Tutorial on Input Shaping/Time Delay Control

of Maneuvering Flexible Structures

Tarunraj Singh
Dept. of Mech. & Aero. Eng.,
University of Bualo,
Bualo, NY 14260
[email protected]

William Singhose
Dept. of Mech. Eng.,
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia, 30332
[email protected]

http://code.eng.bualo.edu/tdf/

http://www.me.gatech.edu/inputshaping/

Abstract
Precise position control and rapid rest-to-rest motion is the desired objective in a variety of applications. The desire for reducing the maneuver time
requires reducing the inertia of the structure which
subsequently results in low frequency dynamics.
The requirement of precise position control implies that the residual vibration of the structure
should be zero or near zero. This paper presents
techniques to shape the input to the system so
as to minimize the residual vibration. A second
class of problems which includes design of input
proles for systems with rigid-body modes driven
by actuators with nite control authority, is also
presented. The common thread which connects all
the techniques presented in this paper is related to
the design of controllers which are robust to modeling uncertainties. The proposed techniques are
illustrated by simulations and experiments.

1 Introduction
Smith [1], Calvert and Gimple [2] proposed a simple technique to generate non-oscillatory response
from an lightly-damped system subject to a step
input. This is achieved by exciting two transient
oscillations so as to result in constructive cancellation of the oscillations. Smith termed the technique Posicast motivated by what he states: This
is what happens when a sherman drops his y
in the water at the maximum-position and zero
velocity instant [1]. Tallman and Smith [3] illustrated the Posicast technique using an analog computer and noted the sensitivity of the controller to

variation in the location of the poles of the system caused by nonlinear components in the system or variation of the parameters of the system
as a function of temperature.
Between the late 50s and the publication of the
Input Shaping paper by Singer and Seering [8],
there was some work on the shaping of input
proles for control of residual vibration [4], [5].
Swigert [5] proposed techniques for the determination of torque proles which considered the sensitivity of the terminal states to variations in the
model parameters. Publication of the Input Shaping paper renewed interest in preltering reference inputs for robust vibration control, which
has resulted in dozens of papers with application
to spacecrafts, robots, cranes, chemical processes,
etc. A chronological listing of papers relevant to
robust vibration control of slewing structures is
presented in the bibliography.
This paper will consider two classes of problems:
The rst, involves real-time shaping or time-delay
ltering of the reference command to stable systems with the objective of minimizing the residual vibration [1] [8], [16], [23]. This will be dealt
in detail in Section 2. The second class of problems considered is the design of controllers for systems with rigid body modes with constraints on
the control input [7], [9], [14], [29], [49]. This can
be further classied into two categories which will
be expounded in Section 3. Sections 2 and 3 will
describe in detail, technique for reducing the sensitivity of the control prole to errors in model
parameters such as damping ratio, and natural frequency. Section 4 will briey address the design
of robust controllers for nonlinear systems [41].

Finally, Section 5 will describe some applications

where the proposed techniques have been successfully implemented.

Trolley

Payload

2 Real Time Command Shaping

Position

6
Button On

5
4
3
2

Trolley

0
0

10

15

Time

(a)

Cable

Trolley

Payload

Payload

Button On

Position

Figure 1: Overhead Gantry Crane

5
4
3
2

There are all types of possible solutions to the

problem of exible dynamics including feedback
control, feedforward control, command shaping,
and even redesigning the physical hardware. A
simple example of this challenging area is presented by an overhead gantry crane like the one
shown schematically in Figure 1 . The payload is
hoisted up by a cable. The upper end of the cable
is attached to a trolley which travels along a rail
to position the payload.
Cranes are controlled by a human operator who
moves levers or presses buttons to cause the trolley to move. If the operator simply presses the
control button for a nite time period, then the
trolley will move a nite distance and come to rest.
The payload on the other hand, will usually oscillate about the new trolley position. The payload
position for a typical trolley movement is shown
in Figure 2a.
An experienced crane operator can sometimes produce the desired payload motion with a small
amount of residual vibration by pressing the button multiple times at the proper instances. The
payload position for such a situation is shown in
Figure 2b.

