-5: Relationship between porosity and median diameter of grains

(Bentheimer sandstone) (from Von Engehardt,1960)

16

Fig-6: Relationship between porosity and median diameter

of sand grains for different sorting coefficients. A: So=2.086;
B: So=1.625; C: so=1.279; D: So=1.128; E: so=1.061 ( Rogers & Head, 1961)

Fig-7: Relationship between permeability and mean grain size,(Dodge et al, 1971)

17

3.2 Grain sorting

It measures how nearly a collection of grains approaches a single size. Porosity and
permeability increase when sorting increases. (Fig-8). In poorly sorted sand, the
small grains fill up the interstices of coarser grains thereby reducing the porosity as
well as permeability

Fig-8: Relationship between porosity and sorting coefficient of sands for

different grain sizes. A: median diameter md = 0.106mm; B: md =
0.151mm; C: md = 0.213mm; D : md = 0.335mm. (from Rogers & Head,
1961)

Fig-9: Thin section showing deteriorating sorting (left to right)

3.3 Grain shape (sphericity) & Grain roundness (angularity)
Grain shape measures how nearly a particular grain approaches the shape of a
perfect sphere as opposite to grain roundness, which measures the sharpness of the
edges or corners of a grain. Sediments composed of spherical grains have lower
porosity than those formed by grains of less sphericity. This is due to the fact that in
the first type, the grains tend to settle down to a denser arrangement and the second
type can pack together in a way that creates wider volumes between them.
18

Permeability also follows the porosity changes due to variations in shape &
roundness.
3.4 Grain packing
It describes the spacing (or density) of the spherical grains grains. Porosity depends
on packing type, 47.64% (cubic packing of equal grain size) for the most open
arrangement to 25.95% (rhombohedral of equal grain size) for the most closed .
Naturally the most open arrangements are not found and is generally packing is of
random or haphazard kinds. Compactions also lead to the most closed
arrangements.
3.5 Orientations of grains
For non-spherical grains it is generally observed that the orientation of grains is the
same as the orientation of their axis of maximum elongation and is parallel to the
direction of current. Generally the orientation of the grains does not have any
influence on porosity but has a strong influence on permeability or more precisely on
the permeability anisotropy. For example, in channel sands, the direction of
maximum permeability is parallel to the axis of the elongation of sand bodies and in
bar sands it is perpendicular to sand elongation.
3.6 Cement
It is also have an important influence on the petrophysical characteristics of detrital
reservoirs. When the percentage of cement increases, the porosity and permeability
decreases, since the cement tend to occupy the pore space between the coarser
elements. Cement is developed after deposition either by chemical interaction
between unstable grains and formation water, or by circulation in the pore space of
solutions under hydrodynamic forces.
3.7 Mineralogical composition of grains
A)

Grains composed of heavy and denser minerals will be deposited with the
minerals of the same weight, i.e. with less density, but with bigger size. This situation
leads to a poorer sorting and hence, lesser porosity and permeability.

B)

Grains composed of unstable or chemically immature minerals, such as, mica,

feldspar etc, will affect porosity and permeability. They alter to authigenic clay
minerals (kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, chlorite, etc), which will surround the grains
or invade the pore space, thus causing major reductions in porosity and permeability.
Formation & distribution of authigenic clay have already been discussed.
19

3.8 Information on texture from well log

In a poorly consolidated sandstone formation, where cement is minor, well log gives
some textural information of the formation. In contrast , in a well cemented or
consolidated formation, it mask other textural attributes thereby making it difficult to
get any information on them. The discussion below pertains to poorly consolidated
sandstone formation.
Grain size:
There is no general universal relation between the grain size and a log
measurement. But often in a number of cases a clear relationship could be found
between grain size and logging measurement. Coarsening and finning upward
sequences (and hence depositional environment) can often be identified from a
number of logs.

Gamma Ray: Fig-10 shows that a correlation exists between gamma ray & grain

size measured on core samples. Gamma ray increases when grain size decreases
because radioactivity is linked with finer grains, i.e. clay minerals. It can also be
concluded that these clay minerals are mainly detrital (allogenic) as it is not possible
to have more authigenic clay in an environment of finer grain size deposition than
the coarser grain size.

