1

List of contents
Chapter one
Introduction
1.1 introduction.....5
1.2 design basis...6
1.3 design code and specifications.7
1.4 safety provisions of the ACI-Code..8
1.5 reinforced concrete beam behavior
10
Chapter Two
Design and analytical theories
2.1 introductions....14
2.2 design and analytical theories according to ACICode..14
2.2.1 Singly reinforced rectangular beams..
..14
2.2.2 Doubly reinforced rectangular beams..
.15
2.2.3 Rectangular beam with tension and compression
reinforcement
22.4 shear and diagonal tension in
beam21
2.2.5 Shear analysis design of reinforced concrete beam
.....22
2.3 design and analytic theories according to
B.S.24

2.3.1 Design beam flexural reinforcement..

25
2.3.2 Determine factored moment..
.25
2.3.3 Determine required flexural
reinforcement25
2.3.4 Design of rectangular beam
26
2.3.5 Design beam shear
reinforcement..27

Chapter Three
Reinforced concrete beam design-numerical
examples30
Chapter Four
Program review and applications
Chapter Five
Comparison
Index
References

LIST OF TABLE
Table (1.1)
required

Factored load combination for determining

strength U in the ACI_Code

Table (1.2)

Strength reduction factor in the ACI-CODE

Table (2.1)
minimum beam depth for compression
reinforcement to yield
Table (2.2)

Values of vc design concrete of shear stress

Table (3.1)
Nominal cover (mm) to all reinforcement
including links to meet durability requirement
Table (3.2)
Nominal cover (mm) to all reinforcement
including links to meet specified periods of fire resistance

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure (1.1) Behavior of reinforced concrete beam under

increasing load
Figure (1.2) Stress distribution at ultimate load
Figure (2.1) doubly reinforced concrete beam
Figure (2.3) Design of a Rectangular Beam Section

Sympols

In ACI-CODE

a
block
As
A's

depth equivelant rectangular stress

area of tension reinforcement
area of compression reinforcement

Asmax
maximum amount of flexural
reinforcement
Asmin
minimum amount of flexural
reinforcement
Av

area of shear reinforcement

width of compression face of member

bw

web width in mm

distance from extreme compression fiber

to neutral
axis

diameter of bars

d'

distance from extreme compression fiber

to centroid of compression reinforcement

distance from extreme compression fiber

to centroid of tension reinforcement

Es
Mpa

modulus of elasticity of reinforcement,

f'c
specific compressive strength of
concrete,Mpa
f's

stress in compression reinforcemen

fy

specific yield strength of reinforcement

min

minimum ratio of reinforcement

Mn

nominal moment strength at section

Mu

factored moment at section

Ratio of nonprestressed tension

reinforcement
S

spacing between bars

Vc
concrete

nominal shear strength provided by

Vn

nominal shear strength

Vs
nominal shear strength provided by shear
reinforcement
Vu

ultimate shear strength

angle between inclined stirrups and
longitudinal axis of member

'
ratio of nonprestressed compression
reinforcement
max

max ratio of tension reinforcement

s
the strain in the longitudinal
reinforcement in
acompression
zone
t

net tensile strain in extreme tension steel

at nominal strength

yield strain

Symbols In B.S

A's

area of compression reinforcement

As

area of tension reinforcement

Asv
total cross section of links at the neutral
axis ,at asection
bc
is the breadth of the compression face of
the beam

bw

average web width of aflanged beam

d
effective depth of the tension
reinforcement
d'

depth of the compression reinforcement

is the effective depth

d'

distance from extreme compression fiber

to the centroid of compression reinforcement

Fcu

cube strength of concrete at 28 days

Fs

estimated design service stress in the

tension reinforcement

Fyv
L

characteristics strength of links (not to be

taken as more than 460mpa)
the clear span

L0
the distance between supports from center
to center
Le
M

the effective span

design ultimate moment

Md
design bending moment modified to
account for axial load
Sb
Sv
Vc
Vnom
x
z

spacing of bent-up bars

spacing of links along the member
design concrete shear stress
shear force capacity of concrete section
with minimum vertical length
depth of the neutral axis
depth of lever arm

b
the ratio moment at the section after
redistribution /moment at the section before
redistribution
'

the compression reinforcement

the tension reinforcement

strain in concrete at depth h

mh
effect
s

strain at depth h correcting for stiffening

strain at center of steel reinforcement

Chapter One
1.1

Introduction

10

Concrete is a stone like material obtained by permitting a carefully

proportioned mixture of cement, sand and gravel or other aggregate, and
water to harden in forms of the shape and dimensions of the desired
structure. The bulk of the material consists of fine and coarse aggregate.
Cement and water interact chemically to bind the aggregate particles into a
solid mass. Additional water, over and above that needed for this chemical
reaction, is necessary to give the mixture the workability that enables it to
full the forms and surround the embedded reinforcing steel prior to
hardening. Concretes with a wide range of properties can be obtained by
appropriate adjustment of the proportions of the constituent materials.
A special way has been found, however, to use steels and concretes
of very high strength in combination. This type of construction is known as
prestressed concrete. The steel, in the form of wires, strand, or bars, is
embedded in the concrete under high tension that is held in equilibrium by
compressive stresses in the concrete after hardening. Because of this
precompression, the concrete in a flexural member will crack on the
tension side at a much larger load than when not so precompressed.
Prestressing greatly reduces both the deflections and the tensile cracks at
ordinary loads in such structures, and thereby enables these high-strength
materials to be used effectively. prestressed concrete has extended, to a
very significant extent, the range of spans of structural concrete and the
types of structures for which it is suited.
Advantages of concrete can be summarized as follows:
1. It has a relatively high compressive strength.
2. It has better resistance to fire than steel or wood.
3. It has a long service life with low maintenance cost.