1
0
0

15

(b)
Figure 2: Crane Response: a) Unshaped Command
b) Shaped Command

it is helpful to start with the simplest such command. We know that giving the system an impulse
will cause it to vibrate; however, if we apply a second impulse to the system, we can cancel the vibration induced by the rst impulse. This concept
is shown in Figure 3.
At this point, it is useful to derive the amplitudes
and time locations of the two-impulse command
shown in Figure 3. If we have a reasonable estimate of the systems natural frequency, , and
damping ratio, , then the residual vibration that
results from a sequence of impulses can be described by:


V (, ) = etn C(, )2 + S(, )2
(1)
where,
C(, ) =

2.1 Simple Zero Vibration Command

As a rst step to understanding how to generate
commands that move systems without vibration,

10

Time

n


Ai eti cos(d ti ),

i=1
n


S(, ) =

i=1

Ai eti sin(d ti )

(2)

0.6

A1 Response
A2 Response
Total Response

A1
A2

Position

0.4

because they are squared in (1). Therefore, the

impulses must satisfy:

0.2

0 = A1 + A2 et2 cos(d t2 )

(5)

0 = A2 et2 sin(d t2 )

(6)

Equation (6) can be satised in a nontrivial manner, when the sine term equals zero. This occurs
when:

0
-0.2

d t2 = n, t2 =

-0.4
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Time

Figure 3: Two Impulse Response

Ai and ti are the amplitudes and time locations
of the impulses, n is the number
of impulses in
the impulse sequence, and d = 1 2 . Equation 1 is actually the percentage residual vibration.
It tells us how much vibration a sequence of impulses will cause, relative to the vibration caused
by a single, unity-magnitude impulse. By setting
(1) equal to zero, we can solve for the impulse
amplitudes and time locations that would lead to
zero residual vibration. However, we must place
a few more restrictions on the impulses, or the
solution will converge to zero-valued or innitelyvalued impulses. To avoid the trivial solution of all
zero-valued impulses and to obtain a normalized
result, we require the impulses to sum to one:

(3)
Ai = 1.
Impulses could satisfy (3) by taking on very large
positive and negative values. One way to obtain
a bounded solution is to limit the impulse amplitudes to nite values or to positive values:
Ai > 0, i = 1,2,....,n

(4)

The problem we want to solve can now be stated

explicitly: nd a sequence of impulses that makes
(1) equal to zero, while also satisfying (3) and (4).
For a two-impulse sequence, the problem has four
unknowns - the two impulse amplitudes (A1 , A2 )
and the two impulse time locations (t1 , t2 ). Without loss of generality, we can set the time location
of the rst impulse equal to zero, t1 = 0. The problem is now reduced to nding three unknowns (A1 ,
A2 , t2 ). In order for (1) to equal zero, the expressions in (2) must both equal zero independently

n
nTd
=
n=1,2,..
d
2

(7)

where Td is the damped period of vibration. This

result tells us that there is an innite number of
possible values for the location of the second impulse - they occur at multiples of the half period of
vibration. To cancel the vibration in the shortest
amount of time, choose the smallest value for t2 :
t2 =

Td
2

(8)

For this simple case, the amplitude constraint

given in (3) reduces to:
A1 + A2 = 1

(9)

Using the expression for the damped natural frequency and substituting (8) and (9) into (5) gives:
0 = A1 (1 A1 )exp(

1 2

(10)

Rearranging (10) and solving for A1 gives:

exp(
A1 =

1+

1 2
exp( 2 )
1

(11)

Dening K = exp( 2 ), the sequence of two

1

impulses that leads to zero residual vibration can

now be summarized as:
  1


K
Ai
1+K
1+K
=
(12)
ti
0
0.5Td
2.2 Using Zero-Vibration Impulse Sequences
to
Generate
Zero-Vibration
Commands
Real systems cannot be moved around with impulses, so we need to convert the properties of the
impulse sequence given in (12) into a usable command. This can be done in a very simple way.

Initial Command

Input Shaper

2+

Shaped Command

Figure 4: Multi Pulse Shaped Input

The impulse sequence is convolved with any desired command signal. The convolution product
is then used as the command to the system. If
the impulse sequence causes no vibration, then the
convolution product will also cause no vibration.
This command generation process, called input
shaping, is demonstrated in Figure 4 for an initial command that is a pulse function and a twoimpulse input shaper. Note that the convolution
product in this case is the two-pulse command similar to that shown in Figure 2b. But in most cases
the impulse sequence will be much shorter than
the command prole. When this occurs, the components of the shaped command that arise from
the individual impulses run together as shown in
Figure 5.

D
Initial Command

ZV Shaper
Robust (ZVD) Shaper
Very Robust Shaper

25

Percentage Vibration

there are errors in these values (and there always

are), then the impulse sequence will not result in
zero vibration. In fact, for the two-impulse sequence discussed above, there can be a lot of vibration for a small modeling error. This lack of robustness was a major stumbling block for the original formulation that was developed in the 1950s.
This problem can be visualized by plotting a sensitivity curve that shows the amplitude of residual
vibration as a function of the system parameters.
One such sensitivity curve for the zero-vibration
(ZV) shaper is shown in Figure 6 with the normalized frequency on the horizontal axis and the percentage vibration on the vertical axis. Note that
as the actual frequency deviates from the modeling frequency, the amount of vibration increases
rapidly. The robustness can be measured quantitatively by measuring the width of the curve at
some low level of vibration. This non-dimensional
robustness measure is called the shapers insensitivity. The 5% insensitivity has been labeled in
Figure 6.

