Shape, Silhouette, Style: Focus On Design Development: Chapter Objectives

5
Shape, Silhouette, Style: Focus

on Design Development
Chapter Objectives
1. Examine the impact of design features on the performance and cost of
the garment.
2. Understand the various ways of shaping garments to the human body,
including the impact of fabric grain and the role of underlying fabrics
and supporting devices in garments.
3. Present a vocabulary of style names, including garment silhouettes and
variations in design features such as lengths, waistlines, necklines, col-
lars, sleeves, cuffs, pockets, and decorative details.
Shape, silhouette, and style—these words capture ettes and style options important for developing a
the essence of apparel design. Decisions about shape, professional vocabulary.
silhouette, and style guide the design development
process. Designers and merchandisers give careful
consideration to these fundamentals for even the GARMENT SHAPE
most basic garments.
This chapter explains how flat, two-dimensional Shaping a garment enables it to fit the wearer and
(2-D) fabrics are shaped and transformed into gar- achieve a desired silhouette and style or look. The
ments that fit three-dimensional (3-D) human skillful use of fabric grain, thoughtfully chosen
bodies. This chapter also presents a menu of silhou- shaping methods, and underlying fabrics and
113
Ready-To-Wear Apparel Analysis, Third Edition, by Patty Brown and Janett Rice. Copyright © 2001 by Prentice Hall, an imprint of Pearson Education, Inc.
114 CHAPTER 5
supporting devices that help a garment retain its Cut End

shape often distinguish a high-quality garment from
one of lesser quality. Attention to shape and support
is important in all garments but especially in tailored
Selvage
Selvage
clothing.
Tailored garments are carefully structured and de-
tailed, for example, the classic business suit; they are
often closely fitted and made of woven fabrics.
Lengthwise Grain
Shaping methods, underlying fabrics, and supporting
Bias
devices are critical to the aesthetic appearance of the as
e Bi
garment; they affect the garment’s functional perfor- ru
T
mance as well, including fit, comfort, appearance re-
tention, and durability.
Bia
s
Role of Fabric Grain
A major consideration in garment quality is the ori-
Crosswise Grain
entation of the fabric’s grain. Just as furniture makers
observe and use the grain of wood to create a desired
effect, garment manufacturers use the grain in fabric
to its best advantage. Grain is the orientation of the
yarns that make up the fabric. Two sets of yarns in- Cut End
terlaced at right angles to one another make up a Figure 5–1 Lengthwise and crosswise grains, bias, and
quality woven fabric. Knit fabric has one continuous true bias.
yarn instead of two sets of yarns. For this reason, knit
fabrics do not technically have a grain, but most of
the directional rules still apply in their use.
Crosswise Grain. The crosswise grain, fill, filling,
The appropriate handling of fabric grain affects the
or weft of the fabric consists of the yarns woven over
aesthetic and functional quality of the finished gar-
and under the lengthwise yarns. The crosswise grain
ment. Attention to grain is important throughout
runs at a 90-degree angle to the lengthwise grain and
construction but is most critical during cutting. If cut
the selvages (Figure 5–1). The crosswise grain is less
incorrectly, trueness of grain cannot be restored to
strong and has a slight stretch. Because designers
the garment.
place most major pattern pieces with their length
Lengthwise Grain. The lengthwise grain or warp running perpendicular to the crosswise grain of the
runs parallel to the selvages, the woven edges of the fabric, this creates a softer look and provides comfort
fabric (Figure 5–1). It consists of yarns that are held to the wearer.
taut by the loom during weaving. Therefore, the If the producer cuts major pattern pieces on the
lengthwise yarns are the strongest to withstand the crosswise grain, with the length of the pattern piece
tension of the weaving process. Lengthwise yarns running in the same direction as the crosswise grain,
tend to be stable, less apt to stretch or shrink, and the effect on the hang of the finished garment might
more apt to hang straight than crosswise yarns. be imperceptible depending on the fabric. But cross-
Designers plan most major pattern pieces to be cut wise layouts are generally less desirable than length-
with the length of the pattern piece parallel to the wise layouts because of the more stable and stronger
lengthwise grain. The lengthwise grain is then per- lengthwise yarns.
pendicular to the floor when the garment is being Sometimes major pattern pieces are cut on the
worn. crosswise grain (with the fill) to maximize fabric
In a few cases it is preferable to cut pieces on the usage or to create special effects. For example, on
lengthwise grain (with the warp), to intentionally border print fabrics (with the design along one sel-
have this grain run around the body instead of up vage edge), if a dress design calls for the border print
and down. For example, waistbands require stability to run around the hem, the skirt is cut on the cross-
around the waist and should be cut so the lengthwise wise grain. Generally these styles are not close fitting;
grain goes around the body. Collars, cuffs, and other adding fullness compensates for the otherwise stiff
minor pattern pieces may be cut this way for the look of the garment when cut in the crosswise
same reason. direction.
SHAPE, SILHOUETTE, STYLE: FOCUS ON DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 115
Figure 5–2 Correct positions of fabric

grain on (a) female and (b) male bodies.
Straight-of-Grain. Straight-of-grain includes both Pattern pieces cut on the lengthwise grain, crosswise,
the lengthwise and crosswise grains because they bias, or true bias create various results. Figure 5–3 il-
follow the straight yarns of the fabric. Unless there lustrates how a skirt appears with the lengthwise
are design reasons for doing otherwise, marker grain placed at center front, side front, and side seam
makers place pattern pieces in the lengthwise direc- of the skirt.
tion, or straight-of-grain, of the fabric. Figure 5–2 In cut panels or finished garments, it may be diffi-
shows the commonly accepted placement of grain- cult to distinguish between the lengthwise and cross-
lines on the human body for a basic garment. The wise grains unless you are familiar with the fabric.
lengthwise grain runs straight down the body at the However, a close examination of the fabric usually re-
center front and center back. The crosswise grain is veals more warp yarns per square inch than fill yarns.
perpendicular to the lengthwise grain at bust/chest (This does not hold true for all types of fabric, but is
and hip levels. For sleeves, the lengthwise grain runs generally true.) Also, remember that if a woven fabric
straight down the center of the arm from shoulder to is stretched, the length generally stretches less than
elbow. The crosswise grain is perpendicular to the the width.
lengthwise grain at bust/chest level. Straight-of-grain
edges create seams with minimal stretch; for ex- Bias and True Bias. The bias and true bias of a
ample, angled pants pockets gape less if the facing fabric are considered directions of the fabric rather
edge is cut on the straight-of-grain, to stabilize the than grain. Technically, any direction of the fabric
bias-grain pocket edge. that is not the lengthwise grain or crosswise grain
To create various effects, a designer alters the posi- may be referred to as bias. The true bias direction is
tion of the pattern in relation to the grainline to in- at a 45-degree angle to the lengthwise and crosswise
tentionally change the way the garment hangs. grains of woven fabrics. Usually when a garment is
Figure 5–3 Different drapes of skirts

cut on various grains: (a) lengthwise grain
at center front, (b) lengthwise grain in
center of each gore, and (c) lengthwise
grain at side seam. (a) (b) (c)
116 CHAPTER 5
Try a Real-Life Scenario 5-1: Planning Grain/Nap