11

4. In some types of structures, such as dams, piers, and footing, it is the

most economical design.
The analysis and design of reinforced concrete structures is based on the
concepts of providing sufficient strength to resist hypotheoritical overloads.
The analysis and design of reinforced concrete structural members
can be done of the ultimate strength method (USD). This method will
predict with satisfactory accuracy the maximum load that the structural
member under consideration will carry. The nominal strength of a proposed
member calculated, based on the best current knowledge of member and
materials behavior. That nominal strength is modified by a strength
reduction factor less than unity, to obtain the design strength. The
required strength, should the hypothetical overload stage actually be
realized, is found by applying load factors greater than unity, to the load
actually expected, So
Strength required to carry factor load strength provide .
And we can summarize the scope from this project by the following
1-Deal with the theory of analysis and design of rectangular reinforce
concrete beams under uniformly distributed load
2-Making acomparesion between the results that obtained from ACI
Code (318-02) and the results that obtained from B.S (8110-97)
1.2 Design basis
The single most important characteristic of any structural member
is its actual strength, which must be large enough to resist, with some
margin to spare, all foreseeable loads that may act on it during the life of
the structure, without failure or other distress. For reinforced concrete
structures at loads close to and at failure, one or both of the materials,
concrete and steel, are invariably in their nonlinear inelastic range. That is,
concrete in a structural member reaches its maximum strength and
subsequent fracture at stresses and strains far beyond the initial elastic
range in which stresses and strains are fairly proportional. A member
designed by the strength method must also perform in a satisfactory way
under normal service loading. For example, beam deflections must be
limited to acceptable values, and the number and width of flexural cracks at
service loads must be controlled. Serviceability limit conditions are an

12

important part of the total design, although attention is focused initially on

strength.
For members proportioned on such a service load basis, the margin of
safety was provided by stipulating allowable stresses under service loads
that were appropriately small fractions of the compressive concrete strength
and the steel yield stress. We now refer to this basis for design as service
load design. Allowable stresses, in practice, were set at about one half the
concrete compressive strength and one-half the yield stress of the steel.
1.3 Design code and specifications
The design of concrete structures is generally done within the
framework of codes given specific requirements of materials, structural
analysis, member proportion, etc. the international building code is an
examples of consensus code governing structural design and is often
adopted by local municipalities. The responsibility of preparing materialspecific portions of the codes rests with various professional groups, trade
associations, and technical institutes. In contrast with many other
industrialized nations, the United States does not have an official,
government-sanctioned, national code. The American concrete institute
(ACI) has long been a leader in such efforts. As one part of its activity, the
American concrete institute has published the widely recognized building
code requirements for structural concrete which serves as a guide in the
design and construction of reinforced concrete buildings. The ACI Code
has no official status in itself. However, it is generally regarded as an
authoritative statement of current good practice in the field of reinforced
concrete. As a result, it has been incorporated into the international building
code and similar codes, which in turn are adopted by law into municipal
and regional building codes that do have legal status. Its provisions thereby
attain, in effect legal standing. Most reinforced concrete buildings and
related construction in the United States are designed in accordance with
the current ACI Code. The ACI also publishes important journals and
standards as well as recommendations for the analysis and design of special
types of concrete structures such as tanks.
1.4 Safety Provisions of the ACI CODE
The safety provisions of the ACI CODE are given in the form
SndD+LL
(1.1a)

13

Sn (dD+LL+WW+..)
(1.1b)
in which
d is a load factor somewhat greater than one applied to the
calculated dead load D
L is a larger load factor applied to the load or code
specified live load L
W wind load (additional loads)
In words, the design strength Sn of a structure or member
must be at least equal to the required strength U calculated
from the factored load
Design strength required strength
Sn U
The nominal strength Sn is computed by accepted methods.
The required strength U is calculated by applying
appropriate load factors to the respective service loads:
dead load D, live load L, wind load w, earthquake E, earth
pressure H, fluid pressure F, impact allowance I, and
environment effects T that may include settlement, creep,
shrinkage, and temperature change.
Loads are defiened in a general sense, to include either
loads or the related internal effects such as moment,
shears and thrusts. Thus, in specified terms for a member
subjected, say to moment, shear, and axial load
MnMu
VnVu
PnPu
Where n nominal strength in flexure, shear, and axial load
U factored load moment, shear, and axial load

14

The load factor specified in the ACI Code, to be applied to

calculated dead loads and other live and environment loads
specified in the appropriate codes or standards, are
summarized in table (1.2)
Table (1.1)Factored load combinations for determining
required strength U in the ACI Code

In all cases in table (1.1), the controlling equation is the one

that gives the largest factored load effect U.
The strength reduction factor in the ACI Code are given
different value depending on the state of knowledge .Also
reflects the probable importance, for the survival of the
structure , of the sons, alower value is used for columns
than for beams . Table (1.2) gives the values specified in
the ACI Code

Table(1.2)
Strength reduction factor in the ACI Code

15

1.5 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM BEHAVIOR

Plain concrete beams are insufficient as flexural
members because the tensile strength in bending is a small
fraction of the compressive strength. As a consequence,
such beams fail on the tension sides at low loads long
before the strength of the concrete on the compression side
has been fully utilized. For this reason, steel reinforcing bars
are placed on the tension side as close to the extreme
tension fiber as is compatible with proper fire and corrosion
protection of the steel. In such a reinforced concrete beam,
the tension caused by the bending moments is chiefly
resisted by the steel reinforcement, while the concrete
alone is usually capable of resisting the corresponding
compression.
At low loads as, as long as the maximum tensile stress in
the concrete is smaller than the modulus of rupture, the
entire concrete is effective in resisting stress, in
compression on one side and in tension in other side of the
neutral axis. In addition, the reinforcement, deforming the
same amount as the adjacent concrete, is also subject to
tensile stresses. At this stage all stresses in the concrete
are of small magnitude and are proportional to strains. The
distribution of strains and stresses in concrete and steel
over the depth of section is as shown in fig (1.1c).
When the load is further increased, the tensile strength of
the concrete is soon reached, and at this stage tension
cracks develop. The general shape and distribution of these
tension cracks is shown in fig (1.1d).

16

On the other hand, if large amount of reinforcement or

normal amounts of steel of very high strength are
employed, the compressive strength of the concrete may be
exhausted before the steel starts yielding. Concrete fails by
crushing when strains become so large that they disrupt the
integrity of the concrete. Exact criteria for this occurrence
are not yet known, but it has been observed that
rectangular beams fail in compression when the concrete
strains reach value of about 0.003 to 0.004.
The analysis of stresses and strength in the different stages
just described will be discussed in the next several sections.