20
15
10
Vtol

5
0
0.5

0.75

1.25

1.5

/
m)
Normalized Frequency (

Input Shaper

D+

Shaped Command

Figure 5: Continuous Shaped Input

2.3 Robustness to Modeling Errors

The amplitudes and time locations of the impulses
depend on the system parameters ( and ). If

Figure 6: Sensitivity Curves

In order to increase the robustness of the input
shaping process, the shaper must satisfy additional constraints. One such constraint sets the
derivative of (1), with respect to frequency, equal
to zero [8]. That is:
0=

d
V (, )
d

(13)

When this additional constraint is satised with V

= 0, the result is a Zero Vibration and Derivative
(ZVD) shaper [8]. By comparing the 5% insensitivities shown in Figure 6, it can be concluded

Residual
Vibration

35

0.15
0.14
0.12

0.1

0.1
0.05

0.08

Percentage Vibration

0.16

30
25
20

Limit Vibration at
Specific Frequencies

15
10
5

Vtol

0.06

0
0.2

0.04
0.1

Damping
Ratio,

0
0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

a /
m )
Normalized Frequency (

0.02
0 0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

Figure 8: Specied-Insensitivity Shaper

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 7: Three Dimensional Curve

that the ZVD shaper is signicantly more robust
to modeling errors than the ZV shaper.
Since the development of the ZVD shaper, several
other robust shapers have been developed. In fact,
shapers can now be designed to have any amount
of robustness to modeling errors [38]. The sensitivity curve for a very robust shaper is shown
in Figure 6. Robustness is not restricted to errors in the frequency. Figure 7 shows a threedimensional sensitivity curve for a shaper that
was designed to suppress vibration between 0.7
Hz and 1.3 Hz and also over the range of damping ratios between 0 and 0.2. The shapers corresponding to these curves were designed using the
Specied-Insensitivity (SI) approach. The most
straightforward method for generating a shaper
with specied insensitivity to modeling errors is
the technique of frequency sampling [19], [38].
This method requires repeated use of the vibration amplitude equation, (1). In each case, V(,)
is set less than or equal to a tolerable level of vibration, Vtol :


Vtol > es tn C(s , )2 + S(s , )2 , s = 1,..., m
(14)
where s represents the m unique frequencies at
which the vibration is limited.
For example, if the shaper needs to suppress vibration for frequency errors of 20%, then the constraint equations limit the vibration to below Vtol
at specic frequencies between 0.8n and 1.2n .
This procedure is illustrated in Figure 8 for Vtol

= 5%. Another technique related to SI shaping

minimizes the expected level of residual vibration
over a specied frequency range [52]. This technique has the advantage of taking into account any
known distribution of the frequencies in the range
being suppressed.
Any shaped command will have its rise time increased by the duration of the shaper as is shown
in Figure 9a. Because the duration of the ZVD
shaper is twice that of the ZV shaper, the ZVD
shaper increases the rise time more than the ZV
shaper. This increased rise time is the price that
is paid for the increased robustness to modeling
errors. With the SI shapers, increasing robustness
increases rise time in a nonlinear manner. This
leads to certain operating points that are advantageous [3].
For example, the ZVD shaper has a duration of
only 1 period of the natural frequency. This time
penalty is a small price to pay for the excellent robustness to modeling errors. To demonstrate this
tradeo, Figure 9 shows the response of a springmass system to step commands shaped with the
three shapers shown in Figure 6. Figure 9a shows
the response when the model is perfect and Figure 9b shows the case when there is a 30% error in
the frequency estimate. The increase in rise time
caused by the shapers is apparent in Figure 9a,
while Figure 9b shows the vast improvement in vibration reduction that the robust shapers provide
in the presence of modeling errors.
The techniques mentioned above produce robustness built into the design of the input shaper.
There are other approaches to achieve robust in-

disturbance rejection and stability, which are its

natural strengths. Given this realization, the question arises as to how to optimize the combined design of the feedback and command shaping components.

Position

1.5

0.5

ZV
ZVD
Very Robust

0
0

Time

(a)

Position

1.5

0.5

ZV
ZVD
Very Robust

0
0

Time

(b)

One method assumes a PD feedback controller and

then concurrently chooses the PD gains and the input shaper impulses while satisfying performance
specications [56], [63]. The design method takes
into account limits on allowable overshoot, residual vibration, and actuator eort. Furthermore,
the structure of the method allows a wide range
of performance requirements, such as disturbance
rejection, to be integrated into the design. The results indicate that PD feedback control enhanced
with input shaping provides better performance
than PD control alone. This eect is demonstrated
in Figure 10 where the settling time is shown as a
function of the damping ratio of the system. With
PD control alone, the minimum settling time occurs near =0.7 - the classic solution. However,
when input shaping is used, the settling time can
be greatly reduced and this occurs when the controller is tuned to have a small damping ratio.

