Indiana University Press

Indiana University Press
Informal Networks and Access to Power to Obtain Housing in Urban Slums in Ghana
Author(s): Jeffrey W. Paller
Source: Africa Today, Vol. 62, No. 1, Special Issue: The Politics of the Nonstate Provision of
Public Goods in Africa (Fall 2015), pp. 31-55
Published by: Indiana University Press
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Residents who succeed in

securing affordable housing tap into existing local
social networks. But these
networks are double-edged:
they exclude people and
create barriers to the access
of public goods for those
who are not politically
connected.
Informal Networks and Access to

Power to Obtain Housing in Urban
Slums in Ghana
Jeffrey W. Paller
JEFFREY W. PALLER is Earth Institute Postdoctoral Research Fellow at

Columbia University. His research examines public goods provision and
political accountability in urban African slums. His scholarship has appeared
in Polity and African Studies Review. He may be contacted by e-mail at
[email protected].
Scholarship that examines obtaining housing in urban Ghana
focuses on the role of state planning or access to financial
markets, yet most housing in Ghana is provided outside these
official channels, often in urban slums, where residents turn
to nonstate providers (NSPs) to find housing. NSPs are local
social networks led by political entrepreneurs motivated by
informal norms and incentives, which shape the quality of
housing and security of tenure. Their logic is best represented
by treating the governance of housing as a collective action
problem. This article introduces a typology of slums based
on settlement patterns, including extralegal, indigenous, and
purchased settlements. Ethnographic research and survey
data illustrate the governance of housing across these types
of Ghanaian informal settlements.
Africa has been urbanizing at a rate of 3.5 percent per year during the past
two decadesthe highest regional urbanization rate in the world (African
Development Bank 2012). An estimated 200 million people (Vidal 2010), or
62 percent of the urban population in sub-Saharan Africa, reside in slums
(Arimah 2010; UN-HABITAT 2010).1 The housing challenge is notably severe
in Accra, Ghana, where the urban population has grown by 19.5 percent since
2000 (World Bank 2013a, 2013b), requiring 5.7 million new rooms in Ghana
to be built by 2020; this means that a total of 574,000 rooms must be provided every year, 1,840 per working day, and about four every minute (UNHABITAT 2011). This figure is well beyond the capacity of the government
and the formal business sector to accommodate.
africa TODAY 62(1)

32
INFORMAL NE T WORK S AND ACCESS TO POWER TO OBTAIN HOUSING IN URBAN SLUMS IN GHANA
In the absence of state-provisioned and formally regulated housing,

urban Africans find creative ways to deal with the housing shortage and
cope with uncertain and insecure living conditions (Simone 2004; Tostensen,
Tvedten, and Vaa 2001). Yet considerable variation occurs in urban Ghanaians ability to access high-quality, affordable, secure housing. Variation
exists between individuals and families, within neighborhoods, and between
neighborhoods across cities. This empirical reality poses a question that is
largely unanswered in the scholarly literature: in the context of rapid urbanization in Ghana, why do some urban residents gain access to high-quality,
affordable, secure housing while others do not? In this article, I argue that
urban residents rely on nonstate providers (NSPs) to access and secure housing (Cammett and MacLean 2014). Motivated by informal norms and incentives, NSPs govern housing in urban slums, thereby shaping the quality of
housing and security of tenure for urban residents.
In urban Ghana, NSPs are local informal social networks led by political entrepreneurs, and they are embedded in daily community life. Accra
residents who succeed in securing affordable housing tap into existing local
social networks. But these networks are double-edged: they exclude people
and create barriers to the access of public goods for those who are not politically connected. In other words, the process of accessing and securing housing exists in a larger informal politico-institutional context, which often
privileges the provision of club and private goods over that of the public
interest.2
This article draws from a comparative case study design that exploits
variation across neighborhoods within Accra and Ashaiman to understand
the processes and mechanisms through which residents access and secure
housing (Paller 2014a). To conduct ethnographic research, I selected three
slum communities with comparable demographic traits: Ga Mashie, Old
Fadama, and Tulako-Ashaiman (Schatz 2009; Wedeen 2010). I used this
method to uncover the informal networks that underlie political arrangements, as well as to investigate the governance of land and housing. I visited
at least one of the communities daily over the course of twelve months.
By interacting with NSPs and leaders in daily life, I gained crucial insights
into their motivations and incentives. I spent an additional three months
conducting semistructured interviews and focus groups in a broader set of
slum communities to generalize and triangulate the findings. The qualitative research finds that the settlement pattern and institutional type of the
slum shapes governance and housing outcomes, which I explain in following
sections.
My argument is further substantiated by investigating the governance
of housing across a larger sample of slums in Accra, Ashaiman, and Kumasi
using a household survey.3 The communities were selected from a list of
slum neighborhoods that combined researchers local knowledge, administrative listings of slums (Accra Metropolitan Assembly 2011), and analytically derived neighborhood boundaries (Weeks, Hill, and Stoler 2013). The
bulk of the empirical evidence for this article draws from the case study in
Jeffrey W. Paller
Ghana has faced a housing shortage since independence, which dates back
to the earthquake that hit Accra in 1939 (Acquah 1958). At the earliest years
of independence, the national government recognized the challenge that the
small and insecure land market had on the provision of housing (Republic
of Ghana 1958). In response, the government formed state bodies, including
the State Housing Corporation (SHC), the Tema Development Corporation
(TDC), and the State Construction Corporation, to address housing issues
(Elleh 2002). TDC, for example, purchased sixty-four miles of land seventeen
miles outside of Accra. At the center of this proposal was a Doxiadis plan
that facilitated the development of twenty-four so-called communities that
would make up the city of Tema. State investments in affordable housing
increased in 1972 with the addition of the Low Cost Housing Programme.
In the postindependence urban plans, the Ghanaian government specifically highlighted slums like Nima, Maamobi, and Chorkor as neighborhoods that were underresourced and in need of upgrading (Arn 1996). Nevertheless, the government suggested a piecemeal approach that allowed poor
residents to stay in these areas (Republic of Ghana 1958). In existing slum
communities like Nima, the government recommended lowering building
standards so that residents could build houses within their income; it called
this allowance the relaxation of structural standards (Republic of Ghana
1958:5354). At the earliest stages of independence, the governments plan
was to formalize and regularize land tenure security of these slum areas.
Despite the governments awareness of the problem, the housing
shortage persisted after Nkrumah left office. Ghana faced a housing deficit
33
The History of State and Nonstate Housing Provision

in Urban Ghana
africa TODAY 62(1)
Old Fadama because primary research on community leadership, housing,

and governance in extralegal settlements is particularly underreported. I provide preliminary and suggestive evidence, references to secondary research,
and illustrative examples of NSPs from my field research in the other two
settlement types to substantiate the proposed typology.
The article proceeds as follows. First, I place the housing shortage in
urban Ghana in a historical context. Second, I discuss how NSPs control
housing access, affordability, and security at the community level. Third,
I propose treating the provision of affordable housing as a collective action
problem, the logic of which depends on the initial settlement pattern of
urban neighborhoods. I call these types of informal neighborhoods extralegal,
indigenous, and purchased settlements. Fourth, I present original survey,
ethnographic, and interview evidence to demonstrate that variation in access
to affordable housing and security of tenure exists across these settlement
patterns. I conclude with the political implications of NSPs and suggest ways
to make NSPs and the Ghanaian government more responsive to the housing
needs of ordinary residents.
africa TODAY 62(1)