Fig. (1.1) Behavior of reinforced concrete beam under

increasing load
A) Stresses elastic and section uncracked

17

As long as the tensile stress in the concrete is smaller than

the modulus of rupture, so that no tension cracks develop,
the strain and stress distribution as shown in fig (1.1c) is
essentially the same as in n elastic.
b) Stresses elastic and section cracked
When the tensile stresses fct exceeds the modulus of
rupture, cracks form, as shown in fig (1.1d). If the concrete
compressive stress is less than approximately 0.5 f'c and
the steel stress has not reached the yield point , both
materials continue behave elastically, or very nearly so this
situation generally occurs in structures under normal
service conditions and loads, since at these loads the
stresses are generally of the order of magnitude just
discussed. At this stage, for simplicity and with little of any
error , it is assumed that tension cracks have progressed all
the way to the neutral axis and that sections plane before
bending are plane in the deformed member. The situation
with regard to strain and stress distribution is then that
shown in fig (1.1e).
c) Flexural strength
It is of interest in structural practice to calculate those
stresses and deformations that occur in structure in service
under design load. For reinforced concrete beam, this can
be done by the methods just presented, which assume
elastic behavior of both materials. It is equally, if not more,
important that the structural engineer be able to predict
with satisfactory accuracy the strength of a structure or
structural member. By making this strength larger by an
appropriate amount than the largest loads that can be
expected during the lifetime of the structure, an adequate
margin of safety is assured. In regard to bending, it has
been pointed out that at high loads, close to failure; the
distribution of stresses and strains is that of figure (1.1f)
rather than the elastic distribution of figure (1.1e ). More

18

realistic methods of analysis, based on actual inelastic

rather than assumed elastic behavior of the materials and
on results of extremely extensive experimental research,
have been developed to predict the member strength; they
are now used almost exclusively in structural design
practice.
Let figure (1.2) represent the distribution of internal
stresses and strains when the beam is about to fail. One
desires method to calculate that moment Mn (nominal
moment) at which the beam will fail either by tension
yielding of the steel or by crushing of the concrete in the
outer compression fiber.

Fig. (1.2) Stress distribution at ultimate load

19

Chapter Two
Design and Analytical Theories
2.1 Introductions
The analysis and design of reinforced concrete structures is based
on the concept of providing sufficient strength to resist hypothetical
overloads. The analysis and design of reinforced concrete structural members
can be done of the ultimate strength method (USD).this method will predict
with satisfactory accuracy the maximum load that the structural member
under consideration will carry. The nominal strength of a proposed member
is calculated, based on the best current knowledge of member and materials
behavior. That nominal strength is modified by a strength reduction factor ,
less than unity, to obtain the design strength. The required strength, should
the hypothetical overload stage actually be realized, is found by applying
load factors greater than unity, to the load actually expected. So
Strength required to carry factor load strength provide
2.2 Design and analytical theories according to ACI Code
2.2.1 Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beams.
As previously stated, the tensile strength of concrete is very low,
being about10% of concrete compressive strength .Hence it is assumed in
structural design that the tensile strength of the concrete is neglected
.Therefore it is necessary to strengthen or reinforce the concrete members
where they are subjected to tensile stresses. This strengthening is usually
accomplished by the embedment of steel bars or rods which must then resist
almost 100% of the tensile forces. The nominal strength of a member can be
computed based on principles of mechanics and limits defined by the ACI

20

Code. Using =0.85, the nominal bending strength is the moment of the
internal couple of C and T
Mn=T (d - a/2)

(2-1a)

Mn=As fy (d a/2)

(2-1 b)

Fig. (1.2) Stress distribution at ultimate load

The equilibrium of horizontal internal forces in the equivalent stress

distribution gives.
a=As fy/0.85 fc bd

(2-2)

substituting equation ( a) in equation Mn

Mn =As fy (d As fy/ 1.7 f'c b)

(2-3)

Equation (2-3) can be written in terms of reinforcement ratio by

substituting equation ( T= Asfy) in equation (2-3)
Mn= bd2 fy (1-0.59 fy/f'c)

(2-4)

max= 0.85 1 f'c/fy. 0.003/(0.003+0.004)

( 2-5)

2.2.2 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams

21

Doubly reinforced sections contain reinforcement both at the tension

and at the compression face, usually at the support section only. They
become necessary when either architectural limitations restrict the beam web
depth at midspan, or the midspan section dimensions are not adequate to
carry the support negative moment even when the tensile steel at the support
is sufficiently increased. In such cases, about one-third to one-half of the
bottom bars at midspan are extended and well anchored at the supports to act
as compression reinforcement. The bar development length has to be well
established and the compressive and tensile steel at the support section well
tied with closed stirrups to prevent buckling of the compressive bars at the
support.

2-2-3.Rectanguler Beams with tension and compression Reinforcement

If a beam cross section is limited because of architectural or other
considerations, it may happen that the concrete cannot develop the
compression force recquired to resist the given bending moment. In this case,
reinforcement is added in the compression zone,resulting in a so-called
doubly reinforcement beam, i.e., one with compression as well as tension
reinforcement see fig (2-1). shown bellow:

Fig (2-1): Doubly reinforced concrete beam

The use of compression reinforcement has decreased markedly with the use
of strength design methods, which account for the full strength potential of

22

the concrete on the compressive side of the neutral axes. However, there are
situations in which compressive reinforcement is used for reasonsother than
the strength.It has been found that the inclusion of some compression steel
will reduce the long term deflections of the members.In addition, in some
cases, bars will be placed in the compression zone for minimum-moment
loading or as stirrup-support bars continuous throughout the beam span.It
may be desirable to account for the presence of such reinforcement in
flexural design, although in many cases they are neglected in flexural
calculations.
a.Tension and compression steel both at yield stress
If, in a doubly reinforced beam, the tensile reinforcement ratio is less than
or equal to b ,the strength of the beam may be approximated within
acceptable limits by disregarding the compression bars. The strength of such
a beam will be controlled by tensile yielding, and the lever arm of the
resisting moment will ordinarily be but little affected by the presence of the
compression bars.
If the tensile reinforcement ratio is larger than b, a somewhat more
elaborate analysis is required. In Fig. 2.1a, a rectanguler beam cross section
is shown with compression steel A's placed a distance d' from the
compression face and with tensile steel As at effective depth d. It is assumed
initially that both A's and As are stressed to fy at failure. The total resisting
moment can be thought of as the sum the compression steel A's and the force
in equal area of tension steel.
Mn1=A's fy( d d')

(2-6)

As shown in figure 2.1d. The second part ,Mn2, is the contribution of the
remaining tension steel As-A's acting with the compression concrete :
Mn2= (As- A's)fy(d a/2)

(2-7)

