Indian and Persian Swordsmanship

RevistadeArtesMarcialesAsiticas
RAMA
Volumen10(1),4267~EneroJunio2015
DOI:10.18002/rama.v10i1.1499
I.S.S.N.21740747
http://revpubli.unileon.es/ojs/index.php/artesmarciales
IndianandPersianswordsmanship:AComparativeAnalysis
AlekseyKUROCHKIN1*&ManouchehrMoshtaghKHORASANI2*
1IndependentResearcher(RussianFederation)
2IndependentResearcher(Germany)
Recepcin:11/06/2014;Aceptacin:20/06/2015;Publicacin:28/06/2015.
Abstract
ORIGINALPAPER
TheexistingculturalinterconnectionbetweenIranandNorthIndia,whichexistedanddevelopedoveralongperiodof
time, is known today as IndoIranian or IndoPersian, which could be applied to the region, culture, literature,
weapons and other spheres of intercultural interference. The cultural cooperation between these two countries was
bilateral and marked by trade routes. This paper is aimed at analyzing the interrelation, similarities and differences
betweenthemartialandmilitaryculturesofIndiaandPersia.Moreprecisely,thearticledescribesthefieldofindividual
traininginmilitaryskills,methodsoftheiracquisitionandretention,aswellastheusageoftherelatedweapons.Forthis
purpose,wecarriedoutacomparativeanalysisbasedonhistoricalsourcesaswellasoncontemporaryliteratureonthe
topic.First,thepaperfocusesongeneralprinciplesandweapontraditionsinbothcultures.Thenextsectiondealswitha
descriptionofsometechniquesofPersianswordsmanshipasdescribedinPersianmanuscripts.Thenextpartdescribes
some aspects of Indian swordsmanship. Then the last part describes some similarities and differences related to
techniquesofswordsmanshipinbothtraditions.However,oneshouldstressthatalthoughtherearemanyextantPersian
manuscriptsonwarfareandfightingtechniques,norelatedIndianmanuscriptshavebeenfoundsofar.Thisarticleisonly
atanintialstageofresearch.
Palabrasclave:MartialArts;India;Persia;sword;Indianculture;Persiancultureandlanguage;Indianswordsmanship;
Persianswordsmanship.
Esgrimaindiaypersa:unanlisiscomparativo
Resumen
Esgrimandiaepersa:umaanlisecomparativa
Resumo
LainterconexinculturalentreIrnyelnortedelaIndia,
que existi y se desarroll durante un largo perodo, se
conoce hoy enda como indoiran o indopersa, que
podraaplicarsealaregin,cultura,literatura,armasya
otras esferas de intervencin intercultural. La
cooperacinculturalentreestosdospasesfuebilateraly
estuvo marcada por las rutas comerciales. Este artculo
analizalainterrelacin,similitudesydiferenciasentrelas
culturas marciales y militares de la India y Persia. Ms
precisamente, el artculo describe el campo de la
formacin individual en habilidades militares, mtodos
para su adquisicin y retencin, as como el uso de las
armasrelacionadascondichaformacin.Paralograreste
objetivo, se llev a cabo un anlisis comparativo basado
en fuentes histricas y en literatura contempornea
sobre el tema. En primer lugar, el artculo describe los
principiosgeneralesylastradicionesdearmasenambas
culturas. La siguiente seccin muestra algunas de las
tcnicas de esgrima persa descritas en los manuscritos.
La siguiente parte describe algunos aspectos de la
esgrimaindia.Porltimo,serefierenalgunassimilitudes
y diferencias de las tcnicas de esgrima en ambas
tradiciones. Debe subrayarse que, aunque existen
muchos manuscritos persas sobre tcnicas de combate,
nohaymanuscritosindiossobrelatemtica,onosehan
encontradohastalafecha.Esteartculoesslounaetapa
inicialdeinvestigacin.
Keywords: Artes marciales; India; Persia; espada; cultura
india; cultura y lengua persa; esgrima india; esgrima persa.
AinterconexoculturalentreoIroeonortedandia,que
existiu e se desenvolveu durante um vasto perodo, se
conhece hoje em dia como indoariano ou indopersa,
que poderia aplicarse regio, cultura, literatura, s
armas e outros mbitos de interveno intercultural. A
cooperao cultural entre estes dois pases foi bilateral e
foi marcada pelas rotas comerciais. Este artigo analisa a
intercorrelao, similitudes e diferenas entre as culturas
marciais e militares da ndia e da Prsia. Mais
precisamente, este artigo descreve o campo de formao
individual nas habilidades militares, mtodos para a sua
aquisio e apreenso, assim como o uso das armas
relacionadas com a dita formao. Para alcanar o
objectivo,selevouacaboumaanlisecomparativabaseada
em fontes histricas e literatura contempornea sobre o
tema.Emprimeirolugar,descreveosprincpiosgeraiseas
tradies de armas e ambas as culturas. Esta parte revela
algumas das tcnicas de esgrima persa descritas nos
manuscritos.Asegundapartedescrevealgunsaspectosda
esgrimandia.Porltimo,sereferemalgumassimilitudese
diferenasdastcnicasdeesgrimaemambasastradies.
Deve notarse que existem muitos manuscritos persas
sobre as tcnicas de combate, mas no existem
manuscritos ndios sobre a temtica ou, ento, no se
encontrou at ao presente momento. Este artigo apenas
umaetapainicialdaInvestigao.
Palavraschave: Artes marciais; ndia; Prsia; espada;
culturandia;culturaelnguapersa;esgrimandia;esgrima
persa.
*Email:[email protected];[email protected].
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2015UniversidaddeLen.www.unileon.es
1.Introduccin
India and Iran shared close and obvious common interests regarding conquests and
invasions.EvenDariustheGreatconqueredterritorieswithinthebordersofthefuturePunjaband
Sindregions.Muslimexpansion,whichbeganwithArabinvasionsinthe6thcenturyandcontinued
inthe11thcenturybyTurkicconquerorsledtotheestablishmentofthefirstMuslimstateonthe
territoryofIndiaatthebeginningofthe13thcentury.Thetimelimitsofthisperiodwereparallelto
theIranianculturalrenaissanceandthespreadofPersianlanguageintheSafavidempire.Oneof
thekeyareasofinterculturalinteractionwasthefieldofweaponsandswordsmanshiptechniques.
Starting from the 13th century Persian cultural influence rapidly spread throughout the Muslim
world.TheconquerorsofNorthIndiahadalreadyadoptedthePersianculture(Bosworth,2004,p.
297).Unlikeotherconquerors,theMuslimconquerorsofIndiadidnotdissolveintothecultureof
theconqueredcountry,buttheybroughttheirownpoliticalandmilitarysystem,lifestyle,trendsof
social relations and culture. This was not the case in Iran, as all conquerors adopted and were
heavily influenced by Persian culture (Frye, 1989, p. 236). Another important factor was that the
peoplewerehardtocontrolbecauseoftheirmobilityandporousnessoftheregion(seeKolff,2002;
Nitin,2008,pp.133).Takingallthesefactorsintoconsideration,oneshouldnotethatNorthIndia
possessed necessary conditions for adopting Persian culture in all areas of life at the time of the
Moghulinvasion.IftheBaburnme[BookofBbur]waswritteninthenativelanguageoftheTurkic
conquerors(withsomepartswritteninPersianpoems),theAkbarnme[BookofAkbar]initsturn
wasentirelycomposedinPersian.Atthesametime,theculturalcooperationwasnotcoercedby
takingunilateralmeasures.Moreover,theacceptanceofmanyaspectsofPersiancultureoccurred
through substitution of similar Indian traditions or through a compromise as in case of Urdu
language genesis, which was an organic combination of linguistic elements from Indian dialects
withthePersianlanguage.IncaseofreplacementofautochthonouslinguisticelementsfromIndian
dialects by those brought by the Persian language, the last elements gradually started to be
perceived as originally Indian, precisely because of the conformity and even similarity of these
elements.ForexamplethetermfortraditionalIndianwrestlingkushtiisoriginatedfromPersian
wordkoti(seeKhorasani,2010a,p.217)whileIndianwrestlingwascalledmalla.Perhaps,in
some cases there was only a replacement of a name or a term due to the predominance of the
PersianlanguageevidencedbyanextantbodyoftextswritteninPersian.Atthesametimethere
were still some completely indigenous elements, which had not been exposed to an external
influence.
2.Generalprinciplesandweapontraditions
ItisveryhardtodrawaparallelbetweenPersianandNorthIndianfightingtraditionsatthe
present time. Although it is possible to explore Persian traditions based on numerous extant
writtensources,onecanonlyrelyonpartiallypreserved(perhapsevenpartiallymodified)physical
martialpracticeswhilestudyingNorthIndiantraditions.Itisobviousthatinformationwhichcanbe
discovered from the manuscripts and descriptions explain firstly specific techniques, which are
possible to be deduced as part of a complete warrior training curriculum. It is extremely hard to
trackmethodologicalcomponentsanddetailsofaspecificwarriortrainingprogram,perse.There
are extant methodological descriptions and main training principles in case of North Indian
practices,butunderstandingandapplicationofthemasaspecificsetoftechniquesislost.
Considering all abovementioned circumstances, it would be useful for those who are
interestedinIndianfightingtechniquestobecomeawareofrealwarriortechniquesandtraditions
from Persian warrior manuscripts, and, perhaps, to compensate the lack of this information on
North Indian traditions, or to draw parallels and understand what results the basic training
principles and methods can lead to. It could be that followers of the Persian fighting arts and
techniques will be curious to know the extent of the methodological process in North Indian
traditions.Animportantfactorwhichisalsothecommondenominatoroftheexploredtraditionsis
the similarity of the weapons used within the framework of each tradition. Despite the common
opinionaboutthevarietyandunusualnessofIndianweaponconstruction,theweaponoftheNorth
Indian region typologically corresponded with the Persian weapon in their main features. Hence
Rev.ArtesMarcialesAsit.,10(1),4267~2015
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Kurochkin,A.,&Khorasani,M.M.
someresearcherstendtodescribetheseweaponsasIndoPersian(seeRawson,1967,pp.3033,&
59).
3.Persianswordsmanship
TherearenumerousPersianmanuscripts,poemsandstoriesthatdescribe,specificallyand
in detail, the different techniques used in Persian swordsmanship such as the 10thcentury
hnme [Book of Kings], the 14thcentury Majma alAnsb [Complete Collection of Peoples], and
Dstne Hosseyn Korde abestari [The Story of Hosseyn Korde abestari; ca. 1600 C.E.]. Some of
these swordsmanship techniques are represented via the miniatures that are reproduced herein.