The designer of a jacket is planning to use a rich velvet fabric with a shiny nap (for more information on using
napped fabrics, see Chapter 4). The jacket has two fitted front panels, one loose back panel, long sleeves, and a
notched collar. The designer wishes to have front panels, back panel and sleeves cut with the nap in one direc-
tion and the collar cut with the nap in another direction. The costing engineer thinks the jacket will be too
expensive if the nap has to run in both directions.
Considerations:
• What makes the cost so high when the nap runs in both directions?
• Would the design details be lost if the nap direction is all the same?
• What other ideas would produce the same design effect at a lower cost?
“cut on the bias,” it refers to the true bias (Figure moderately off-grain do not hang straight and often
5–1). The true bias of a woven fabric has several in- affect comfort as they tend to pull toward the direc-
teresting features. (The bias direction on knit fabrics tion of lengthwise grain position. Garments cut ex-
does not share these characteristics.) True bias is the tremely off-grain have a noticeably crooked hang.
most stretchy part of a woven fabric because its Evidence of the misuse of fabric grain includes
stretch is impeded by few yarn interlacings. twisted pant legs, twisted torsos, twisted sleeves, un-
Garments or pieces of garments cut on the true bias even hems, undesirable sagging and wrinkling in
drape and roll beautifully and hang close to the body, fitted garments, and pleats that fall open.
emphasizing contours. When making the marker, some manufacturers
For these reasons, many high-fashion designers allow slight tilting of the pattern pieces (usually not
include bias cuts in their creations, especially for more than 3%) to increase material utilization. How
evening wear. Full skirts cut on the true bias can be far off-grain the pieces may be cut depends on the
flattering to the wearer and elegant. Bows, neckties, type of fabric and the tolerances established for it.
cowl necklines, and jacket and coat under-collars uti- For low-price garments, several inches off-grain may
lize the graceful drape and roll of the true bias. The be allowed. Off-grain fabrics also cause finished gar-
stretch and roll of true bias makes it ideal as binding ments to have off-grain panels (see Chapter 7). Grain
for curved as well as straight edges. Bias cuts are not
frequently used in low-price apparel lines. A bias
layout wastes considerably more fabric than a
straight-of-grain layout for the same garment (Figure
5–4), sometimes as much as about 50% more. Also,
bias-cut garments are difficult to sew because they
tend to stretch out of shape during construction.
A garment cut on the bias is easily identified upon
close examination. The fabric’s straight-of-grain lies
on the diagonal, oriented at a 45-degree angle to the
center front of the garment. Do not confuse the bias
with the appearance of a twill weave fabric like
denim. Examine a pair of denim twill jeans that are
cut on the straight-of-grain, and notice that the diag-
onal ridges of the denim fabric result from its twill
weave, not from being cut on the bias.
Garments Cut Off-Grain. Garments with proper
grain alignment hang straight and maintain their
(a) (b)
shape in use. A close examination of the position of
the warp and fill yarns of the fabric reveals the accu- Figure 5–4 (a) Bias layout is less fabric-efficient than
racy with which the garment was cut. Garments cut (b) straight-of-grain layout.
distortions and their effect on garment appearance shaping methods. Darts have relatively high labor
are relative. Thus garments cut slightly off-grain or costs but low fabric costs compared to other shaping
from slightly off-grain fabrics may be acceptable if the methods.
problem is imperceptible in the final garment. Darts are almost always stitched inside the gar-
However, manufacturers of quality clothing strive to ment so that the triangular fold of the dart appears in-
produce “grain perfect” garments. side the garment. Occasionally, for style reasons, dec-
orative darts are stitched so that the folded triangle
appears on the outside of the garment.
Shaping Methods
Single-Pointed Darts. Most darts are single-pointed
All garments contain shaping methods (darts or dart darts (Figures 5–6a and b). Designers use single-
equivalents) that control the way the garment fits the pointed darts vertically at the back neck or back
contours of the body. The methods used to shape the shoulders of jackets; at the waistline of bodices,
garment and the location and amount of added skirts, pants, and dresses; and horizontally at elbows
shaping affect the garment’s fit and style. Tailored gar- and at the bustline of women’s clothing. However, a
ments and other apparel that fit closely to body con- dart can originate from any seam and occur at any
tours are noted for the shape created by these angle so long as it points toward the fullest part of its
methods, but even “shapeless” garments have their assigned body curve. For example, French darts are
shape because of a choice of shaping methods. In diagonal bust darts that originate low in the side
low-cost garments, pattern engineers may have to seams directed toward the bust curve (Figure 5–6c).
change or eliminate shaping methods to meet pricing
requirements. Pattern pieces might have to be de- Double-Pointed Darts. Double-pointed darts or
signed slightly smaller or with straighter edges than contour darts look like two single-pointed darts
pattern pieces in more expensive apparel. These joined at the wide ends to form one continuous dart
changes often result in better material utilization and (Figure 5–6d). Designers use double-pointed darts
slightly lower sewing costs. However, the omission of vertically at the waistline of jackets and dresses.
shaping methods detracts from the design and ulti- Double-pointed darts nip the garment in at the waist
mate fit of the garment. Again, balance comes into while releasing fullness above and below it to fit the
play. What price are the shaping features worth to the bust/chest and hip areas.
consumer? Size of Darts. Narrow darts fit small body curves
A basic fitted garment is derived from a basic and wide darts fit large body curves. Each dart adds
block or sloper pattern. Manufacturers have a basic to labor costs, so in low-price garments one dart is
block for each classification of apparel that they pro- often used per body curve where two or more narrow
duce, for example, pants or jackets. Figure 5–5 darts might yield smoother-fitting results. However, a
shows the basic blocks for a woman’s dress and a single dart has the offsetting advantage of being less
man’s suit. The designer uses shaping methods to visually distracting than multiple darts. The wider
make changes in the basic block to produce style the dart angle, the more angular the shape produced
variations. Figures 5–19, 5–20, 5–21, 5–22, 5–23, at the point. The more tapered the stitching near the
and 5–25 later in this chapter illustrate a number of pointed end, the more rounded the curve produced
styles, all originating from a basic block, with varying in the garment.
amounts of fullness added and controlled in different
Dart Equivalents. Shaping can be accomplished by
locations through various shaping methods. For
darts or by dart equivalents or dart substitutes.
more information about how shaping methods are
Dart equivalents substitute for darts by incorporating
used to create different clothing styles, see this
shape into the garment in a variety of ways. Dart sub-
chapter’s section on styles.
stitutes include the following: shaped seams (in-
Darts. A dart is a triangular fold stitched to shape cluding gores and yokes), style fullness (including re-
the flat fabric to specific curves of the body. Notice leased darts, added fullness, ease, gathers, shirring,
the triangular darts in the basic blocks in Figure 5–5. smocking, elastic, and drawstrings), and other dart
Darts introduce shape into the garment, enabling a substitutes (including stretch fabrics, bias-cut pieces,
two-dimensional fabric to become a three-dimen- pleats, tucks, godets, gussets, full-fashioned knits,
sional garment that fits a three-dimensional body. and lacing).
Darts serve as a basic shaping method for apparel. All ready-to-wear garments contain shaping meth-
They enable the garment to fit the body smoothly. ods—either darts or dart equivalents. Darts or dart
However, a garment with darts does not usually fit as equivalents are required wherever the fabric of the
wide a range of sizes as do garments containing other garment fits a body curve. The bust, abdomen,
118 CHAPTER 5
Skirt Back Back Pants Back
Bodice Back Jacket Back

Back
Sleeve Sleeve
Front
Bodice Front Jacket Front
Skirt Front Front Pants Front
(a)
(b)
Figure 5–5 Basic blocks for (a) woman’s dress and (b) man’s suit.
buttocks, shoulder blades, and elbows are curves re- better jackets, ease may be substituted in the
quiring shaping methods. For example, for a good fit shoulder seam for the shoulder dart, yielding a
in tailored jackets, a shoulder dart or dart equivalent smooth fit in the shoulder area. (See the section on
is needed in the back shoulder seam of the garment Ease later in this chapter.) In better shirts, a shaped
to smoothly fit the shoulder blade area to the body. seam joining the yoke to the body of the shirt serves
The absence of a shoulder dart or dart equivalent as a shoulder dart substitute. When the shoulder
causes wrinkles to emanate from the neckline or arm- darts or their substitutes are omitted, the area does
hole because fabric is pulled from these areas to ac- not fit smoothly. For some garments, darts are com-
commodate the curve of the shoulder blades. In pletely released to fit body curves, although the fit is
gether. Figure 5–7 illustrates dart shapes incorpo-
rated in some shaped seams; fitted side seams,
shoulder seams, fitted waistline seams, and set-in-
sleeve armhole seams are examples of dart-substitute
seams. Princess seams, which incorporate the bust
and waist darts in fitted womenswear, are also dart-
substitute seams. They add shape to the garment and
enhance fit but cost more to cut and sew than other
types of seams. Another example is better women’s
panties, which sometimes feature a center back seam
to fit the buttocks better than ordinary panties. Yoke
seams and gore seams often serve as dart substitutes.
Yokes. Yokes are horizontal divisions within a gar-
ment; they are usually small, flat panels of fabric at
(a) (b) the shoulder, waist, or midriff. When seamed to the
garment, some yokes help the garment fit the body
curve in the area near the seam (Figure 5–8). The
yoke seam serves as a dart equivalent by incorpo-
rating the dart shape into the seam. Yokes called
Bodice Front
Skirt Skirt
Bodice
Back Front
Back
(a) (b)
(c) (d) Bodice

Bodice
Figure 5–6 Darts: (a) stitched, tapering at the point, Back Front
Bodice
inside the garment, (b) single-pointed, (c) French, and Back
(d) double-pointed.
Sleeve
not smooth. (See the section on Released Darts later Bodice

Front
in this chapter.)
The design of the garment helps determine which
shaping methods are used. For example, loose styles (c) (d)
Right
are suited to the use of gathers or added fullness; Side
close-fitting styles often feature darts or stretch fab- Dress Front
rics. The fabric and price line of the garment also in- Center Front
fluence the choice of shaping methods. Because the
female figure is naturally more curvy than the male
figure, women’s clothing features more shaping
methods than men’s clothing. In some cases, de- Left
signers include shaping methods not for fit, but for Side
comfort or aesthetic reasons. Front
Shaped Seams. Not all seams are dart substitutes;

