In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ed. Chapelle, C.A. Oxford, UK: WileyBlackwell, 2012, (pp 33573356).

Lexical Semantics
Carita Paradis
Lund University
[email protected]

Introduction
Lexical semantics is an academic discipline concerned with the meaning of words. Lexical
semanticists are interested in what words mean, why they mean what they mean, how they are
represented in speakers minds and how they are used in text and discourse. Outside
linguistics proper, lexical semantics overlaps with disciplines such as philosophy, psychology,
anthropology, computer science and pedagogy. Within linguistics, it crucially overlaps with
what is traditionally referred to as lexicology, which is the overall study of the vocabularies of
languages, encompassing topics such as morphology and etymology and social, regional and
dialectal aspects of the vocabulary (Cruse, Hundsnurscher, Job & Lutzeier, 2002, Hanks,
2007, Geeraerts, 2010). Lexical semantics also provides the foundation for various fields of
applied research, such as research in language acquisition and learning, i.e. how we as native
speakers and learners of foreign languages acquire lexical knowledge (e.g. Robinson & Ellis,
2008, Gullberg & Indefrey, 2010, Ptz & Sicola, 2010), with computational linguistics (e.g.
Pustejovsky, 1995, Asher & Lascarides, 2003) and with lexicography the art and science of
dictionary-making (Bjoint, 2010)
As a point of departure, this entry states the most fundamental research questions that
all theories of lexical semantics have to attend to when describing and explaining lexical
meaning in language. With reference to the basic assumptions that follow from the research
questions, a brief presentation of past and present approaches to lexical semantics is given, in
chronological order. The subsequent sections discuss the relation between words and
concepts, and different types of lexical semantic relations in language from a Cognitive
Linguistics perspective. Finally, the last section offers a concluding statement of the nature of
meanings of words in language in human communication.

Fundamental issues in lexical semantics

This section establishes five questions that are of central importance to any theory of lexical
semantics that makes claims to be a coherent framework within which lexical meanings can
be described and explained. While all five are key questions, question (1) and (2) are more
basic than the others.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What is the nature of meaning in language?

What is the relation between words and their meanings?
How are meanings of words learnt and stored?
How are meanings of words communicated and understood by language users?
How and why do meanings of words change?

The answers to these five questions make up the fundamental theoretical assumptions and
commitments which underlie different theories of lexical semantics, and they form the basis

In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ed. Chapelle, C.A. Oxford, UK: WileyBlackwell, 2012, (pp 33573356).
for their various methodological priorities and explanations for word meanings in language.
Due to limitations of space, only the first two questions are attended to in the following
sections, the other questions are only touched upon in passing.
The term word meaning is used in this entry as a practical cover term for differentsized formmeaning couplings. Needless to say, the notion of word is extremely
problematic. When used, words are always in specific contexts and the influence exerted by
those contexts is crucial for the meanings of words, irrespective of whether the context is of a
linguistic, a discursive or a social nature. Also, the notion of word does not necessarily refer
to a unit in writing which is preceded by an empty space and followed by an empty space. A
word, as it is used here, may very well be more than one word, e.g. in spite of, at all,
computer science, all of sudden. As a consequence, what this entry concerns itself with are
units of formmeaning couplings with a distinct grammatical or semantic role in an utterance.
Once we try to grapple with word meanings in text and discourse, a fascinating world
of phenomena are exposed to us, because the interpretations of a word may vary quite a lot
from context to context, from clear cases of different senses to subtle reading differences, as
in (1) (6).
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

The mouse ran across the floor

I always use the touch pad never the mouse.
I like white wine
I dont like white coffee
I closed my savings account with the local bank yesterday.
I closed the door and went away.

The contextual variants of mouse, white and closed are interesting in different ways. Mouse in
(1) and (2) differ with respect to the entities they refer to in the different contexts an animal
and a computer device, respectively. White in (3) and (4) is used about beverages, but the
colour of the two beverages that are described as white are quite different, the colour of white
wine is yellow, and the colour of white coffee is light brown. Finally, in (5) and (6) the
closing of an account is clearly different from the concrete closing of a door, and an
interesting question in relation to this is of course what kind of entities can be closed.
Contextual variation of this kind is at the heart of lexical semantics.