AlthoughnoschoolofmedievalorearlymodernPersianswordsmanshiphassurvivedthepassage
of time, the traditional stick fighting and stick dancing that is practiced in different parts of Iran
reveals techniques that presumably derive from sword and spear techniques of the past. In the
province of Sistn, in southeastern Iran, a traditional dance called raqse amir (sword dance)
includes many defensive and offensive techniques. During this dance, both dancers use two steel
swords,andastheydemonstratedifferenttypesofattacksanddefensivetechniques,theygradually
intensify the speed and the executed power of their techniques during the course of the dance.
Swordsmanship techniques were also practiced in the zurxne (house of strength) in varzee
pahlavni(championssport;thetraditionalmartialartofIran)alongsidewrestlingandassociated
exercisesuntilthelate1920sorearly1930s.Afterthisperiod,possiblyduetoabanonweapons,
training in traditional swordsmanship ceased to be practiced. Nevertheless, varzee pahlavni
offersacomprehensive,allroundmartialsystem,asitincludedtrainingexercisesforfightingwith
swords,bows,macesandshields(Luijendijk,2006,pp.67).
Many literary accounts mention swordsmanship. Examples include Ketbe Samak Ayyr
[BookofSamakAyyr](ca.1100C.E.),MobrakhsdbalHarbvaaloje[TheCustomsofWar
and Bravery] (ca. 1229 C.E.), Mostofis Zafarnme [Book of Victories] (ca. 1334 C.E.), and Dastane
HosseynKordeabestari[TheStoryofHosseynKordeabestari](ca.1600C.E.).Collectively,these
accountsdescribemethodsofcarrying,drawing,andsheathingtheswordandshield.Inaddition,
theyclassifyswordstrikesbytheangleofattack.Forinstance,thereareverticaldownwardattacks.
Thesetargetthetopofthehead,bothshoulders,botharms,bothwristsandthelanceshaft.There
areverticalupwardattacks.Thesetargetthearmpits,genitals,andlanceshaft.Therearehorizontal
strikes. These attack the neck, face, and mouth, the back and the sides of the body, and the legs,
shins and knees. There are diagonal attacks. These attack the back of the neck and the abdomen.
Althoughthereareaccountsofthrustingwithswords,thrustingwasgenerallyreservedforlances
and spears. The manuscripts also describe how to strike using the unsharpened back of swords.
Targetsincludedthehelmet,whichwoulddistractanopponent,andthesideoftheneck.Thetarget
ontheneckwasthevagusnerveandcarotidarteries,whereagoodblowwouldcausetheperson
beingstrucktoloseconsciousness.Toavoidunnecessarydamagetoswords,edgetoedgeparrying
was discouraged. Instead, the back of the sword was used to deflect and parry. In Persian
swordsmanship, the shield was used both defensively and offensively. Defensive uses included
blockingverticalswordstrikesagainsttheheadandshouldersandhorizontalstrikestothebody,
while offensive uses included striking with the shield buckles or intentionally striking the shield
against the opponents sword edge (for a more detailed analysis on Persian swordsmanship see
Khorasani,2009a).
The Safavid period manuscript lam rye h Tahmsp [World Ornamentation of King
Tahmsp],writtenbyanunknownauthor,providesinterestinginformationregardingthechallenge
matches between Iranian warriors and their enemies. It also gives interesting information about
the weapons as well such as maces, sabers, muskets, lassos, daggers and spears. One technique
reported in this book is grabbing the sword hand of the opponent. It is reported that hveyrdi
Soltn grabbed the sword hand of Daluqeymas, holding his own sword below his thigh and the
saddleofhishorse.Then,hveyrdigrabbedthechainofthebeltandthegaribn[standard]ofthe
mail worn by Daluqeymas with his other hand, raised him above his head, and threw him down,
thrusting him in the back with his sword before Daluqeymas hit the ground (lam rye h
Tahmsp, 1991, p. 91); for a detailed analysis of Persian wrestling techniques used on the
battlefieldseeKhorasani,2010b,andfortheuseofdaggersseeKhorasani,2009b).
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TheSafavidperiodstoryofHosseynKordabestarithatwaswrittenaboutswordmatches
(challengematches)betweenpahlavnn[champions]duringtheeraofhAbbsSafavidreveals
someremarkabletechniquesofswordsmanship.HosseynKordabestari,theheroofthestory,isa
youngpahlavnwhowantstogainfameand,therefore,challengesasmanypahlavnnaspossible
to swordfighting matches. He even travels as far as India for these challenge matches. The
remarkable aspect of this story is that not only does it give a detailed account of the terms and
terminologyregardingdifferentarmsandarmorusedduringthesematchesbutalsoprovidessome
descriptionsaboutvarioustechniquesthatwereusedatthetime.Inthemajorityofcases,amir
[sword/saber] were used in combination with separ [shield], meaning that shields were used to
fendoffanddefendagainsttheattacksoftheenemyandswordswereusedtoattacktheopponent.
The sword challenge matches commenced by hitting the shields against each other. At times, the
fightcommencedbyhittingtheback/spineofthebladesagainsteachother(DstneHosseynKord
e abestari, 2003, pp. 63 & 82). Vertical sword blows seemed to be very common as recorded by
miniatures depicting many warriors executing this technique (Bahari, 1996, pp. 123 & 128). A
defensivetechniqueagainstthisswordblowwasraisingthesepar[shield]abovethehead(Dstn
eHosseynKordeabestari,2003,p.39).Failuretoprotecttheheadagainstthisswordblowledto
devastating results since, at times, warriors were cut through to their head, as deeply as four
fingerslengthandsometimesevenasdeepastheirliver(DstneHosseynKordeabestari,2003,
pp. 66 & 88). Another sword technique was delivering a blow below the armpit in an upward
cuttingmotionsothat,attimes,thesword/sabercutthroughthearmandcameoutoftheshoulder
(Dstne Hosseyn Korde abestari, 2003, pp. 7071). At close quarters, the sword hand of the
opponent was also grabbed. This technique was applied by grabbing the wrist of the sword arm,
disarmingtheopponentorholdingtheswordhandoftheopponent,andhittinghimwiththesword
(DstneHosseynKordeabestari,2003,pp.63&70).Usingfeints,suchastalkingtoopponents
duringswordmatches,seemstohavebeenacommontechnique(Khorasani,2006,p.354).
TheFrenchtravelerChardinreportsonswordhandlingexercisesduringtheSafavidperiod.
In this respect, Chardin (1988, p. 199) states that this art demanded having a strong and pliant
wrist.TheIranianswordmasterstaughttheyoungtraineestohandlethesaberwithtwoweightsin
theirhands,turningthemupanddown,infrontandbehind,quicklyandforcefully(obviously,two
swordswereusedinthisexercise).Chardinalsopointsoutthatinordertomaketheirjointsmore
pliableandthenervessupplerduringthisexercise,theyputtwootherweightsontheirshoulders.
These weights are made like a horseshoe so that they do not hinder their motion. Chardin also
reportsthatfencingwasanotherexercisepracticedduringtheSafavidera.Fencingwasalsocarried
out in public. The fencers laid their arms on the ground at their feet. He further states that these
armsconsistedofastraightsaberandabuckler(Chardin,1988,p.199).Beforethestart,theyknelt
downandkissedtheirweapons,touchingthemwiththeirforeheads.Then,theygotupagain,taking
their weapons in hand, and at the sound of the tabor [drum], they danced and skipped about,
makingathousandposturesandmotionswiththeirweaponsverydexterously.Next,theybeganto
hit each other with several strokes of their sabers, and they defended each strike with their
bucklers. Chardin states that they always struck with the edge, meaning that they used cutting
techniqueswiththeirsabers.Chardinalsostatesthatiftheydidnotpositionthemselvestoonear
eachother,theyusedthepointoftheirsabers.Chardinfurtherstatesthatthesefencerstooktheir
training seriously and sometimes drew blood, but if the combat became too serious, they were
separated (Chardin, 1988, p. 201). Judging by historical chronicles and accounts, it seems that
systematiccuttingtestswereanintegralcomponentofthetrainingofaswordsman.Thisprocedure
is mentioned in the manuscript Romuze Hamze [Secrets ofHamze, collected in the second half of
the15century](1940,p.661)withtheexpressiontohitasheep[ontheback]withablade/sword
andcutitintwo(Falsafi,1996,vol.2,p.453).
Most Persian shields were made of buffalo or rhino hide that were used in warfare as
reported in Persian manuscripts (see Yazdi, 1957, p. 362; iruye Nmdr, 2005, p. 401; Beyqami,
2002,vol.2,p.173;alKtebalRajni,2004,p.423;Ferdsi,1995,p.604;AsadiTusi,1938,p.414;
sef,2003,p.394).Althoughsomepiecesweremadeofsteelaswell.Persianmanuscriptsreport
thatonecarriedashieldonthebackwiththehelpofabelt/leatherropethatwentthroughahole
madeclosetotherimoftheshieldortheshieldhandlesthatwereplacedinthemiddleoftheback
of the shield. Another way of carrying a shield was via a baldric that held the shield on the back.
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Persian manuscripts describe different techniques for executing sword strikes on foot or on
horseback. Some of these expressions are general and do not specify any targets or sequences of
movementsoftheappliedtechniques.Inthefollowing,someofthemostcommontechniquesare
described.
3.1.Downwardverticalstrikes
Based on an analysis of Persian manuscripts and miniatures, downward vertical strikes
wereaveryfrequenttechnique.Thegeneralconceptofthistechniquewastiqbarsarrndan[tohit
the head with a blade/sword] as indicated in the 14thcentury manuscript Zafarnme [Book of
Victories](Yazdi,1957,p.177).Inthefollowingsomeofthesetechniqueswillbediscussed:
a)Attackingthetopoftheheadwithadownwardverticalstrike:Themajorityoftechniques
in Persian swordsmanship mentioned in the combat scenes in Persian manuscripts involved
attacking the head with a vertical downward strike. In Ancient Iran, Sassanian silver plates show
Sassanian kings executing this technique on horseback using their doubleedged straight swords
cutting down the boars in hunting. The same technique can be used against a man sitting on
horsebackirrespectiveoftheheightoftheopponent.Onecouldalsofindtheuseofthistechnique
inrepresentationsofwarriorsinminiatures.Thistechniqueisalsooftenmentionedwhenswords
had a slight curvature as mentioned in the 11thcentury manuscript Samak Ayyr (alKteb al
Rajni, 2004, p. 392) as amir bar sar va farq zadan [to hit [the opponent on] the top of the
head/vertex];theSafavidperiodmanuscript lamryehTahmsp[TheWorldOrnamentation
of King Tahmsp] (1991, p. 292) refers to this technique as amir bar farq zadan [to hit [the
opponent]withaswordonthetopofthehead;tohitsomeoneonthetopofhisheadwithasword],
and the Safavidperiod manuscript Dstne Hosseyn Korde abestari [Story of Hosseyn Korde
abestari,writtenduringhAbbsSafavidperiod](2003,pp.124&246)referstothistechnique
by the expressions amir r havleye farq nemudan [to hit with a sword on the top of the
head/vertex] and tiq be farq andxtan [to hit the forehead with the sword]. Different miniatures
from the 14century manuscript Xvarnnme [Book of the East] by Ibn Hesm Xusofi Birjandi
show the application of the technique amir bar farq zadan [to strike the top of the head with a
sword](seePicture1).