(e) (f)
many join flat fabric panels without imparting
any shape. But shaped seams are a common dart Figure 5–7 Shaded areas show dart-substitute effect
equivalent, especially in close-fitting garments. Dart- of seams: (a) skirt side seam, (b) bodice side seam,
substitute seams perform the same function as darts (c) shoulder seam, (d) armscye (armhole) seam, (e) princess
by shaping fabric panels where they are joined to- line dress, and (f) princess seams.
120 CHAPTER 5
Fullness. Garments may fit the body simply by al-

lowing enough fullness in the fabric. Fullness may be
the result of releasing darts or of adding extra full-
ness. This added style fullness may be controlled
by ease, gathers, shirring, smocking, elastic, or
drawstrings.
Released Darts. Sometimes fullness is achieved by re-
leasing (not stitching) darts; released darts result in
a straight silhouette rather than a fitted garment. A
released dart allows the fabric to cover the intended
body curve without fitting the fabric closely to the
curve.
It is a common practice to release darts in today’s
ready-to-wear because of the popularity of loose-
(a) (b) (c) fitting clothing; darts are usually released in combi-
Figure 5–8 (a) Split yoke/riser in pants, (b) midriff yoke, nation with the addition of extra style fullness to the
and (c) back shoulder yoke in shirt (dotted line indicates area. Releasing darts reduces cost. However, it lowers
seam placement for split yoke). quality to release the darts in close-fitting, tailored
clothing unless the dart is substituted for by another
shaping method
Style Fullness. Extra fullness, or style fullness, can be
risers often substitute for darts at pants and skirt
added to a garment, so that the additional fabric
waistlines. Midriff yokes fit the garment close to the
covers the body curves (Figure 5–10). When loose
body below the bust. Yokes are frequently used in the
clothing styles are popular, extra style fullness is the
backs of shirts and blouses to fit the garment through
most common dart substitute. Extra style fullness al-
the shoulder blade area. They are also used in the
lows the garment to fit a wider range of sizes than
fronts of shirts, as in Western-style yokes. In
many other shaping methods. Fabric panels are cut
menswear these yokes are merely decorative features
larger to introduce additional style fullness to the gar-
that provide no shaping, but in womenswear they
often incorporate pleats or shirring to allow for a
better fit through the bust area.
Split yokes feature a seam at the center back of
the yoke. Split yokes (risers) in the backs of women’s
jeans can improve fit considerably. In custom-made
shirts, a split yoke represents better fit because the
center back seam is shaped to fit the individual. In
ready-to-wear shirts, a split yoke serves no practical
purpose, but manufacturers sometimes use them as a
tool to create an impression of custom-made quality
or to achieve better fabric utilization when planning
the marker. (a) (b)
Gores. Gores are vertical divisions within a gar-

ment, usually tapered panels seamed together to add
shape to a garment. They serve as dart equivalents by
incorporating the dart shape in the seams. Skirts are
frequently gored (Figure 5–9). Two-gore skirts con-
tain two panels, four-gore skirts contain four panels,
and so on. The more gores, the higher the labor costs;
however, the use of several small gores often achieves
higher material utilization than a few large gores.
Gores are not always dart substitutes. Sometimes
(c) (d)
manufacturers add gores to narrow fabrics in order to
widen them for cutting out garments with large Figure 5–9 (a) Four-gore skirt, (b) six-gore skirt,
pieces, for example, circular skirts. (c) eight-gore skirt, and (d) skirt with godets.
(a) (b)
Figure 5–10 Gathers: (a) as dart equivalent, and (b) with