Theories of lexical semantics

While word meanings have been discussed in Western literature at least since Aristotles time,
lexical semantics as a research discipline in its right evolved in the in the 19th century. Unlike
linguistic theories of today, lexical semantics in those days was not a coherent approach with
a standard name, but rather a number of individual researchers with an interest in historical
texts and the roots of human culture along the lines of the philosophical trends of the time.
Consequently, lexical semantics in those days had a historicalphilological orientation and
was mainly concerned with etymology and the classification of how meanings of words
change over time. It is important to note that word meanings in the early days of lexical
semantics were regarded as mental entities; they were thoughts, and change of meaning over
time was the results of psychological processes (Geeraerts, 2010).
As a reaction to the psychological conception of lexical meaning in the historical
philological tradition, new ideas were brought to the fore in the 20th century by advocates of
the structuralist movement, associated with Ferdinand de Saussures work (1959). Not only
did the structuralist take-over involve a fundamental shift in the conception of what meaning

In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ed. Chapelle, C.A. Oxford, UK: WileyBlackwell, 2012, (pp 33573356).
in language is, but it also involved a change from a historicalphilological, diachronic
perspective to a focus on synchronic language. Structuralism came to dominate the scene for
the better part of the 20th century. According to the Structuralists, language is an autonomous
intralinguistic system of relations between words, organized on the basis of lexical fields
(Lehrer, 1974, Cruse, 1986). Word meanings are not treated as psychological units. They are
not substantial, but relational and are defined in terms of what they are not. For instance, long
gets its meaning from its relation to short. Long means what it means because it does not
mean short. Paradigmatic relations hold between words that can felicitously fill the same
slot in an expression or a sentence (Lyons, 1977). For instance, synonyms such as cold and
chilly in It is cold today; It is chilly today, and antonyms such as short and long in The cord is
short; The cord is long, and hyponyms such as cat and animal in The cat is in the garden; The
animal is in the garden.
The Structuralists made a distinction between paradigmatic relations and syntagmatic
relations. The latter are linear relations formed between words in a sentences Cruse (1986, p.
16) maintains that
we can picture the meaning of a word as a pattern of affinities and
disaffinities with all the other words in the language with which it is capable
of contrasting semantic relations in grammatical contexts. Affinities are of
two kinds, syntagmatic and paradigmatic. A syntagmatic affinity is
established by the capacity for normal association in an utterance: there is a
syntagmatic affinity, for instance between dog and barked, since The dog
barked is normal []. A syntagmatic disaffinity is revealed by a syntagmatic
abnormality that does not infringe grammatical constraints, as in ?The lions
are chirruping.

The ideas of the syntagmatic approach to meaning with its interest in strings of words, their
collocations and their co-occurrence patterns developed from research within the London
School and the Birmingham School (Firth, 1957, Sinclair, 1987). According to the
syntagmatic approach, the meaning of a word is defined in terms of the company it keeps in
language use, or in terms of the totality of its uses. In this respect, the syntagmatic approach
opened up for new trends in linguistics, namely for usage-based approaches to lexical
semantics where contextual factors and real language in use are prime research objectives for
the description of meanings, as is the case in Cognitive Linguistics, dealt with below.
At the end of the 20th century, there was a reaction against the Structuralist view of
language as a system of relations between words without any recourse to language as a mental
and psychological phenomenon and without any relation to conceptual structure and thinking
more generally. Again, word meanings were considered to be psychological entities located in
peoples minds, rather than relations between words. This renewed interest in human
language and the mind occurred in parallel with improvements of investigative methods aided
by technical advancement and computerization in research. Structuralism was superseded by
two totally different branches of conceptual approaches to lexical meaning: a generative
approach and a cognitive approach. The breakthrough of the former came with an influential
article called The structure of semantic theory (Katz & Fodor, 1963), which set out to
describe meaning as part of formal grammar in terms of meaning components, e.g. woman
{+human, +female, +adult}. The main purpose of most work within generative lexical
semantics has been concerned with the development of a logical formalism to be used either
for the deconstruction of word meanings along the lines of Katz and Fodor (Jackendoff, 1983,
1990), or for the construction of lexical meaning as in the Generative lexicon (Pustejovsky,