Picture1.TheminiaturetitledThesecondcombatbetweentheIndianPrincesGavandTalhandfromthe
manuscript of the hnmeye Bysonqori shows how a mounted warrior on the right has cut through the
helmetofamountedarcherwithaverticaldownwardstrike.
b) Attacking the shoulder with a downward vertical strike: The shoulder is another target
area for a downward vertical strike. The 14thcentury manuscript Zafarnme [Book of Victories]
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describesthistechniqueastiqbarsareketfzadan[tohitthetopoftheshoulderwiththesword]
(Mostufi,1999,p.317).TheSafavidperiodmanuscriptDstneHosseynKordeabestari[Storyof
Hosseyn Korde abestari, written during h Abbs Safavid period] describes this technique as
amirbarketfzadan[tohittheshoulderwithasword[inadownwardmovement]](seeDstne
Hosseyn Korde abestari, 2003, p. 88). The Safavidperiod manuscript Dstne Hosseyn Korde
abestari [The Story ofHosseyn Korde abestari] reports that this technique was so effective that
theswordbladecouldcutthroughtheshoulderandcomeoutfromthearmpit:Bahrmtiqrbar
ketfSohrbBeykzadkeazzirbaqalabedarraft[BahrmhittheshoulderofSohrbBeykwitha
sword[sohard]thatitcameoutfromhisarmpit](DstneHosseynKordeabestari,2003,p.215).
ThemanuscriptiruyeNmdr[TheFamediru](2005,p.244)alsotalksaboutthistechnique:bar
ketf zadan va barqe tiq az zire baqal nemudr gatan [to strike the shoulder and to reveal the
glitter of the blade below the armpit; to strike the shoulder so that the blade cuts through it and
appearbelowthearmpit](seePicture2).
Picture 2. In a miniature from the manuscript of the hnmeye h Esm'ili one sees a combat scene
betweentwomountedwarriors.Notehowthewarriorontherighthascutofftheshoulderofthewarrioron
theleftbyapplyingthetechniqueamirbarketfzadan(CourtesyofRezAbbsiMuseum).
c) Attacking the arm with a downward vertical strike: Another target for a vertical
downward strike was the arm or more specifically forearm. The manuscript Abu Moslemnme
[BookofAbuMpslem]reportsontheapplicationofthistechniqueasamirbardastzadan[tostrike
thehandwiththesword](Tartusi,2001,vol.3,p.427)(seePicture3).
d) Attacking the wrist with a downward vertical strike: Another target for a downward
vertical sword strike was the wrist of the opponent as described in the manuscript lam rye
Tahmsp Tahmsp [World Ornamentation of King Tahmsp] (1991, p. 292) with the description
amirbarbandedastzadan[tohit[theopponents]wrist[holdinghissword]withasword].
3.2.Upwardverticalstrikes
Thesestrikesaredoneupwardsinaverticalmotionaswillbeshownbelow:
a)Attackingthearmpitviaanupwardstrike:Aswordstrikebelowthearmpitviaanupward
strike was a frequent technique of this type as mentioned in different Persian manuscripts. The
manuscriptAbuMoslemnme[BookofAbuMoslem]explainsthatthistechniquewasusedwhenthe
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opponent tried to execute a downward vertical strike on the head (Tartusi, 1991, vol. 3, p. 273).
Thatistosaythistechniquewasusedasacounterattack.ThemanuscriptRomuzeHamze[Secrets
ofHamzecollectedinthesecondhalfofthe15century](1940,pp.87&96),collectedinthe15th
century,describesthatwhenexecutedwithforce,thistechniqueresultedinhavingtheswordblade
get out of the shoulder area. The Safavidperiod manuscript lam rye h Tahmsp [World
Ornamentation of King Tahmsp] (1991, p. 330) also reports about this technique with the
expression tiq dar zire baqal navxtan [to hit [the opponent] with a sword under his armpit].
Another Safavidperiod manuscript Dstne Hosseyn Korde abestari [Story of Hosseyn Korde
abestari written during h Abbs Safavid period] (2003, pp. 88 & 189) describes that this
techniqueindifferentways;eitheritcouldbeusedasacounterattackwhentheopponentraisedhis
armfordeliveringadownwardverticalswordstrikeorwhenoneusedafeintingtechniquewitha
downwardverticalstrikeandtheopponentraisedhisshieldtoprotecthishead,onecouldexecute
anupwardverticalstrikeunderthearmpitofhisshieldhand.Inthosecasesonedeliveredasword
strike below the armpit of either the hand holding a sword or the hand holding the shield. The
Safavidperiod manuscript Dstne Hosseyn Korde abestari [Story of Hosseyn Korde abestari
writtenduringhAbbsSafavidperiod](2003,p.189)reportsaboutthistechnique:enntiqr
bezire baqal Hosseyn Bahdor zad ke barqe tiq az blye farqa bedar raft [He] hit Hosseyn
Bahdor[sohard]underthearmpitthattheglitteroftheswordcameoutofthetopofhishead.In
anotherpartofthesamemanuscript,onereferstothesametechnique:tiqrennbezirebaqala
zadkebarqetiqazketfazabnekeidHehithim[sohard]underthearmpitwiththeswordthat
theglitteroftheswordcameoutofhisshoulder(DstneHosseynKordeabestari,2003,p.283).
Picture 3. A miniature from the Safavidperiod manuscript hnmeye h Tahmspi [Book of Kings of
Tahmsp]titledRahmiscuttingoffthearmofthemagicianattributedtoQsemAlishowstheapplication
ofthetechniqueamirbardastzadan.NotehowRahmhascutoffthearmofthemagicianwithadownward
verticalstrikeofhissword(CourtesyofMuzeyeHonarhyeMoserIrn).
b) Kneeling down and attacking the armpit with an upward strike: A variation of this
technique involves kneeling down and attacking the armpit of the opponent with an upward
verticalstrikeasreportedintheSafavidperiodmanuscriptDstnHosseynKordeabestari(2003,
p.70):barznuneastanvatiqandxtan[tokneeldownandtothrow[strikewith]thesword;this
techniqueincludedkneelingdownononelegandhittingtheopponentunderthearmpit].
c) Attacking the groin with an upward vertical strike: Another target area for an upward
vertical strike was the groin as indicated in the manuscript Xvarnnme [Book of theEast] from
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the15thcentury:tiqbartohighzadan[tohitthegroinwithablade/sword](XusofiBirjandi,2002,
p.88).
3.3.Horizontalstrikes
Horizontalstrikesincludeanumberofdifferentstrikesthatwereexecutedfromtherightto
theleft orfromthelefttotherightinahorizontalangle.Therearedifferenttarget areasforthis
typeofstrikes,suchastheneck,thesidesofthebodyandthelegs.Someofthesetechniquesare
describedindetailinPersianmanuscriptsaswillbeshownbelow:
a)Attackingtheneckwithahorizontalstrike:Acertainspecifichorizontalstrikethatcould
be used was a horizontal sword strike on the neck from left to right or right to left. The 14th
centurymanuscriptZafarnme[BookofVictories]explainsthattechniqueastiqbarkardanzadan
[to hit the neck with a blade/sword] (Mostufi, 1999, p. 696). The manuscript Romuze Hamze
[SecretsofHamzecollectedinthesecondhalfofthe15century](1940,p.272)alsodescribesthis
technique as amir bar gardan navxtn [to strike someone [the opponent] with a sword on the
neck]. The Safavidperiod manuscript lam rye h Tahmsp [World Ornamentation of King
TahmspwrittenduringtheSafavidperiod](1991,p.293)mentionsthistechniqueasamirbar
gardan zadan [to hit someone [the opponent] with a sword on the neck]. The manuscript
Drbnme[BookofDrb](Beyqami,2002,vol.2,p.577),whichisbasedonancientIraniantales,
explains the efficiency of this technique when it was executed with much force: tiq bar gardan
zadanvasardarxkandxtan[tohittheneckwithablade/swordandtocastitofftotheground]
(seePicture4).
Picture 4. The miniature titled Qobd encounters his foe shows how a mounted Qobd is applying the
technique amir bar gardan zadan [to hit the back with a blade/sword] to cut off the head of his enemy
(XusofiBirjandi,2002,p.123).
b)Attackingthebackwithahorizontalswordstrike:Anothertargetareaforahorizontalor
vertical strike was the back. One could execute this technique in different situations, for example
whentheopponentraiseshisshieldtoplaceitinfrontofhisfaceorabovehisheadtoprotectthese
areas.ThemanuscriptEskandarnme[BookofEskandar](Hakim,unspecifieddate,p.554)fromthe
12thcenturydescribesthistechniqueasamirbekamarzadan[tohit[theopponenton]theback
withthesword].The14thcenturymanuscriptZafarnme[BookofVictories](Mostufi,1999,p.109)
explainsthistechniqueastiqbarkamarghzadan[tohitthebackwithablade/sword].Forother
expressions see tiq bar kamar zadan [to strike the back with a blade/sword] in the manuscript
Romuze Hamze [Secrets of Hamze collected in the second half of the 15 century] (1940, p. 36);
amirbarkamarzadan[tohitthebackwithablade/sword]intheSafavidperiodmanuscriptlam
ryeh TahmspTahmsp[WorldOrnamentationofKingTahmsp](1991,p.293); andtiqbar
|49
kamarnavxtan[tohitthebackwithablade/sword]inthemanuscriptiruyeNmdr[TheFamed
iru](2005,p.109)(seePicture5).
Picture 5. A miniature titled Qibt is slain by Abu alMihjan taken from the 14thcentury manuscript
Xvarnnme by Ibn Hesm Xusofi Birjandi shows how Emm Ali kills Qibt by applying the technique of
amirbarkamarzadan(XusofiBirjandi,2002,p.46).
c)Attackingthemiddle/sidesofthebodywithahorizontalstrike:Anotherhorizontalsword
strike consisted in attacking the middle/side of the body. The manuscript Majma alAnsb
[CompleteCollectionofPeoples]writtenin733Hegira(1333C.E.)describesthistechniqueasamir
barpahluzadan[tostriketheside/middleofthebodywithasword](abnkrei,2002,p.338).