GR

GR

Grain
size
from
cores
Grain
size
from
cores

Fig-10: Correlation between natural radioactivity and grain

size (from Serra & Sulpice,1975)
The relationship between radioactivity & grain size is not always straightforward. It
may so happen that silty levels are more radioactive than shales Fig-11. In such
case, using of two logs, such as, SP and GR in the form of cross-plot may help to
20

know the present of silts against very high GR zone , which otherwise would have
been interpreted as still finer grain i.e. clay . The density-neutron crossplot with SP,
GR, Th or K as Z parameters may also help to resolve the problem .

Fig-11: Silty sand more radioactive than shale

SP curve: Fig-12 shows the relationship between SP curve and grain size.

Resistivity: Fig-13 shows the grain size evolution detected on dipmeter resistivity
curves. These evolutions are confirmed by the core descriptions reproduced
alongside.
Irreducible water saturation: A relationship can be observed between irreducible
water saturations and grain size (Fig-14) .
NMR log provides information which can be related to grain size. (NMR log will be
discussed in detail in a later chapter).
Sorting: Fig-15, gives an example of the change in sorting. Levels 9 & 10 present
an average porosity of about 35%. Taking into account the depth of occurrence
(7000 ft) this high porosity is certainly due to a good sorting. Level 11 shows a lower
21

porosity of about 25% with identical SP & slightly less radioactivity as in level 9 & 10.
This drop in porosity seems to be result of a poor sorting.

Fig-12: Relationship between SP &

Grain size

Fig-13: Evolution of grain size

detected by resistivity

Fig-14: Relationship between Swir

with grain size

The problem can also be analyzed

by using neutron-density crossplot
with gamma ray
(or Th or K), SP as z parameters.
On such a crossplot ,(will be
discussed later), from the point
defining the maximum porosity for
a given interval (representing the
best sorting) a drop in porosity
along
22

the sand line may represent decrease in the sorting.

To arrive at a meaningful interpretation in the above example it was assumed
that other textural properties (which affect porosity) remain constant and which is a
reasonable assumption at given depth interval.

11
10
9

Fig-15: Logs showing change of sorting.

Grain orientations: Qualitatively an idea of grain orientations may be obtained from
the azimuth of blue pattern seen on dipmeter tadpole plot as it is synonymous to floe
direction (foreset beddings).
Grain packing: This parameter cannot be obtained from log at a particular depth or
short depth interval. But the evolution of porosity on a long interval will explain the
modification of packing under the effect of compaction as well as diagenesis.
Grain shape: If the density as well as GR log (high potassium content) indicates the
formation to contain feldspar, mica it means that the formation is chemically
immature. A chemically immature formation is also texturally immature and
consequently has angular grain. On the other hand, if the sand appears to be very
clean, with a very low radioactivity level and high porosity the formation must be
chemically as well as texturally mature to have grain of round shape (spherical).
23

3.9 Diagenetic processes

Compaction: This is a mechanical rearrangement of grains under the sediments
above during burial process. The rearrangement of grains results into reduction of
initial porosity. The amount of compaction depends on the initial porosity and on the
size, shape & sorting of the grains. It also depends on the rate of sedimentations &
passage of time.
Cementation: It is the deposition of minerals within the pore space. The minerals
may be derived from the sediment itself or from the salts dissolved in interstitial or
circulating water.
The most common cements are calcite, dolomite, silica, clay minerals. Cementation
results in a reduction of porosity and the quantity of cement cannot exceed the initial
porosity.
Pressure Controlled Solution: High pressure developed between points of contact
of the grains due to burial depth result in increased solubility and reappear as crystal
growth, causing loss of porosity.
Authigenesis /Clay Filling: The formation of authigenic minerals in detrital
sequence will depend on the textural & chemical maturity, the type of fluids,
hydrodynamic conditions & on compaction (simultaneous action of temperature &
pressure). The formation of authigenic minerals in orthoquartzites is usually limited
to the precipitation of books of kaolinite. In immature sequence (Arkoses &
graywackes) the most common authigenic minerals are illite, montmorillonite, and
chlorite.
3.10 Detection of Diagenetic Changes using Well Logs
Wireline log cannot give diagenetic history of a rock but can give information at the
present/final state the state which depends on the initial state. So from the
present /final state one can infer some information of initial state.