In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ed. Chapelle, C.A. Oxford, UK: WileyBlackwell, 2012, (pp 33573356).
1995). Also, broadly within this framework, work on the formalization of meanings in context
as a function of rhetorical organization has been carried out more recently (Lascarides &
Asher, 2007). In the latter models, simple feature decompositions have been replaced by
models which take into consideration implicit structure and social frames, since language
users know so many things that are relevant to linguistic interpretation. The ultimate purpose
of these formalizations is that they should be useful for different kinds of computational
implementation in the areas of information technology and computer science.
Like in the generative framework, the conception of lexical meaning in Cognitive
Linguistics is that meanings of linguistic expressions are mental entities. Apart from this
commonality, the two frameworks differ in all essentials: that is, with respect to the
foundational assumptions about what meaning in language is, how words relate to meanings
and how meanings are described and explained. For a comparison between the basic
assumptions between the two frameworks, see Paradis (2003).
The cognitive approach to meaning emerged in the 80s as a reaction to the view of
grammatical knowledge as separated from other cognitive abilities and processes held by the
Generativists. In contrast, the cognitive approach sees linguistic knowledge as in integral part
of human cognition. Language cannot be studied without reference to the principles of human
cognition. Cognitive Linguistics is a maximalist approach in the sense that it aims to account
for real language in use in all its complex glory. It is a socio-cognitive framework in which
lexical meanings are inextricably associated with language users bodily, perceptual and
cognitive experiences of cultural and historical phenomena. Our use of words is constrained
as well as promoted by subjective and intersubjective conditions in the act of social
communication. There is no strict dichotomy between linguistic and encyclopaedic meanings
(Paradis, 2003). Rather, lexical meaning in Cognitive Linguistics is encyclopaedic, i.e. taking
into account any aspect of contextual meaning modulation that is relevant for a certain
research task, integrating semantics, pragmatics and in fact also grammar (Paradis, this
volume). In contemporary linguistics, cognitive lexical semantics is the most popular
enterprise, both in terms of publications produced and the number of people who are involved
in lexical semantic research (Geeraerts, 2010).
In the Cognitive Linguistics framework, there is a direct mapping of words and
expressions to conceptual structure. Language forms an integral part of human cognition in
general. The function of words is to evoke conceptual patterns in the cognitive system. There
is no algorithmic linguistic level intermediate between linguistic expressions and their
meanings. The cognitive approach to meaning is usage-based (Langacker, 1999, pp. 91145,
Cruse, 2002, Tomasello, 2003). Speakers and hearers are intentional creatures. The way we
express ourselves is functionally motivated; we wish to get our message through to our
interlocutors and to negotiate meanings in communication with other people in an optimally
successful way. There are no stable word meanings, rather meanings of words are dynamic,
context-sensitive and construed on-line. This take on words and their meanings strengthens
the link between language and psychology, language and sociology, language and cognitive
science and language and neurology and opens up for interdisciplinary research.
Thanks to technical innovation in the form of increased computer capacity and
performance, and improvements of experimental equipment, quite a lot of empirical progress
has been achieved lately. Contemporary research in lexical semantics is making extensive use
of corpus methodologies and language technological tools. The use of large databases and
web-as-corpus has revolutionized the possibilities of investigating usage patterns in real
language across genres and cultures and further develop probabilistic usage-based ideas.
However, not only textual data and computerized methods play an important role in research
in lexical semantics, but also different kinds of psycho- and neurolingusitic experiments are

In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ed. Chapelle, C.A. Oxford, UK: WileyBlackwell, 2012, (pp 33573356).
used to describe and explain word meanings and to establish links between language and
cognition, language in peoples minds and in peoples brains.