The14thcenturymanuscriptJmealTavrix[TheCompleteHistories]describestheapplicationof
this technique as miyn r be do nim zadan [to cut someone from the middle into two parts (by
using a amir)] (Raidoldin Fazlollh Hamedni, 1985, p. 752). The manuscript Romuze Hamze
[SecretsofHamzecollectedinthesecondhalfofthe15century](1940,pp.94&255)describesthis
technique tiq bar davle kamar navxtan [to hit the back with a blade/sword] adding that a
powerfuluseofthistechniquecouldcutoffthebodyuntilthenavel:tiqrbardavlkamarzadan
va t nf ekftan [to hit the back on the belt and cut to the navel]. The manuscript Drbnme
[BookofDrb]informsthatapowerfulhorizontalstrikeofthistypecouldcutoffthebodyintwo
parts:tiqbarmiynzadanvaonxiyrbedonimkardan[tostrikethemiddleofthebodywitha
swordandtocutitlikeacucumber](Beyqami,2002,vol.2,p.577).
d)Attackingthebellywithahorizontalstrike:Thebellywasanothertargetforahorizontal
swordstrikeasattestedbyanumberofPersianminiaturessuchasa)aminiaturetitledEmmAli
trounces Ardeir taken from the 14century manuscript Xvarnnme [Book of the East] by Ibn
HesmXusofiBirjandiwhichshowshowEmmAlihascutoffArdeirbyapplyingthistechnique
(XusofiBirjandi,2002,p.100),b)a miniaturetitledTheyouthisunfetteredbyEmmAlitaken
fromthesamemanuscriptwhichshowshowEmmAliisattackinghisopponentbyapplyingthe
same technique (Xusofi Birjandi, 2002, p. 132) and c) a miniature from the Timuridperiod
manuscript hnmeye Bysonqori [Book of Kings of Bysonqori] which shows how a mounted
warrior on the left has cut off his opponent by executing this technique (see a copy of this
manuscriptwhichiswrittenbyJa'farTabriziBysonqorifromGolestnPalaceMuseum).Thestrike
couldbeexecutedfromlefttorightorfromrighttoleftdependingonthepositionoftheopponent's
body.
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e) Attacking the face with a horizontal strike: Another area for horizontal strikes was the
faceasexplainedinthemanuscriptRomuzeHamze[SecretsofHamzecollectedinthesecondhalfof
the15century](1940,p.44)withtheexpressionamirbarsuratzadan[tostrikethefacewitha
sword].
3.4.Diagonalswordstrikes
Someswordstrikeswereacombinationofhorizontalandverticalswordstrikeswhenone
takestheangleofattackintoconsideration.
a)Attackingtheleg,theshinorthekneewithadiagonalstrike:Anothertargetforadiagonal
sword strike were the legs. The manuscript Romuze Hamze [Secrest of Hamze collected in the
secondhalfofthe15century](1940,p.530)talksaboutthistechniqueasamirbarpyzadan[to
hitthelegwiththesword].Astrongstrikeofthistypecouldcutthelegasdescribedbythe14th
century manuscript Zafarnme [Book of Victories] (Mostufi, 1999, p. 85). The shins were used as
another target area for diagonal sword strikes. Similar to the previous strike, one executes this
techniquediagonallyonfoot.The14thcenturymanuscriptZafarnme[BookofVictories]describes
this technique as tiq bar sq zadan [to hit the shin with a blade/sword] (Mostufi, 1999, p. 87).
Anothertargetareaforadiagonalswordstrikewastheknee.
b)Attackingthebackoftheneckwithadiagonalswordstrike:Onhorseback,thistechnique
could be applied in a horizontal or diagonal angle. On foot, one could execute this technique
diagonallyasdescribedthe10thcenturymanuscriptAbuMoslemnme[BookofAbuMoslem]with
the expression tiq bar pase sar zadan [to strike the back of the head [of the opponent] with a
blade/sword](Tartusi,2001,vol.3,p.427).
c)Strikingthesideofthebodywithadiagonalstrike:Withthistechniqueoneattackedthe
side of the opponent's body with a diagonal strike. The manuscript Romuze Hamze [Secrest of
Hamzecollectedinthesecondhalfofthe15century](1940,p.188)reportsthatapowerfulstrike
ofthistypecouldcutoffthebodyuntilthearmpitastheexpressionamirbarkamarzadanvaaz
zirebaqaldarmadan[tohit[theopponenton]thebackwiththeswordsothattheswordcomes
outofthearmpit].
3.5.Thrustingwiththetipofthesword
Persianmanuscriptsrarelyreportaboutthrustingwiththetipofthesword.Thiswasdueto
thefactthatPersianwarriorsusedtheirlances,daggersandknivesforthrustingpurposes.Inspite
ofthis,thereareexpressionsthatdescribetheuseofthetipoftheswordtothrustsuchasnoke
amir r havle kardan [to hit with the tip of a sword/ to thrust with the tip of a sword] in the
18thcenturymanuscriptTrixeAhmadhi[HistoryofAhmadhi](alJmi,2001,p.13)andforu
kardan[tothrustwithasword],duringtheQjrperiod(seeModarresi,etal.,1991,p.426).
3.6.Strikingwiththebackofthesword
SomePersianmanuscriptsandPersianliteratureingeneralreportthatoneusedthebackof
theswordbladeforstriking.Someofthesetechniquesarepresentedasfollows.
a) Striking the opponent's helmet with the back of the sword's blade: In this technique, one
usedthebackofthesword'sbladetostriketheopponent'shelmettodistracthim.Afterthisstrike,
one continued with other strikes for cutting down the opponent. This strike is mentioned in the
15thcentury manuscript Drbnme [Book of Drb] with the expression pote amir bar
kolhxudzadan[tostrikethehelmetwiththebackofthesword](Beyqami,2002,vol.2,p.179).
b)Strikingthebackoftheswordagainstthebackoftheopponent'ssword:Persianwarriors
used their shields to defend themselves. Sometimes they also used their armguards to protect
themselvesoravoidedthestrikesbysidesteppingorsteppingbackward.However,therearealso
accountsabouttheuseofthebackoftheswordfordefendingoneselfagainsttheopponent'ssword
|51
strikesfordeflectingorparryingpurposes.TheSafavidperiodmanuscriptDstneHosseynKorde
abestari[TheStoryofHosseynKordeabestari](2003,p.82)talksabouttheuseofthistechnique:
pothyeamirryekdigarnkardan[lit.toacquaintthebackoftheswordswitheachother;to
hitthebackoftheswordsagainsteachother].
3.7.Feintingtechniques
Feinting techniques were frequently used in Persian swordsmanship. First, one feinted a
certain strike, and when the opponent raised his shield to defend himself, one changed the
trajectoryofthetechniqueandexecutedanotherstrike.
a)Feintingadownwardverticalstrikeandexecutingahorizontalorverticalupwardstrike:
Feintingadownwardverticalstriketowardsthehead,followedbyahorizontalstriketotheupper
body was a common technique as described by Persian manuscripts. By feinting a vertical strike,
theopponentraiseshisshieldtoprotecthishead.Inthissituation,onechangesthedirectionofthe
technique and executes a strike to the upper body, the back or the sides of the body. A
counterattackcouldalsobeanupwardverticalstriketothearmpit.ThemanuscriptSamakAyyr
from the 11thcentury describes this technique as amirr gardndan [to turn the sword] (al
Kteb alRajni, 2004, p. 422). The following phrases from the 11thcentury manuscript Samak
Ayyrshowhowthistechniquewasused:
He brought down his sword to hit Simb [on his head], but Simab brought his shield over his
head.hn,withanextremedexterity,turnedhisswordandhitSimbonhiswaistwithsucha
forcethatthesharpness[oftheedge]oftheswordcuthimintwolikeacucumber.(alKtebal
Rajni,2004,p.1263)
Afterturningthesword,thistechniquecanalsobeappliedtocutthearmpitinanupward
motion:
Andsuddenlyheattackedandbroughtdownhisswordtohittheheadofd.Thus,dbrought
hisshieldabovehisheadandQamqmturned[thedirection]ofhisswordandhitdbelowhis
armpitandcutoffhisarmandhead.(alKtebalRajni,2004,p.1263)
TheSafavidperiodmanuscriptlamryehTahmspTahmsp[WorldOrnamentationof
KingTahmspwrittenduringtheSafavidperiod](1991,p.33)alsodescribesthistechniquewith
theexpression:dastvatiqrxbndan[lit.tobringdownthehandandthesword;atechniquein
swordsmanshipwherefirstanattacktotheheadisfeintedandthenthepelvis/hipsareattackedby
thesword].
b)Attackingwith a verticalswordstrikeandchangingthehands: ThemanuscriptRomuze
Hamze [Secrets of Hamze collected in the second half of the 15 century] (1940, pp. 87 & 223)
explainsthatduringthecombatonefeintedadownwardverticalswordwiththeswordintheright
handandwhentheopponentraisedhisshieldtoprotecthisheadfromtheleftside,onechanged
thehandholdingtheswordfromtherighttotheleftandhittheopponentontherightsideonthe
shoulderwithadownwardverticalstrike.Thistechniqueiscalledamirrbedastapgereftanva
forudvardan[toholdtheswordinthelefthandandtobringitdown[tostrike]].
3.8.Combinations
Thecombinationsincludedexecutinganumberoftechniquesforsurprisinganddominating
theopponentandreducingtheopportunitieshehastodefendhimself.
a)Usingthenumbereight:Acombinationinswordtechniquewasmovingtheswordinfour
directions drawing a figure similar to the number eight with it as indicated by the 11thcentury
mansucriptSamakAyyrwiththeexpressionamirrbeahrtarafharkatddan[lit.tomovethe
swordinfourdirections].ThiswasatechniqueusedinPersianswordsmanship,wherethesword
wasmovedinfrontofthebodyinafigureofeightpatternorabovetheheadinafullcircleof360
degrees before hitting the opponent on his head. One executed this technique to gain more
|52
momentum and power before executing a downward vertical strike on the opponent's head. The
following sentence from the 11thcentury manuscript Samak Ayyr describes how this technique
wasapplied(alKtebalRajni,2004,p.1093):Then,theymovedtheirswordsinfourdirections
andthen[used]itsstrike[force]tohittheirheadsandscalps/pates.
b)Attackingwithacombinationofhorizontalstrikes:Thiscombinationconsistsofattacking
withahorizontalstrikefromtheleftfollowedbyahorizontalstrikefromtheright.Onecouldalso
execute this technique the other way around. The manuscript Romuze Hamze [Secrets of Hamze
collected in the second half of the 15 century] (1940, p. 224) talks about this combination as b
amirazapvarstzaxmzadan[tostrikewithaswordfromleftandright]andthe14thcentury
Zafarnme[BookofVictories]indicatesamirazapvarstzadan[tostrikewiththeswordfrom
leftandfromright](Nderi,1968,p.89).