34
of 736,657 in 1970; 1,184,636 in 1984; 1,526,275 in 2000; and 1,600,000 in

2010 (Awuvafoge 2013:13). By 1983, state agencies like SHC and TDC were
producing merely one hundred units each, while private-sector investments
stopped entirely (Konadu-Agyemang 2001). In 1986, the Ministry of Works
and Housing formed a national housing policy committee to detail a comprehensive strategy to improve service delivery across the country, focusing
mainly on institutional mechanisms that could coordinate the process (Bank
of Ghana 2007). This new plan was part of a broader strategy, instigated by
structural adjustment programs, to shift the focus of affordable housing from
the government to the private sector. With assistance from the World Bank,
the government implemented the Accra District Rehabilitation Project to
decentralize the provision of housing to district assemblies.
The state withdrew from direct housing production and financing
and attempted to stimulate the growth of the real-estate sector and the
indigenous market (Tibaijuka 2009). The 1980s marked the emergence of
the Ghana Real Estate Developers Association, a new interest group representing private owners. Quasi-government agencies like Social Security and
National Insurance Trust were entrusted with the responsibility of public
housing development and constructed seven thousand dwellings between
1988 and 2000. Nevertheless, the National Insurance Trust decreased its
investment in public housing by 50 percent over time (Arku 2009).
The governments strategy in 1991 shifted from an emphasis on direct
provision to coordination (Republic of Ghana 1991). Until 1990, the strategic plan estimates that 15 percent of the housing stock was governmentprovisioned housing; it rapidly declined with structural adjustment and the
inability of the state to finance and provide more housing (Konadu-Agyemang 2001). In 1990, the plan estimated the housing shortage to be 19,135
units of accommodation. The shift toward a liberal approach to development
included the attempt to regularize land tenure security. The Land Administration Project, supported by the World Bank, was the cornerstone of this
agenda and sought to harmonize statutory laws and customary interests
bearing on Land (World Bank 2013a, 2013b). The ambiguous and insecure
land-tenure regime has long been recognized as an impediment to economic
growth in Ghana (Besley 1995; De Soto 2000; Goldstein and Udry 2008) and
an impediment to accessible affordable housing. The Bank of Ghana has
found that, along with the rising cost of inputs, land acquisition is the driving force behind the rising price of housing in Ghana (Bank of Ghana 2007).
The high costs complement the fact that land transactions are not recorded,
titles are not provisioned, and multiple individuals and families claim the
same plot of land (Onoma 2010). The government recognized that customary
law needed to be better incorporated into the formal state property-rights
regime (Blocher 2006), and the Land Administration Project attempted to do
this, but the project has been for the most part unsatisfactory (World Bank
2013a, 2013b). Part of the reason for this is that purchasers of land do not
officially register their plots (Gough and Yankson 2000).
35
Jeffrey W. Paller
africa TODAY 62(1)
By the end of the twentieth century, the state and formal private enterprises had failed in their attempts to provide sufficient housing to urban
residents. In response, the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy I, implemented
in 2001, focused on attracting foreign capital to fund housing development.
The GPRS II (20062009) focused on poor and marginalized populations and
detailed a special program for upgrading slums (Bank of Ghana 2007). Two
major initiatives are particularly notable: the Cities without Slums action
plan, under the auspices of the Cities Alliance, and the Slum Upgrading
Facility. These programs seek to mobilize foreign capital and to link this
financial assistance with local actors. The projects seek to package the
financial, technical, and political elements of development projects. The
effectiveness of these policies is still not known, but several scholars blame
them for contributing to a housing market that privileges the rich over the
poor, increasing income inequality and undermining an indigenous housing
market that favors the poor (Gruffyd Jones 2012; Obeng-Odoom 2012).
Unsurprisingly, Ghanaians have accessed housing through leveraging
remittances from family members living abroad (Buckley and Mathema
2008; Yeboah 2000). The World Bank estimates that $119 million in remittances were sent to back to the country in 2013 alone (2013). But these remittances drive up the cost of housing in the city, making individuals without
access to remittances much worse off. The online housing marketfueled
by the influx of nonresident Ghanaians and foreignershelps push house
and land prices to all-time highs (Bank of Ghana 2007). This, in turn, contributes to the deteriorating housing conditions for many others across the
city (Buckley and Mathema 2008). In fact, remittances are part of a broader
globalized environment, which increases land and housing prices, privileges
the private sector over the public sector, and leads to inequity in housing
provision across the city (Grant 2009; Grant and Nijman 2002; KonaduAgyemang 2001; Owusu 2008).
This brief history of housing in Ghana demonstrates that the two
major approaches for increasing access to secure and high-quality affordable housingstate-provisioned housing and increasing access to the free
markethave failed. Part of the reason for this is that slum incidence can
be traced back to colonial-era institutions and lack of investment, and
these historical legacies are difficult to overcome (Fox 2014). But another
shortcoming of these plans is their failure to acknowledge the daily political
realities on the ground. They do not consider how housing is governed in
poor neighborhoods and the ways in which informal networks and political entrepreneurs shape the market and capture state services for their own
interests. My approach advocates studying affordable housing from the
ground up by assessing the unique strategies that low-income urbanites
use to solve daily challenges, like finding and securing affordable housing.
In doing so, I find that accessing and securing affordable housing requires
political power (Auyero 2001; Nelson 1979). The next sections uncover the
avenues to power across different types of urban neighborhoods.
Nonstate Providers of Housing:

Informal Networks and Political Entrepreneurs
africa TODAY 62(1)