extra style fullness.
ment, adding significantly to the fabric costs of the

garment. The extra fabric is eased, gathered, elasti- c
cized, pulled up with a drawstring, pleated, tucked,
shirred, smocked, or left uncontrolled. Although it
affects fit, extra style fullness usually is added for
style reasons. (See section on Silhouette and Style
later in this chapter.) Figure 5–11 Set-in sleeves: (a) eased into armscye,
(b) slightly gathered, and (c) fully gathered.
Ease. Ease is imperceptible fullness that is incorpo-
rated on one side of a seam and stitched in place
(Figure 5–11). Designers use easing to join two fabric
edges of slightly different lengths, easing the longer three times as much fabric as a flat, ungathered panel.
edge to fit the shorter edge. Easing aids the setting of Full gathers are usually confined to high-price lines
fitted sleeves, sewing garments to waistbands, and because of the added fabric costs. Less full gathers re-
sewing seams such as princess seams together, where quire only one-and-one-half to two times as much
the edges to be joined are not identical in length. fabric as a flat panel. They may result in strained-
Easing releases about the same amount of fullness as looking gathers where the fabric releases minimal
a dart for an area where the body curve is slight. For fullness over a large body curve. Lightweight fabrics
example, easing is used as a dart substitute at the must be much more fully gathered than heavier fab-
elbow of fitted sleeves. Ease often substitutes for the rics for a generous appearance, requiring more fabric.
back shoulder dart in tailored jackets. In low-quality Gathers in bloused areas, such as puffed sleeves, re-
garments, neither a dart nor ease is used at the quire additional fabric length as well as width to
shoulder, causing poor fit in the shoulder blade area. avoid a pulled and taut lengthwise appearance.
Easing requires the same amount of fabric and less Gathers can take the place of darts in fitting the
labor than sewing a dart but is seldom used in mass- garment to the body. For example, gathers at the front
produced garments. neckline of women’s dresses provide fullness over the
bust. Gathers in women’s swimsuits at the side seams
Gathers. Gathering is the drawing together of a series
near the hips and/or along the leg openings provide
of small folds of fabric called gathers. The gathers are
fit and coverage for the buttocks.
controlled and stitched in place. Gathers provide vis-
Gathers provide a soft, feminine look. They are
ible fullness. Operators join two fabric edges of dif-
more attractive in lightweight fabrics than in heavy
ferent lengths by gathering the longer edge to fit the
fabrics. Gathers do not distort geometrically pat-
shorter edge. Gathers serve as a dart substitute or to
terned fabrics, such as plaids, the way darts do.
control added style fullness. The more style fullness
added, the fuller the gathers (Figure 5–11). If very Smocking. Smocking uses decorative stitches to hold
little style fullness is added, the gathers may look the fabric in even, accordion-like pleats (Figure
skimpy. Full gathers require two-and-one-half to 5–12a). While mainly decorative, smocking may
122 CHAPTER 5
serve as a dart substitute. Smocking is popular in the necklines, at the lower edges of sleeves and pant legs,
chest area of infants’ and girls’ clothing; it gives and anywhere a gathered look and close fit are de-
slightly and enables the garment to “grow” with the sired. It is especially suited for casual garments and
child. Smocking is used occasionally in womenswear. childrenswear, and less suited to tailored garments.
Most smocking is done by machine. Smocking done Applied elastic is usually found inside the garment.
by hand, found in high-price imported infantwear However, elastic is sometimes applied on the outside
and childrenswear, is time-consuming and costly. of the garment, mainly in sportswear or underwear.
When elastic is applied on the outside of the gar-
Shirring. Shirring incorporates parallel rows of
ment, it is usually colorful or otherwise decorative,
gathers made in the body of the garment. Some
such as stretch lace in lingerie.
people in the industry use the term shirring as a syn-
Casings are tunnels of fabric through which
onym for gathering. Shirring made with elastic thread
elastic or a drawstring is threaded to provide shape to
stretches and helps shape the garment to the body
the garment. (Examples appear in Chapter 11,
(Figure 5–12b). Shirring may be done throughout
Figures 11–25 and 11–26.) Although bulkier, casings
the garment, as in a woman’s tube top, or in a limited
are generally more comfortable to wear than applied
area, as at the bustline of a woman’s swimsuit. Some
elastic because fabric rather than elastic contacts the
shirring is strictly decorative and provides no
skin. Care must be taken to prevent the elastic from
shaping.
twisting inside the casing. Casings generally add
Elastic. Elastic serves as a dart substitute by drawing more cost to the garment than applied elastic be-
up the longer fabric of the garment to the shorter cause of the additional fabric and construction steps
length of the elastic. Thus elastic applications often required.
resemble gathering. The biggest advantage of elastic When elastic is attached at a specific distance from
in ready-to-wear is its stretch. However, even though a garment edge, the fabric that extends beyond the
elastic stretches to fit a wider range of sizes than other elastic forms a ruffle when the elastic relaxes. This
shaping methods, that range has a limit; too-loose ruffle is called a header. (See Chapter 11, Figure
elastic does not hold the garment in place properly 11–26.)
and too-tight elastic is uncomfortable for the wearer.
Elastic serves as a closure because it allows the gar- Drawstrings. Drawstrings are narrow tubes, cords,
ment to stretch for dressing and undressing but or strips of fabric inserted into casings in place of or
draws up to fit closely when the garment is worn. A in addition to elastic (see Chapter 11, Figure 11–26.)
disadvantage of elastic is that it may lose its ability to They are pulled up and tied to shape the garment to
recover from stretch over time and need replacing for the body. The drawstring controls garment fullness,
the garment to remain wearable. pulling it up to fit or letting it out for dressing and
Applied elastic is stitched directly onto the gar- undressing. Drawstrings are commonly used at the
ment to add shape where desired. (Examples are waist of sweatpants, windbreaker jackets, and men’s
shown in Chapter 11, Figures 11–24 and 11–25.) swim trunks; they are also used to fit hood openings
Elastic is often used at the waistline of garments, at around the face. Remember that drawstrings are not
appropriate for use on the hoods of infants’ and chil-
dren’s garments, where they pose a potential stran-
(a) (b) gling and choking hazard.
Miscellaneous Dart Substitutes. Besides darts,
seams, and fullness, garments may get their shape
from stretch fabrics, bias-cut pieces, pleats, tucks,
gussets, godets, full-fashioned knits, or lacing.
Stretch Fabrics. Stretch fabrics stretch over body
curves to help the garment fit. Fabrics that stretch
only slightly may require the use of additional
shaping methods; high-stretch fabrics need no addi-
tional shaping methods beyond the ability to stretch
to the shape of the body. Therefore, no extra fabric or
labor costs are required. Stretch fabrics allow the gar-
ment to fit a wider range of people than most other
shaping methods. For example, most swimwear and
Figure 5–12 (a) Smocking and (b) shirring. dancewear fits closely through its ability to stretch to
the size and shape of the wearer and to accommodate Godets. Godets are triangular fabric pieces set into a
movement by stretching. Bias-cut pieces function like seam or slash, usually at the hem of the garment
stretch fabrics by providing close fit but stretching (Figure 5–9d). Godets produce decorative fullness;
over body curves and “giving” when the wearer they are mainly used in skirts but sometimes are used
moves. to cause pant or jacket hems to flare. A well-made
Pleats and Tucks. Pleats are decorative, unstitched godet has a sharp point and does not develop holes at
folds of fabric that often serve as dart substitutes, cre- the point.
ating shape and releasing fullness. Trouser pleats are Full-Fashioned Knits. Full-fashioned knits are a sign of
a good example of pleats that are dart substitutes. Not quality shaping. Full-fashioned marks represent in-
all pleats incorporate shape into a garment; many are creases or decreases in the number of stitches in a
merely decorative. Tucks are stitched folds of fabric knitted garment section, a result of shaping the
that are usually ornamental. They occasionally serve piece. Each part of a full-fashioned knit garment is
as dart substitutes, as when used to shape the gar-
knitted to the desired size and shape, not cut from a
ment at the waist. For more information about tucks
large piece of fabric. The shaped pieces are sewn to-
and pleats, see the sections on Tucks and Pleats later
gether for an accurately sized and shaped garment
in this chapter.
that maintains its shape and does not twist. But full-
Gussets. Gussets are pieces of fabric set into a seam fashioned knitwear is slower and more costly to pro-
or seam intersection to provide body-conforming duce than are garments cut from knit fabrics. And it
shape and fullness in a garment (Figure 5–13). Most requires a longer lead time because the style of the
gussets are triangular or diamond-shaped, although garment must be determined before the knitting
some dancers’ costumes feature circular gussets to process begins. Sometimes manufacturers of gar-
provide mobility. Gussets are used in the underarm ments cut from knit fabrics use stitches or fusing to
seams of garments with kimono sleeves and in the create mock full-fashioned marks, which look sim-
crotch seams of sweatpants and in infants’ and tod- ilar but contain none of the real advantages of gen-
dlers’ clothes to make room for diapers. Karate pants uine full-fashioned marks. To identify full-fashioned
and shirts feature huge gussets that provide freedom garments, notice the increase or decrease in the
of movement for kicking and punching. High-quality number of stitches in genuine full-fashioned marks
gloves have gussets between the fingers for improved at shaped seams, for example, at the armscye seam of
finger mobility. Gussets reduce strain and wrinkling, sweaters (Figure 5–14).
making the garment comfortable to wear and pro-
longing its life. Lacing. Lacing operates on a principle similar to
A good-quality gusset has sharp, even points; a drawstrings. Cords or ties are threaded through eye-
poorly set gusset puckers or develops holes at the lets, grommets, or buttonholes in the garment as in
points. Gussets add to cost because of the extra fabric the lacing of a shoe. The lacing is pulled to shape and
and skilled labor required. fit the garment and tied to fasten the opening.
Figure 5–13 Gusset in underarm area. Figure 5–14 Full-fashioned marks at sweater armscye.
124 CHAPTER 5
Supporting the Shape use of the garment. Waistbands that roll, collars and
lapels that bubble, and knees, elbows, seats, and
The shape of a garment is enhanced and preserved by
pockets that bag can be avoided if the manufacturer
underlying fabrics including interfacing, lining, un-
carefully selects and correctly applies supporting fab-
derlining, and interlining. Other supporting methods
rics. However, the addition of underlying fabrics to a
may also be used to achieve or maintain the desired
garment increases production costs in terms of both
shape.
materials and labor.
Underlying Fabrics. Most garments made from Interfacing. Interfacing is a supporting fabric used
woven fabrics contain one or more underlying fab- in almost all garments. Interfacing lends body, shape,
rics. (For more information on underlying fabrics, and reinforcement to limited areas. Collars, collar
see Chapter 8.) Although not visible from the outside bands, cuffs, buttons and buttonholes, pockets,
of the garment, these materials help maintain the gar- waistbands, and other small design details are usually
ment’s shape and/or lend it other qualities such as interfaced. In tailored coats and jackets, the shoul-
durability and warmth. Eliminating underlying fab- ders and lapels are interfaced; in better coats and
rics to reduce costs results in limp garments that do jackets, the designer or patternmaker also interfaces
not maintain their original shape; the garments tend the armholes, patch pockets, sleeve hems, garment
to wrinkle and stretch out of shape. hem, and sometimes the entire garment front (Figure
The main, outer fabric from which a garment is 5–15).
made is called the body, fashion, or shell fabric. Interfacing is usually hidden between the garment
Underlying fabrics or supporting fabrics are inside and its facing, which explains the name “interfacing”
the garment; they lend support to the garment and (Figure 5–16). Rub the garment between thumb and
help maintain its shape. The four types of underlying fingers or separate the fabric plies to determine if
fabrics include (1) interfacing, (2) lining, (3) inter- there is interfacing enclosed between two plies; if
lining, and (4) underlining. These terms are used fusible interfacing is used, one fabric ply will feel sig-
consistently throughout this text and are defined in nificantly stiffer than the other.
this chapter. However, they are used loosely, some-
Lining. Lining is nearly a replica of the garment,
times interchangeably, in the apparel industry. For
constructed of lightweight fabric and sewn inside the
example, the terms interlining and lining are com-
garment with seam allowances reversed to provide a
monly used to refer to what is (technically) inter-
finished inside appearance. A lining
facing. And underlining (technically) is commonly
called lining. 1. covers the garment’s seam allowances, making the
The presence of supporting fabrics in a garment is inside attractive when the garment is taken off
usually a sign of quality. Few consumers make a pur- 2. makes seam finishes minimal or unnecessary, be-
chase decision based on the underlying fabrics of a cause seam allowances are not exposed
garment, but ultimate satisfaction with the aesthetic 3. makes the garment more comfortable to wear. The
and functional performance of any garment is af- lining fabric acts as a buffer between the wearer’s
fected by its supporting fabrics. The choice of under- skin and the garment body fabric, seam al-
lying fabrics depends on the design, fabric, and end lowances, and other inner construction details of
Figure 5–15 Shaded areas should be

(a) (b) interfaced in (a) shirt and (b) jacket.
a b
Figure 5–17 Partial lining in summer weight jacket. Note

ease pleat at center back of lining and booked seams.
Figure 5–16 Blouses (a) with and (b) without interfacing
at center front to support buttons and buttonholes.
weight than full ones. High-quality men’s jackets
with a 3/8 lining usually have booked seams (see
the garment, especially important when the gar- Chapter 10) and otherwise impeccable inner con-
ment is made of a rough or scratchy fabric. struction. Occasionally, partially lined garments are
4. aids the wearer in slipping the garment on and off of higher quality than similar, fully lined garments, if
5. extends the life of the garment by absorbing some the patternmaker used the lining in the fully lined
of the stress, strain, and abrasion of wear garment to compensate for a low-quality fashion
6. provides extra body, shape, and support, making fabric and poor inner construction.
the garment look smoother and less apt to
wrinkle. The lining helps to prevent the garment
from stretching out of shape, especially in stress
areas such as elbows or knees.
7. provides opacity, an advantage for garments with
sheer body fabrics
8. can provide extra warmth, which may or may not
be an advantage, depending on the weather
In general, garments with full linings are consid-
ered higher quality than those without. A fully lined
garment requires nearly twice as much fabric and
labor as an unlined garment, which increases manu-
facturing costs significantly. Manufacturers use par-
tial linings in some garments; a partial lining extends
only through the areas that require shaping and rein-
forcement rather than throughout the entire garment.
Partial linings are common from the shoulder to the
chest (called a 3/8 lining) in the back of tailored
jackets and from the waist to below the knees in
slacks (Figure 5–17). Although partial linings cost
less than full linings, they do not lower quality if they
extend through the necessary areas. In fact, a partial
lining may be more desirable than a full lining in
clothing such as summer suits and sports jackets, be-
cause partial linings are cooler to wear and lighter in Figure 5–18 Inside of an underlined dress.
126 CHAPTER 5
PANTS
Knickers Gauchos
Straight Bell Bottoms Baggies Palazzo