As shown in Fig.( 2-1e), where the depth of the stress block is

a= (As-A's)fy/0.85f'c b

(2-8)

With the definitions =As/bd and ' =A's / bd, this can be written
a=( ')fy d/0.85 f'c

(2-9)

23

The total nominal resisting moment is then

Mn=Mn1 + Mn2 = As fy (d d' ) + (As A's) fy(d a/ 2)

(2-10)

In accordance with the safety provisions of the ACI Code, the net tensile
strain is checked, and if t 0.005, this nominal capacity is reduced by the
factor = 0.9 to obtaine the design strength . for t between 0.005 and 0.004,
must be adjusted , as discussed earlier.
It is highly desirable, for reasons given earlier, that failure, should it occure,
be precipitated by tensile yielding rather than crushing of the concrete . This
can be ensured by setting an upper limit on the reinforcement ratio. By
setting the tensile steel strain in fig.2.1b equal to y to establish the location
of the neutral axis for the failure condition and then summing horizontal
forces shown in fig.2.1c (still assuming the compressive steel to be at the
yield stress at failure), it is easily shown that the balanced reinforcement
ratio b for a doubly reinforced beam is
'b = b + '

(2-11)

Where b is the balanced reinforcement ratio for the corresponding singly

reinforced beam and is calculated from the equation shown bellow
b= 0.85 1. f'c/fy. u/u +y

(2-12)

The ACI Code limits the net tensile strain, not the reinforcement ratio.To
provide the same margin against brittle failure as for singly reinforced
beams, the maximum reinforcement ratio should be limited to
'max = max + '

(2-13)

Because max establishes the location of the nutral axis, the limitation in Eq.
(2-13)
Will provide acceptable net tensile strains. A check of t is required to
determine the strength reduction factor and verify net tensile strain
requirements are satisfied. Substituting for t 0.005 for max in eq.(2-13)
will give =0.9
b. compression steel below yield stress

24

The preceding equations, through which the fundamental analysis of doubly

reinfoced beams is developed clearly and concisely, are valid only if the
compression steel has yielded when the beam reaches its nominal capacity.
In many cases, such as for wide, shallow beams, beams with more than the
usual concrete cover over the compression bars, beams with high yield
strength steel, or beams with relatively small amounts of tensile
reinforcement, the compression bars will be below the yield stress at failure.
It is necessary, therefore, to develop more generally applicable equations to
account for the possibility that the compression reinforcement has not
yielded when the doubly reinforced beam fails in flexure. Whether or not
the compression steel with have yielded at failure can be determined as
follows.Referring to fig. 2.1b, and taking as the limiting case
's= y ,
one obtains, from geometry,
C/d' = u / u y

or

C =( u / u y ).d'

Summing forces in the horizontal direction (fig. 2.1c) gives the minimum
tensile reinforcement ratio 'cy that will ensure yielding of the compression
steel failure :
'cy = 0.851 f'c /fy. d'/d. (u/ u y ) + '

(2-14)

If the tensile reinforcement ratio is less than this limiting value, the neutral
axis is sufficiently high that the compression steel stress at failure is less than
the yield stress. In this case, it can easily be shown on the basis of Fig. 2.1b
and c that the balanced reinforcement ratio is
'b = + ' f's/fy

(2-15)

Where

} f

f's = Es's = Es u d'/d (u +y)

(2-15a)

To determine max, t = 0.004 is substituted for y in Eq. (2-15a), giving

f's = Es

{ d'/d ( + 0.004)} fy
u

(2-15b)

hence, the maximum reinforcement ratio permitted by the ACI code is

'max = max + ' f's /fy

(2-16)

25

Where f 's is given in Eq.( 2-15b). A simple comparison shows that Eqs. (215) and (2-16), with f's given by Eqs.(2-15a) and (2-15b), respectively, are
the generalized forms of Eqs.(2-11) and (2-12)
It should be emphasized that Eqs. (2-15a) and (2-15b) for compression steel
stress apply only for beams with exact strain values in the extreme tensile
steel of y or t = 0.004.
If the tensile reinforcement ratio is less than 'b, as given by Eq. (2-11)
And less than 'cy given by Eq. (2-14) , then the tensile steel is at the yield
stress at failure but the compression steel is not, and new equations must be
developed for compression steel stress and flexural strength.
The compression steel stress can be expressed in terms of the still-unknown
neutral axis depth as:
f's = t Es.( c d' / c)

(2-17)

consideration of horizontal force equilibrium (Fig. 2.1c with compression

steel stress equal to f's ) then gives
As fy = 0.851 f'c bc + A's u Es.( c d '/ c)

(2-18)

This is a quadratic equation in c, the only unknown, and is easily solved for
c. The nominal flexural strength is found using the value of f's from Eq. (217) ,and a = 1c in the expression

Mn = 0.85 f'c ab d a/2 + A's f's (d d')

(2-19)

This nominal capacity is reduced by the strength reduction factor to obtain

the design strength.
If compression bars will not buckle outward under load, spalling off the
outer concrete.ACI Code 7.11.1 imposes the requirement that such bars be
anchored in the same way that compression bars in columns are anchored by
lateral ties. Such ties must be used throughout the distance where the
compression reinforcement is required.
For the compression steel to yield, the reinforcement ratio must lie below
'max and above 'cy, The ratio between d' and the steel centroidal depth d to
allow yielding of the compression reinforcement can found by equating 'cy

26

to 'max ( or for t =0.005) and solving for d' /d. Futhermore, if d' is assumed
to be 2.5 in., as is often the case, the minimum depth of beam necessary for
the compression steel yield may be found for each grade of steel. The ratios
and minimum beam depths are summarized in table 2.1. values are included
for t = 0.004, the minimum tensile yield strain permitted for flexural
members, and t = 0.005, the net tensile strain needed to ensure than =
0.90. for beams with less than the minimum depth, the compression
reinforcement cannot yield unless the tensile reinforcement exceeds max. The
compression reinforcement may yield in beams that exceed the minimum
depth in table 2.1, depending on the relative distribution of the tensile and
compressive reinforcement.
Table (2.1)

2.2.4 Shear And Diagonal Tension In Beam

Beams must also have an adequate safety margin against other
types of failure, some of which may be more dangerous than flexural failure.
This may be so the catastrophic nature of some other types of failure, should
they occur.
Shear failure of reinforced concrete, more properly called diagonal tension
failure, is one example. Shear failure is difficult to predict accurately.In spite
of many decades of experimental reseach, and the use of highly sophisticated
analytical tools.futhermore if a beam without properly designed shear
reinforcement is overloaded to failure, shear collapse is likely to occure
suddenly, with no advance warning of distress. This is in strong contrast with
the nature of flexural failure. For typically underreinforced beams, flexural
failure is initiated by gradual yielding of the tension steel, accompanied by
obvious cracking of the concrete and large deflections, giving ample warning

27

and providing the opportunity to take corrective measures.Because of these

differences in behavior, reinforced concrete beams are generally provided
with special shear reinforcement to ensure that flexural failure would occur
before shear failure if the member should be severely overloaded.
Figure 2.2 shows a shear-critical beam tested under thirdpoint loading. With
no shear reinforcement provided, the member failed immediately upon
formation of the critical crack in the high-shear region near the right support.