36
The ineffectiveness of state housing policies has contributed to a situation

where 90 percent of housing in Ghana is built and governed informally, outside of local authority control (UN-HABITAT 2011). But informality in slum
settlements does not mean an absence of state power. In my survey sample,
94 percent of respondents have a voters identification card, suggesting that
they participate in the political process; 24 percent have a passport; 42 percent have a national identification card; 48 percent have a bank account; and
65 percent have a Health Insurance Scheme identification card, suggesting
they are enrolled in the national health insurance program. Nevertheless,
67 percent are employed in the informal economy, while only 19 percent
are unemployed. This suggests that the role of the state and the relationship
between informal networks and government officials requires clarification
(Meagher 2010).
Rather than relying on state bureaucrats or formal authorities, residents turn to NSPs to access and secure housing. These NSPs play a particularly important role in the daily livelihoods of ordinary citizens: they serve as
the means for determining access, setting affordable or unaffordable prices,
and providing security of tenure. Each social network has a leader who serves
as the local strongman; this leader is a political entrepreneur who jockeys
for power in the community but seeks alliances with state administrators
and political parties. These alliances are personal in nature, and strength is
determined by the number of followers a leader has.
The reliance on NSPs dates back to colonial and precolonial times.
Residents tap into networks of trusted friends (Hart 1973), migrants, and
coethnics (Agyei-Mensah and Owusu 2012) for assistance in finding housing.
In other words, they join a social network that makes up a distinct cluster in
a particular neighborhood (Sanjek 1972). For new migrants to the city, these
clusters often link to ones hometown. Residents from the rural countryside
migrate in coordinated efforts to cities, and they often settle in clusters
within the same neighborhood of a low-income community.
The community leaders of NSPs rule through the extension of territorial authority at the local level (Sahlins 1963). This type of personal rule has
a long history in Ghanaian politics (Owusu 1971; Price 1971). Personal rule
penetrates all levels of society and has become an institutionalized pattern
of expected behavior and defining feature of daily life (Price 1971:175). In the
context of weak formal institutions and an immense housing shortage, these
political entrepreneursoften deemed middlemen or brokers in the political
science literature because of the connections they make with political parties (Auyero 2001; Stokes 2005)build local followings, offer security and
protection, and demand private goods and services in exchange for political
support (Paller 2014b).
The role of these political entrepreneurs has been well documented
at the community level in urban West Africa (Allman 1991; Arhin 1971;
Jeffrey W. Paller
These political entrepreneurs have withstood large-scale structural and

political changes and have grown even more powerful in the recent period
of democratization and multiparty politics. With increasing urbanization
and greater political competition, the struggles between competing political
entrepreneurs and their informal network of followers is even more intense.
Further, while these NSPs are informal in nature, they gain their power
in large part from the protection they receive from the state. The growth
in importance of political parties in Ghana has strengthened their power,
particularly with the rise of followers acting as foot soldiers in modern
political campaigns (Bob-Milliar 2012). In this way, the relationship between
local communities and the state can be better understood through a closer
investigation of political parties and informal networks at the community
37
Aspiring leaders are, in a manner of speaking, political entrepreneurs. . . . They engage in the enterprise of amassing
resources and using them, skillfully, to attract followers. In
Mushin, a first step in this enterprise ... was acquiring real
estate, for it gave people who owned housing an advantage
over those who did not. A second step was to capitalize on
this inequity, by adding political content to the interactions
that grew out of landlordtenant relationships. The owners
who wished to wield power in Mushin typically began a political career by attracting a neighborhood clientele to whom
they acted as patrons, middlemen, and dispute settlers. They
dispensed, among other resources, information, contacts, and
services that were particularly helpful in meeting the needs
of urban life. In return they received support for their political
goals.
africa TODAY 62(1)
Barnes 1986; Cohen 1969; Kobo 2010; Peil 1971; Pellow 2002; Schildkrout
1970, 1978; Skinner 1963, 1972), yet they are especially important for vulnerable communities, particularly migrant and squatter settlements, because
residents rely on patronclient relationships to secure citizenship status
and tenure security, respectively. Peil (1971) describes this phenomenon
in Ghana in the 1960s, when migrants were threatened with expulsion.
Similarly, Schildkrout (1970, 1978) documents this pattern in Ghanaian
zongosstrangers quarters, where migrants to African cities settledwhere
patronclient relationships developed in the context of limited resources.
Residents needed patrons to gain any public services from the state.4 They
also needed strong patrons with powerful links to state administrators and
political parties to protect their land and housingto prevent evictions and
demolitions that were common in these neighborhoods.
Perhaps the most important way that a leader accumulates power is
through the control of land and housing (Gulyani and Talukdar 2008). Barnes
(1986:70) describes this phenomenon in the context of Mushin, a Nigerian
slum:
africa TODAY 62(1)

38
level. It is through this mechanism of power that the access, affordability,

and security of housing are outcomes of political struggle.
NSPs are particularly important in the context of informal housing.
My survey data confirm that most urban residents do not secure their tenure
from official land rights. For example, 50 percent of respondents in the
survey do not have property title or are unsure about it.5 Only 45 percent
indicate paying property rates to the local government authorities; a very
high 34 percent indicated that they do not know. Yet only 20 percent of
respondents indicate that they do not have security of tenure. This suggests
that formal property title and payment to authoritiesthe classic relationship in Western social-contract theoryis not the only indicator of whether
residents feel secure in their tenure in a community.
So why do slum dwellers feel secure, despite lack of formal property
title? The answer lies in the mechanisms through which people secure their
tenure. These mechanisms directly depend on the NSPs through which
they access affordable housing. For example, 22 percent of respondents say
they have security of tenure because they are indigenes in the city,6 and 30
percent say they have security of tenure because their family purchased the
land legally or they pay their rent on time. An additional 3 percent say they
have security of tenure because their political party is in power, and 2 percent
indicate tenure security because their ethic group controls the land. The
evidence is clear: understandings of security of tenure coincide not with the
formal housing market and state-sanctioned land access, but with informal
norms about legitimacy and authority. In turn, patterns of authority shape
the ways that NSPs govern informal housing.
NSPs and Informal Settlements

Not all NSPs act the same. Across urban Ghana, important variation in the
strength, behavior, and performance of political entrepreneurs and NSPs
occurs. Political entrepreneurs have different incentives and diverse motivations. My evidence suggests an underlying logic to their behavior, best
represented by treating the governance of housing as a collective action problem (Olson 1965). All members of the community benefit from accessible
and quality housing, but affordable housing is costly, and any one person is
unlikely to attempt to provide the good by himself or herself. Further, ordinary residents will attempt to free ride, benefitting from affordable housing
without contributing to the well-being of the neighborhood (Hardin 1968).
The optimal outcome, then, is to share the cost of affordable housing among
all residents and landlords in the community, yet what is common in many
Ghanaian neighborhoods is the underproduction of the public good: landlords
do not provide secure, affordable, and quality housing. Instead, rooms are
overcrowded, tenants are forcefully evicted, and services like electricity and
water are privately provisioned at unaffordable costs. In other words, landlords
will exploit the informality to benefit their private or club interests.
Jeffrey W. Paller
In the postcolonial context, extralegal settlements have emerged as a space