24

4.Pore-Space Properties
In formation evaluation, the most important characteristics of rocks are their porespace properties. A pore-space system can be considered as containing both pores
and pore throats. Pores are local enlargements in a pore space

Fig-16: Pores and pore throats in a pore-space system

system (Fig-16) giving storage space to fluid. Pore throats are the small connecting
spaces that link pores and provide restrictions to fluid flow. The pore- (and porethroat-) size distribution controls the reservoirs characteristics of porosity,
permeability, and fluid distribution.

4.1 Pore-size Distribution: The mercury / air capillary-pressure curve gives insight
to the pore-size distribution. Thomeer characterizes this curve with three
parameters (Fig-17):

25

(Vb) p is the fractional bulk volume occupied at infinite mercury pressure-i.e.,

the total interconnected pore volume.

Pd is the extrapolated mercury displacement pressure required to enter the

largest pore throat.

G is the pore geometrical factor, reflecting the distribution of pore throats and
their associated pore volumes.
It has been observed
that these parameters
are

related through a

Fig-17:Characterization of
capillary pressure

hyperbolic relationship
that can be expressed
as
(Vb) pc / (Vb) p =
e

-G / log (Pc / Pd)

Where (Vb) pc is the

fractional bulk

volume

occupied by

mercury

at

capillary

some

pressure

Pc.

Large

value of

Pd

suggest

that the

largest pores

or pore

throats are

small. Large value of G suggests that pore throat are tortuous and/or pore sizes are
poorly sorted.

(Fig-18) is capillary curves of different facies within a geologic formation. It illustrates

the variation of Thomeer parameters and hence provides information regarding poresize distribution. It also shows how permeability is controlled by pore size
distribution. One can also think about 1) the pore-space properties of sediments as
deposited and 2) the effects of diagenetic processes on pore space. Original poresize distribution in clastic rocks depends mainly on the textural properties of the

26

solids. Once a clastic sediment is

deposited, diagenesis begins to
modify the pore system through
compaction, cementation,
solution, clay-filling etc. The
result is usually a pore geometry
with poorer
petrophysical/reservoir
characteristics than the original.

(Fig-19,20,22) illustrate scanning

electron

microscope

photomicrographs

of

pore

systems of clastic rocks having

the following characteristics.

Grain size and sorting

Fig-18: Family of capillary-pressure curves in

sandstone formation

vary from lower fine

grained, very well sorted
to lower very fine grained, moderately to poorly sorted.

Little or no cement is present.

Little or no clay is present.

Also shown are porosity, permeability, and capillary pressure curve data
representing variations in petrophysical /reservoir characteristics.

(Fig-21) illustrates scanning electron microscope photomicrographs of pore systems

of clastic rocks having the following characteristics.

Grain size and sorting are the same as rock of Fig-19

Significant amount of cement and clay are present.

(Fig-23) illustrates scanning electron microscope photomicrographs of pore systems

of clastic rocks having the following characteristics.

Grain size and sorting are similar as rock of Fig-19.

Significant amount of dispersed clay are present in the pores.
Different types of dispersed clays are present.