3.9.Grabbingthehand
Persian manuscripts report how Persian warriors grabbed the sword hand of their
opponenttryingtowrestlethemdownwiththeaimofmakingthemlosetheirweapon.Attimes,
aftergrabbingtheswordhandoftheopponent,oneexecutedacounterattackwithhisownweapon.
a) Grabbing the wrist of the opponent's hand that is holding a sword: This technique is
mentionedveryoften.Toexecutethistechnique,onestrechedoutthelefthandandtriedtograb
thewristoftheswordhandoftheopponentwhenhewastryingtoexecuteadownwardvertical
strikeandtriedtograbthewristoftheswordhandoftheopponentwhenhewastryingtoexecute
adownwardverticalswordstrike.The12thcenturymanuscriptEskandarnme[BookofEskandar]
describesthistechniquewiththeexpression:bandedastrgereftan[totakeholdofthejointofthe
hand].Thiswasatechniquewhereacombatanttriedtocatchthejointofthehandoftheopponent
that was holding a sword (Hakim, unspecified date, p. 544). After grabbing the opponent's wrist,
one punched him in the head using the other hand. The manuscript Romuze Hamze [Secrets of
Hamze collected in the second half of the 15 century] (1940, p. 410) describes this technique as
bande dast r gereftan va mot bar kalle zadan [to grab the wrist [of the opponent] and punch
[him]onthehead].Persianmanuscriptsalsoreportabouttheapplicationofdifferenttypesofthis
technique.Generally,by applyingthistechniqueonegrabbedthewristoftheopponent,heldhim
andthrewhimtotheground.Thistechniquecouldbeexecutedonhorsebackoronfoot.
b)Grabbingthespear/lanceshaft:Whentheopponenttriedtothrustwithhislance/spear,
onegrabbedthelance/spearshaftandexecutedacounterattackortriedtopulloutthelance/spear
fromtheopponent'shandsbypullingitoutasdescribedinthemanuscriptRomuzeHamze[Secrets
of Hamze collected in the second half of the 15 century] (1940, p. 441) with the expression do
angotderzkardanvagaluyeneyzergereftanvabedurandxtan[toextendtwofingersandto
getholdofthespearsocket[oftheopponent]andtothrowitaway].
3.10.Deflectingtechniques
Deflectingtechniquesincludeanumberoftechniquesthatincludeavoidingtheopponent's
attacksbytakingasidestep,astepbackward,twistingthebodyorpullingbackthehand/arm.
a)Pullingbackthehand/arm:Pullingbackthehand/armwasusedwhentheopponenttried
tograbthehandholdingthesword;inthistechniquetheswordsmanwhowasaboutinthemiddle
ofstrikingpulledhisarmbacktowardshimself,hence,shorteningtherangesothathecouldhitthe
arm/handoftheopponentthatwastryingtograbthewristoftheswordsmanasdescribedinthe
12thcenturymanuscriptEskandarnme[BookofEskandar]intheexpressiondastrakuthkardan
[lit.toshortenthehand](Hakim,unspecifieddate,p.544).
b) Turning the upper body and attacking with a downward vertical sword strike: With
steppingbackwardsandturningtheupperbody,oneavoidedtheopponent`sattackandfromthis
position,oneexecutedadownwardverticalstrike.Onecouldexecutethistechniqueonfootoron
horsebacktwistingthebody.The14thcenturymanuscriptZafarnme[BookofVictories]describes
thistechniqueasazblyezinexodpiidanvaamirhamyelvrforudvardan[toturnaboutin
|53
onesownsaddleandbringdowntheswordinadirectionasindicatedbythe[angleof]swordbelt]
(Yazdi,1957,p.118).
c)Deflectingtheopponent'sswordwiththesword:Withthistechniqueoneusedhisswordto
deflect a sword strike of the opponent as described in the 15thcentury manuscript Drbnme
[Book of Drb] with the expression amirrad kardan [to deflect the sword [strike]] (Beyqami,
2002,vol.1,p.296).
d)Usingthebackoftheswordbladefordeflectingandparrying:Theuseofthebackofthe
swordbladefordeflectingandparryingwasatechniquethatPersianmanuscriptsrefertosuchas
intheexpressionpotetiqbardametiqddan[lit.togivethebackofthebladetotheedgeofthe
[coming] blade; to defend with the back of the sword against the incoming sword edge of the
opponent] in the manuscript lam rye h Tahmsp [World Ornamentation of King Tahmsp
writtenduringtheSafavidperiod](1991,p.33):
Xnattackedthatbigarmywiththousandmenandinthemiddleofthefray,heinterceptedthe
wayofNserPandNserPattackedhimwithasword.Xndefendedhisswordwiththe
backof[hisown]swordsothatthetipof[theopponents]swordhit[hisown]handguardand
the sword [of the opponent] broke: He [Xn] threatened him [with his sword], and he [Nser
P]broughtuphisshieldtoprotecthisheadandXnbroughtdownhishandandswordand
onhisbeltandcuthimintwolikeanoldplanetree.
e)Usingtheswordforparrying:Persianmanuscriptsdonotgenerallymentiontheuseofthe
swordasaparryinginstrumentagainsttheincomingstrikesexecutedbytheopponentbecauseas
itwasmentionedbefore,warriorschieflyusedtheirshieldfordefendingthemselves.However,the
techniqueofparryingwiththeswordismentionedinthe11thcenturymanuscriptSamakAyyras
amir dar moqbel gereftan [lit. to hold the sword against] (alKteb alRajni, 2004, p. 884):
KvehwantedtostrikehisswordatFarroxruz,butFarroxruzheldhisswordagainstit.Kvehwas
holdingtheedgeofhisswordagainsthimand[therefore]hisswordbrokeintwo.
Other variation of this technique that was not very common consists in parrying with the
sword edge as explained in the manuscript Romuze Hamze [Secrets of Hamze collected in the
secondhalfofthe15century](1940,p.543)intheexpressionamirbardameamirzadan[to
striketheedgeoftheswordagainsttheedgeofanothersword].Theresultsofthistechnique,which
was used as the last resort, were the fracture of the blade as described in the 11thcentury
manuscript Samak Ayyr with the expression amir ekastan [to break the sword] (alKteb al
Rajni,2004,p.552).Persianmanuscriptsreportonthesefractures:Andtheyhiteachotherwith
four sword strikes until their swords broke (alKteb alRajni, 2004, p. 552). The 15thcentury
manuscript Drbnme [Book of Drb] reports that the results of this technique were that the
edgesendeduplookinglikeasaworserrated:amirarreodan[lit.tohavethe[bladeof]sword
looklikeasaw/serrated;itreferstothenicksontheedgeofthebladesufferedduringthecombat]
(Beyqami,2002,vol.1,p.278).The11thcenturymanuscriptSamakAyyralsoreportsaboutthe
edgesofswordsthatendedupbeingserratedonthebattlefield:onarredandnedandneodan
[tobecomeserratedlikeasaw;referringtotheedgesofswordsduringcombatthattakenicksand
dentsontheedges](alKtebalRajni,2004,p.425).The12thcenturymanuscriptEskandarnme
[Book of Eskandar] talks about the end result of this technique when the edges of swords broke:
damhyeamirforurixtan[lit.toteardowntheswordedges;tobreaktheswordedgecompletely]
and az amir faqat qabze mndan [to leave only the handle of a sword; referring to the damage
takenbyaswordduringcombatwherethebladebreaksandonlythehandleremainsinthehand]
(Hakim,unspecifieddate,p.573).
3.11.Usingtheshieldforattackanddefence
The main instrument for parrying the sword strikes was a shield that had been used in
Ancient Iran and continued to be used up in the Qjr period (17941925 C.E.). Persian
manuscriptsoftendescribetheuseofshieldsforparryingtheswordstrikes.Takinguptheshield
fordefendingoneselfissepargereftan[totakeshields;toresist](DigitalLexiconofDehxod,2006).
|54
a) Striking with shield buckles: Shields were not only used for defense purposes but they
werealsoactivelyusedforattackingorforcreatingdistancefromanopponent.Someexamplesof
striking the shield against the shield of the opponent can be observed in the 15thcentury
manuscript Drbnme [Book of Drb] with the expression qobbeye separ bar qobbeyesepar
zadan[tohittheshieldbuckles/shieldagainsttheshieldbuckles/shieldoftheopponent](Beyqami,
2002,vol.2,p.591),orinthemanuscriptDstneHosseynKordeabestari[TheStoryofHosseyn
KordeabestariwrittenduringhAbbsSafavidperiod](2003,pp.66&88)withtheexpressions
qobbeyesepar be sar yekdigar n kardan [lit. to acquaint the shield buckles with each others
heads; to hit the shield buckles/shield against the shield of the opponent] and qoppe separ bar
yekdigarnnemudan[toplacetheshieldbuckleson/abovethehead].
b) Striking the shield against the opponent`s sword edge: Warriors used their shield to
activelystrikeagainsttheswordedgeoftheiropponentbeforeitcouldgetenoughmomentum.The
techniquetostrikeactivelyagainsttheswordedgeoftheiropponent,beforeitcouldgainenough
momentumtostrikewith,isdescribedinthemanuscriptiruyeNmdr[TheFamediru](2005,p.