for previously marginalized communities to extend their territorial authority
and place demands on governments for democratic dividends. Leaders come
to the city, clear off unauthorized land, and establish a political stronghold,
backed by dense social networks. Communities like Old Fadama (colloquially called Sodom and Gomorrah), King Shona (or James Town Beach), Abuja
CMB in Accra, Tulako in Ashaiman, and Amakom New Town in Kumasi are
examples of extralegal settlements. Old Fadama, perhaps the most politically
contentious of the settlements, has witnessed rapid population growth since
1993 (Grant 2006, 2009). Often called squatter settlements because they
denote the illegal occupation of land, extralegal settlements are considered a
new phenomenon in Ghana, and West Africa more generally (Konadu-Agyemang 1991; Peil 1976). But since the 1990s, they have witnessed widespread
population growth, and new ones are emerging across the country. Their key
traits are that they are viewed as illegitimate in the eyes of the local population, that land was not purchased according to customary norms, and that
they are not officially recognized by government authorities like the Accra
Metropolitan Assembly.
Political entrepreneurs maintain active political ties to their hometown with the hope of running for political office or gaining chieftainships
there in the near future. Therefore, they use the settlement as a space to
accumulate power and goods to reward followers back home. This urban
rural connection is bolstered by the historical precedent that young migrants
who move to the city but have family in their rural hometown are expected
to remit money and accumulated resources back home, fundamentally shaping the nature of urbanrural political and economic cleavages (Bates 1983).7
Further, without access to formal public services, they act as party brokers
between a vast number of voters and formal politicians. Patronclient
39
The Rise of Extralegal Settlements
africa TODAY 62(1)
NSPs operate in a manner that can be analytically captured by whether

they serve private, club, common, or public interests. Political entrepreneurs respond to the incentives they face to control land and housingthe
key element in their ability to extend territorial authority and accumulate
personal power. These incentives shape the relationships that political
entrepreneurs make with the state. Alternatively, the pathways available
to ordinary residents to access and secure affordable and quality housing
depend on the underlying incentive system of political entrepreneurs. I find
that the underlying settlement patterns in which NSPs operate shape the
forms of collective action of communities and the incentives for leadership.
Three types of informal settlements are ubiquitous in urban Ghana; I call
them extralegal, indigenous, and purchased (Paller 2014a). They dictate the
sources of legitimacy and authority in the slums. The list of Ghanaian slums
and their corresponding settlement type is shown in table 1.
Table 1. List of Ghanaian slums
africa TODAY 62(1)

40
Slum Name
City
Settlement Type
Aboabo *+
Abuja CMB *+
Agbogbloshie +
Alajo
Amakom New Town *
Asawase
Ashaiman Zongo *+
Ashanti New Town*
Avenor *+
Chorkor *+
Darkuman
ECOMOC +
Ga Mashie *+^
Gbegbeyise
King Shona (James Town Beach) *+
Kotobabi
Maamobi *
Nima *+
New Fadama
New Town
Nii Boi Town
Old Fadama *+^
Sabon Zongo *
Shiabu *
Sukura
Taabo *+
Tulako *+^
Valco Flat
Zongo Laka +
Kumasi
Accra
Accra
Accra
Kumasi
Kumasi
Ashaiman
Kumasi
Accra
Accra
Accra
Accra
Accra
Accra
Accra
Accra
Accra
Accra
Accra
Accra
Accra
Accra
Accra
Accra
Accra
Ashaiman
Ashaiman
Ashaiman
Ashaiman
Purchased
Extralegal
Extralegal (part indigenous)
Indigenous
Extralegal
Purchased
Purchased
Indigenous
Extralegal (part indigenous)
Indigenous
Purchased
Extralegal
Indigenous
Indigenous
Extralegal
Purchased
Purchased
Purchased
Purchased
Purchased
Indigenous
Extralegal
Purchased
Indigenous
Purchased
Indigenous
Extralegal (part purchased)
Purchased
Purchased
*Slum included in household survey

+Slum included in focus groups
^Slum included in ethnography
Table 2. Housing and goods provision

Extralegal
Housing as a private good
Purchased
Housing as a common good
Indigenous
Housing as a club good
Purchased
Housing as a public good
41
Jeffrey W. Paller
africa TODAY 62(1)
relationships serve the politicians need to win votes and the leaders desire
to reward loyal followers, many of whom are linked to the hometown. Leaders also control land markets, allowing them to establish bases of power
by providing land to coethnic followers. In this way, affordable housing is
governed as a private good, a valuable resource for political entrepreneurs to
achieve personal empowerment.
For an increasingly large number of residents, particularly migrants
from Ghanas three northern regions and neighboring countries, extralegal
settlements offer the most affordable housing option in Accra, yet housing
characteristics in extralegal settlements are particularly distinct. Seventytwo percent of all respondents who live in shacks or kiosks were in extralegal
settlements, and 38 percent of homes have dirt or wooden floors (in contrast
to 16 percent who indicate this housing feature in indigenous settlements
and 12 percent in purchased settlements). Structures in extralegal settlements tend to be the most susceptible to floods and fires: 31 percent of
residents in extralegal settlements indicate that their structures always
flood; 21 percent indicate that it sometimes floods; and 21 percent indicate
that sometimes water drips. Old Fadama, Avenor, and Abuja CMB residents
indicated that their structures have been burned many times.
Only 20 percent of respondents in extralegal settlements indicate that
they do not have security of tenure. While a community might be under the
threat of eviction by state authorities, my data suggest that residents rely
on alternative means to secure their tenure on a daily basis. The following
anecdote illustrates one important way that Ghanaian slum residents rely
on NSPs to access housing and gain tenure security. The day after the results
from Ghanas 2012 presidential election were announced, an Accra resident
explained, Everybody [in our community] is happy that our peace is preserved. They [the NPP supporters] planned to [attack and seize property] if
they win, but Nana Addo has been retired, so they have to sit back. The
resident explained that the stakes were high for his community, an extralegal settlement. The atmosphere was so intense and laced with uncertainty
before the elections that this resident even sent his wife and daughter to
the Northern Region for safety. Others were warned to sell their property;
otherwise, it might be seized by the sympathizerspolitical party branch
leaders and foot soldiersof the opposing government if they won power.
After the NDC won victory in 2008, the NPP activists were forced out of the
community. NPP strongmen relinquished their power to NDC strongmen;
private toilets were seized; and locally named parks and neighborhoods were
renamed after NDC sympathizers. For example, no longer did the local NPP
foot soldier named Yaw collect property rates from the area around self-titled
Yaws Park: NDC foot soldier Hanaan established control, empowered his
base, and now controlled the newly named Hanaans Park.8
In the absence of strong property-rights institutions and state-provisioned housing, residents rely on informal networks with access to political power to secure housing and tenure security. In the case of extralegal
settlements, residents do not have the legal right to reside and work in the
africa TODAY 62(1)

42
community. Therefore, they align with NSPs to protect their livelihoods.