Figure 9: System Response: a) Perfect Knowledge,

b) 30% Error

2.4 Concurrent Design of Command Shaping and Feedback Control

Given that command shaping can greatly reduce
the vibration of the system, it reduces the burden
on the feedback controller. Therefore, the feedback control design becomes easier; it does not
have to be concerned with reducing vibration induced by the reference command. The design of
the feedback controller can be primarily based on

5% Settling Time, s

put shaping. Several researchers have used adaptive input shaper modication techniques to obtain robustness. Sensor feedback is used to tune
the input shaper such that the residual vibration
is decreased. Some of these approaches include
that of Tzes and Yurkovich [26] and Khorrami, et
al. [25], who used on-line adaptive schemes to update the input shaper parameters. Bodson used a
recursive least-squares technique to tune the input
shaper parameters [36]. Magee and Book modied
the input shaper as a function of the system conguration [18].

PD
PD + Shaping
0.5
0.39

0.15

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Damping Ratio ()

0.8

Figure 10: Settling Time vs. Damping Ratio

2.5 Shaper Design in the S-Plane and ZPlane

The eect of command shaping is to place zeros at
or near the exible poles of the system. This idea
was well documented by Bhat and Mui [10]. This
realization leads to straightforward design procedures in the z-plane that were rst discussed by
Murphy and Watanabe [16]. Singh and Vadali [23]
illustrated that a time-delay lter designed to cancel the poles of the system results in the same solu-

tion as the posicast control developed by Smith [1].

They also illustrated that cascading multiple versions of the time-delay lter resulted in the robust
shaper that was proposed by Singer and Singer.
Singh and Vadali also proposed a simple technique
to design time-delay lters using the specied time
spacing of the sampling period [32].
Seth used z-plane analysis to design a digital
shaper for reducing vibration in a coordinate measuring machine [27]. Tuttle developed a simple
step-by-step method to design multiple-mode input shapers in the discrete time domain by bringing together previous methods [30]. Additionally,
Tuttle directly addressed the issue of time optimality for digital shapers by presenting a method
for nding a positive impulse shaper that had the
shortest time duration. Like Seth, Jones used zplane analysis to design a digital shaper for reducing vibration in a coordinate measuring machine [54]. Additionally, Jones indicated the requirements on shaper duration to obtain an input
shaper with only positive impulses.
Magee applied a digital shaping lter to a system
with varying parameters by modifying the input
shaper duration to account for system parameter
variations [18]. This work veried the diculty
of changing shaper duration that was predicted
by Murphy and Watanabe. More recently, Park
et al. extended the z-plane based design of digital input shapers to more robust shapers [59]. In
particular, Park devised a discrete time sensitivity expression. This expression was used to design
very robust multiple hump input shapers directly
in the z-plane [47].

3 Saturating Controllers
The problem of design of optimal control with limits on control authority has been of interest for
decades. When cost functions such as maneuver
time, or fuel or a weighted combination of fuel and
time are considered, the resulting optimal control
proles are bang-bang or bang-o-bang implying
that the controller is turned on to the extreme
values or is turned o. The problem of design
of time-optimal control proles for exible structures has been of increasing interest over the past
two decades. There have been numerous computa-

tional approaches presented to deal with the eect

of exibility. Most of these deal with single input rest-to-rest problems under two classes: nearminimum time control and exact minimum-time
control.
The rst category is based on smooth approximations to the time-optimal control for an equivalent rigid body. This is applicable where the applied input can be smoothly varied and are not
restricted to an on-o set. Junkins et al. [9] parameterize a single switch bang-bang prole using
cubic polynomials in time and illustrate that the
residual vibration of a exible structure can be signicantly reduced for a small penalty in maneuver
time. Vadali et al. [33] used the arctan to approximate the signum function and used a parameterized smooth control proles to determine neartime optimal control proles for three dimensional
attitude control of ASTREX, a exible spacecraft
testbed.
The second category studies the exact timeoptimal control problem. The determination of
time-optimal control proles for exible slewing
structures with limited control authority has been
addressed by Singh et al. [7]. They illustrate that
the time-optimal control prole for un-damped
systems is antisymmetric about the mid-maneuver
time. Hablani [11] studied the same problem,
but with damped modes. Ben-Asher et al. [14],
present an elegant technique to prove the timeoptimality of the control proles. It is well known
that the time-optimal control prole is highly sensitive to errors in system parameters. Liu and Wie
[15] present a technique to robustify the timeoptimal control by including additional switches
to the control prole. Singh and Vadali [29] propose a frequency domain approach for the design
of time-optimal controllers for exible structures.
The motivation behind their work is the fact that
a bang-bang input can be viewed as a summation
of time-delayed step commands. They pose the
problem as the design of a time-delay lter designed to cancel all the poles of the system and
satisfy the rigid body boundary conditions. They
use the knowledge that locating multiple zeros of
the time-delay lter at the estimated location of
the poles of the system, results in robustness to
modeling uncertainties. They illustrate their technique by designing time-optimal and robust time-