178)withtheexpressionseparbardametiqddan[toput/striketheshieldagainsttheswordedge
[oftheopponent]].Avariationofthistechniqueinvolvedtwisting/turningtheshieldandstrikingit
againsttheswordedgeasdescribedbythemanuscriptRomuzeHamze[SecretsofHamzecollected
inthesecondhalfofthe15century](1940,p.317)withtheexpressionqobbeyeseparrbegarde
darvardan va be dame amirzadan [to turn the shield buckles and strike against the sword
edge].
c)Defendingagainstthedownwardverticalswordstrikesagainstthehead:Placingtheshield
abovetheheadfordefendingitagainstincomingdownwardverticalstrikeisafrequenttechnique
mentioned and shown in Persian manuscripts. This technique is explained with the expression
separbarsarvardan[lit.tobringtheshieldabovethehead;toprotectthetopoftheheadwiththe
shield]inthe10thcenturyhnme[BookofKings](Ferdsi,1995,p.1347),separbarsarkeidan
[lit. to pull the shield above the head; to protect the top of the head with the shield] in the 12th
century Eskandarnme [Book of Eskandar] (Hakim, unspecified date, p. 288; also see Raidoldin
FazlollhHamedni,1985,p.727;RomuzeHamze[SecretsofHamzecollectedinthesecondhalfof
the 15 century], 1940, p. 317 and Dstne Hosseyn Korde abestari [Story of Hosseyn Korde
abestari written during h Abbs Safavid period] (2003, p. 39). The 14thcentury manuscript
Zafarnme(Yazdi,1957,p.104)presentsthistechniquewiththeexpressionsepardarsarkeidan
[topulltheshieldabovethehead].ThemanuscriptDstneHosseynKordeabestari[TheStoryof
HosseynKordeabestariwrittenduringhAbbsSafavidperiod](2003,p.202)talksaboutthis
technique in the expression qobbeye separ bar sar ni nemudan [to place the shield buckles
on/abovethehead].
d) Defending a downward vertical strike and grabbing the lance/spear: This technique
includeddefendingagainstaverticalspearstrikebycoveringtheheadwithashield,grabbingthe
lanceshaftwiththelefthand[notethatPersianshieldshavetwofabricorleathercordsontheback
oftheshieldwhichareheldinthemiddleofthehand.Thus,thisallowstheshieldbearertograbthe
lanceoreventhewristoftheopponent],pullingitanddisarmingtheopponentasdescribedinthe
manuscriptDrbme[BookofDrb](Beyqami,2002,vol.2,p.179)withtheexpressionseparbar
sar keidan dast az zire separ birun kardan va sare senn r gereftan va az kaf birun kardan [to
protect the top of the head with the shield, to bring out the [other] hand below the shield, to get
holdofthespearhead[oftheopponent],andtopullitoutofhishand].
e) Defending the shoulder against a vertical sword strike: By placing the shield over the
shoulder one could defend this area as described by the Digital Lexicon of Dehxod with the
expressionseparbarketfduxtan[lit.tosewtheshieldontheshoulder;toraisetheshieldabovethe
shoulder].
f)Defendingthesideofthebodyagainstahorizontalswordstrike:Todefendthesidesofthe
bodyagainstahorizontalswordstrike,oneusedthetechniqueseparbesamtgardndanorsepar
gardndan [to turn the shield to the side or to turn the shield] as described in the 11thcentury
manuscript Samak Ayyr (alKteb alRajni, 2004, pp. 917 & 1281). One could also use this
techniqueincombinationsaswell,oragainstaspear/lanceorarrowstrikesafterthesehadhitthe
shield surface. After the strike, one brought the shield forward separ jolo vardan [to place the
|55
shield in front] and then turned the shield so that the spear/lance head could not penetrate the
shield deeply. This technique is called separ be samt gardndan or separ gardndan [to turn the
shieldtothesideortoturntheshield](alKtebalRajni,2004,pp.917&1281).Inthefollowing
theapplicationofthistechniqueisdescribed(alKtebalRajni,2004,p.917):
Allofasudden,hefoundanopportunityandattackedthechestofHormozakilwithhisspear.
Hormozakilbroughthisshieldtohisfront.Liketheneedleofamastertailorthatpiercesthesilk
fabric, the spear pierced his shield to throw the fire of death in the body of the champion;
however,Hormozakilwhowaswarexperiencedandhadlearnedmanyskills,turnedhisshield
to the side and the spear did not reach his chest, but the tip of the spear hit the arms of the
championandinjuredhim.
g) Turning the shield and striking the sword hand [of the opponent]: One used a shield to
defendagainstadownwardverticalstrikeandthenturnedthistopushdownthesword/weaponof
the opponent and create an opening in the opponent`s guard to attack the opponent's arm/wrist
withacounterswordstrikeasreportedinthemanuscriptiruyeNmdr[TheFamediru](2005,
p.401)withtheexpressionseparbearxandxtanvabamirbarbandedastnavxtan[toturn
theshield[afteritwasusedtodefendagainstaverticalstriketothehead]andtohitthewrist[of
theopponent]withasword].
h) Spinning the shield above the head: Another technique is spinning the shield above the
headsothattheswordstrikeswouldglideontheshieldsurfaceandnotbeabletocutthesurfaceof
theshieldasdescribedbytheahanahnme[BookofKingofKings]withtheexpressionseparbe
sararxkardan[tospintheshieldabovethehead](Sab,undatedhandwrittenmanuscript,p.110).
i)Defendingthefaceagainstthestrikes:Withpositioningtheshieldinfrontoftheface,one
coulddefendhisfaceagainstincomingswordstrikesasdescribedinthe14thcenturymanuscript
Zafarnme[BookofVictories]withtheexpressionsepardarruykeidan[topulltheshieldinfront
oftheface](Yazdi,1957,p.480).ThistechniqueisalsomentionedinthemanuscriptiruyeNmdr
[TheFamediru](2005,p.78)withtheexpressionseparrazketfnejtddanvadarpiruyexod
gereftan[tosave[togetout]theshieldfromtheshoulderandtoholditinfrontoftheface/front].
j)Defendingthebodyagainstswordstrikes:Coveringthebodyagainsthorizontalstrikesor
thrustsismentionedintheRomuzeHamze[SecretsofHamzecollectedinthesecondhalfofthe15
century](1940,p.60)intheexpressiontanbezireabreseparpenhnkardan[lit.tohidethebody
belowthecloudofashield;adefensivemoveusingashieldtodefendthebody].
k) Using two hands for holding the shield against strong strikes: Some Persian manuscripts
refertotheuseoftwohandsforholdingashieldagainstveryheavydownwardverticalstrikes.The
15thcentury manuscript Drbnme [Book of Drb] presents this technique as separ dar sar
keidanvahardodastrsotuneseparkardan[topulltheshieldabove theheadandtouseboth
handstoholdtheshield](Hakim,unspecifieddate,p.551).
3.12.Usingthearmguardasashield
Persianmanuscriptsalsoreportabouttheactiveuseofthebzuband/sedband(armguard)
to defend oneself against sword strikes as mentioned in the 12thcentury manuscript
Eskandarnme[BookofEskandar]withtheexpressionsedbandbedameamirddan[lit.togive
thearmguardattheedgeofthesword](Hakim,unspecifieddate,p.551).Thistechniqueconsisted
indefendingoneselfagainstaswordstrikebypositioningthearmguardinthearcoftheopponent's
sword.Thistechniquewasespeciallyusedwhentheshieldwasbroken/tornorwhentherewasno
other way but to use the armguard for the last resort defense (see Romuze Hamze [Secrets of
Hamzecollectedinthesecondhalfofthe15century],1940,pp.272&380).Persianmanuscripts
report that at times one could have the opponent's sword broken after the application of this
technique (see Romuze Hamze [Secrets of Hamze collected in the second half of the 15 century],
1940, p. 413). The manuscript iruyeNmdr [The Famed iru] (2005, p. 78) describes this
techniqueassedbandbardametiqzadan[togivethearmguardattheedgeoftheblade].
|56
4.Indianswordsmanship
Swordsmanship traditions in North India and corresponding traditions of teaching these
skillshaveamixedcharacter.ThisregionusedtoserveasacorridororagatewaytoIndiafornew
invaderswho,ontheonehand,broughttheirowncultureandtraditionsandontheotherhandthis
region turned into a melting pot for mixing different traditions. A type of melting pot which
discarded every ineffective moves and techniques and retained the most practical and efficient
ones. For these reasons it is very hard to determine exactly nowadays, which practices are of
indigenousIndianorigin,whichpracticeswereintroducedbylaterconquerors,andwhichofthem
occurred as a result of different mixture of foreign and indigenous traditions. However, some
differentiationisnecessaryforstudyingandunderstandingNorthIndiaswordsmanshiptraditions,
andthiscanbedonebasedonthefollowingcomponents.Firstly,theMogularistocracytraditions
which represent the most widely spread and welldocumented written sources describe some
practices.SincethemartialartswhichwereundertheMoghulpatronagebasicallycorrespondwith
the military practices spread in Muslim sultanates of Central India. Taking into account that the
DeccansultanateswereestablishedontheruinsoftheDelhiSultanate,itispossibletoassumethat
thesepracticeswerealreadyintroducedbytheconquerorsinthe13thcenturyandthattheyareof
eitherPersianorcommonCentralAsianorigininfluence.
It is reasonable to assume that these practices are of purely Persian origin and that they
were spread throughout the Muslim world with an increasing Persian cultural influence. The
secondassumptionismorelikelytobetruebecauseatthebeginningofthe11thcenturythebest
representatives of the Persian culture found shelter at the court of Mahmud Ghaznavid, who
invaded North India several times. However, it would not be entirely correct to consider these
practices to be purely Persian, because although this tradition had Iranian roots it had been
evolving in isolation from its parent culture, and was also surely influenced by the Indian
environment. An indirect confirmation of this is found in a treatise about the swords Reslehe
amirensi[TreatiseonSwordsmanship]composedbyNusratalIhKhnin1706whichcontains
Indianterminology(seeMarshall,1985,p.273).AlsothetreatiseontheartofarcheryUsuleQabze
[Principles of the Bow Grasping] composed by Abu Hisam alDin Muhammad in 1624 contains
numerous words in both Turkic and Hindi (Sprenger, 1896, p. 30). Thus, when one assumes a
possiblePersianoriginofthesepracticesandtheirinteractionasasubstratewithasuperstratum
oflocalIndianculture,thereisareasontodefinethesepracticesasMoghulinaccordancewith
thefactthattheMoghulculturewasactuallyIndoPersian.Thisdefinitionisfurtherconfirmedby
thefactthatthesepracticesbecamewidelyspreadexactlyduringtheperiodandintheterritoryof
MoghulEmpire,aswellastheywereapartofmilitarytrainingintheMoghularmy(Irvine,1903,
pp.185186).Throughthisprocesstheygraduallybecamecommonlyacceptedamongthepeople,
andcontinuedtheirexistenceasasportofsoldiersintheBritishIndianArmyuntiltheendofthe
19thcentury(seeTheIllustratedLondonNews,July13,1878,TheIndianTroopsatMalta,p.27).
Of course there is a difference between the art of sword fighting, which was popular among the
dignitariesinthe17thcentury,andexerciseswhichwerefortheentertainmentofsoldiersinthe
end of the 19th century. Illustrations from the manuscript Nihangnama [Book of Nihangs],
composedinAhmadnagarintheearly17thcentury,showaserious,martialattitudetowardsthis
art,unlikelaterpractices(seePicture6).
Mogul practices can be distinguished both by technical differences and also by the
terminology used in the Persian language. It is hard to assume that practices, which were under
patronage at the courts of Akbar and Muslim sultanates of Central India, were of Dravidian or
Rajputorigin.ThereisanotherevidenceinfavorofasignificantPersiancomponent,whichisthat
therewerenumeroustextsofPersianoriginaboutarchery,swordsmanship,stickandstaffgames
etc.intheLucknowlibraryintheendofthe19thcentury(Sprenger,1896,p.17).TheMoghulline
wasaristocraticincharacter,sincethehigheststateleaderseitherpracticedthisartthemselvesor
were direct patrons of the best fighters (Nuruddin Mohammad Salim, 1909, pp. 253 & 335).