The process of renting a makeshift structure in an extralegal settlement
like Old Fadama depends on these informal networks of power. The case
of Mohammed, a young resident who migrated to Accra from the Northern
Region illustrates this process. In 2007, he left Tamale and moved to Accra
to find work. He was a senior high-school student, but his family could not
afford to pay his school fees. He moved to Old Fadama and moved in with his
brother to seek work to pay for his education. His brother had arrived several
years earlier and established himself as a successful scrap-metal dealer. They
lived in an enclave within the slum where other Tamale residents from his
same ethnic group also stayed. The local strongmen who controlled his area
were his neighbors back home, so he immediately felt comfortable there
among his people.
Mohammed woke up at 5:00 a.m. every morning and circled the city to
collect metal scraps, which he brought back to the community at the end of
the day and sold them to a scrap-metal businessman with some capitallike
his brother. Many of the scrap dealers are quite successful, with close links
to Accra professionals and Ghanaian politicians. Mohammed took a side job
selling used clothes to earn extra money. After two years of living with his
brother, he was ready to purchase his own structure. Because his brother had
some political clout in the neighborhood, they were able to negotiate a small
plot in the same line of structures where his brother lived. His brother was
able to secure the plot because he was close to the de facto landlords of the
area. Mohammed simply needed to come up with the 300 cedis (about $150)
to buy the timber, build the structure, and get connected to the electricity
grid by paying an informal electrician.
But Mohammed was not simply squatting free of charge; he was a new
member and follower to the political entrepreneur. He was especially valued
as a new member and resource because he is literate and educated. (Most
residents in the community do not know English, cannot read and write, and
have very little formal schooling.) Mohammed puts these skills to use: he
writes letters for the man to assist him in securing contracts for local youth.
The political entrepreneur uses his connections to the ruling NDC party to
secure jobs for area youth.
Being close to the political entrepreneur gives Mohammed power and
a sense of security of tenure; it enables him to help his fellow community
memberssomething he feels is important for altruistic reasons, but which
might help him in the future if he ever wants to step into politics. He hopes
that when he is ready to start a business, the political entrepreneur will be
one of the early investors, or will at least link him up to people with money.
Mohammed enjoys living in the extralegal settlement where he pays no rent
and lives next to his brother and his wife, who works in the nearby market.
Perhaps most importantly, Mohammed remains an important node in the
political network that dominates his social and familial sphere.
While Mohammed is just one person, his story illustrates how residents in extralegal settlements access affordable housing. He did not seek
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africa TODAY 62(1)
a bank loan, though he has a bank account; he did not access governmentprovided housing (it was not an option); he did not leverage remittances (he
has no family members abroad); he did not align with an internationally
aligned NGO (the few NGOs in the community are mistrusted by residents
and accused of corruption); and he did not purchase a property title (they do
not exist in the community). But what is interesting about his experience,
as well as that of thousands of others in Old Fadama, is that they do invest
in their houses, benefit from their cheap housing, and feel secure in their
tenure. Housing is a private good, but it is still an affordable good.
Most attention given by outsiders to residents in slums emphasizes
poverty, informality, and unemployment, but extralegal settlements provide
young social and political entrepreneurs the opportunity to make money,
develop a fund of followers, and amass power. The development of these
power structures directly affects the housing market because the local leaders control the provision of public and private services to the area, and they
collect rents to deepen their control. Leaders abilities to maintain informality and take advantage of the extralegal environment shape the political terrain and daily governance. The original settlement pattern that helped shape
the development of local authority structures provides a glimpse into how
access to power shapes the governance of affordable housing.
While Old Fadama is typically portrayed as a haven for poor and vulnerable internal refugees, the reality on the ground is that it is a vibrant space
for commercial enterprise. With a population of more than eighty thousand,
business opportunities there are plentiful (Housing the Masses 2010). Men
work in the burgeoning scrap and e-waste business (Grant and Oteng-Obabio
2012); women sell goods at the largest market in Accra just across the street;
and early settlers in the community sell land on the informal market. A
further source of income is the provision of basic services like selling water,
siphoning electricity, and running private showers and toilets. In fact, shower
and toilet operators are some of the wealthiest people in the community,
along with scrap dealers and transport operators. They earn consistent, daily
cash income. Many of the business owners no longer sleep in the community
but continue to do business there.
For most residents of Old Fadama, the slum offers cheap housing and
access to business opportunities. For many, it offers more: the opportunity
to establish political ties and enhance personal power. For example, in the
early 2000s, an NGO called Peoples Dialogue for Human Settlements (PD)
started working in the community; its goal was to ensure that the rights of
the slum dwellers were protected in the case of eviction (Braimah 2011). It
vehemently fought against forced eviction of the community. As part of its
work, it attempted to build a community-based organization of members
who live in the community. The Old Fadama Development Association
(OFADA) was formed, and local leaders who had accumulated power based
on securing political connections, amassing wealth, providing private goods
and services, and having higher education levels stepped into formal positions of power. But these leadership selections were not based on transparent,
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44
free, and fair democratic elections: instead, leaders were publicly appointed
among a small cadre of local leadership. Governance of the community,
including its housing, was a private affair.
The organization was supposed to help improve the services in the
community, but the leaders were not held accountable by the residents. The
most obvious example was in 2009, when the organization instituted a ten
cedi tax (about US$5) to all households, but the money was never used for
its purpose. The allegation was that the chairman and his closest advisers
captured the money and used it for their own businesses. Residents lost trust
in the organization, and many community leaders no longer wanted to be
associated with it, yet it continues to exist as a shadow organization: when
PD, the internationally funded affiliate of Slum Dwellers International,
needs to mobilize people on the ground, it calls the leaders of OFADA. Further, the OFADA leaders have deep ties with the NDC political party, greatly
bolstering their financial power in the community. The chairman of OFADA
is the local special ward chairman for the NDC. This political entrepreneur
maintains strong links to development NGOs, the governing political party,
and his ethnic group traditional authorities.
This is not uncommon across Accra, as local leaders capture government or internationally funded resources, exhibiting predatory behavior
politely termed elite capture (Bardhan and Mookherjee 2005; Platteau
2004), and it continues to be one of the most serious problems facing slum
communities. It fosters serious mistrust among residents and their leaders.
But it is unique in extralegal settlements because living and working there
offers local leaders political opportunities that they would not have if the
settlement were formal. Leaders become vocal advocates for seemingly
powerless populations and closely align themselves with international organizations like Amnesty International and PD. They organize protests against
recent forced evictions and claim to be human-rights advocates for the poor.
These informal networks are shielded by formal political actors, particularly their political parties. Informal networks shape access to affordable housing because they have access to the real sources of power in
the countrythe political parties who control the distribution of state
resources. Politicians and state bureaucrats empower these local political
entrepreneurs by protecting the de facto landlordism, despite the extralegal
context, in exchange for political supportvotes, providing foot soldiers, and
making campaign contributions from the proceeds of their public services
(e.g., private toilets and showers). Political parties establish organizational
branches along these already existing informal social networks, with political entrepreneurs acting as branch executives, providing an embedded link
to neighborhoods. Competition over housing, public services, and other
resources occurs between these informal networks and between different
political entrepreneurs. Many of these struggles occur within the same political parties and among the same ethnic group.
The role of the political parties in the situation surrounding Old
Fadama is critical, but is underemphasized in the literature. Existing
Jeffrey W. Paller
One of the more surprising developments in urban communities is the