It is important to realize that shear analysis and design are not really
concened with shear as such. The shear stresses in most beams are far below
the direct shear strength of the concrete. The real concern is with diagonal
tension stress. Most of this chapter deals with analysis and design for
diagonal tension, and the provides background for understanding and using
the shear provisions of 2002 ACI Code. Members without web
reinforcement are studied first to establish the location and orientation of
cracks and the diagonal carcking load. Methods are then developed for the
design of shear reinforcement according to the ACI Code, both in ordinary
beams and in special types of members, such as deep beams.

2.2.5 Shear analysis design for reinforced concrete beam

According to ACI Code the general equation is
Vu Vn

28

Where
: strength reduction factor,=0.75
Vn: Nominal shear strength of the section.
Vn =Vc + Vs
Vc: shear strength provided by concrete.
Vs: shear strength provided by shear reinforcement.
Shear strength provided by concrete (Vc) .(11.3.ACI-Code)
Shear strength provided by concrete (Vc) for member subjected to shear and
flexture only shall be computed by:
Vc= ( f ' c /6 .bw.d )
Shear strength by shear reinforcement .(11.6.5 ACI-Code)
If Vc Vc

.= 0.45

Then shear reinforcement must be provided, and shear strength (Vs) shall be
computed as following:
1. When shear reinforcement perpendicular to axis of member
Vs = Av. fy.d / s 2/3 f ' c . bw .d
Where
Av: Total cross section area of shear reinforcement .
S : spacing of shear reinforcement.
2. When shear reinforcement consist of a single bar or a single group of
parallel bars all bent at same point
Vs = Av Fy. Sin

f 'c

bw .d

3. When Shear reinforcement consist of aserries of parallel bent up bars or

groups of parallel bent bars at different points or when inclined stirrups are
used as a shear reiforcement.

29

Vs = Av.fy.d / S .( sin + cos)

f 'c

.bw . d

4. Note: When more than one type of shear reinforcement used to reinforce
the same position of a member:
Vs total =

Vs

ACI - Code Limitations

1. Fy 420 Mpa.
2. If Vu1/2 Vc.. Then there is no need to use shear reinforcement.
3. If 1/2 Vc <Vu Vc Then provided minimum shear reinforcement.
As min=

f 'c

bw.S / 16.Fy

4. spacing limits:
a. When shear reinforcement perpendicular to the axis of the member the
maximum spacing is the smallest of :
Smax = the smallest of .. { 16 Av fy\
And Smax = the smallest of ..

f 'c

.bw , OR Av.Fy/ 0.33.bw}

f 'c

{d /2 ,600} if Vsu 1/3

.bw. d

Vsu = Vu Vc/
Or
Smax = the smallest {d/4 ,300} if Vsu > 1/3

f 'c

bw.d

b. For inclined stirrups and bent longitudinal reinforcement to maximum

spacing (Smax) is the smallest of.{ 16 Av fy\
Av.Fy/ 0.33.bw}

f c

.bw , OR

30

and Smax= the smallest of .{3d/8. ( 1+cot ) , 600} If Vsu 1/3

f 'c

bw.d

or Smax = the smallest of ..{3d/16. (1+ cot), 300 }If Vsu > 1/3
f 'c

bw.d

Notes:
1.partical limit to minimum stirrups spacing to 100 mm
2.Av = n.Asb
Where
N: Number of legs of stirrups.
Asb: cross sectional area of the bars using as a stirrups.

2.3 Design and analytic theories according to B.S 8110-97

All beams are designed for major direction flexure and shear only
The beam design procedure involves the following steps:
Design beam flexural reinforcement
Design beam shear reinforcement
2.3.1 Design Beam Flexural Reinforcement
The beam top and bottom flexural steel areas are designed at a userdefined number of check stations along the beam span. The following steps
are involved
In designing the flexural reinforcement for the major moment for a
Particular beam at a particular section:
Determine the maximum factored moments
Determine the reinforcing steel
2.3.2 Determine Factored Moments

31

In the design of flexural reinforcement of concrete frame beams,

the factored moments for each load combination at a particular beam station
are obtained by factoring the corresponding moments for different load cases
with the corresponding load factors.
The beam section is then designed for the maximum positive and maximum
negative factored moments obtained from all of the load combinations at that
section.
Negative beam moments produce top steel. In such cases, the beam is always
designed as a rectangular section. Positive beam moments produce bottom
steel. In such cases, the beam may be designed as a rectangular section, or TBeam effects may be included.
2.3.3 Determine Required Flexural Reinforcement
In the flexural reinforcement design process, the program calculates
both the tension and compression reinforcement. Compression reinforcement
is added when the applied design moment exceeds the maximum moment
capacity of a singly reinforced section. The user has the option of avoiding
the compression reinforcement by increasing the effective depth, the width,
or the grade of concrete.
The design procedure is based on the simplified rectangular stress block as
shown in Figure (2.3) (BS 3.4.4.1). It is assumed that moment redistribution
in the member does not exceed 10% (i.e., b 0.9) (BS 3.4.4.4). The code
also places a limitation on the neutral axis depth, x/d 0.5, to safeguard
against non-ductile failures (BS 3.4.4.4). In addition, the area of compression
reinforcement is calculated assuming that the neutral axis depth remains at
the maximum permitted value.
2-3-4 Design of a Rectangular beam
For rectangular beams, the moment capacity as a singly reinforced
beam,Msingle, is obtained first for a section. The reinforcing steel area is
determined Based on whether M is greater than, less than, or equal to
Msingle. See Figure(2.3).