Words and concepts

Having thus established that the predominant framework in current research in lexical
semantics is the Cognitive Linguistics framework, this section and the next deal with aspects
of the relation between words and concepts and with lexical semantic relations from a
cognitive perspective, stating that (lexical) knowledge is organized as concepts in peoples
minds. Concepts form systems of areas of human experience that provide the necessary
contextual knowledge for our understanding of the world around us. This knowledge is
referred to as domains (Langacker 1987, pp. 147182) (or frames Fillmore 1982, p.111).
Some of them are basic domains, which are inborn and which make it possible for us to
experience ranges of colours, pitches, tastes, smells, tactile sensations, spatial extensionality,
the passage of time and the experience of emotions. However, domains are not only basic
domains, they may, in fact, involve conceptualizations of any degree of complexity. For most
concepts, in fact, we need to make reference to more than one domain and linguistic
expressions typically invoke multiple domains when they are used. Not all of the domains
have equal status. A domain may be defined as any knowledge structure that is of relevance to
the characterization of a certain meaning. Semantic contrasts in the readings of words are
always a result of the actual domains invoked in a particular expression in a particular context
and to the ranking of prominence among those domains. Some domains are more central than
others in a given situation. Langacker (1987, p. 154) illustrates this using BANANA as an
example:
Most concepts require specifications in more than one domain for their
characterization. The concept [BANANA], for example includes in its matrix a
specification for shape in the spatial (and/or visual) domain; a color
configuration involving the coordination of color space with this domain; a
location in the domain of taste/smell sensations; as well as numerous
specifications pertaining to abstract domains, e.g. the knowledge that bananas
are eaten, that they grow in bunches on trees that they come from tropical
areas, and so on.
We may go on to ask ourselves which of these specifications are necessary. The simple
answer is that all of them are necessary for a full knowledge representation as required in an
encyclopaedic, usage-based conception of meaning. When the word banana is used in human
communication, one of these aspects may be profiled, while others form the base, or
background. As Croft & Cruse (2004, p. 16) point out no concept exists autonomously: all
are understood to fit into our general knowledge of the world in one way or another.

Lexical semantic relations

There are essentially three different kinds of relations between word meanings. There are (i)
words that share the same form but mean different things, homonyms and polysemes, and
there are (ii) words that evoke similar meanings but have different forms, such as synonyms
and hyponyms, and there are (iii) words that have different forms and different meanings and
are semantically related through opposition such as antonyms.

In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ed. Chapelle, C.A. Oxford, UK: WileyBlackwell, 2012, (pp 33573356).

Figure 1. The relation of different meanings of a word.

Starting with words that have the same form but different meanings (Figure 1), we may
identify two types of contextual variants of words, which we refer to as arbitrary and
motivated variants. Arbitrary variants are unrelated and just happen to sound and/or look the
same in contemporary speech and/or writing. They are often referred to as hymonyms and can
be exemplified by the word [sl] in different contexts, as in (7) (9).
(7) I complained to the waiter because the sole was burnt.
(8) You are a soul of discretion.
(9) The soles are made of rubber.
Motivated variants, on the other hand, evoke meanings which are related through some kind
of resemblance, metaphorization, or contingent conceptual associations (metonymization).
Formmeaning pairings that are related in that way are called polysemes. Consider examples
(10)(15).
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)

The beam has gone through the roof.

Prices have suddenly gone through the roof.
Bill slapped Sally in the face.
The way Bill behaved is a slap in the face after all Sally had done for him.
The famine in the area is very threatening. There are too many mouths to feed.
Fortunately, the whole school was on an outing, when the fire started.