optimal control proles for rest-to-rest and spinup maneuvers for the benchmark oating oscillator
problem.
This section will discuss the design of robust time
and weighted fuel-time optimal controllers. The
benchmark oating oscillator problem [21], will be
used to illustrate the design technique. The design
problem is posed as the design of a time-delay lter which generate the bang-bang or bang-o-bang
control prole when it is driven by a step input.
The knowledge that locating multiple zeros of the
time-delay lter at the estimated location of the
poles of the system will result in robustness to uncertainty in the location of the pole of the system
will be used in the design process. For a function
f (s) = 0, to have a minimum of two roots at s =
s0 requires that

df (s) 
= 0.
(15)
f (s0 ) = 0 and
ds s0

The equations of motion can be decoupled by the

similarity transformation
1
1
= (y1 + y2 ) and q = (y2 y1 )
2
2
resulting in the equations of motion
1
= u
2
1
(21)
q + 2q = u,
2
and the corresponding boundary conditions are

(0) = q(0) = 0 and (0)

= q(0)

=0

(tf ) = 1, q(tf ) = 0 and (tf ) = q(t

f ) = 0. (22)
The decoupled equations are used to derive the
constraint equations for the optimization problem since this approach can be generalized for any
number of modes.

This fact is utilized to develop constraint equations to design time-delay lters with multiple zeros at specied locations.
u

y1

U (s)

m2

N

Step

m1

(20)

sTi
i=0 Ai e

Time Delay Filter

U (s)

GP (s)

Y (s)

Plant

Figure 12: Time Delay Filter Structure

y2

Figure 11: Floating Oscillator

The equations of motion of the benchmark oating
oscillator problem illustrated in Figure 11 are

 

  

y1
y1
k k
1
m1 0
+
=
u.
0 m2
y2
y2
k k
0
(16)
The state constraint for all the optimization problems considered in this section are
y1 (0) = y2 (0) = 0, and y 1 (0) = y 2 (0) = 0
y1 (tf ) = y2 (tf ) = 1, and y 1 (tf ) = y 2 (tf ) = 0 (17)
and the normalized control is subject to the constraint
1 u 1.
(18)
The nominal values of the parameters of the system are
(19)
m1 = m2 = k = 1

In this paper, the design of control proles subject

to the aforementioned control constraint is posed
as the design of a time-delay lter. The output
of this time-delay lter subject to a step input
is the optimal switching control prole, as shown
in Figure 12. For instance to generate a single
switch bang-bang control prole which is the timeoptimal control prole for a rigid body system, the
transfer function of the time-delay lter is
G(s) = 1 2exp(sT ) + exp(2sT ),

(23)

and the optimal control prole is given by the

equation
1
u(s) = (1 2exp(sT ) + exp(2sT )).
s

(24)

The generic transfer function of a time-delay lter

is represented as
G(s) =

N

i=0

Ai exp(sTi ), where T0 = 0,

(25)

constraints are

and where Ai belongs to the set

Ai =

2 1 1 2

to guarantee that the output of the time-delay lter is either bang-bang or bang-o-bang. For restto-rest maneuver of exible structures, the constraint which guarantees zero residual vibration is
derived by requiring a set of zeros of the time-delay
lter to cancel the under-damped poles of the system. For a system with a set of under-damped
poles at
s = j,
(27)
the constraint equations are
N


Ai exp(Ti )cos(Ti ) = 0,

(28)

Ai exp(Ti )sin(Ti ) = 0,

(29)

i=0

and

N

i=0

which are derived by forcing the real and imaginary parts of the transfer function of the timedelay lter to zero at s = j. Note, that this is
equivalent to the conditions given in Equations 2.
To satisfy the boundary conditions for the rigid
body for the rest-to-rest maneuver, the transfer
function of the time-delay lter should have two
zeros at the origin of the complex plane to cancel
the rigid body poles, resulting in the constraint
equation
N

Ai = 0
(30)
i=0

and

N


(26)