32

Figure (2.3) : Design of a Rectangular Beam Section

Calculate the ultimate moment of resistance of the section as a singly
reinforced beam.
Msingle = K'fcubd2, where

(2-20)

K' = 0.156.
Fcu is the characteristics strength of concrete
d is the effective depth
b width or effective width of the section in the compression zone
If M Msingle (kk'), no compression reinforcement is required. The area
of tension reinforcement, As, is obtained from
As =M/ ((0.95fy) z) or As =M/((0.87fyz))

(2-21)

where
z = d {0.5+
(2-23)
k=M/ (fcubd2)

(2-24)

(0.25-k\0.9) 0.95d, and

This is the top steel if the section is under negative moment and the bottom
steel if the section is under positive moment.
If M Msingle,(k >k')the area of compression reinforcement, A's , is
given by
A's= (M-Msingle) ((f's-0.67fcu/c) (d-d'))
(2-25)
or

33

A's=(k-k')fcubd2/(0.87fy(d-d'))
(2-26)
Where
d' is the depth of the compression steel from the concrete compression face,
and
f's=700[1-2d'/d] 0.95fy
This is the bottom steel if the section is under negative moment. From
Equilibrium, the area of tension reinforcement is calculated as:
As=Msingle (0.95fy) + ((M-Msingle) (0.95fy) (d-d')),
(2-27)
Or
As=(k'fcubd2/(0.87fyz))+A's
(2-28)
z =d {0.5+0.25-k'0.9} =0.88d

(2-29)

As is to be placed at the bottom of the beam and A's at the top for positive
Bending and vice versa for negative bending.
2.3.5 Design Beam Shear Reinforcement
The shear reinforcement is designed for each load combination in
the major And minor directions of the column. The following steps are
involved in designing The shear reinforcement for a particular beam for a
particular load Combination resulting from shears forces in a particular
direction (BS 3.4.5):
Calculate the design shear stress and maximum allowable shear stress as
v =VAcv ,
v=V/bd
where
v 0.8 RLW fcu,

(2-30)

(2-31)

v 5N/mm2

(2-32)

vmax = min {0.8RLW fcu , 5.0 MPa},

(2-33)

Acv = bw d, and
RLW is a shear strength reduction factor that applies to light-weight
concrete. It is equal to 1 for normal weight concrete. The factor is specified
in the concrete material properties.
v is the design shear stress

34

V is the design shear force due to ultimate loads

If v exceeds 0.8RLW fcu or 5 MPa, the program reports an overstress. In
that case, the concrete shear area should be increased.

Note
The program reports an overstress message when the shear stress exceed
0.8RLW fcu
Or 5 MPa
Calculate the design concrete shear stress from
vc = RLW (0.79k1k2m) (100Asbd) 1/3(400d) 1/4
Where,
k1 is the enhancement factor for support compression,
And is conservatively taken as 1,
k2 = (fcu/25)131

(2-34)

(2-35)
(2-36)

m is a partial safety factor for strength of material

m = 1.25, and
(BS 2.4.4.1)
As is the area of tensile steel.
However, the following limitations also apply:
0.15 100Asbd 3
(BS 3.4.5.4 table 2.2)
400d 1,
and
(BS 3.4.5.4 table 2.2)
fcu 40 N/mm2 (for calculation purpose only).
(BS 3.4.5.4 table 2.2)
If v vc +0.4, provide minimum links defined by
AsvSv0.4b0.95fyv where

(2-37)

Asv is totalcross section of links at the neutral axis at a section,

Sv is the spacing of links along the member
Vc is the shear stress in concrete
Else if vc +0.4 < v < vmax, provide links given by
AsvSv (v-vc) b0.95fyv

(2-38)

Else if v vmax,
A failure condition is declared.
(BS 3.4.5.2, 3.4.5.12)
In shear design, fyv cannot be greater than 460 MPa (BS 3.4.5.1). If fyv is

35

Defined as greater than 460 MPa, the program designs shear reinforcing
assuming that fyv equals 460 Mpa

Table (2.2): values of vc design concrete shear stress

36

37

Chapter three
Reinforced concrete beam
Numerical examples

Solution by ACI-Code 318-02

:Example1
Find the design strength of the beam shown in figure
?section if f'c=25 MPa and fy=400 MPa
: Solution
Check yield of reinforcement

300mm

For 3 bars
430mm
As=3 (12.5)2=1473 mm2
325

=As/bd=1473/ (300430) =0.01142

Now compare this with max
max=0.851 (fc/fy) (600/ (600+fy))
(600/1000) (25/400) 85.0.85=
0.027=
So
<max

OK
steel reinforcement yield
a=As fy/ (0.85 fc b)

92.423mm= (300250.85) /4001473=

So nominal strength Mn=As fy(d-a/2)

38

Mn=1473400(430-(92.423/2))10-6=226.128 kN.m
And the design strength is Mu=Mn
Mu=0.9226.128=203.52kN.m

:Example2
Calculate the area of steel required for the beam
shown in figure below if f'c=25MPa, fy=400MPa,
d=500mm,live load=20 kN/m, and dead load=18
?kN/m (including self weight)

300mm

6m

570mm

:Solution
We will find the ultimate load
Wu=1.2WD+1.6WL=1.218+1.620=53.6 kN/m
Mu=WuL2/8=53.636/8=241.2 kN.m
Mu=Mn=bd2fy(1-0.59(fy/fc))
0.93005002400 (1-0.59 (400/25))=241.6
=0.0098
Now we must compare this with max and minimum
max=0.850.85 (25/400) (600/(600+400))

39

max=0.027
min=1.4/fy=1.4/400=0.0035
<max and >min

O.K

AS=bd=0.0098300500=1470 mm2
By using bar diameter 22
No. of bars=1470/380=3.9
So use 422

:Example3
Rectangular beams that must be carry a service live load of 35kN/m
and dead load of 15kN/m (including self weight). 5.5m sample span is
limited in cross section 250mm in width and 500mm total depth. If
?fy=400MPa , f'c=27MPa. What steel must be provided

250mm

500mm

5.5m

:Solution

wu=1.2d+1.6l=1.215+1.635=74kn/m
Mu=WuL2/8= (74) (5.5)28
279.8kn.m=
Let d=400mm
max=0.85(f'cfy)(6001400)