downgrading of indigenous settlements. Traditional urban neighborhoods are
being overlooked in development plans, and they have actually descended
into slums (Melara Arguello et al. 2013). Indigenous settlements include
Ga Mashie (comprising James Town and Ussher Town), Chorkor, Shiabu in
Accra; Ashanti New Town in Kumasi; and Taabo in Ashaiman. Indigenous
settlements are unique because local politics and community governance is
dominated by customary norms and indigenous procedures and practices,
but they have distinct political advantages when compared to extralegal
and purchased settlements: they are officially recognized by government
authorities, they form the historical center of cities (Razzu 2005), and their
residents maintain close links to national politicians.
In indigenous settlements, the NSPs are the indigenous landlords, and
have official and legitimate ownership to the territory and structures. For
this reason, they do not necessarily have the incentive to go through formal
state channels to secure goods and resources because their leaders benefit
from ambiguity and informality (Onoma 2010). The status of the slum is
not under threat, and leaders can make demands on local authorities by way
of offering land access in exchange for goods, services, and resources. The
control of the land market provides added power: indigenous communities
demand that members of coethnics be placed in municipal positions, providing them a deeply entrenched patronage network. Leaders will be considered
only if they are of the indigenous ethnic group and are from the community.
They must come from powerful families and demonstrate themselves as
family heads. They have an incentive to place their own ethnic group or
family interest above that of the broader community interest. They gain
social status through traditional means. Chieftaincy struggles have a long
history of being politicized for personal gain, dividing the community and
45
The Downgrading of Indigenous Settlements
africa TODAY 62(1)
scholarship tends to frame the situation into a state-versus-community

narrative (Afenah 2010; Braimah 2011; Du Plessis 2005; Grant 2006, 2009;
Obeng-Odoom 2011), popularized by the Ghanaian media and strategically
used by affected political actors and institutions. Yet evidence on the ground
shows that informal networks that underlie the two major political parties
also control the housing market. These parties constantly jockey for support:
they make promises that can never be met, they empower local leaders who
restrict access to state resources to their own followers, and they make competing claims in Parliament about what should be done in the community. In
the end, the status quo persists because of the entrenched patronage network:
NSPs and state actors have the incentive to keep the situation the way it is
because they continue to benefit. In this way, the governance of housing is
a private endeavor, which contributes to personal empowerment of political
entrepreneurs. Housing is governed as a private good.
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46
seeding mistrust and resentment. This dates back to colonial times (Quarcoopome 1987; Sackeyfio-Lenoch 2014). Therefore, housing is a club good
that is nonrivalrous and excludable and benefits leaders and members of the
indigenous ethnic group. Being part of the indigenous club is the best way
to secure access to affordable and secure housing.
Because of the customary property rights regime, politicians and government authorities need access to land to implement development projects.
They therefore have the incentive to align with traditional authorities to
pursue their developmental priorities. Traditional authorities connect with
politicians to promote their self-interest, with little incentive to invest in
the interests of the broader city. Politicians offer patronage in exchange for
land, votes, and spiritual support. This is evident at the individual level,
where residents maintain distinct relationships to the metropolitan assembly. These links are substantiated by my data, which show fifty-six respondents in indigenous settlements who have secured a government contract,
compared to only twenty-four in purchased and twenty-eight in extralegal
settlements.9 This evidence suggests that indigeneity is a powerful political resource in local politics (Hilgers 2011). Further, most pockets of highly
educated individuals are in indigenous settlements, perhaps reflecting the
fact that during colonial urban planning, schools and educational facilities
were built closest to the urban center, where indigenous settlements remain
(Mabogunje 1976; Myers 2003). Also, more residents of indigenous settlements are literate than in in extralegal settlements. In these distinct ways,
the political entrepreneurs of NSPs in indigenous settlements tend to have
high-status occupations, like lawyers, judges, and employees of big corporations. These leaders do not necessarily live in the community, but own bigger
houses in faraway neighborhoods.
Consider the example of a community leader and political entrepreneur in one NSP in Ga Mashie, an indigenous neighborhood that comprises
James Town and Ussher Town in Accra. Samuel Ashalley Addey-Ashley
serves as the preeminent landlord on one neighborhood block because he
is the fetish priest for the Ga peoplefor which his name is Nana Odupon
Okomfo Abeka Sikafo II. In April 2013, he celebrated his latest accomplishment: securing the government contract to rebuild the local Salaga Market.
He has no contracting skills and has never been to technical school, but
his close political connections to Member of Parliament Edwin Nii Lantey
Vanderpuye helped secure him the contract. Vanderpuye needed the support
of a traditional elder to build on the land: he needed to offer club goods to a
traditional leader for the state to develop a market there. Ashley sought the
assistance of his son-in-lawan educated businessman living in the United
Statesto help finance the project and provide the contracting skills and
expertise. The contract was the prize outcome of a long political struggle for
the rights to rebuild the marketone that spanned political parties, market
womens associations, and various MPs and assemblymen.
Ashleys story is specific but not unique. Despite Ga Mashies political
and historical importance, family struggles for authority and power divide
Legitimacy and Opportunity in Purchased Settlements
Jeffrey W. Paller
47
Purchased settlements are viewed as legitimate neighborhoods today because