Famousswordsmenandwrestlerstraveledaroundthecountry,offeringtheirservicesasmentors
at the courts of the rulers, and preferred to avoid students with plebeian origin. Their target
audience consisted of aristocrats and, primarily, their sons, whose education was aimed to be
developed in two traditional directions: the pen and the sword (Blake, 2002, pp. 146149).
Masterswerealsoemployedforthepreparationandtrainingofthemilitaryforces.IntheMoghul
|57
army,generalspaidlessattentiontothetacticalcoordinationofthemilitaryunitsonthebattlefield.
Moreover,theydevotedmuchtimetothephysicaltrainingofthebodyandtheindividualdexterity
in handling different kinds of weapons. This way, the trained and explored techniques became
popular among soldiers and were spread later through the whole population. Gradually with
changing nature of the warfare and corresponding training methods, the aristocratic martial
practicesceasedtoexist.Overtimetheydegradedtothelevelofsportgamesamongthesoldiers,
and they continued to exist in a modified form among the general population where closein
fightingskillsremainedpopularforalongtime(seePicture7).
Picture6.Illustrationfromthemanuscript
Nihangnama,Ahmadnagar,early17thcentury.
Picture7.Indiansoldiers'games.TheIllustrated
LondonNews,July13,1878.
AnapproximatedescriptionoftraditionalMogulcombatcouldbebasedondescriptionsof
thepracticesattheMogulcourt,theAhmednagarSultanate,aswellasofnumerousdescriptionsof
soldiersexercisesandentertainment.ThisinformationisavailablethankstothePersianhistorian
MohammadQsemHinduShh,whoservedasacaptainofthepersonalguardsattheAhmednagar
courtattheendofthe16thcentury,andlaterlivedattheBijapurcourt.Duetohim,weknowthat
militarypracticeswerealreadywidelyspreadinBahmanidSultanate.Afteritscollapseintheearly
16th century they did not disappear, but became even more widely spread in the newly formed
Deccan sultanates (see Mohammad Qsim, 1910, pp. 207208). Mohammad Qsim Hindu Shh
describedthatBurkhamNizamShhtheFirst,therulerofAhmadnagarSultanate,wasfascinated
bymilitarypracticesanddevotedmuchtimetotheseexercises.Itisnaturalthatalotoffollowers
and imitators appeared which led to the establishment of many martial arts schools in every
Ahmadnagarquarter,sothattheirtotalnumberequalledorsurpassedthenumberofmadrassas[a
specifictypeofreligiousschoolorcollegeforthestudyoftheIslamicreligion].Graduallythepalace
became the place for daily duels between dozens of swordsmen, where they demonstrated their
skills,andeachday,oneortwomenwerekilled.Intime,thecourtduelswerebanned,andmasters
of the sword moved to the countryside to compete in their skills. Initially this practice was
recognized as legitimate; the murder in a duel was considered honorable and did not have any
subsequent consequences. This phenomenon spread beyond Ahmednagar's borders, and the
practice of settling the disputes in form of duels also reached aristocratic society, including
philosophers and theologians. Anyone who could not stand up for himself in such a duel was
|58
blamedforhislackofspiritandcourage.Itisnecessarytodescribethefollowingpracticeswhich
existedatthetimeandaredirectlyrelatedtofencingtechniques.Therearenumeroustechniques
emphasizing the use of a small shield in combination with a wooden stick representing a sword.
The stick often had a guard supported by leather or fabric to protect the hand and to soften the
impactforceoftheopponent'sstrikes.Yekungbazyiswhentheswordorstickaloneisused.Do
ungbazyiswhentheshield,ortwoswordsarewielded,oneineachhand(seeMohammadQsim,
1910,pp.207208)(seePicture8).
Picture8.Indianfencer.
Using this combination, a shield served as an exclusive means of protection and parry.
Although, some protection techniques included a combined use of the shield and stick. The stick
wasusedforcuttingstrikes,aswellasforthrusting.ThistechniquelikeallotherIndiantechniques
containedalargenumberoffeintsandattackstothelegsand,particularly,attacktothethefeet.
For instance, one of the techniques included feinting a head strike and then moving to strike the
footinstead(Mundy,1832,pp.280281).Twohandedswordtechniquesexisteduntilthemiddleof
the19thcentury,butnowadaysweknowonlylittleaboutthem.ItissaidinAyeenAkberi[Institutes
of the Emperor Akber] that Akber's army included units of soldiers who were armed with two
handedswordswithhandlesmorethanhalfameterinlength(AyeenAkbery[TheInstitutesofthe
Emperor Akber], 1800) (see Picture 9). Abdul Halim Sharar was an essayist and historian of
Lucknow,anddescribesmanyofthepracticesthatexistedinLucknowinthefirsthalfofthe19th
century. Among them there was a type of dagger fighting called bank;binaut, which was a skill of
|59
disarming the opponent from his sword, staff or whatever he holds; and arts of pata hilana. All
researchers agree with Sharar that pata hilana was a type of fencing with a wooden sword.
However, it is known that such terms as patebaz or patait mean swordsmanship. The term
khilanameanstoplay.Therefore,patahilanaismorelikelytomeanswordplay.Ofcourse,both,
awoodenswordorastick,surelycouldbeusedintheseswordsmanshippractices.AlsoSharar's
descriptionscontaininformationaboutusingofaswordpata(astraight,doubleedgedswordwith
agauntlet).Thereareknowndescriptionsoftechniqueswithswordandshield,aswellaswithtwo
swordssimultaneouslyholdingoneineachhand(Sharar,1994,pp.110111).
Picture9.SomeexamplesoftwohandedIndianswords.
Unfortunately, these exercises were only used for sport and entertainment during the
Moghulperiodandthesepracticesdidnotplayaroleintheindividualtrainingofthewarrior.Also
theBritishadministrationeliminatedrealmartialpracticesaftertheSepoyRebellion.Generally,a
reduced interest in national fighting traditions in the later period also affected these activities
negatively.Thereisasecondcomponentoftheseactivities,whichaccordingtoreliablesources,is
not of a purely Indian origin (Kurochkin, 2014). It was a synthesis of the Muslim aristocracy
practices with Indian practices, which were probably based on indigenous Dravidian traditions.
Thissystemdevelopedwithinthetraditionsofwarriorsascetics,whoserangeofinterestsincluded
theuseofmilitarypracticesforspiritualdevelopment,theprotectionoftheircommunities,aswell
asmercenarymilitaryservice,collectingindemnitiesandsometimesplainbanditry.Bythetimeof
the Muslim invasion, a tradition of warriorsascetics had already existed in India. There is a
description of an episode in Akbarnme that Akbar personally witnessed an armed fight in
Thanesarebetweenyogisforaplaceattheholypond,usingbowsandarrows,throwingsteelrings
chakram,swordsandothercoldweapons(seethepictureAbattlebetweensannyasisatThanesar
in northwest India, watched by the Mughal emperor Akbar, 15861589, Victoria and Albert
Museum, IS.2: 611896). According to oral tradition, Akbar legalized the practice of creating
ascetics militias. The permission was granted to them in response to the ascetics leaders appeal
about the necessity of selfdefense against Muslim ascetics' outrage (Farquhar, 1925, p. 442).
Akbar's religious liberalism influenced his decision, which subsequently let the genie out of the
bottle,andasceticsstartedtorecruitnotonlymembersoftheBrahmincastebutalsootherIndians
into their ranks, develop a network akharas (a network of training schools) and create armed
groups.ItisnecessarytonotethattheasceticsinIndiaactedsimilarlyasEuropeanmilitaryorders,
|60
such as the famed Knights Templar, in the sense of becoming religious military bodies that also
accumulated great wealth such as precious stones, and did a lot of trade. Gradually mercenary
business was also added to this list. As a result by the 18th century, one can see the ascetics
transformation from the armed yogis gangs of the 16th century to the troops of trained
mercenaries, using muskets and cavalry. But even at a later time they were considered to be
excellentmastersofclosequarterscombat,especially,withasword,thustheywereusedasashock
infantry(Pinch,2006,pp.7082).
Unluckily it is hardly possible to determine the precise origin and ethnicity of military
practices of the region. The militarization degree of the population of the region was an
unprecedentedeventwhenpeasantswererecruitedbymeansofmercenarymilitaryserviceatthe
endoftheagriculturalseason.Theycouldbeconsideredasaccomplishedsoldiersintermsoftheir
individual military training as both sword training and military skills training generally started
duringchildhood.Atthesametime,forexample,Rajputshadnorestrictionsforgirlsandwomen.
Earl Egerton, Lord Tatton, collector, traveler and explorer of India noted: The Rajputs are all
broughtuptotheuseofarms.Everyvillagehasitsgymnasiumwhereinstructionisgivenmorning
and evening in the use of weapon and the practice of athletic exercises and these must have
contributedmuchtotheirmartialbearingandsoldierlyqualities(Egerton,1896,p.105).Itisalso
reportedthatmendidnotleavetheirvillagewithoutasword,ashield,abowandarrowsalreadyin
theearly19thcentury,aswellaswithoutalongspearandasaddleaxeiftheyhadahorse(Heber,
1843,p.110).Theyworkedinthefieldswithashieldbehindandaswordonthesideduringthe
SepoyRebellioninthemiddleofthe19thcentury.Ahighdegreeofmilitarizationwascommonin
theentireregion,especiallyamongRajputs,Jats,GujaratiandMarathiaswellasahighmobilityof
thepopulation.ItisalsoimpossibletodefinethesepracticesaspurelyIndianassomeborrowing
must have taken place from aristocratic Muslim practices, as mentioned before. These practices
could conventionally be defined as folk military practices that existed in the region within the
frameworkoftraditionalIndianschoolsAkhara.Thankstopracticespreservedtothepresent,itis
possible to carry out some analysis and to identify some characteristics that separate this folk
practicefromothermilitarytraditionsofNorthIndia.
Aspecificstyleoffootworkmakesuptherootofthesetechniques,whichwascommonfor
allNorthIndiantechniquesandisknownaspentra,petraorpantra.Thereisnothingdifficultinthe
movementitself,whilethemaingoalistoexhibitamovingskillthroughthemovementofthelegs
andthighs.Itsoundsstrange,sinceanypersonmovesthroughthemovementofthelegsandthighs,
butnoteveryoneisabletosimultaneouslystrikeanddefendwithasaberortwosabersparallelto
random changing of the moving direction, the angles of attack and defense, rhythm and distance,
withoutstopping,freezingorstumbling.Bycorrectlyexhibitingthistechniqueofmoving,atrained
fighterisabletoreacttoathreatfromanyside.Thisisthemostimportantskillwhenparticipating
in a group fight, where the danger of an attack from the side or from behind is the most likely.
