MATHEMATICS: CONCEPTS, AND FOUNDATIONS Vol.

I - Affine Geometry, Projective Geometry, and Non-Euclidean

Geometry - Takeshi Sasaki

AFFINE GEOMETRY, PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY, AND NONEUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY

Takeshi Sasaki
Department of Mathematics, Kobe University, Japan
Keywords: Affine geometry, projective geometry, non-Euclidean geometry, affine
transformation, projective transformation, cross ratio, parallelism, collinearity, conic,
perspective.
Contents

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

1. Affine Geometry
1.1. Affine Space
1.2. Affine Lines
1.3. Affine transformations
1.4. Affine Collinearity
1.5. Conic Sections
2. Projective Geometry
2.1. Perspective
2.2. Projective Plane
2.3. Projective Transformations
2.4. Projective Collinearity
2.5. Conics
3. Geometries and Groups
3.1. Transformation Groups
3.2. Erlangen Program
4. Non-Euclidean Geometry
4.1. Elliptic Geometry
4.2. Hyperbolic Geometry
4.3. Poincar Model
4.4. Riemannian Geometry
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketch
Summary

Pictures on a TV screen are not real figures but projections onto a plane. A round ball in
space is projected as a disc on the screen, but that disc will look like an oval when
viewed from a slanted angle. On the other hand, a line segment is projected always as a
line segment; even when viewed from a slanted angle, that projection never stops being
a line segment. This difference between these two types of projections reflects a
property of projections of three-dimensional objects into a two-dimensional plane. This
chapter treats projective geometry, which explains properties of projections. It begins
with the study of affine geometry, which is an intermediate between Euclidean
geometry and projective geometry.

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

MATHEMATICS: CONCEPTS, AND FOUNDATIONS Vol. I - Affine Geometry, Projective Geometry, and Non-Euclidean
Geometry - Takeshi Sasaki

1. Affine Geometry
Affine geometry is a geometry studying objects whose shapes are preserved relative to
affine transformations.
1.1. Affine Space

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

A real affine plane A 2 is a plane equipped with the action of a two-dimensional vector
space V over the real number field \ . It has an additive structure: for any point P in
A 2 and for any vector v in V , another point Q is determined by the rule Q = P + v ,
and for any points P and Q there exists a unique vector v such that Q = P + v . The
JJJG
vector v is denoted by PQ . They satisfy compatibility with addition of vectors:
( P + u) + v = P + (u + v ) for any two vectors u and v . As a set, the plane A 2 is
identified with V itself. The addition P 6 P + v is called a parallel transport in the
direction of v . An n -dimensional affine space is defined likewise as a set equipped
with an n -dimensional vector space. However, since the arguments for dimension two
work generally for any dimension and since it is simpler to discuss two dimensional
case, the description in the following is restricted to the latter.
The Euclidean plane, denoted usually by \ 2 , has the structure of an affine plane
together with a metric so that every vector v has a length.
Choose a point O in A 2 and let e = (e1 , e 2 ) be a basis of the vector space V . Then, any
point P in A 2 is written as P = O + 1e1 + 2e 2 . The pair (1 , 2 ) is called the affine
coordinates of the point P relative to the base point O and the basis e . Choosing
another point O as a base point and another basis f = (f1 , f 2 ) , one can write

O = O + a1e1 + a2e 2 and fi = j =1 a ji e j . Then, the affine coordinates ( 1, 2) of the

2

point P relative to O and f are given by the relation i = ai + j =1 a ji j .

2

1.2. Affine Lines

Let L be a one-dimensional subspace of V and P0 a point in A 2 . Then the set

{P0 + v; v L} is called an affine line through the point P0 in the direction L , and can
be denoted simply by A . Through two points P and Q , there passes one and only one
line, which is denoted by PQ and, hence, through any point, there passes a bundle of
lines.
Two distinct lines are said to be parallel if and only if both lines have the same
direction. They do not have common points. Let P , Q and R be three distinct points
JJJG
JJJG
JJJG JJJG
on a line. Then PR = r PQ for some number r . This number is denoted by PR/ PQ . If
the affine plane is endowed with the Euclidean structure, this is equal to the ratio of the
lengths of the line segments PR/ PQ provided Q and R are on the same side of P , and

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

MATHEMATICS: CONCEPTS, AND FOUNDATIONS Vol. I - Affine Geometry, Projective Geometry, and Non-Euclidean
Geometry - Takeshi Sasaki

PR/ PQ provided Q and R are on opposite sides of P .