27

Fig-19,20: Pore-space properties & petrophysical characteristics sandstone

Fig-21,22: Pore-space properties & petrophysical characteristics sandstone

28

4.2 Porosity Definition: Porosity is the fraction (or percentage) of rock bulk volume occupied by pore space.
At the time of

deposition it will be high, in the range

of 0.35-0.40 for a well sorted to about
0.25

for a poorly sorted sand. Besides

the above simple definition of porosity,

a family of porosity definitions has
evolved to meet various petroleum
engineering & well logging conditions.
Table 2-10 & Fig-24 summarize the
definitions of porosity.
4.3 Permeability Definition: The
Fig-23: pore-space
properties having
dispersed clay
permeability

of

medium

is

its

capacity to permit the flow of a fluid

(gas, oil or water). If the fluid is
homogeneous and has no major
chemical influence on the surrounding
media, then the permeability is said to be absolute. It is represented by the symbol
k, and the unit of measurement is Darcy.
Absolute permeability is derived from
the equation governing the flow of a
fluid in a porous medium (Darcys
law).
Q=k S (p1-p2)/h
3

Q- Flow rate m /S

- Viscosity in Pascal/S
2

S- Area in m through which

flow occurs.
h- Thickness of the material in
m traversed by the fluid.
P1 & P2 are the pressure, in
Pascal,

upstream

downstream of the flow

respectively.

&

Fig-24: porosity
definition

k- Absolute permeability in m . (1 Darcy=10

-12

m )

Newly deposited clastic sediments are extremely permeable. Artificially packed

sands have permeability ranging from less than 2.4 to 475 darcies and the following
relationship between permeability and textural properties.

Permeability decreases as grain size decreases.

Permeability decreases as sorting becomes poorer.

Permeability increases as grain sphericity decreases and as grain

angularity increases.

Diagenesis usually decreases the permeabilities of clastics, and the effect (positive
or negative) is often greater than on the porosity.

Table: 2.10: Definition of porosity

4.4 Fluid Distribution (Static Condition): In the static condition of a reservoir the
viscous forces have no effect and gravity & capillary forces are in balance. This
30

static system 1) generally defines the original fluid distribution in the reservoir, 2) is
the one encountered upon discovery of a petroleum reservoir,3) is the one that must
be interpreted through the use of well logging data.
Three factors control a reservoirs static fluid distribution:

The geometric configuration of the interstitial spaces-i.e., pore-space

system of the rocks.
The physical and chemical natures of the interstitial surfaces-i.e., pore
walls- of the rocks.
The physical and chemical properties of the fluid phases in contact
with the interstitial surfaces and each other.

Fig-25 illustrates static fluid distribution in a petroleum reservoir, by means of a

schematic vertical sandstone column in which three regions of saturation are
present:

Fig-25: Fluid distribution in a homogeneous reservoir.

Saturation region: In this region the rock is 100% saturated with the wetting phase
(water, in this case) up to a Level A, the 100% water level. The 100% water level is
characterized by displacement pressure (threshold pressure or entry pressure) of
the capillary-pressure curve. Displacement pressure is that capillary pressure at the

31

top of the saturation zone; the minimum pressure required for the no wetting phase
to displace wetting phase and enter the pore system.
1) Funicular region (transition zone): In this zone, large changes in saturation occur
over relatively small changes in reservoir height, and are represented by the Plateau
of the capillary-pressure curve of Fig-25. This region, between level A &B reflects the
most abundant and accessible pore-throat sizes. The steeper the capillary pressure
curve in this region, the less uniform the pore throats.

2) Pendular region: In this region the wetting phase is found mostly in pendular ring
around grain-to-grain contacts, in very small pores or coating the grain surfaces with
a very thin film. In this region only small changes in saturations occur over large
changes in reservoir height , and are represented by the steep slope of the capillarypressure curve, The wetting phase saturation in this region is often called the
irreducible wetting-phase saturation. The saturation/height relationship occurs
because under static condition equilibrium exists between gravity and capillary
forces in a reservoir-rock/fluid system.
4.5 Capillary Pressure
The pores of a rock are usually linked by fine channels of very small diameter (a few
microns). The channels act as
capillary tubes and the fluid
they contain are subjected to
capillary

forces.

Capillary

pressure is a force per unit of

surface

expressed

by the

equation:
Pc=2T cos / r
Pc Capillary pressure in
Pascal
T- Surface tension of the
liquid (liquid-air

separation

Fig-26:Water rising in tube due to capillary forces surface) in dynes/cm.