ExistingdescriptionsofbattlesduringtheSepoyRebellionshowthatinmajorityofcasesthemost
dangerousplacetobekilledortobewoundedwasnotwheretheenemywhostooddirectlyinfront
of a fighter. Exhibiting this technique properly is even more important for a young and
inexperiencedwarrior.ThismovementismentionedquiteofteninthememoirsofBritishofficers
thatwhileengaginginthefight,theIndiansbegantomoveinastrangeway,todance(Spilsbury,
2008,p.270).
The next extremely important skill prior to obtaining proficiency with a saber is a skill of
wielding the staff. Although spinning the staff at first glance seems to be useless for any real
application, it builds coordination, strengthens the grip and provides a basis of motion, as the
momentumofthestaffneedsaresponsefromthebodyofthefighter.Thistechniqueworksonlyif
thestaffisfullyheldwiththehandsandifallfingersholdthestafffirmly,especiallythethirdand
little fingers. Weakening the grip of the staff turns an exercise into juggling. By exhibiting the
correctstafftechniquescombinedwithmoving,coincidingincycleswithmovementsofarmsand
legs, one can eventually develop skills of controlling the hand by twisting the thighs, back and
shouldermuscles.ThissetofcombinedtechniqueswasdescribedasIndiansthrewthewholeforce
of their body into the blow. The sword techniques were executed with a bent elbow holding the
swordandthearmwasnevercompletelystraightened.Thehandholdingthestickorthesaberis
kepttightlybutatthesametimeallowingtheweapontomovefreelywhiletransmittingthepower
|61
totheweaponinhand.Thetechniqueresultedinatypeofstrikeknownasdrawcutoraslicing
cut.
Here one should dispel another myth about the theory tha tulwars handles are small
because of supposedly smallsized hands of small Indians, which is commonly assumed among
someEuropeanandAmericancollectors.NorthWestandCentralIndiansareonlyslightlydifferent
in size from Europeans. There are also talwars with quite big and adequate handles in Rajasthan
museumswithcollectionsstemmingfrompalacearsenals.Oneshouldtakeintoconsiderationthe
militarization degree of the inhabitants from these regions of India, as well as the degree of
womens' and childrens' involvement in military training which indicate the existence of really
smallsizedsabersandtheircorrespondinghandles.Therewillbesomediscomfortfeelingforthe
untrainedhandduringtheexerciseswithatulwar,includingthehand'sskinwornoffinplacesof
contact with crossing section or handle's disk. All inconveniences disappear after holding the
handleofatulwarcorrectly.Besidesthemainlimitingfunction,alsothepresenceofthedisklike
hiltgivesextrasupportforthefisttomakeareversepullingmovement.Withthiskindofhiltitis
nearlyimpossibletomakeanykindofcutexceptoneinwhichtheedgeleads(Thomson,1893,p.
38).Suchtechniquesofswordsmanshiprequireasimilarchangeeveninhandledesignofshamshirs
(Picture10).
Picture10.Thehandleofashamshirwithadisc.
Since it is possible to strike heavily even with a stick, we will leave aside numerous
descriptions of the power of Indian blows and will give descriptions of the damages inflicted by
cuttingstrikes.Firstly,theBritishsurgeonsemphasizedthelackofanycompressionsigns.Thecut
was always clean, thin and without extra noticeable damages, while the wounds after the
Europeanscustomarystrikescontainedcompressionsigns,breaksandotheraccompanyinginjury.
Thetulwarstrikecutoffthelimbcompletely,orcuttotheboneatleast(Stevenson,1898,p.3).It
happenedoftenthattheinjuredmanevendidnotfeelthepaincausedbythedamageimmediately.
Onestrikecouldcutoffthehead,bothhands,thehandandtheshoulderwithabodypartorboth
|62
legs.TheEuropeanscouldsplittheenemy'sskullinhalfwithapowerfuldirectdowningstrike.The
Indiansachievedthesameresultbymeansofdelicatecuttingstrikewiththeuseofingenuityand
mastership instead of brutal force. The Indians managed their tulwars so easily, that the British
compared the process with the use of a whip or a stick. The strikes' performance and its result
influencedthetacticsofitsapplication.Cuttingoffthelimbswasthemainmethod.Whenfighting
on foot, the weapon hand and forward leg were attacked first. The last mentioned method was
favoredtothatextentsothattheBritishputtheirlegsforwardintentionallyprovokingtheattackof
the Indians and to counterattack. Up to that point the Indians had been taught to attack the
standingforwardlegatalltimes.Othertargetsincludedtheenemieshandholdingthesaber,the
handholdingthereinsorthereinsthemselves.
The lack of obvious wide arcs in preparation for cuts caused the increase of passive
protection, as the Indian warrior was almost always in a closed position during the fighting. The
existenceofthereversecuttingphaseofthemovementinthestrike'strajectoryreturnedthesaber
in the standby position for an active defense and the subsequent strike. The above mentioned
acquired skill of spinning the staff caused a completely different effect in case of using weapons
with a different construction for example when using the sword Khanda, which is as common as
tulwarsaber.Asarule,large,powerfulmodelsofthisweaponareequippedwithaspikeontopof
thehilt.Thepurposeofthespikeistheopportunitytoholdtheswordalsowiththesecondhand.
Many people think that holding a sword in such a manner is extremely inconvenient meaning
holdingaheavyswordwiththesecondhandusingasmallspikeontopofthehandle.Infact,the
balanceofthekhandaisstronglybalancedtowardsthepoint,andcorrespondswiththebalanceofa
wooden staff which is held at one end. Adding the second hand to hold the spike of a khanda or
anotherswordwithaforwardcenterofgravityallowstheswordsmantoshiftthecenterofrotation
nearthehandleandtostrikebymeansoffamiliarstafftechnique(seePicture11).
Picture11.Theswordkhandawithaspikeonthehandle.
Real practices of using a shield that could be directly related to the battlefield techniques
havenotbeenpreserved.Accordingtothedescriptionsofwitnesses,duringthebattleIndianstook
abayonetstrikeontheshieldandappliedcounterattackingashorizontalstrikesaboveorbelow
the shield. A shield was strapped behind the back often, especially when carried by horsemen.
Besidesitshouldbenotedthattheshieldwasnotasignificantadvantageinthebattle,andthere
arereportsbyBritishofficerswhostatedthattheuseofashieldincombinationwithaswordby
theIndianswordsmenwasnotaseriousproblemfortheiropponents,unlikethecombinationofa
shieldandaspear.AlsothedescriptionsshowthatoutstandingIndianwarriorsdidnotuseshields
at all. This is due to an Indian school of fighting which recommends that a shield should be only
usedasadefenseagainstprojectileweapons.Nevertheless,Indiansoldiersusedshieldsextensively
inthe19thcenturyandthiscanbeexplainedbyacenturyoldtradition.Therearealsoreportson
the simultaneous use of two swords in the real battle both by infantry soldiers and also by
|63
horsemen. The training curriculum was maximally aimed at the acquisition of combat skills with
weapons.ThiscouldbeprovedbyexceptionallyhighskillsofIndianwarriorsinhandlingthesaber
duringtheSepoyRebellion(Kinsley,2012,pp.184186).
5.Conclusions:Similaritiesanddifferencesrelatedtotechniquesofswordsmanship
ThefollowingconclusionscanbeformulatedaftercomparingpreserveddataaboutPersian
andNorthIndianswordsmanshipsystems.InformationaboutPersiansystemwaspreservedtothe
present day mainly in form of manuscripts, primarily prepared for the aristocracy and,
consequently, for professional warriors. That is why techniques described in them focused on
fightingarmoredopponents.Inthiscasetechniqueswereaimednotatapplyingofonelethalstrike,
but at the consequent actions, reducing the enemys readiness and ability to perform effective
attacking and defending. There were different types of weapons in the professional warrior's
arsenal, which allowed eliminating the opponent in various ways, including a final fight with the
useofshortbladedweapons.InthearsenalofNorthIndianpracticesthereisnoticeableemphasis
onthecoordinationofthelegs,easeoftheirmovingandsynchronizationwiththearmsandtheuse
of weapons. It is likely that these findings are influenced by the quality of preserved information
whichsurviveduntilnow,thesourceofwhichareeithersportentertainments,ortrainingpractices
forordinarypeoplecontainingminimummilitaryskills.
From this point of view and based on the compared data, which were obtained from the
surviving sources, the two analyzed traditions have little in common. At least they show two
completelydifferentapproachestotrainingmethodsandtheacquisitionofmilitaryskills.Perhaps,
a possible obstacle preventing the finding of a common denominator is the fact that the North
Indian tradition of military training, besides possessing authentic national differences, also
experienced Turkic and Central Asian influences, and as Iranian influence was more indirect.
Because of the similarity and uniformity of weapons, it is fair to speak about similar fighting
methods,butonlywithintheframeworkofacommoncentralAsianmilitarytradition,atleastwith
the data available through the limited number of surviving and currently known sources. Future
researchwillshedmorelightonthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenPersianandNorthIndian
fightingtraditions.
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Author'sbiographicaldata
Mr.AlekseyKurochkin(Moscow,RussianFederation)isalawyereducatedintheMoscowStateIndustrial
University.HehasbeenstudyingandpractisingBurmeseandIndianmartialartsforover26years.Hehas
been doing research on oriental arms and warfare of India, China and SouthEast Asia since 2007. He has
writtenarticlesontraditionalmilitarypracticesinNorthIndiaformanyjournalsandconstantlyparticipates
inconferencesonthehistoryofweapons.Email:[email protected].
|66
Dr.ManouchehrMoshtaghKhorasani(Germany)haswrittenfivebooks(fourrelatedtoarmsandarmor),
coauthored one book, and 139 print articles on Persian arms and armor published in different journals
acrosstheworld.HisbooksincludePersianArcheryandSwordsmanship:TheHistoricalMartialArtsofIran,
LexiconofArmsandArmorfromIran:AStudyofSymbolsandTerminology(WinneroftheWorldBookPrizeof
the Islamic Republic of Iran 2012), Antique Oriental and Arab Weapons and Armour: The Streshinskiy
Collection,TheDevelopmentofControversies:FromtheEarlyModernPeriodtoOnlineDiscussionForumsand
ArmsandArmorfromIran:TheBronzeAgetotheEndoftheQajarPeriod(WinneroftheWorldBookPrizeof
the Islamic Republic of Iran 2009). He is the founder and an active member of Razmafzar Organization
dedicatedtothestudyandacademicresearchonhistoricalPersianarmsandarmorandmartialarts.Email:
[email protected].
|67

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