1.3. Affine transformations

An affine mapping is a pair ( f , ) such that f is a map from A 2 into itself and is a
linear map from V to V satisfying f ( P + v ) = f ( P) + ( v) . It is called an affine
transformation provided that the map f is bijective.

The image of a line under any affine transformation is a line.

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

Any number of points are said to be collinear when they lie on one line. The property
above says that collinear points are mapped to collinear points by an affine
transformation. An affine transformation is characterized as follows:
Let ( f , ) be an affine transformation. Then for any four points P , Q , R and S in the
JJJG
JJJG
JJJJJJJJJJJG
JJJJJJJJJJG
plane satisfying the relation PQ = r RS , the relation f ( P) f (Q) = r f ( R) f ( S ) holds.
Conversely, given a bijective map f with this property, one can define a linear map
JJJG JJJJJJJJJJJG
by ( PQ) = f ( P) f (Q) . Then ( f , ) defines an affine transformation.

In particular, the image of a line segment is again a line segment, and the midpoint of a
line segment is mapped to the midpoint of the image of the line segment. Noting that the
barycenter of a triangle is the intersection point of the three line segments from the
vertices to the midpoints of the opposite edges, one also has the following statement:
The barycenter of a triangle is sent to the barycenter of the image of the triangle by an
affine transformation.
Three points P , Q and R are said to be in general position if they are not collinear.
The following property is called the homogeneity of the affine plane.

Let {P, Q, R} and { A, B, C} be two sets of three points in general position. Then there
exists a unique affine transformation such that f ( P) = A , f (Q) = B and f ( R ) = C .
Let ( f , ) and ( g , ) be two affine transformations. Then, the composition of
mappings gives a new affine transformation ( f D g , D ) . In fact, the set of all affine
transformations, which we denote by GA , has a group structure.

Choose a point O in A 2 and a basis e = (e1 , e 2 ) of the vector space V , and let ( f , )
JJJJJJG
be an affine transformation. Write the vector Of (O) as a1e1 + a2e 2 and the vector (ei )
as a1i e1 + a2i e 2 . Then one has an associated matrix

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

MATHEMATICS: CONCEPTS, AND FOUNDATIONS Vol. I - Affine Geometry, Projective Geometry, and Non-Euclidean
Geometry - Takeshi Sasaki

( f , ) = a
a

12

22

a11 a .
a21 a

(1)

It is an exercise to show that ( f D g , D ) = ( f , ) D ( g , ) . This correspondence

a
is called the matrix representation of the affine transformation. The part 1
a
2
parameterizes the space \ 2 and the sub-matrix

11

21

a
a

a12
belongs to the general linear
a22

group of degree 2 .

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

1.4. Affine Collinearity

The following theorems are historically renowned ones on affine collinearity:

(Menelaus theorem) Let P , Q and R be three points in general position. Choose

three points A , B and C on the lines QR , RP and PQ , respectively. Then A , B and
JJJG JJJG JJJG JJJG JJJG JJJG
C are collinear if and only if BP/ PC CQ/ QA AR/ RB = 1 .

(Cevas theorem) Given a triangle PQR , choose three points A , B and C on the
lines QR , RP and PQ , respectively. Then, the three lines PA , QB and RC are all
JJJG JJJG JJJG JJJG JJJG JJJG
parallel or all meet at one point if and only if BP/ PC CQ/ QA AR/ RB = 1 .
Menelaus of Alexandria, who was born in about the year 70 in Alexandria and died in
about 130, is famous for his work in spherical trigonometry. G. Ceva was born on 7 Dec
1674 in Milan and died on 15 June 1734 in Mantua, Italy.

1.5. Conic Sections

Given two lines A and m intersecting at one point O in the three-dimensional

Euclidean space, rotate the line m around A . Then one gets a surface F called the
circular cone with the vertex at O and the axis A . The line m is called a generating
line of F .
The set F {O} consists of two connected parts, F1 and F2 . Let be a plane not
passing through O . Then the section C of F by is called a conic section. If the
conic section is bounded, then it is contained in either F1 or F2 . Such a section is called
an ellipse. If the section is not bounded but connected, then it is a parabola. If the
section is neither bounded nor connected, then the section consists of two components
and each component is called a hyperbola.
In Euclidean plane geometry, an ellipse is expressed as the set
{( x, y ) \ 2 | x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 = 1} , where a and b are positive constants. A hyperbola is

