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    Chapter 4

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    Eddie Tang
    There are several types of imperfections that can occur in crystalline materials. Point defects include vacancies, interstitial atoms, and substitutional atoms. Line defects include dislocations, which cause slip between crystal planes when they move. Area defects include grain boundaries, which form between crystals with different orientations during solidification and impede dislocation motion. Solid solutions can also form when impurity or alloying atoms substitute into the crystal lattice or fill interstitial sites. The extent of solid solution formation depends on factors like atomic size differences, crystal structure, electronegativity, and valence between the host and solute atoms.

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    Chapter 4

    Uploaded by

    Eddie Tang
    19 views31 pages
    There are several types of imperfections that can occur in crystalline materials. Point defects include vacancies, interstitial atoms, and substitutional atoms. Line defects include dislocations, which cause slip between crystal planes when they move. Area defects include grain boundaries, which form between crystals with different orientations during solidification and impede dislocation motion. Solid solutions can also form when impurity or alloying atoms substitute into the crystal lattice or fill interstitial sites. The extent of solid solution formation depends on factors like atomic size differences, crystal structure, electronegativity, and valence between the host and solute atoms.

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    There are several types of imperfections that can occur in crystalline materials. Point defects include vacancies, interstitial atoms, and substitutional atoms. Line defects include dislocations, which cause slip between crystal planes when they move. Area defects include grain boundaries, which form between crystals with different orientations during solidification and impede dislocation motion. Solid solutions can also form when impurity or alloying atoms substitute into the crystal lattice or fill interstitial sites. The extent of solid solution formation depends on factors like atomic size differences, crystal structure, electronegativity, and valence between the host and solute atoms.

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    19 views31 pages

    Chapter 4

    Uploaded by

    Eddie Tang
    There are several types of imperfections that can occur in crystalline materials. Point defects include vacancies, interstitial atoms, and substitutional atoms. Line defects include dislocations, which cause slip between crystal planes when they move. Area defects include grain boundaries, which form between crystals with different orientations during solidification and impede dislocation motion. Solid solutions can also form when impurity or alloying atoms substitute into the crystal lattice or fill interstitial sites. The extent of solid solution formation depends on factors like atomic size differences, crystal structure, electronegativity, and valence between the host and solute atoms.

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    of 31

    TYPES OF IMPERFECTIONS

    A perfect crystalline material usually does not exist rather a


    various number of defects develop in the crystalline structure
    mainly upon solidification. A molten metal is amorphous and
    upon solidification it crystallizes but during the process some
    defects happens.

    Vacancy atoms
    Interstitial atoms
    Substitutional atoms

    Point defects

    Dislocations

    Line defects

    Grain Boundaries

    Area defects

    1. Point Defects:
    A. Vacancy defect: An atom missing from a normally occupied
    lattice site.
    -vacant atomic sites in a structure.

    distortion
    of planes

    Vacancy

    Equilibrium number of vacancies Nv concentration


    depends on and increase with temperature for a given
    quantity of material
    Where:

    Nv = N exp ( -Qv / KT)

    Nv: Equilibrium number of vacancies for a given quantity of material


    (units usually is vacancies / m3)
    N: total number of atomic sites
    NA: Avagdros Number: 6.023 x 10 23 atoms/mole
    : density
    A:atomic weight (g/mole)
    K: Boltzmanns constant =1.38x10-23 J/atom. K or 8.62x10-5 ev/atom K
    T: Absolute temperature in kelvin (T k = T oC +273)
    Qv : Energy required for the formation of a vacancy.

    ESTIMATING VACANCY CONC.


    Find the equil. # of vacancies in 1m 3 of Cu at 1000C.
    Given:
    = 8.4 g/cm3
    ACu = 63.5g/mol
    QV = 0.9eV/atom NA = 6.02 x 1023 atoms/mole
    Mass of Cu is: ( x v) = 8.4 g/cm3 x 106 (cm3/m3)x 1= 8.4x 106 g
    63.5 g/mole --------- 6.023 x1023 atoms
    8.4x106 g

    ------

    N?

    N : total number of atomic sites: 8.4x106 x 6.023x1023 / 63.5 =


    8 x 1028 atoms/m3
    Nv = 8 x1028 exp (-0.9 / 8.62x10-5 x 1273)= 2.2x1025 vacancies /m3

    Remarks:
    As the temperature increase the number of vacancies
    also increase.

    For most metals , just below melting temperature


    Nv/N = 10-4 , which means that one lattice site out of
    10000 site will be empty.

    B. Self-Interstitials:
    An atom from the crystal that is crowded in a small
    void space that under normal conditions is not
    occupied.
    This type of defect introduces large distortions in the
    surrounding lattice, consequently the formation of this
    defect is not highly probable.

    distortion
    of planes

    selfinterstitial

    C. Impurities:
    Either impurity atom or intentionally added atoms (alloying)
    Find their way into the host crystal through two ways:
    1. Producing solid solutions, 2. Producing new phases
    Solid Solution: It take place when different atoms take part in building
    a crystal lattice, solute atoms are added and no new phases are formed.
    Phase: A homogeneous portion of a system that have uniform
    physical and chemical characteristics
    Types of solid solutions:
    A. Substitutional Solid solution : Solute atoms replace a host
    atom.
    B. Interstitial Solid solution: Solute atoms fill the voids
    among the host atoms.