of how the neighborhood was settled: early settlers purchased plots of land
from customary authorities. The state, as well as residents of Accra, does
not question the legitimacy of the neighborhood, even though numerous
property disputes arise within these settlements and often have a history
of resisting eviction and demolition (Arn 1996). Though poor and underresourced, slums like Nima, Maamobi, Sabon Zongo, and Aboabo (Kumasi)
are legitimate in the eyes of the broader population, and require a different
categorization from extralegal settlements. Because of the legitimacy of their
initial formation, I call them purchased settlements. Most zongos in urban
Ghana are examples of purchased settlements.
NSPs in purchased settlements gain their authority from the initial
and legitimate purchase of their homes. Early landlords settled on land,
secured its legal status, and made demands on the government to provide
them services in exchange for tax revenue and votes. For example, the origin
of Nima is traced to Alhaji Futas purchase of the land in 1931; Alhaji Seidu
Kardi exchanged gifts to customary authorities for Madina to play a more
important role as local leader (Peil 1976:163); Malam Nelu purchased a plot
of land at Zongo Malam; Malam Bako founded Sabon Zongo (Pellow 1985);
and Braimah founded Tudu in in the early 1900s (Ntewusu 2012). But what is
most important is that they are forced to make links with traditional authorities and the state to offer protection and security, with particular emphasis
on housing. In Accra, this meant establishing patronage networks with the
indigenous Ga (Pellow 2002). The same is true for stranger communities in
other cities, as for example, the need to make ties with indigenous Ashantis
in Kumasi (Arhin 1971; Schildkrout 1970, 1978). Further, most of these communities are multiethnic, comprising many Hausa, Yoruba, and northern
Ghanaian tribes. While ethnic networks dominate daily life, leaders and
groups form alliances with other leaders and groups to form more powerful
coalitions in the face of state power. The cooperation among leaders from
different groups has the effect of possibly trickling down to group members
(Acemoglu and Jackson 2012). The close ties that ethnic headmen have with
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the community and undermine the public interest (Paller 2014b). NSPs in
indigenous settlements serve club interestsfamilies from the indigenous
ethnic group who claim ownership of the land. Political entrepreneurs in
indigenous settlements gain power from their ability to control land and
housingand profit from so-called drink moneyand derive their legitimacy
and authority from customary norms (Tipple et al. 1999). While members
of the nonindigenous group can make alliances with these NSPs, they must
subscribe to these indigenous norms and duties. In this way, affordable housing is not a public good for all members of the community, but a good that
privileges family and indigenous ties. Housing is governed as a club good.
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48
indigenous traditional authorities provide the needed legitimacy to gain state

legal recognition. Once the slum gains legal status, political entrepreneurs
jockey for formal recognition to become formal representatives to their
followers. They establish close political ties with the host city and need to
reward loyal followers with the intention of staying in the city.
Housing in purchased settlements can take the form of common or
public goods. If the housing stock is limited, as in older settlements like
Nima and Maamobi, affordable housing is a common good that is rivalrous
but nonexcludable. In newer settlements and those settled in tandem with
municipal authorities, housing is a public good: an unlimited stock of housing is available for residents. Housing as a public good is rare in African
societies, yet many policiesparticularly those funded by international
donorsassume that affordable housing is a public good that benefits all
citizens. This is a faulty assumption.
In purchased settlements where housing is a common good, NSPs subscribe to norms that enable members of all different types of groups access to
affordable and secure housing. Political entrepreneurs have the incentive to
provide housing to those who need it: this is how they extend their territorial
authority and gain personal power. Consider the example of Father Abdulai, a
landlord who rents out dozens of rooms in his compound to migrant youths
in Tulako-Ashaiman. Many of these migrants work as butchers at his shop:
he purchases many animals, and they each get one to sell. They rent a stall
in his shop. He serves as a father figure, who offers advice in times of need,
settles disputes between residents in the neighborhood, and offers security of
tenure for those living in his homes. Providing affordable and secure housing
to followers increases his legitimacy and authority, giving him the necessary
political capital to step into formal positions of power. In Ashaiman, this is
the case with most assemblymen and women who gain privileged positions
of power. Affordable housing in extralegal and indigenous settlements privileges private or club interests, respectively, but in purchased settlements it
serves common interests. In turn, access to quality and secure housing is
available to a larger and more diverse group of people. Therefore, purchased
settlements are the optimal institutional context for accessing and securing
affordable housing. Housing is governed as a common or public good.
Conclusion: The Political Implications of