Ai Ti exp(Ti )cos(Ti ) = 0,

(33)

Ai Ti exp(Ti )sin(Ti ) = 0

(34)

i=0

and

N

i=0

which are equivalent to the zero derivative constraint given in Equation 13.
Since the constraints are nonlinear, there are potentially numerous parameter sets which satisfy all
of the constraints. The sucient conditions for the
optimality of the control prole are dependent on
the cost function to be optimized for and a general approach to verify the optimality is not available. For un-damped system, it has been shown
that the control prole is anti-symmetric about the
mid-maneuver time. This fact can be exploited to
reduce the number of parameters to be optimized
for.
3.1 Time-Optimal Control
The time-optimal control prole for the undamped benchmark problem can be determined
by solving the following parameter optimization
problem which is derived by exploiting the antisymmetric properties of the control prole (Figure 13):
min J = T22

(35)

2cos((T2 T1 )) + 1 + cos(T2 ) = 0
1
(2T22 (2T2 T1 )2 + T22 T12 ) = 1,
2

(36)
(37)

where
N


Ai Ti = 0

(31)

i=0

The constraint to satisfy the total rigid body displacement is

1  (TN Ti )2
.
Ai
2
2
N

(tf = TN ) =

(32)

i=0

Finally, to desensitize the control prole to uncertainties in the location of the under-damped poles
of the system, constraints are derived which place
multiple zeros of the time-delay lter at the estimated location of the poles of the system. These

T0 = 0, T1 = T1 , T2 = T2 , T3 = 2T2 T1 , T4 = 2T2
A0 = 1, A1 = 2, A2 = 2, A3 = 2, A4 = 1. (38)
To desensitize the controller to the frequency of
the exible mode, two switches are added to the
control prole and the problem is
min J = T32 (39)
2cos(T31 ) + 2cos(T32 ) + 1 + cos(T3 ) = 0 (40)
2T31 sin(T31 ) + 2T32 sin(T32 ) + T3 sin(T3 ) = 0 (41)
2T32 (2T3 T1 )2 + (2T3 T2 )2 T32 + T22 T12 = 2. (42)

where the double subscript represent Pij = Pi Pj .

Having solved for the switch times, their optimality have to be veried. This is achieved by solving

T1

erate time-optimal commands for a wide range of

exible systems [55].

2T2 T1

T2

2T2

3.2 Fuel/Time Optimal Control

t

The Fuel/Time optimal control prole for the

benchmark problem can be represented as shown
in Figure 15 where the anti-symmetric property
for undamped systems is exploited.

Figure 13: Antisymmetric Control Prole

for the costates and the resulting switching curve

is used to corroborate the optimality of the solution. Details of these techniques have been presented in [7], [15], [14], [29] etc.
Figure 14 illustrates the time-optimal control prole and the robust control prole and the corresponding energy sensitivity curves. It is clear that
local to the nominal spring stiness there is a signicant improvement of the insensitivity of the robust control prole.

2T4 T3

T1
T2

T3

2T4 T1
2T4 T2

2T4

Figure 15: Fuel-Time Optimal Control Prole

Minimizing the cost function
tf
(1 + |u|) dt
J=

(43)

where the cost function J is a weighted ( > 0)

combination of the maneuver time and fuel consumed results in the parameter optimization problem:

Control

0.5
0
0.5
1
0

Time

0.35
TimeOptimal Profile
Robust Control Profile

Residual Energy

0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1
k1

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

Figure 14: Control and Residual Energy Variation

The variation of the structure of time-optimal control proles as a function of damping has been
illustrated by Pao [37] and Singh [35]. For a twomass system connected by a spring and a damper,
the control prole changes from a three switch for
un-damped systems to a ve switch and back to
a three switch control prole, as the damping is
increased. Time-optimal control prole for multmode systems have been derived in [45]. Tuttle
and Seering, developed a Matlab toolbox to gen-

min J = 2T4 + 2 [T43 + T21 ]

(44)

cos(T43 ) cos(T42 ) cos(T41 ) + cos(T4 ) = 0

1
(T12 T22 + T32 + 2T4 (T1 + T2 T3 )) = 1.
2

(45)
(46)

Solving for the optimal control prole as a function of , the control prole changes from a three
switch bang-bang prole for = 0, to a six switch
bang-o-bang control prole which simplies to a
two switch bang-bang prole for > 0.6824, for
the benchmark problem, as shown in Figure 16.
Hartmann and Singh [50] present a general development of the necessary and sucient conditions
for optimality of the fuel/time optimal control proles for system of order higher than the benchmark
problem.
3.3 Minimax Control
The techniques to desensitize the controller to
modeling errors which have been presented to this
point, only require information about the nominal values of the model parameters. The resulting controllers are robust in the vicinity of the
nominal parameters of the system. However, in