    Two outcomes if impurity (B) added to host (A):


    Solid solution of B in A (i.e., random dist. of point defects)

    rCu=.128nm

    rC=0.071 nm

    OR

    rFe=0.124 nm

    rNi=0.125nm
    Substitutional alloy
    (e.g., Cu in Ni)

    Interstitial alloy
    (e.g., C in Fe)

    Solid solution of B in A plus particles of a new


    phase (usually for a larger amount of B)
    Second phase particle
    --different composition
    --often different structure.

    Factors that affect the degree to which the solute atoms dissolves in the host
    metal to form a substitutional solid solution:

    1. Atomic size factor. Appreciable quantities of a solute may be


    accommodated in this type of solid solution (substitutional ) only
    when the difference in atomic radii between the two atom types is
    less than about : 15% .Otherwise the solute atoms will create
    substantial lattice distortions and a new phase will form.
    r% =[ (r solute r solvent) / r solvent ] x 100 15%
    2. Crystal structure. For appreciable solid solubility the crystal
    structures for metals of both atom types must be the same.
    3. Electronegativity. The more electropositive one element and the
    more elec- tronegative the other, the greater is the likelihood that
    they will form an intrmetallic compound instead of a
    substitutional solid solution. Similar electronegativity increases
    solubility
    4. Valences. Other factors being equal, a metal will have more of a
    tendency to dissolve another metal of higher valency than one of
    a lower valency. Similar valency increases solubility.

    Remarks regarding interstitial solid solutions:


    The atomic radius of an interstitial atom must be substantially
    smaller than that of the host atom.
    Metallic materials that have relatively high atomic packing factors
    crystal structures, the interstitial positions are relatively small.
    Normally the maximum allowable concentrations of interstitial
    atoms is low (less than 10%) due to the accompanied lattice
    distortions.

    4 In this problem we are asked to cite which of the


    elements listed form with Cu the three possible solid
    solution types. For complete substitutional solubility
    the following criteria must be met: 1) the difference
    in atomic radii between Cu and the other element
    (R%) must be less than 15%, 2) the crystal
    structures
    must
    be
    the
    same,
    3)
    the
    electronegativities must be similar, and 4) the
    valences should be the same, or nearly the
    same.
    Below are tabulated, for the various
    elements, these criteria.

    El

    Composition
    how do you specify the composition of an alloy?

    Weight percent: (wt %)

    , C2=

    m2

    x100 [4.3]

    m1+m2
    Weight ( or mass) of a particular element relative to the total alloy
    weight.
    C1+C2 =100

    Atom percent: (at%)


    Number of moles of an element to the total number of the moles
    of the elements in the alloy
    nm1= m1/A1 (4.4) , where: nm1: No. of moles of element 1
    m1 : mass in g of element 1
    A1: Atomic weight (g/mole)
    C1=

    nm1

    x100

    (4.5)

    nm1+nm2

    C2=

    nm2

    nm1+nm2
    C1+C2=100

    x100

    Composition Conversions:

    4.6a

    4.6b

    4.7a

    4.7b

    Divide the numerator and denomenator by M/100.


    Multiply the numerator and denomenator by A1A2

    To derive equation 4.7a

    Since: nm1= m1 (4.4)


    A1

    Since:
    C1= nm1

    x100

    (4.5)

    nm1+nm2

    C1=

    [C1 (nm1+nm2)/100] A1

    [C1 (nm1+nm2)/100]A1 + [C2 (nm1+nm2)/100] A2

    x 100

    multiply the numerator and denominator by [100/ (nm1+nm2)]

    LINE DEFECTS
    Dislocations: They are introduced in the crystalline structure during
    solidification (specially with rapid cooling) and during plastic
    deformation.
    are line defects,
    cause slip between crystal plane when they move,
    produce permanent (plastic) deformation.

    Edge dislocation: Extra plane of atoms

    Burgers vector: distance between


    adjacent atoms that defines the
    magnitude and the direction the
    dislocation slip each unit step motion

    LINE DEFECTS
    Edge dislocation: Extra plane of atoms
    Dislocation line perpendicular
    to burgers vector
    Dislocation line motion
    parallel to burgers vector
    Lattice
    Above dislocation line
    distortions Compressive strain field
    Dislocation line perpendicular
    to the plane of the page

    Lattice
    distortions

    Below dislocation line


    Tensile strain field

    Motion of
    dislocation
    line

    Screw dislocation: A portion of the crystal is skewed one


    atom spacing with respect to the other portion of the
    crystal.

    Dislocation line
    motion is
    perpendicular to
    burgers vector
    Dislocation
    line motion
    Dislocation
    line

    Dislocation line
    parallel to
    burgers vector

    on
    ne
    m
    oti
    Li

    Line motion

    Edge
    dislocation

    Screw
    dislocation
    b

    AREA DEFECTS: GRAIN BOUNDARIES


    Grain boundaries:

    are boundaries between crystals.


    are produced by the solidification process, for example.
    have a change in crystal orientation across them.
    impede dislocation motion.

    Solidification of metals:
    liquid

    nucleation

    growth

    Grain with different


    lattice orientations

    nucleation

    Growth

    Grains are formed

    Angle of misalignment

    grain
    boundaries

    Different grains have different orientations of atoms


    Grain boundaries separate grains that have different lattice
    orientations and impede dislocation motion.

    When the orientation mismatch is


    on the order of few degrees then a
    small angle grain boundary is
    generated .
    Small angle boundary is formed
    when edge dislocation are aligned
    in the manner shown here.

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