The contextual variants of go through the roof in (10) and (11) and slap in the face in (12) and
(13) are clearly related. The meanings in (10) and (12) refer to concrete undesirable events,
while the meaning in (11) refers to the fact that something negative is going out of bounds and
in a direction that is undesirable, and (13) there is a resemblance relation between the concrete
activity of slapping which is physically painful and something that is emotionally painful. In
(14) there is a contingent relation between the use of mouth for people and school for pupils
and staff (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, Paradis, 2004).
The second type of lexical semantic relations concerns words that evoke similar
meanings (Figure 2), which is the case for synonyms such as father and dad, nice and

In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ed. Chapelle, C.A. Oxford, UK: WileyBlackwell, 2012, (pp 33573356).
pleasant, and for hyponyms such as animal and cat, walk and stroll. Synonymy, including
hyponymy is essentially the opposite of homonymy and polysemy in the sense that in the case
of synonyms the different word forms map onto the same concepts, while in the case of
homonymy and polysemy, the same word form evokes different concepts.

Figure 2. The relation of sameness of meaning (WALK) expressed by different words.

Note that there are no absolute synonyms in language use. There is a gradient of conceptual
and communicative similarity (Cruse 2010, pp. 142145, Storjohann, 2010 pp 6994). There
is always something in the profiling of the meaning and the ranking of the domains in the
domain matrix that differs. This becomes particularly evident in translation studies and
lexicography. With the exception of many technical terms and manufactured objects such as
dishwashers and vacuum cleaners, it is a well-known fact that words in one language rarely
have exact translations in other languages. For instance, if speakers of English seek a
translation of comfortable in Swedish, they must decide which of the following translations is
adequate in the current the context: bekvm, komfortabel, behaglig, angemm, tillrcklig,
trygg, or, if speakers of Spanish seek a translation for the appropriate use of the discourse
marker bueno in Spanish, they have to decide whether to use okay, all right, well, never mind,
right, right then, really.
Finally, antonymy is a binary construal of opposition that holds between two different
words in discourse. Antonyms are similar in that they are aligned along the same conceptual
dimension, but they are maximally different in expressing the opposite properties of that
particular dimension (Paradis & Willners, 2011). For instance, good and bad may be used as
antonyms along the dimension of MERIT, and long and short along the dimension of LENGTH
(Figure 3).

Figure 3. The relation of opposition: different words poles of the same meaning dimension.

In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ed. Chapelle, C.A. Oxford, UK: WileyBlackwell, 2012, (pp 33573356).
When antonyms are used in text and discourse, they are restricted to the same meaning
domain. For instance, long and short are antonyms in the context of horizontal extension for
ROAD, but not in the context of vertical extension for BUILDING where low and high or tall
would be the preferred pairings. This is a constraint that is true of synonyms too. However,
antonymy is different from the other relations mentioned in this section in that new couplings
are frequently construed for various different purposes in text and discourse. For instance,
Firefliers prefer tall grass to mowed lawns where tall and mowed are used as antonyms.
Antonymy seems to have special status as a lexical semantic relation in language in that
antonyms are typically members of one-to-one relations, rather than one-to-many or many-tomany, and they are severely constrained in their relationship and by their alignment along the
same meaning dimension within a domain (Paradis, Willners & Jones, 2009, Paradis &
Willners 2011).

Words in text and memory

Language can be described as a conceptually structured inventory of linguistic units and
cognitive routines. Word meanings are shaped by the context and the situations where they
occur, and conventionalized uses of word meanings are the results of the entrenchment of
words as formmeaning pairs in memory. Multiple meanings of words are expected as a
natural consequence of a dynamic, usage-based view of language.
SEE ALSO: Bilingual Lexicography; Cognitive Grammar; Dictionary use; Intercultural
Communication; Cognitive grammar; Lexicography; lexicography across languages; Lexical
Collocations; Monolingual lexicography

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Suggested readings
Cruse, A. (2010). Meaning in language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Murphy, M.L. (2003) Semantic relations and the lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Murphy, M. L. (2010). Lexical Meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Talmy, L. (2000). Towards a cognitive semantics. Cambridge, MA, and London: The MIT
Press.
Taylor, J. (2003). Linguistic categorization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.