1
0.5
0
0.5
1
0

0.6284

0.0
1

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5
1

1
0

10

Figure 16: Spectrum of Fuel/Time Optimal Control

numerous applications, the range of uncertainty is
know and often the distribution of the uncertainty
is know. There is thus a desire to formulate optimization problems which includes the information
about the range of uncertainty, in the design of
controllers. The technique expounded in this section is germane to the design of the input shapers,
as well as for the design of saturating controllers.
For a mechanical system undergoing rest-to-rest
maneuvers, the model can be represented as
M y + C(p)y + K(p)y = Dr

(47)

where M is a positive denite mass matrix, and K

and C, the stiness and damping matrices. K is
positive semi-denite when the model of the system includes rigid body modes and is positive definite otherwise. p is a vector of uncertain parameters whose elements satisfy the constraints:
ub
plb
i pi pi

(48)

ub
where plb
i and pi represent the lower and upper
bounds on the parameters respectively. The goal
here is to design a saturating controller with the
objective of minimizing the maximum value of the
residual energy

min max F
x

1
1
1 T
y M y + (y yf )T K(y yf )+ (yr yrf )2
2
2
2
(50)
where x is a vector of parameters which dene
the saturating controller and yf corresponds to the

F =

nal displacement states of the system. The above

equation will be referred to as the pseudo-energy
function since it is associated with a hypothetical
spring whose potential energy is zero when y =
yf . The pseudo-energy function is evaluated at the
nal time, i.e., the end of the maneuver. The last
term is added to guarantee that the cost function
is positive denite.
Minimax bang-bang controllers are designed for
the oating oscillator benchmark problem to illustrate the proposed technique. The time-optimal
control of the benchmark problem is a 3-switch
anti-symmetric bang-bang control prole. The
thin solid line in Figure 17 illustrates the variation of the residual energy of the time-optimal
control to variations in the spring stiness. A 3switch minimax controllers is designed without the
constraint that the residual energy be zero at the
nominal value of the spring stiness. The thin
dashed line illustrates that the maximum magnitude of the residual energy over the uncertain
range (0.7 < k < 1.3) has been minimized, but at
the cost of non-zero residual energy for the nominal model. Next, the 5-switch robust time-optimal
control prole is designed to force the slope of the
sensitivity curve for the nominal system to go to
zero. The think solid line illustrate the signicant reduction of the residual energy over the entire uncertain range. However, this is achieved
at a cost of increased maneuver time. Finally, a
5-switch minimax controller is designed and the
thick dashed line illustrates the improvement over
the robust 5-switch time-optimal controller. The
resulting sensitivity curve is similar to the curve
for extra-insensitivity input shapers [40].
3.4 Finite Jerk Time-Optimal Control
Recently, Muenchhof and Singh [58] and Lim et
al. [53] have proposed a optimal control formulation which includes limits on the rate of change of
control (Jerk). The control rate proles are bangbang or bang-o-bang as a function of the permitted jerk and the maneuver distance, for a restto-rest maneuver. The problem in [58], is posed
as the design of time-delay lter which is parameterized to generate a bang-bang or bang-o-bang
prole whose integral is the control input to the
plant. Figure 18 illustrates the variation of the
switches and change of the structure of the control prole as a function of permitted jerk for the

0.3

used for the design of robust control proles for

nonlinear systems. Liu and Singh [41] proposed
a technique where the sensitivity state equations
are included in the problem formulation with the
constraint that the sensitivity states be forced to
zero at the nal time. For the nonlinear system

TimeOptimal Control
Minimax 3Switch Control
Robust TimeOptimal Control
Minimax 5Switch Control

Square root of Residual Energy

0.25

0.2

0.15

x = f (x, u, p),
0.1

(51)

where p is the vector of uncertain parameters, the

sensitivity state equations are

0.05

0
0.7

0.8

0.9

1
Spring Stiffness k

1.1

1.2

n

f
f dxj
dx
=
+
.
dpi
pi
xj dpi

1.3

(52)

j=1

The control prole should in addition to satisfying

the boundary conditions of the system states x,
must also force

dx 
= 0, pi .
(53)
dpi 

Figure 17: Residual Energy Distribution

benchmark oating oscillator problem.

tf

To illustrate this approach, consider the benchmark problem with a nonlinear spring whose
model is

50

m1 y1 + k1 (y1 y2 ) + k2 (y1 y2 )3 = u

10

Switching Times Ti

m2 y2 k1 (y1 y2 ) k2 (y1 y2 ) = 0.