Leg
SKIRTS
Straight A-line Flared Gathered/Dirndl
Trumpet Peg Top Circular
TOPS
Cropped/
Camisole Tank/Muscle Bare Midriff
Blouson
Shell Vest Peasant

Smock
Figure 5–19 Examples of garment styles: pants, skirts, tops, jackets, and dresses.
Detachable linings are installed so they can be abrasion, such as the inner thigh area of pants. This
zipped or buttoned in and out of garments, for ex- not only protects the fashion fabric from abrasion but
ample, all-weather coats and jackets. They make gar- improves the wearer’s comfort, especially if the gar-
ments versatile for wearing in different kinds of ment is made of a scratchy fabric.
weather but add significantly to cost because the
main garment inner construction must be finished to Underlining. Underlining involves lining each
withstand being worn without the lining and a major piece of the garment individually. Underlining
method for attachment must be included. a garment is less costly than lining it because under-
Single garment pieces such as pockets, yokes, or lining requires extra fabric but little additional labor
bibs may be lined for added strength or support. Or (except in cutting). Underlining performs many, but
a small piece of lining may be used in areas subject to not all, of the functions of lining. Like lining, an
JACKETS
Bolero Chanel Cardigan Blazer/

Single Breasted
Spencer Battle
Double
Breasted Safari
DRESSES
Shift/ Sheath Shirtwaist

Trent/
Chemise/ Trapeze
Sack
Figure 5–19 Continued
underlining provides body, strength, and support to the inside, whereas in a lined garment, inside details
the garment, making it look smooth and preventing it are covered by the lining (Figure 5–18).
from sagging or stretching. In fact, underlining pro- Compared to lining, some disadvantages of under-
vides even greater support and body than lining since lining are that it
each piece of the garment is individually supported.
1. does not protect the skin from irritation by seam
Underlining provides opacity, preventing sheer or
allowances of the garment body fabric
translucent fabrics from being seen through. Limp,
2. does not make the garment more attractive on the
unstable fabrics often require underlining, especially
inside
in stress areas or for construction details that demand
3. does not make the garment easy to slip on and off
extra body. 4. does not prevent seam allowances from raveling
In some instances, underlining is preferable to
lining. Underlining, unlike lining, prevents the seam Interlining. An insulative interlining is applied
allowances and other construction details from strictly for additional warmth; these interlinings may
showing through to the outside of garments made of incidentally add support and shape by their pres-
sheer or translucent fabrics such as lace. Therefore, ence. Designers include interlinings in cold-weather
underlinings, rather than linings, are often used in clothing such as coats and jackets. Any material in-
wedding and other formal gowns made of these fab- serted for warmth between the garment body fabric
rics. Underlinings are also used in areas prone to and the lining constitutes an interlining. Interlining
stretching, such as seats, knees, and elbows, where materials trap air, providing insulation from the cold.
they are superior to linings in preventing stretch. A garment’s interlining cannot be seen unless the
Remember, an underlined garment has all seam al- lining is lifted. Interlinings increase both material and
lowances and other construction details exposed on labor costs.
128 CHAPTER 5
Supporting Devices. Supporting devices are incor- Along with changes in fashions, style names tend
porated into garments to achieve or maintain the de- to evolve over time; as a style loses favor, its name is
sired shape. Examples of devices that may support dropped from common usage. When the style returns
the shape of the garment and provide the fashion- to popularity, whether it happens years, decades, or
correct silhouette include belts (although these may even centuries later, it often receives a new name. The
be strictly decorative), shoulder pads, chest pieces, popularity of various names for the same style
sleeve heads, bridles and other seam stays, collar changes as fashions change, with newer terms taking
stays, bra cups, boning, hoops, bustles, horsehair preference over more standard terms. Therefore, al-
braid, and weights. All add to material and labor ways be alert to multiple names for the same style and to
costs. See Chapter 8 for definitions and more infor- changes in and additions to your style vocabulary. A few
mation about choosing these supporting devices. styles are illustrated in this chapter to provide an in-
troduction to style names. However, to develop a
comprehensive style vocabulary, refer to Related
SILHOUETTE AND STYLE Resources: Design and Style at the end of the text.
The silhouette and style of a garment are important

aspects of quality because of their strong relationship Garment Silhouettes
to aesthetic performance. Whether or not a style ex- Basic, fitted garments are illustrated in Figure 5–5.
hibits the design principles of balance, proportion, Varying the silhouette of a garment yields different
rhythm, emphasis, and unity affects its acceptance. styles. Silhouette is determined by the amount and
Balance refers to the distribution of visual weight, location of fullness in the garment and the methods
both horizontally and vertically, within the garment. for controlling the fullness. (See sections on Shaping
Proportion refers to how well individual garment Methods earlier in this chapter.) The silhouette of a
parts relate to the whole garment. Rhythm occurs garment can take many forms. Figure 5–19 illustrates
when the garment possesses a feeling of directional a few silhouettes for pants, skirts, tops, jackets, and
movement, often achieved through repetition of dresses, and the associated style names.
some design element. Emphasis requires the gar-
ment to have a clear focal point. And unity defines
how well all parts of the design work together the- Garment Lengths
matically. Current fashion trends, personal prefer- Historically, garment lengths have been a vital indi-
ences, and end use also affect the evaluation of aes- cator of the current fashion and the popular silhou-
thetics. Though the aesthetic evaluation of garment ette. The terms for garments of various lengths are il-
style is beyond the scope of this text, an introduction lustrated in Figure 5–20. Beyond the longest length,
to the design features that are used to create styles is skirts extend into trains that drag on the floor when
presented. (For more information, see Related Re- the wearer walks. Wedding dresses may feature
sources: Design and Style at the end of the text.) A chapel length or the longer cathedral length trains.
good vocabulary of style terms is necessary in all
phases of apparel analysis because it enables accu-
rate communication. The ability to use correct ter- Edge Treatment Styles
minology is also important in designing, writing For information on hem styles as well as other gar-
specifications and promotions, and selling apparel ment edge treatments such as facings, bindings, and
products. bands, see Chapter 10. Plackets to finish openings on
The silhouette of a garment is its outline or shape. waistlines, sleeves, necklines, and pant legs are also
The style of a garment or garment part results from discussed in Chapter 10.
its silhouette and other identifying characteristics. “A
particular style of garment usually refers to the cut of
Waistlines
its structural lines in a manner that has become rec-
ognized, accepted and named” (Davis, 1996). Details Where the waistline of a garment is located in rela-
added to the garment also help differentiate styles. In tion to the wearer’s waist has a significant effect on
general, however, the color, fabric, and other details the silhouette and style of the garment. Most waist-
may change, but the style remains the same as long as lines fall at or near the wearer’s natural waistline
its identifying style elements do not change. The key (Figure 5–21). Menswear waistlines typically fall at or
to identifying a style is knowing what characteristics near the natural waistline. Womenswear waistlines
make it unique. A style is different from “in style,” are much more variable and tend to rise and fall with
which suggests “currently fashionable.” fashion changes. Dropped waistlines fall between the
SKIRTS
Bikini
Micro Mini Short
Mini Rehearsal SHORTS
Jamaica/Jams
(Above Knee)
Bermuda
Above Knee Deck

Knee Pedal Pushers/
Below Knee Clam Diggers
Midcalf Toreador
SLACKS
Midi (Below Knee)
Capri
Maxi
Ankle
Figure 5–20 Skirt and Floor Classic
pant lengths.
waist and hips. In hip huggers, the waistline falls at Necklines

hip level. (The term hip huggers applies to bottoms
only.) High-rise waistlines occur slightly above the Ready-to-wear apparel features a variety of neckline
natural waistline. Empire waistlines occur under shapes and finishes. The neckline edge is cut into the
the bustline. (The term empire applies to female desired shape, and the raw edge of the neckline is fin-
clothing only.) Current fashions help determine the ished by any edge treatment such as facing, binding,
level of the waistline. or banding. Figure 5–22 illustrates a few common
Figure 5–21 illustrates a few common waistline neckline styles.
styles. Waistlines within the body of the garment, as
in a dress, can be fitted to the body by darts or dart Collars
substitutes such as pleats, seams, or elastic. A collar, or any band applied to the garment neck-
Waistlines at garment edges may also be banded, line, is mainly decorative, although it is sometimes
faced, or finished by other edge treatment methods. functional in keeping the neck warm or dry or pro-
(For more information, see Chapters 11 and 12.) tecting it from the sun. A collar increases the cost of a
Empire
High
Natural
Dropped
Hip Hugger
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 5–21 (a) Waistline levels, (b)