- Angle of contact (in
degrees) between the meniscus and the wall of the capillary tube.
r- Radius of capillary tube.
32

A liquid, on contact with a solid, may be attracted or repelled to a greater or lesser

extent depending on whether or not they wet the wall. If a capillary tube is plunged
into the water, the water will rise in the capillary as a result of the forces of surface
tension( Fig-26). The height h to which the water rises is given by:
h=2T cos / rg
h- Height of the liquid column in
3

cm. - Density of liquid ingm/cm .

g- Acceleration due to gravity.

4.6 Interfacial Tensions:

When two fluids are present in a formation- water along with hydrocarbons, then
water is the wetting liquid. There is also a interfacial tension between two non-mixing
liquids (e.g., oil & water). This tension is almost equal to the difference between the
surface tension of each liquid relative to air:
T 1-2 T1- T2
The difference of density also comes into play. So we have
h=2 (T1- T2) cos / r (1- 2) g
Where 1 & 2 are the respective densities of the two fluids present.
From the equation it may be deduced that water will rise in the oil impregnated zone.
The height of the water will be more, when smaller is the difference of density
between the two liquids & smaller are the radii of the capillaries. This explains why
the water-oil transition zones are longer than those of water-gas or oil-gas, which are
usually very short. Similarly, poor sorting will result in a longer transition zone.

Another view:

The most popular theory of the genesis of oil says that the porous rocks which make
up an oil reservoir were filled with water at the time of deposition and that the oil
later migrated into them from the source rock. Since this migrating oil is lighter than
33

water it moved into the highest structural position in the trap. The accumulated oil
gradually displaced the water downward. This displacement continued until the water
saturations were reduced to the point where the water became discontinuous and
would no longer flow. This irreducible saturation is always found in oil reservoirs at
those places that are a sufficient distance above the water table. Between this
irreducible saturations condition & the fully water saturated water table, there exists a
transition zone where the saturation gradually changes from one condition to other.
This transition zone is the result of capillary action.

Fig-27 shows an example of static fluid distribution through a cross section of five
wells in a oil reservoir of inhomogeneous sandstone. The capillary curves used to
characterize the rock are the same as shown in Fig-18.

The free-water level is by definition a horizontal plane where h = 0. However, the

100% water level is not a horizontal plane, but its elevation above the free water

Fig-27: Schematic example of static fluid distribution

level varies with pore geometry, and is quantified by the displacement pressures of
the several capillary pressure curves. Note that a 100% water level is seen in wells 1
and 3 at widely varying elevations. The difference is caused by different pore
34

geometries. Likewise, the elevation of any other saturation level (for example, the
50% water level) varies with pore geometry as shown. Note that well no 3 penetrates
the bottom portion of a very long transition zone. Note also that both well no. 2 and
well no. 4 penetrate reservoir rock at irreducible water saturation; however, the water
saturation in well 4 (structurally higher well) containing type D rock is three times
greater than the water saturations found in well no2 containing type A rock. Note that
had well 2 encountered type D rock, it probably would have been a non-commercial
well.
4.7 Effective & Relative Permeability:
In most sediment which is usually wet firstly by water, oil cannot enter the pores filled
with water unless it has a force greater than the capillary pressures of the water-oil
interface (Fig-28). In other words, in the case of rocks showing high capillary forces,
that is, rocks with very fine channels, there will have to be a strong pressure on the
oil for it to displace the water. Under normal circumstances these

Fig-28: Diagram showing the progressive entry of oil in the pores of a

sandstone under the influence of increasing pressure, P 1< P2 < P3.
rocks will be impermeable to the oil. Thus the concept of impermeability appears to
be wholly relative, that is, a rock which is permeable to water & impermeable to oil, is
impermeable to a given pressure but becomes permeable if one of the fluid is
subjected to a pressure greater than the capillary pressures.
The Darcys law assumes that only one fluid flows through the porous medium.
However, it often happens that a reservoir contains two or even three fluids (water,
35

oil, gas). We must then introduce the concepts of diaphasic flow and of relative
permeability. In fact, if the formation contains two or more fluids, their flow interferes
and when this occurs, the effective permeability of each of the fluid (Kg, Ko, Kw) is
less than the absolute permeability.