(54)
(55)

The sensitivity state equations are

0.1

d
y1
dk1
d
y2
m2
dk1
d
y1
m1
dk2
d
y2
m2
dk2
m1

0.02

0.05

0.1

0.5

10

50

100

Jerk J

Figure 18: Switch Time Trajectories

It can be seen that the structure of the control prole changes signicantly. The thick vertical lines
indicate the value of jerk where switches collapse
or are spawned. It is interesting to note that the
maneuver time only increases marginally. as the
permitted jerk is decreased from to 2.
4 Nonlinear Systems
The technique presented for the design of controller which are robust to modeling uncertainties
included location of multiple zeros of the timedelay lter at the estimated location of the poles
of the system. This approach obviously cannot be

500

dy12
2 dy12
+ 3k2 y12
dk1
dk1
dy12
2 dy12
y12 k1
3k2 y12
dk1
dk1
dy12
3
2 dy12
+ k1
+ y12
+ 3k2 y12
dk2
dk2
dy12
3
2 dy12
k1
y12
3k2 y12
dk2
dk2
+ y12 + k1

=0

(56)

=0

(57)

=0

(58)

=0

(59)

The time-optimal control prole is designed to satisfy the boundary conditions



dy1
dy 1
dy1
dy 1
y1 = y2 = y 1 = y 2 =
=
=
=
= 0
dk1
dk1
dk2
dk2
t=0


dy1
dy 1
dy1
dy 1
y1 = y2 = 1, y 1 = y 2 =
=
=
=
= 0
.
dk1
dk1
dk2
dk2
t=tf
(60)
Figure 19 illustrates the reduction in residual vibration of the desensitized time-optimal control,
compared to the time-optimal control in the vicinity of the nominal values of the spring coecients.
The maneuver time of the two time-optimal control prole is tf = 4.1514, and for the desensitized
control prole is tf = 6.2439. It is clear the insensitivity to model parameters is achieved at a cost
of increased maneuver time.

Time Optimal Control

0.3

Residual Energy

0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1.4
1.2

1.4
1

1.2

Robust Time Optimal Control

1
0.8

k1

0.8
0.6

0.6

k2

Figure 19: Sensitivity Plot for the 3/9 switch Control

5 Applications

Percentage Vibration

100

Theoretical
Measured

80
60

250

200

200

150

150

100

100

50
Input Shaped
Unshaped

50

-50

0
-50

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

Shaped Position, in

Given the simple approach and ease of implementation of basic input shaping techniques, they have
been used in a variety of applications. The wide
spread use is also attributable to the robustness
that can be added to many of the techniques.
One major area of success has been on cranes and
crane-like structures. Starr wrote an early paper that implemented a ZV-like shaping scheme
on a crane [6]. Groups at Sandia and Oak Ridge
National labs have been especially active in this
area [28], [20], [43]. Their approach has been similar to the input shaping described in Section 2;
however, the shaping lter utilized has often been
an IIR lter instead of a FIR lter. Their technique has also been utilized to control sloshing
uids [43]. Another approach, which has been implemented on some large gantry cranes, designed
input shapers to suppress vibration over the expected operating ranges of the cranes [44]. Figure 20 shows the reduction in residual vibration
as a function of the hoist cable length.

Unshaped Position, in

0.35

High tech manufacturing is perhaps the area with

the highest number of input shaping applications.
Shaping was an important component of a control
system developed for a wafer stepper [48]. Multiple modes of a silicon-handling robot were eliminated with input shaping [31]. Accuracy of coordinate measuring machines has been improved with
command shaping [54], [27], [39]. The throughput
of a hard-disk-drive-head testing machine was signicantly improved with shaping [46]. Figure 21
shows the position response of the reading heads
during testing both before and after input shaping was implemented. The greatly reduced settling time allowed for much higher throughput.
Command shaping has been combined with vision
sensing and learning control on x-y-z gantry-type
automation machinery [62]. Figure 22 shows the
decrease in tip vibration of the machine as the
learning controller adapts the input shaper to the
system vibration during repeated motion.

-100
0.06

Time (sec)

Figure 21: Head Response During Testing

Applications involving shaping the commands to
on-o actuators or saturating actuators are fewer
than with real-time shaping, but there have still
been a number of successes. In fact, the crane
control scheme whose results are shown in Figure 20 uses an on-o actuator switching algorithm
to accomplish the vibration reduction. Recently,
a technique for shaping the momentum dumping
of spacecraft was adopted as a baseline design for
the next generation space telescope [60].

40
20
0

10

15

20

25

30

Cable length (ft)

Figure 20: Vibration Reduction vs. Cable Length

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Input, U.S. Patent #2,801,351, 1957.

Tip Acceleration

8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8

2000

4000

6000

8000

Time (msec)

Figure 22: Adaptive Command Shaping

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