straight waistband, (c) contour waistband,
(d) waistline seam, (e) faced waistline
(dotted line represents facing inside the
garment), (f) and (g) elasticized casings at
garment edges, and (h) elasticized casing
within body of garment. (e) (f) (g) (h)
130 CHAPTER 5
Plain/ “V”
Keyhole Scoop
Jewel
Bateau/ Crew
Sweetheart Boat
Halter
Gathered
Décolletage Cowl
Bib
Queen Anne
Figure 5–22 Examples of neckline
Bow Henley Tab styles.
garment because it requires additional fabric and stands up next to the neck forms the collar stand, and
labor. (For more information, see Chapter 12.) the portion that is folded over forms the collar fall
There are three basic collar types: (1) flat, (2) (Figure 5–24). If the inner edge of the collar is a con-
standing, and (3) rolled (either full-roll or partial- cave curve somewhere between a straight line and the
roll). The shape of the collar’s inner edge or neckline shape of the neckline, the result is a partial-roll collar,
edge determines the collar type. The shape of a for instance, a convertible collar. The more concave
collar’s outer edge determines its style. Figure 5–23 the inner curve, the less the collar rolls. In a partial-
illustrates a few common collar styles. roll collar, the fold at the back of the collar gradually
A flat collar lies flat or nearly flat against the gar- tapers toward center front, where the collar lies flat or
ment all around the wearer’s neck. If the inner edge of nearly flat.
the collar is shaped in a concave curve, matching the The standard collar on a man’s dress shirt is a mix-
neckline edge, the result is a flat collar, for example, a ture of two types; it consists of a standing collar with
sailor collar. Flat collars are used mainly on wom- a full-roll collar inserted and sewn into the upper
enswear and childrenswear, rarely on menswear. edge of the neckband to create the collar fall. Shirt
A standing collar is a band extending straight up collars are costly because of the extra labor and mate-
from the neckline edge and standing up around the rials required; they are essentially the construction of
neck. If the inner edge of the collar is fairly straight, two collars in one. However, the production of shirt
the result is a standing collar, for instance, a man- collars is completely or partially automated so they
darin collar. A cowl is actually a standing collar cut can be accurately produced at a moderate cost.
high above the neckline so that it falls into folds.
A rolled collar is a band of fabric that rolls fully or
Sleeves
partially around the neck. A full-roll collar rolls all
the way around the neck; a partial-roll collar rolls at A sleeve is a covering for the arm that is attached at
the back of the neck and lies flat or nearly flat at the or near the armhole, or armscye, area of the garment.
front of the neck. Full-roll collars, such as turtle- Sleeves are functional in providing modesty, warmth,
necks, have a fairly straight inner edge. They are like or protection but are equally important for their con-
a standing collar, except that a full-roll collar is cut tribution to the style of the garment; they are an im-
wider and folded down. The part of the collar that portant feature of the garment silhouette. They
(Unbuttoned)
Convertible Pointed Shirt Polo/Tab
(unbuttoned) Shawl
has seam at
center back
Stand Up Edwardian
Ascot Jabot
Mandarin Turtleneck
Peter Pan Portrait Puritan

Chelsea
Back View
Cowl Wing
Peaked Lapels
Figure 5–23 Examples of collar styles. Sailor
should be designed and constructed to flatter the gar- sleeveless garment must be treated to finish the raw
ment and the wearer. (For more information, see edges, usually by facing or binding.
Chapter 12.) All sleeve styles fall into one of three main types:
A sleeveless garment has no sleeves to finish its (1) set-in sleeves, (2) raglan sleeves, and (3) kimono
armhole edges. Consequently, the armholes of a sleeves. Figure 5–25 illustrates some sleeve styles;
variations in sleeve length are also illustrated. Set-in
Stand sleeves are the most common type. A set-in sleeve re-
Fall
Roll sembles a tube hanging from the armhole. Kimono
Line sleeves are cut as one with the body of the garment.
A raglan sleeve is recognizable by its characteristic
Gorge diagonal seam, which runs from the underarm to the
Line
neckline of the garment. The diagonal seam attaches
the tapered sleeve panel to the body of the garment
(see Figure 7–10 in Chapter 7). Raglan sleeves pro-
vide greater comfort and more reaching room than
other sleeve types. They are a good choice for active
Lapel
sportswear and in clothing for people in wheelchairs
or on crutches, who require great range and freedom
of arm movement. Because they do not restrain
movement, raglan sleeves are also suitable in clothing
for elderly people or others with limited mobility.
Gussets in the underarm area of kimono sleeves can
also add freedom of arm movement. Dolman sleeves
are non-set-in sleeves cut deep under the arm, cre-
Figure 5–24 Parts of a classic, notched collar and lapels. ating fullness under the arm and through the bust-
132 CHAPTER 5
Cutaway
Sleeveless
Basic Armscye
Dropped Shoulder
Cap
Short
Above Elbow
Elbow
Bracelet or 3/4
7/8 Puffed Melon/ Bell Petal Draped
Set-In Balloon
Wrist
Long
Sleeve Lengths
(fitted sleeve illustrated)
Two-Piece/ Bishop Leg o’ Angel Shirt

Tailored Mutton
(Back View)
Kimono Raglan
Figure 5–25 Sleeve lengths and styles.
line. They may be cut without an armscye seam, like shirts and blouses usually feature barrel cuffs. The
kimono sleeves, or with a square-cut vertical seam to barrel cuff laps and buttons at the wrist. (Exam-
the shoulders, more closely resembling a raglan. ples are shown in Chapter 10, Figures 10–34,
10–35, 10–36, and 10–37.)
2. Convertible cuff, an open band that fastens with
Cuffs
layers superimposed to resemble a French cuff.
Cuffs are the banded or turned-back finishes at the 3. French cuff or double-cuff, the most formal style
lower edges of sleeve and pant legs. Crisp, well-made of open-band cuff (Figure 5–26). The French cuff
cuffs contribute to the overall appearance of a gar- is constructed like the barrel cuff but twice as
ment’s quality.
Most cuffs are a band of fabric applied to the lower
edge of a sleeve that extends or lengthens the sleeve
as it finishes the lower edge. They control the fullness
of the sleeve to fit the wrist, or the arm in the case of
short sleeves. Cuffs may be decorative and of various
widths and shapes. Wide cuffs and complex cuff
shapes add to costs. On basic garments, the repetitive
cuffing operation may be automated. This enables the
manufacturer to achieve uniform results at a mod-
erate cost. (For more information, see Chapter 12.)
Open-band cuffs have an opening so the wearer
can fit the cuff band over the hand and then fasten it
to fit snugly. Open-band cuffs include the following
types:
1. Barrel cuff or shirt cuff, the most common type;
it is a straight, open-band cuff style. Long-sleeved Figure 5–26 Monogrammed French cuff.
wide. Then the cuff is folded back on itself so the or cause a ridge on the outside of it. However, the
cuff is doubled. The opening edges are superim- main reason for leaving pockets out of a garment is to
posed rather than lapped and fastened with cuff reduce its price.
links or studs through the buttonhole in each The cost of a pocket depends on its complexity,
layer. French cuffs require considerably more size, and the fabric used. Pockets often feature deco-
fabric and more labor than barrel cuffs. Because of rative trims, stitchings, or other details. These deco-
their high production costs, French cuffs are rative touches add to the cost of the pocket. The ad-
mainly found in high-priced apparel and are most dition of pockets must be balanced with cost.
suitable to somewhat formal styles. For example, Because they require additional materials and labor,
they are not used on button-down, oxford cloth pockets add to the overall cost of a garment.
shirts but on dressier shirts of fine broadcloth and Manufacturers can justify the cost of pockets if
on women’s dresses. they are important to consumer satisfaction. There
are three main types of pockets: (1) patch, (2) in-
A closed-band cuff is an unbroken ring of fabric seam, and (3) slashed. (For more information, see
large enough to fit over the arm. Closed-band cuffs Chapter 11.)
are inexpensive. Turned-back cuffs on sleeves and Patch pockets or applied pockets are pieces of
cuffed pants are formed by turning back or rolling up fabric attached, like a patch, to the outside of the gar-
the lower portion of the sleeve or pant leg. ment. (An example is shown in Chapter 9, Figure
9–17.) Patch pockets tend to look more casual than
other pocket types. Manufacturers routinely use
Pockets them on the backs of jeans and the fronts of shirts
A pocket is a small pouch or bag sewn onto or into a and jackets, but patch pockets can be placed on
sleeves, pant legs, or anywhere else. Patch pockets
garment and used to carry small items. Concealed
come in many shapes and sizes. Choosing and posi-
pockets are strictly functional. Nonfunctional, “fake”
tioning them is very important because they have a
pockets used to complement a garment’s design are
great effect on the visual impression of the garment
strictly decorative. However, most pockets are both
on the wearer. For example, large patch pockets at
functional and decorative. Functional pockets in-
hip level draw attention to the wearer’s hip size.
clude special-purpose pockets, such as watch In-seam pockets are set into a seam of the gar-
pockets in jeans, ruler pockets in carpenter’s pants, ment, usually the side seams of skirts, pants, coats,
game pockets in hunting clothes, ticket pockets in and dresses. The pocket may be concealed or ex-
men’s suit jackets, key pockets in jogging shorts, and posed. Concealed in-seam pockets are hidden in the
hidden money pockets in travel clothing. These seam of the garment. Exposed in-seam pockets are usu-
pockets are shaped, sized, and reinforced according ally set into the side seam and waistline seam of the
to their special purposes. garment; they have a diagonal or curved opening
For a pocket to be functional, it must be posi- edge offset from the side seam. Manufacturers use ex-
tioned at a convenient level and angle (for example, posed in-seam pockets on the front hip of jeans (see
pockets in work uniforms). Pockets should be wide Figure 5–31 later in this chapter) and men’s pants
and deep enough to accommodate hands and/or (see Chapter 12, Figure 12–8), where they are often
items they are intended to hold. Pockets designed referred to as quarter pockets. Some women’s skirts
and placed to complement the garment design and to and pants also feature exposed front-hip pockets.
flatter the wearer contribute to aesthetics. If a gar- Some jeans contain a watch pocket, a little patch
ment features pockets on each side, pockets should pocket on the facing of an exposed in-seam pocket.
be identical and level with one another. If the gar- Slashed pockets are finished slits within the body
ment is made of a fabric with a pattern (e.g., plaid or of the garment, for example, on tailored jackets and
stripe), a matched pocket reflects attention to quality on the back of men’s dress pants. Slashed pockets are
but adds cost (see Chapter 4). the most difficult pockets to construct. If made man-
Pockets usually contribute to consumer satisfac- ually, precision is often low. In most cases today,
tion. Pockets are very important in work clothing and slashed pockets are produced entirely by automation.
active sportswear, and children are especially fond of Since automation became widespread, the overall
pockets in their clothing. Pockets may not seem vital consistency and quality of slashed pockets has vastly
at the time of purchase, but later the wearer may wish improved and the cost has become lower. But be-
for a pocket when he or she needs a place to put cause of the complexity, slashed pockets remain more
hands, glasses, wallet, or keys. Pockets are sometimes costly than other pocket types. The more pieces used
left out of garments if they show through the garment to construct the pocket, the higher the fabric and
134 CHAPTER 5
a
a
Figure 5–27 Pockets: (a) flap with no pocket, (b) flap on