Nonstate Providers of Housing
In this article, I demonstrate how NSPs act within their particular institutional contexts. Political entrepreneurs have different incentives and constraints, depending on the type of settlement in which they operate. They
make decisions depending on whether the settlement is extralegal, indigenous, or purchased directly from customary authorities. For example, NSPs
in slum neighborhoods within Ashaiman tend to have more direct links with
the formal municipal assembly, allowing them to control the distribution of
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Jeffrey W. Paller
africa TODAY 62(1)
housing through a more formalized process. Political entrepreneurs in indigenous settlements like Ga Mashie and Chorkor are likelier to be entrenched
in traditional authority networks, reflecting the role customary authorities
have in controlling the land market. In extralegal settlements, NSPs control
the de facto land market and rule for their private interests. Yet all these
NSPs have important connections to the state and political parties that
require further investigation.
This article set out to answer why some urban residents gain access
to quality, affordable, and secure housing while others do not. The answer I
advance is that residents who align with powerful NSPsthe local informal
network led by a political entrepreneurhave greater opportunities to access
and secure affordable housing. NSPs respond to the incentives shaped by the
settlement pattern in which they govern land and housing. In other words,
the provision of affordable housing depends on more than state policies and
access to the free market; also, it requires paying attention to the informal
norms and duties that shape local governance and collective action.
Urban residents and businessmen in Accra rely on their political leaders to access affordable housing, secure land tenure, protect themselves from
the rule of law, and gain access to state resources. Affordable housing, rather
than being understood or experienced as a public good that helps all Ghanaians, is often a private or club good that benefits a small group of people.
Ghanaians vote their political party into power and support their community
leaders so they can access basic goods and services, like housing. Residents
whose leader is not in power feel a strong sense of insecurity, heightening the
importance of maintaining strong allegiances to their political party. Rather
than unifying the country and supporting a national housing policy, partisan
interests have politicized the provision of affordable housing and created a
political deadlock that is hard to break. This has significant implications for
the democratic process. Democratic government is not benefiting the public
good, but is being used by political parties to distribute state resources to
their followers at the expense of the rest of the population. Poor residents
who are not part of informal networks with access to political power suffer
the most and face the greatest barriers to affordable housing.
Without a strong rule of law and property-rights regime in place, those
who benefit from the private provision of goodsparticularly in extralegal
settlementshave significant power in maintaining the status quo (Fox
2014; Gulyani and Talukdar 2008). Therefore, providing public goods is not
simply about strengthening formal government institutions, but also about
creating incentives for these informal actors to enter a formal and regulated
environment. This involves directly confronting the politico-institutional
context that underlies daily life. The affordable housing shortage is a political
problem, not merely a technical or administrative one.
Finally, the study of housing requires on-the-ground analysis and the
collection of household-level and neighborhood-level original data. My
study demonstrates how ethnography and original survey data uncover the
importance of NSPs and their political effects in a way that relying on census
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50
data and newspaper accounts does not. I can show the mechanisms through
which residents access, afford, and secure housing in poor environments.
I can demonstrate the power that certain local actors have and attempt to
show why some residents overcome institutional and structural challenges
while others do not. In fact, some local residents do have power, and they do
have opportunities to improve their life: the poor are not entirely powerless
or marginal (as Nelson 1979 and Perlman 1975 argued). The type of NSP,
the patronage networks that develop, and the links to political parties and
the state matter when it comes to control of the housing market in urban
Ghanaian communities. These things help explain why the status quo is so
difficult to change and why numerous efforts that focus solely on formal
housing markets and state provision of housing have failed. A continued
investigation of the grassroots political economy and local governance is
necessary to understand the challenges of urban housing in Ghana today.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks to Sarah Charlton, Peter Lewis, Kate Owens, and Anne Pitcher for helpful comments during the African Studies Association Annual Meeting of 2013. The 2012 APSA Africa
Workshop team provided the inspiration for the paper. Danielle Carter and Lauren MacLean
provided fantastic feedback on many iterations of the paper. The Social Science Research Council
and the National Science Foundation Award Number 1226588 funded the research. Alhassan
Ibn Abdallah, Philip Kumah, Nii Addo Quaynor, and Abubakar Addy provided excellent research
assistance. Emmanuel Gyimah-Boadi and the Ghana Center for Democratic Development served
as great research collaborators. Mohammed Awal and Kakra Duayeden helped manage the
survey team with great skill. All errors are my own.
NOTES
1. UN-HABITAT (2003) defines slums by their physical conditions. Slum conditions lack durable
housing of a permanent nature that protects against extreme climate conditions; sufficient
living space, which means not more than three people sharing the same room; easy access
to safe water in sufficient amounts at an affordable price; access to adequate sanitation in
the form of a private or public toilet shared by a reasonable number of people; and security
of tenure that prevents forced evictions. I define slums as neighborhoods that have these
observable conditions.
2. The precise definition of informal institutions is the socially shared rules that are created,
communicated, and enforced outside of officially sanctioned channels (Helmke and Levitsky
2004). The networks I describe act in these broader, informal institutional environments.
3. The survey, entitled Public Service Provision in Urban Ghana, was conducted in April 2013 in
tandem with the Ghana Center for Democratic Development. It was funded by the National
Science Foundation Award Number 1226588. It is the first comprehensive survey that I know
of that considers many different types of slum communities in Accra, particularly the extralegal ones. The survey sampled residents in sixteen slum communities, varying the settlement
type of the slum. Boundaries of slums are determined by a rich assessment of how residents
and officials designate certain neighborhoods based on insights acquired after qualitative
research. The survey asks about political conditions in the slums. The questions are tailored to
fit local contexts and consider dynamics specific to slum life. The survey provides public service
in Accra, Ashaiman, and Kumasi (1183 total respondents). Slums are selected to vary the initial
settlement pattern of the slum (Paller 2014a). To make up for a lack of adequate baseline data
in these communities, the survey utilizes a spatial sampling technique (Landry and Shen 2005).
Using Google Earth, the research team constructed maps of all sixteen communities. It then
constructed a spatial grid of equal geographical units called clusters. Clusters were randomly
sampled in each slum (150 clusters total). The cluster is the enumeration area. A starting point
enumerators conducted a random walk protocol from each starting point.
inhabitants of these communities were Muslims from the north. Today, they are generally
understood to contain a strong Muslim identity, and members speak the Hausa language,
though not all members are of the Hausa ethnic group.
5. The question asked: Do you or the head of the household have property title for the structure?
6. The question asked: I will now read you several statements about your feelings of security of stay.
Please let me know which statement best represents your view. Answers: (1)I do not have security
of stay because the government or my landlord threatens to evict us; (2)I do not have security
of stay because I am in the midst of a property dispute with another family or ethnic group or
landlord; (3)I have security of stay because my political party is in power; (4)I have security
of stay because I am an indigene and this is a family house; (5)I have security of stay because
I or my family purchased this land legally; (6)I have security of stay because my ethnic group
controls this territory; (9)I dont know.
7. I thank Catherine Lena Kelly for emphasizing this point.
8. Ghana has had multiparty elections since 1992 and is hailed as the model democracy on the
continent. The political arena is dominated by two major political parties, the National Democratic Congress (NDC) and the National Patriotic Party (NPP). Since 2008, the NDC has been
the governing party; previously, the NPP ruled from 2000 to 2008. The parties have regional
and ethnic core areas, and most slums in the Greater Accra Region, including my study sites,
are NDC strongholds.
9. The question asked: How many contracts have you received from the government?
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Residents who succeed in

Informal Networks and Access to

JEFFREY W. PALLER is Earth Institute Postdoctoral Research Fellow at

africa TODAY 62(1)

In the absence of state-provisioned and formally regulated housing,

The History of State and Nonstate Housing Provision

africa TODAY 62(1)

Old Fadama because primary research on community leadership, housing,

africa TODAY 62(1)

of 736,657 in 1970; 1,184,636 in 1984; 1,526,275 in 2000; and 1,600,000 in

africa TODAY 62(1)

Nonstate Providers of Housing:

africa TODAY 62(1)

The ineffectiveness of state housing policies has contributed to a situation

These political entrepreneurs have withstood large-scale structural and

africa TODAY 62(1)

africa TODAY 62(1)

level. It is through this mechanism of power that the access, affordability,

NSPs and Informal Settlements

In the postcolonial context, extralegal settlements have emerged as a space

The Rise of Extralegal Settlements

africa TODAY 62(1)

NSPs operate in a manner that can be analytically captured by whether

Table 1. List of Ghanaian slums

africa TODAY 62(1)

*Slum included in household survey

Table 2. Housing and goods provision

africa TODAY 62(1)

africa TODAY 62(1)

community. Therefore, they align with NSPs to protect their livelihoods.

africa TODAY 62(1)

africa TODAY 62(1)

One of the more surprising developments in urban communities is the

The Downgrading of Indigenous Settlements

africa TODAY 62(1)

scholarship tends to frame the situation into a state-versus-community

africa TODAY 62(1)

Legitimacy and Opportunity in Purchased Settlements

Purchased settlements are viewed as legitimate neighborhoods today because

africa TODAY 62(1)

africa TODAY 62(1)

indigenous traditional authorities provide the needed legitimacy to gain state

Conclusion: The Political Implications of

africa TODAY 62(1)

africa TODAY 62(1)

africa TODAY 62(1)

africa TODAY 62(1)

Countries. UNU-WIDER Working Paper 201030.

Urban Accra, Ghana. Urban Studies 37(13):2485500.

africa TODAY 62(1)

Investment in Ghana. Journal of Political Economy 116(6):9811022.

africa TODAY 62(1)

City of Accra. International Development Planning Review 30(2):17798.

africa TODAY 62(1)

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