40

0.0209= (6001400) (27400) 0.850.85=

Asmax=maxbd=0.0209250400=2090mm2
a =Asfy (0.85f'cb) = (2090400) (0.8527250) =145.7mm
Mn=Asfy (d-a2) =2090400 (400-(145.72)) 10-6
273.494kn.m=
Mu>Mn
So it is doubly reinforced beam
Let cd=0.375
C=0.325400=130mm
Design the beam as asingle reinforced beam
a=c=0.85130=110.5mm
As1fy=0.85f'cab
As1=0.8527110.5250400=1584.98mm2
The nominal strength of asingly reinforced beam
Mn1=As1fy (d-a2) =1584.98400 (400-110.52)
218.57kn.m=
The reinforce moment Mn'=Mu/-Mn1
279.8/0.9-218.57=
92.318kN.m=
Check the section if the compression steel has yield
Let d'=60mm
s=(c-d') 0.003/c= (130-60)0.003/130=0.0016
y =fy/Es=400/200000=0.002
s<y

41

the steel has not yield

f's=sEs=0.0016200000=320MPa<fy
to compute the compression steel area
Mn'=A'sf's(d-d')
A's=92.318/ (320 (400-60)) =848.52mm2
The total steel tension area
As=As1+A's (f's/fy) =1584.98+848.52(320/400)
2263.79mm2=
We will use 225 as compression reinforcement
And 525 as a tension reinforcement
As=no of barsd2/4=5252/4=2454.4mm2
A's=2252/4=981.7mm2
=As/ (bd) =2454.4/ (250400) =0.0245
' =A's/ (bd) =981.7/ (250400) =0.0098
check to see if the steel compression shall yield
'limit =0.85 (f'c/fy) (d'/d) (600/ (600-fy)) +
0.0098+ ((600-400) /600) (60/400) (27/400)0.850.85=
0.0317=
<limit the compression steel shal not yield
check to see if the tension steel shall yield
a = (As-A'sf's/fy) fy/ (0.85f'cb)
116.36mm= (250270.85) /(320/4002454.4-981.7) =
C=a/=116.36/0.85=136.89
c/d=136.89/400=0.342<0.375

42

The tension steel shall not yield

Check with min
= (As-A'sf's/fy)/ (bd) =2454.4-981.7320/400/ (250400)
0.0167=
min =f'c/ (4fy) =27/ (4400) =0.0032
min =1.4/fy=1.4/400=0.0035
min =0.0035
>min
so the moment capacity of the beam equals
Mn=0.85ab(d-a/2)+A'sf's(d-d')
(400-60) 320981.7+(400-116.36/2) 250116.360.850.85=
113.99kN.m=
The design moment is Mu=Mn=113.990.9=102.59kN.m
Mn>Mu

:Example4
Determine the design strength for the beam shown in figure below if
@f'c=25MPa, and fy=400MPa
300mm
a) d'=60mm
b) d'=50mm

22

400mm
:Solution
62

Check if the compression can be disregarded

AS=no. of barsd2/4=6252/4=2945.24mm2

43

=AS/ (bd) =2945.24/ (300400) =0.0245

max=0.85 (f'c/fy) (600/1400) =0.850.85 (25/400) (600/1400)
0.01935=
max it design as adoubly reinforced concrete beam
check the yield of tension bars
A's=2202/4=628.32mm2
'=A's/ (bd) =628.32/ (300400) =0.0052
'max=0.85 (f'c/fy) (600/1400) +'=0.0245
='max

so f's=fy

d'=60mm@
Check the yield of compression bars
='limit=0.85 (f'c/fy) (d'/d) 600/ (600-fy) +
0.0052+ (600-400) /600 (60/400) (25/400) 0.850.85=
0.0255=
limit>

so fy>f's
T=C

Asfy=0.85f'C ab+A'sf's
a300+628.32f's250.85=4002945.24
Where
f 's=sEs
s =(c-d') 0.003/c
a=c
Asfy=o.85f'ccb+A's ((c-d') 0.003/c) Es

44

c300+ 628.32((c-60) 0.003/c) 2000000.85250.85=4002945.24

C=172.16mm
a =c=0.85172.16=146.336mm
f's= (172.16-60) 0.003200000/172.16=390.89=390.9MPa
Nominal strength
Mn=0.85f'cab (d-a/2) +A'sf's (d-d')
342.672kN.m=1000000342671612.3=
Design strength
Mu=Mn=0.9342.672=308.4kN.m

d'=50@
limit=0.850.85 (25/400) (50/400) 600/ (600-400) +0.0052
0.0221=
limit< so f's=fy
a = ((As-A's) fy)/ (0.85f'c b)
145.38mm= (300250.85) /(400 (2945.24-628.32)) =
The nominal strength is
Mn=0.8525146.336300 (400-146.336/2) +628.32400(400-50)
392.86kN.m=
Design strength is Mu=0.9392.86=353.58kN.m

:Example5
For dead load=15kN\m and live load=20kn\m design the beam for
shear reinforcement if f'c=25 MPa, fy=400 MPa, bw=300, d=400 for
?two layers of steel 529

45

:Solution
Wu=1.2d+1.6L
2015+1.61.2=

8m

kN\m 50=
Vu at the face of support

200
WuL\2=

200kN=2\850=
Vu at distance (d) from the face of
Support Vud=Vu-Wud
180kN=0.4200-50=
Vc= (1/6) f'cbwd= (1/6) 25300400=100000/1000=100kn
So VC=0.75100=75 kN
Vu= Vc+ Vs
Vsrequired= (Vu- Vc)/
kN 140=0.75/(180-75) =
Vs max= (2/3) f'cbwd = (2/3) 25300400=400000/1000=400kN
Vs required<Vsmax

OK

Use 10 inclined stirrups with two legs and =45degree (assume)

Av=2Ab=2102/4=157mm2
Smax is the smallest of
Avfy/ (f'cbw) = (16157400)/ (25300) =669.9mm 16
Avfy/ (0.33bw) =157400/ (0.33300) =634.34mm
Compare Vs with (1/3) f'cbwd

46

200kN=200000/1000=40030025(1/3)
Vs< (1/3) VF'cbwd
Smax=the smallest of
300mm= (1+cot45) (3400/8) =(1+cot)(3d/8)
600mm
Smax=300mm
S required= (Avfyd) (sin+cos)/Vsrequired
140000/(sin45+cos45) (400400157) =
253.75mm<Smax=
Use 5 stirrups at 250mm spacing putting the first at distance 250/2=125mm
from face of support