single welt, and (c) double welt.
c
labor costs. Nonfunctional, fake slashed pockets,

with no opening, are found in low-price garments.
Most slashed pockets are welt pockets (Figures 5–27
and 5–28). A single-welt pocket has a single lip usu- Figure 5–28 Pockets: (a) upturned flap with piping,
ally no more than about 1⁄2 inch wide. A double-welt (b) upturned flap, and (c) single welt.
or double-besom pocket has two lips usually no
more than about 1⁄4 inch wide each.
Flap pockets have a flap of fabric above the clude tucks, pleats, creases, ruffles, bows, and tabs.
pocket. The flap extends down over the pocket Many details constructed as part of the garment are
opening. For patch pockets, the flap is sewn on above functional as well as decorative. For example, tucks,
the pocket. (Examples are shown in Chapter 4, pleats, gathers, style fullness, shirring, smocking,
Figure 4–12 and Chapter 10, Figure 10–28.) For inseams such as gores and yokes, and darts decorate
seam pockets, the flap is sewn at the opening edge. the garment as they help shape it.
For welt pockets, the pocket flap is placed above the Most decorative details integral to the garment are
single lips or between the double lips of the pocket. made with specialized sewing machine attachments.
The breast pocket of many tailored jackets provide an Thus many operations that once required extensive
example of an upturned-flap pocket, a flap that ex- skilled labor are now automated. (For more informa-
tends up (not down like a regular flap). tion, see Chapters 11 and 12.)
Tucks. A tuck is a stitched fold of fabric (Figure
5–29). The fold lies flat against the garment, but it
Decorative Details Integral to the Garment
can be lifted. Tucks can be made vertically, horizon-
Some decorative details are constructed as part of the tally, and diagonally on a garment. Most tucks are
garment. For example, fabric may be raveled out at stitched on the outside of the garment so the folds of
the edge to form a fringe called self-fringe. In high- fabric show on the outside.
quality garments, a row of stitches just above the Tucks require extra fabric and labor. If a designer
fringe prevents further raveling. Leather or vinyl may uses numerous tucks in a garment, considerable
be slashed at frequent intervals to form self-fringe. fabric and labor are required. For example, a garment
Decorative details that are integral to the garment in- with tucks all the way across the front may require
5. spaced tucks, a series of tucks that occur at regular
intervals
6. blind tucks, a series of tucks that meet, each one
covering the stitches of the one preceding it
7. scalloped tucks or shell tucks, which feature decora-
tive stitching at the edges that draw the tuck into a
shell shape (similar to the shell hem in Chapter
10, Figure 10–26)
8. crossed tucks, two sets of tucks made perpendicular
(a) (b) to one another
9. corded tucks, which have a cord inserted in the fold
of the tuck to give a three-dimensional effect
Pleats. A pleat is a fold of fabric folded back upon
itself so the pleat is comprised of three layers (Figure
5–30). The top fold of the pleat hides the back fold;
the pleat can be spread open to see the back fold.
Pleats are not stitched to the garment throughout
their length as are tucks, although occasionally pleats
are partially stitched down at the upper edge to
flatten them and hold them in place. Pleats can be
(c) (d)
pressed or unpressed throughout their length for dif-
ferent effects. Soft, rolled pleats are appropriate in
soft fabrics. Sharp, pressed pleats must be made in a
crisp fabric for the proper effect. Fabrics that can be
heat set have the ability to maintain the creases of
pleats. Pleats in other fabrics may be edgestitched
along the folds for a crisp, well-defined look. Pleats
hang vertically on the garment, secured at an upper
edge; they cannot be made horizontally or diagonally.
Pleat types include these:
(f) (g)
1. knife pleat, the basic folded pleat; all pleats are
(e)
variations of this pleat. (See Figure 5–31 later in
Figure 5–29 Tucks: (a) spaced, (b) blind, (c) pin, (d) shell, this chapter.)
(e) crossed, (f) released, and (g) inverted. 2. box pleats, two knife pleats folded away from one
another. (See Chapter 12, Figure 12–2.)
three times as much fabric as a garment with a plain 3. inverted pleats, two knife pleats folded toward one
front. Tucks also require skilled labor to carefully another. Note the relationship between box and
space and stitch unless tucking folders or pretucked inverted pleats; when either occurs in a series, be-
fabrics are used. tween every two box pleats an inverted pleat is
Besides the plain tuck, there are a number of vari- created and vice versa.
ations, including these: Knife pleats, box pleats, and inverted pleats may
be used singly, in small groups (cluster pleats), or all
1. inverted tucks, stitched on the inside of the garment
the way around a garment. They are also used as a
so the folds of fabric are not visible on the outside
basis for the following:
of the garment
2. released tucks, which are partially stitched, re- 1. kick pleat, a pleat at the hem of a skirt to give room
leasing fullness and introducing ease into the gar- to walk and sit; it may be a decorative feature as
ment (see Chapter 6) well
3. dart-tucks or open-ended darts, similar to released 2. vent, an opening at the back hem of jackets, which
tucks. They are tapered like darts and the tips are allows the garment to expand for walking and sit-
left unstitched. Dart-tucks shape the garment, ting comfort
serving as a dart substitute. 3. gibson pleat or flange, a pleat at the intersection of
4. pin tucks, narrow and closely spaced tucks, such as the shoulder and the armhole that releases fullness
those in tuxedo shirts in the front and/or back of the garment
136 CHAPTER 5
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)
Figure 5–30 Pleats: (a) knife, (b) edgestitched knife, (c) partially stitched knife, (d) box, (e) inverted, (f) accordion,
(g) edgestitched box, and (h) partially stitched box.
4. accordion pleats, repeated, evenly spaced, open Ruffles. Ruffles or flounces are decorative gath-
knife pleats ered, or pleated strips of fabric. Full ruffles are usu-
5. sunburst pleats, smaller at the waist and larger as ally two-and-one-half times or more the length of the
they near the hem. Accordion and sunburst pleats area to which they are gathered. They require more
are used in skirts. fabric than skimpy ruffles, which may be as little as
6. crystal pleats, extremely narrow accordion pleats one-and-one-half times the length of the area to
used in formal gowns and some ruffle trims which they are gathered. Full ruffles are found in
7. cartridge pleats, also called gauging, accordion
pleats drawn closed with rows of running stitches
so that they resemble bold, even gathers. They are
used in choir, academic, and clerical robes and in
high-price garments.
Considerable labor is required to accurately space
and press some pleat styles. Others, when made
using specially designed work aids, require very little
labor. When an entire fabric or garment requires
pleating, the job is usually sent to a contractor that a
specializes in pleating. The cost difference between
pleated styles depends upon the depth of the pleats.
Shallow pleats require little fabric and are used in
low-cost garments (Figure 5–31). Deep pleats require
as much as three times the fabric needed for an un-
pleated garment. Full-depth pleats, with the back
fold as wide as the front fold, look the same as
shallow pleats when the wearer stands still but pro-
vide more attractive fullness when the wearer moves.
They also provide plenty of sitting and moving ease.
b
However, deep pleats are confined to high-price gar-
ments because of the cost.
Creases. Creases pressed in pant legs are a decora-
tive feature that adds a crisp look to the garment and
slims the appearance of the wearer. Front creases start
at the hem and end somewhere between the crotch
level and the waist. Back creases extend from the hem
to the crotch level. Fabrics that can be heat set main-
tain a sharp crease. In fabrics that cannot be heat set,
stitching along the crease helps maintain a sharp
crease line; this is done mainly in children’s garments. Figure 5–31 Pleats: (a) deep, and (b) shallow.
a b
Figure 5–32 (a) Double-layer ruffle, and