The effective permeability of a fluid is a

measure of the ease with which this
fluid may pass through a reservoir in
the presence of other fluids. Effective
permeabilities depend not only on the
rock itself but also on the respective
percentage of the various fluids
present in the pores. The relative
permeability (Krg, Kro, Krw) express
the ratio of the effective permeabilities
to the absolute permeabilities. These
Fig-29: Relative permeability to oil & water
in an oil bearing formation.

permeabilities vary between 0 & 1. The

values of relative permeabilities

vary with saturations. Fig-29 shows the relative permeability of water & oil in a typical
rock as a function of water saturations. The left side of this plot represents the
situation existing in the undisturbed zone of an oil bearing reservoir well above the
water table. Water saturation is at its irreducible value, Swi. No water will flow, so the
relative permeability to water, Krw, is zero. Oil will flow virtually unhindered because
the water exists only on the grain surfaces, at grain contacts, and in very fine pores,
leaving major passageways open for oil flow. Thus, the relative permeability of oil,
Kro, is close to unity.

At the other extreme, the right hand side of the plot applies to the invaded portion of
an oil bearing zone where residual oil occupies 10-40% of the pore space and water
occupies the remainder. The residual oil is immobile so that Kro is zero. However,
water will not flow unhindered because the residual oil is left as isolated globules
occupying a number of the medium-to- large pore spaces. These substantially
reduce the no. of branching passageways available to water flow and thereby
reduce Krw value from unity to a value in the range of 0.3-0.6.
36

Between the two extreme is the situation that exists when oil & water flow
simultaneously. Both Krw & Kro are substantially less than one, and in fact their sum
is also significantly less than unity.
In order to predict the rate at which water & oil will be produced from a reservoir rock,
we need to know the relative permeabilities at the existing water saturations as well
as the absolute permeability.
4.8 Relationship between porosity & permeability:
In detrital rocks there is often found a good correlation between porosity and
permeability Fig-30,31 show the relationship between porosity & permeability and
with respect to grain size. These relationships show that for the development of a
empirical relationship between porosity & permeability, it is better to base it on facies
or environment. Fig-32 shows the relationship between permeability & grain size. It
shows that in theory permeability can be determined from the irreducible water
saturation which in turn depends on grain size. Hence, several equations were
developed to predict permeability from porosity irreducible water saturation (Swi):
4.9 Relationship between porosity & water saturations:
Fig-33,34 show literature examples of porosity/water saturations relationships.
Buckles shows that, for a given rock type, an hyperbola equation of the form
Sw = C
Where
= porosity
Sw = water saturation, and
C = Correlation factor,
Often fits porosity/irreducible-water-saturation data reasonably well.(Fig-33). The
transition zones (with water saturation greater than irreducible) fail to form coherent
hyperbolic patterns in a porosity/saturation crossplot. Such lack of coherence also
can be caused by variations in rock type.
In Fig-34, the data appear to be incoherent and typical of a transition zone until
distinguished by rock type; then a typical hyperbolic relationship for each rock is
apparent. Buckles also showed that a particular formation in a particular field has a
definite value of C. Fig-37,38 show porosity-saturation relationship of few wells of a
field of Eastern Region.
4.10 Relationship between permeability & water saturations:
Fig-36 show examples of permeability/water saturations relationship.
37

Fig-30: Examples of relationship between porosity & permeability. a)from

Fuchtbauer 1967 ; b)from Dupuy 1963; c)from Timur 1968.

Fig-31: Relationship between porosity & permeability for various grain

sizes. ( from Chilingar)

38

Fig-33:porosity-water
Fig-32: permeability- saturation relationship grain size relationship

Fig-34:porosity-water
saturation relationship

39

Fig-36: permeability-water-saturation relationship

Fig-37: Porosity-water saturation relationship

40

Fig-38: Porosity-water saturation relationship

41