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

MATHEMATICS: CONCEPTS, AND FOUNDATIONS Vol. I - Affine Geometry, Projective Geometry, and Non-Euclidean
Geometry - Takeshi Sasaki

similarly expressed as {( x, y ) \ 2 | x 2 /a 2 y 2 /b 2 = 1} and a parabola as

{( x, y ) \ 2 | y 2 = 4ax} , where a > 0 . In all three cases, the equations are quadratic. In
this respect, the three kinds of curves are called quadrics (or conic curves).
From an affine-geometric point of view, any ellipse is regarded as the same: the ellipse
expressed as {( x, y ) \ 2 | x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 = 1} is transformed to the circle
{( x, y ) \ 2 | x 2 + y 2 = 1} by an affine transformation ( f , ) , where f is the identity
and ( x, y ) = ( x/a, y /b) . Similarly, any hyperbola can be transformed to the rectangular
hyperbola {( x, y ) \ 2 | x 2 y 2 = 1} and any parabola to {( x, y ) \ 2 | y 2 = 4 x} .
However, any ellipse, hyperbola, and parabola cannot be transformed to either of the
other two types.

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

Apollonius of Perga, who was born in around 262 BC in Perga, Greece and died in
about 190 BC in Alexandria, wrote a book called Conics, where terms such as parabola,
ellipse, and hyperbola were introduced. It was J. Kepler (15711630) who showed that
the orbits of planets around the sun form ellipses. Generally, due to kinematics, the
motion of two planetary objects can be described by quadrics.

2. Projective Geometry

Projective geometry is a geometry studying objects whose shapes are preserved relative
to projective transformations. A. Cayley (18211895) emphasized that metrical
geometry is a part of descriptive geometry (projective geometry in a modern
terminology), and descriptive geometry is all geometry, in relation to the discussion of
the role of conics.
-

TO ACCESS ALL THE 15 PAGES OF THIS CHAPTER,

Visit: http://www.eolss.net/Eolss-sampleAllChapter.aspx

Bibliography

D. Gans, An introduction to non-Euclidean geometry, Academic Press, N.Y. and London, 1973,
ISBN:012274850-6. [Euclidean geometry, elliptic geometry and non-Euclidean geometry is discussed in
an easily accessible fashion].
M. J. Greenberg, Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometries, Development and History, xv+400pp.
W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 1973, ISBN:0-7167-1103-6. [This is one of the textbooks on the
history of development from Euclidean geometry to non-Euclidean geometry].
J. V. Field, Piero della Francesca. A mathematicians Art, 256 pp. Yale University Press, New Haven,
2005, ISBN:0-300-10342-5. [This is a writing on a history of perspective drawing, beginning in the
Italian Renaissance, and the life of Piero della Francesca].

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

MATHEMATICS: CONCEPTS, AND FOUNDATIONS Vol. I - Affine Geometry, Projective Geometry, and Non-Euclidean
Geometry - Takeshi Sasaki

H. Poincar, La Science et lHypothse, 298 pp. E. Flammarion, Paris, 1943. [A world classic, translated
in several languages. See Chapter III Les gometries non euclidiennes].
Spaulding collection, Museum of Fine Arts at Boston: http://www.mfa.org. [This is one of the best
collections of ukiyoe paintings].
O. Veblen and J. W. Young, Projective geometry, vol. 1 and 2, Blaisdell Publ. Co. Ginn and Co., N.Y.Toronto-London, 1965, x+345 pp. and x+511 pp. [A standard monograph on projective geometry. The
first versions were published in 1910 and 1917].
Biographical Sketch
Takeshi SASAKI, born 1944 in Tokyo, Japan. He is a Professor, Department of Mathematics, Kobe
University, Japan
Education:

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

BS in Mathematics, University of Tokyo, Japan (March, 1967).

MS in Mathematics, University of Tokyo, Japan (March, 1969).

Ph.D. in Mathematics, Nagoya University, Japan (September, 1979).

Positions held:

Assistant, Department of Mathematics, Nagoya University, Japan (April, 1969--September, 1979)

Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics, Kumamoto University, Japan (October, 1979--March,

1989)
Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics, Hiroshima University, Japan (April, 1989--March,
1990)
Professor, Department of Mathematics, Kobe University, Japan (April, 1990 to date)

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)