:Example6
Design the beam shown in figure for shear reinforcement if
f'c=28MPa , fy=420 MPa , dead load=24 kN\m(including self weight),
?and live load=48kN\m
Solution:

300mm

550mm
6m

Wu=1.2d+1.6L=1.224+1.648=105.6kN\m

47

Vu at face of support=WuL/2=105.66/2=316.8
Vu at critical section=Vu-Wud=316.8-105.60.55=258.72 kN
Vc= (1/6) f'cbwd= (1/6)28300550=145516.3/1000=145.52 kN
Vc=0.75145.52=109.14 kN
Vu>Vc shear reinforcement required
Vs= (Vu/)-Vc= (258.72/0.75)-145.52=199.44 kN
Vs max= (2/3) f'cbwd= (2/3)28300550=582065.28/1000=582kN
Vs required<Vsmax

OK
By using 10 as vertical stirrups
Av=2Ab=2102/4=157mm2

Srequired= (Avfyd)/Vs= (157420550)/199.441000=181.84mm

Use Srequired=180mm
Smax=the smallest of
16Avfy/ (f'cbw) =1615720/ (28300) =664.6mm
Avfy/ (0.33bw) =157420/ (0.33300) =666mm
Smax=666mm
Vs=0.75199.44=149.58 kN
f'cbwd= (1/3)28300550=291032.6/1000=291kN(1/3)
Vs< (1/3) f'cbwd
Smax is the smallest of {d/2 ,600} = {550/2 ,600} =275, 600
Smax=275mm
Smax>Srequired

OK

Use 15 stirrups at 180mm putting first one at a distance 90mm from face of
support

48

Solution by B.S 8110-97

:Example1
Calculate the area of steel required for the beam shown in figure below
if fy=400MPa, d=500mm,live load=20 kN/m, and dead load=18 kN/m
?(including self weight)
300mm

6m
570mm
:Solution
Clear span =6m
Width =300mm
Width of supporting wall =200mm
fy =400 mpa
maximum size of aggregate =20mm
maximum size of bar =32mm
maximum link size =10mm
Exposure condition =severe
Fire resistance required =2 hr
From table (3.1)
Grade of concrete C40 for severe exposure
Nominal cover=40mm
From Index (3.1)

49

Nominal cover of beams for two hours fire resistance =40mm

For 2hr resistance, minimum width of beam =200mm, from figure (3.2) of
B.S 8110
Effective depth d=overall depth-nominal cover-dia of link-half dia of bar
d=570-40-10-16=504mm
the effective span is the smaller of L=6+0.20/2+0.2/2=6.2mm
L+d=6+0.504=6.504mm
Le=6.2

therefore

: To check slenderness of beam

60bc=600.3=18m
250bc2/d=44.64m
Satisfied L<60bc<250bc2/d
Design for moment- rectangular beam
Wu=1.2d+1.6L=1.218+1.620=53.6kN\m
Mu=Wul2\8=53.636\8=241.2 kN.m
Shear at face of support=Wul\2=160.8kN
Shear at d from face of support =160.8-53.60.504=133.78=134kN
Shear at 2d from face of support=160.8-53.6-20.504=106.77=107kN
fcu =f'c\0.82=30.5N\mm2
K=M\ (fcu b d2) =241.2106\ (30.53005042) =0.103<K'=0.156
z=d (0.5+(0.25-K\0.9))=437.6mm<0.95d
x = (d-z)\0.45=147.5mm<0.5d
As=M\ (0.87fyz) =241.2106\ (0.87400437.6) =1583.8mm2
By using bar 25mm, Ab=491mm2
No. of bars=1583.8\491=3.2 so use 325mm

50

As=3491=1473mm2
Check maximum allowable shear v=V\bd=at face of support
v =160.8\ (300504)=0.00106=1.06n\mm2<0.8fcu=4.4N\mm2
Design for shear
V=107 kN at 2d from support
v =1071000\ (300504) =0.707kn<0.8fcu
=100As\bd=1001473\ (300504) =0.97%
vc =0.651.17=0.7605n\mm2 from fig. (3.1)
Vnom= (vc+0.4) bd= (.76+.4) 3005041000=175.4>v at face of support
Nominal links Asv=0.4bSv\ (0.87fyv)
Assume Sv=300mm
Asv=0.4300300\ (0.87400) =103.4mm2
Minimum tensile reinforcement
=0.0013bh=0.0013300570=222.3mm2<1473mm2
no. 12 diameter provided at top of beam 2
Minimum reinforcement in side face of beam
Minimum diameter of bar in side face of beam =(Sbb\fy)
(400\300200) =
12.2mm=
As=0.00125bh=0.00125300570=213.75mm2
Curtailment of bars=0.08l=0.086000=480mm
Spacing of bar clear spacing
Maximum spacing =47000\fs
fs =fy (5\8) (Asrequired\Asprovided) =400(5\8) (1583\1473) =268N\mm2
crack width calculations

51

As=1473mm2

d=504mm

A's=226mm2

d'=54mm

m =Es\Ec=200\20=10
=As\bd=1473\(300504)=0.0097
'=A's\bd=226\300504=0.0015
x=d{(mp+(m-1)')2+2(mp+(m-1)(d'\d)')}1\2-(m+(m-1)')
174mm=
K2=x\2d(1-x\3d)=0.153
K3=(m-1) (1-d'\x)=6.2
fc =M\(k2bd2+K3A's(d-d'))=13.9N\mm2
fs =mfc((d\x)-1)=263.6N\mm
s=fs\Es=0.0013
h=((h-x)\(d-x))s=0.00156
mh=h-(b(h-x2))\(3EsAs(d-x))=0.00156

52

Chapter Four
Program Review and Application
Introduction about the program
SAP2000 is agood featured program that can be used for
simplest problems and most complex project
Seven example problems have been prepared to
demonstrate how to use SAP2000 commands and features

53

REFERENCES

Arthur H. Nilson, David Drawin, and Charles W. Dolan, (1

''Design of Concrete Structures'', 13 th Edition
Amer M. Ibrahem, Mohammed Sh. Mahmood, and Qussay (2
W. Ahmed, ''Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures
American Concrete Institute, Building Code Requirements (3
for Structural Concrete ACI318-02
British Standards institution, Structural use of concrete (4
B.S8110-97