(b) single-layer, hemmed ruffle.
high-quality garments. Soft, sheer, and lightweight then tacked, glued, or pinned in place. Ribbon bows
fabrics need to be fuller than other fabrics to avoid a tend to ravel and become bedraggled when laun-
skimpy appearance. Ruffles should be even in width. dered; in such cases, the bows should be removable
Bias-cut ruffles drape more gracefully than ruffles for laundering.
cut on the straight-of-grain. However, bias-cut ruffles
are costly because of the amount of fabric required Tabs. A tab is a fabric strip that, when combined
and because seaming the bias pieces together is time- with a button, buckle, or d-rings serves as a func-
consuming. tional closure as well as a decorative detail. (For ex-
Ruffles are made by hemming the long edge of a amples, see Chapter 8, Figure 8–9.) Tabs are fre-
single ply of fabric to make a single-layer ruffle, or by quently seen at the wrist of the sleeves of all-weather
folding a piece of fabric in half lengthwise to make a coats. They are also used on pockets, necklines, back
double-layer ruffle (Figure 5–32). Double-layer ruf- vents, and elsewhere as the design demands.
fles require twice as much fabric as single-layer ruf- Epaulets are tabs at the shoulders, often used on mil-
fles; however, double-layer ruffles require less labor itary uniforms, safari outfits, and trench coats.
because they do not require hemming. Most ruffles in Although epaulets usually serve no function in
low- and moderate-price lines are single-layer ruffles. normal consumer use, they may serve to keep
Single-layer ruffles have less body than double-layer shoulder bag or camera straps from slipping off the
ruffles and are less attractive if the fabric has a right shoulder (e.g., safari shirts). Some tabs help shape
and wrong side and if the hem shows. However, the garment to the wearer, for example, buckled tabs
although double layers are considered a mark of on the back of vests.
quality in many cases, they cause more bulk than
single-layer ruffles and are not suitable for all
applications.
Shaped ruffles are cut in a circle and straightened
for sewing to the garment. This causes an attractive
ripple at the outer, unsewn edge but they remain
smooth where they are seamed to the garment
(Figure 5–33). A shaped or gathered ruffle at the
waistline is a peplum; peplums are a decorative style
feature used in womenswear. Wide, successive rows
of ruffles are called tiers.
Bows. A bow is a ribbon or fabric strip tied into a
decorative knot with loops and streamers. Long, full
bows require extra material, making them costly.
(a) (b)
Fabric bows cut on the bias tie and drape gracefully,
but bias-cut bows are costly because they require Figure 5–33 (a) Shaped shoulder ruffles and shaped
extra material. Bows are either (1) an extension of the ruffle peplum at waist, and (b) gathered shoulder ruffles
garment structure or (2) constructed separately and and gathered ruffle peplum at waist.
138 CHAPTER 5
Functional Design Considerations the head? The hips? Are garment openings large
enough to accommodate these processes?
Garments must be planned for more than merely a
The apparel must also be refurbished easily. Can it
pleasing aesthetic appearance. Not only must a gar-
be washed? Must it be dry-cleaned? Is the refur-
ment possess an attractive style, but it must also func- bishing appropriate for the use of the item? All of
tion according to its intended use. For example, cer- these considerations complement and make possible
tain types of clothing, such as lingerie, active a fine design.
sportswear, and occupational clothing, lend them-
selves to functional details that help fulfill their spe- Lingerie. Panties made of synthetic fibers usually
cial purpose. feature a cotton crotch. This is a quality feature be-
Some groups of consumers require special details cause of the absorbency of cotton, making the gar-
in the clothing they wear. Special markets include ment comfortable to wear.
childrenswear, maternity wear, clothing for mature Some bra and slip straps are made from elas-
figures, and clothing for the physically challenged tomeric materials, which stretch with the wearer’s
(for more information on sizing and fit for these mar- movements for comfort. However, stretch straps may
kets, see Chapter 6). The people that make up these lose their elasticity over time, making the garment
special markets require clothing with details that unwearable. A stretch strap that is also adjustable
make garments more functional and well-suited to may be tightened if it loses its elasticity. Adjustable
their purpose. straps contain a mechanism for loosening and tight-
Attention to the technical aspects of garment de- ening, enabling them to fit a variety of figures.
sign are as critical to a garment’s success as the gar- High-quality slips are sometimes constructed with
ment’s aesthetic appearance. A great design is wasted shadow panels. A shadow panel is an extra layer of
if the wearer cannot put it on or move comfortably in fabric at the center of the slip for modesty; it prevents
it. Every design must be given a “reality check.” If it is the silhouette of the legs from showing through
a special-purpose design such as a horseback riding translucent fabrics. Shadow panels increase produc-
outfit or a ballerina’s costume, it must be worn during tion costs.
that activity. The same principle applies to apparel
Active Sportswear. Active sportswear often fea-
worn by people in everyday life. It must be tried on
tures functional details. The following are just a few
and worn by a human being.
of the many functional details that increase the use-
Of course, all apparel designs must be planned to
fulness of active sportswear.
accommodate the wearer’s usual movements. Can a
person walk, bend, reach, and/or sit in it? Can a 1. Reflective tape or designs on jogging or biking
person sleep comfortably in sleepwear? Swim in clothing worn at night make the wearer visible to
swimwear? Run in athletic wear? vehicles.
Equally important is to plan for how the wearer 2. Slits or laps at the side seams of jogging shorts
will put on and take off the garment. Does it go over allow freedom of movement for running.
Try a Real-Life Scenario 5-2: Functional Design

A prominent retailer of large women’s clothing has repeatedly experienced high customer returns on a particu-
larly attractive style of slacks. The slacks sell well and appear to fit well when tried on in the dressing room but
are frequently returned to the store after the customer wears them once. The customers report that the slacks
are uncomfortable when they are in a sitting position. The slacks pull down excessively in the back and are
tight through the front crotch.
Considerations:
• Should the retailer discontinue carrying the slacks?
• Should the retailer pass the cost of the returns on to the manufacturer?
• Should the retailer help the manufacturer redesign the slacks?
• Should the slacks be sold at a discounted price?
• Should the retailer refuse to buy from the vendor in the future?
3. Mesh-fabric vents in the underarm area of football should be soft, lightweight, absorbent, flexible, ex-
jerseys allow perspiration to evaporate. tensible, and easy to launder.
4. Grommets (reinforced holes) in the pockets of Parents appreciate design features that accommo-
swim trunks help water drain away and prevent date a child’s growth. Examples include deep hems,
pockets from ballooning out. raglan or kimono sleeves, generous armholes for set-
5. Rubber buttons on rugby shirts prevent contact in sleeves, dresses with undefined waistlines, sepa-
bruises that result from hard plastic buttons. rates rather than one-piece outfits, long tails on shirts
6. Pads in biking shorts cushion the buttocks from and blouses, stretch fabrics, sleeve cuffs that roll
the bicycle seat. down (pant leg cuffs that roll down can trip the
7. Pads in the chest area of hunting vests help absorb child), elasticized waistlines or waistlines with ad-
the impact from the “kickback” of the gun being justable closures, and adjustable shoulder straps/
shot. suspenders. Horizontal growth tucks at the hem or
8. Zippers at the hems of ski pants and warm-up suits waist of children’s garments can be let out when the
help the wearer put them on and take them off child grows. The main cost of growth tucks is the
over ski boots and bulky athletic shoes. extra fabric required. Growth tucks are used to a lim-
9. Trigger fingers on mittens provide greater grasping ited extent in high-price line childrenswear. Because
dexterity. the garment has often faded more than the tucked
area by the time the growth tucks are released, their
Occupational Clothing. Occupational clothing for value is questionable.
workers doing a particular job contains many prac- Self-help features that assist the child in dressing
tical features that protect the wearer, provide conve- independently include conveniently placed, easy-to-
nience and comfort, or improve the ease of care or manipulate closures and large, stretch, “pull-on”
serviceability of the garment. For example, hammer openings for neck, arms, and legs. The front of the
loops on carpenter’s pants provide a place for hanging garment should be easy to distinguish from the back;
tools. Employees in a fabric store may wear aprons for example, marked with an appliqué. Extras such as
with reinforced pockets for scissors. Industrial workers belts, sashes, and bows should be pre-tied and at-
require protective clothing. Police require bulletproof tached to the garment. Buttons should be flat,
vests. Many companies embroider workers’ names on smooth, and not excessively large or small but about
their uniforms to help customers identify them. one-half inch in diameter. Buttonholes should be
Other functional details of occupational clothing re- large enough to accommodate the buttons easily.
late to fabric characteristics. For example, soldiers re- Large zipper pulls make it easy for a child to operate
quire camouflage prints; firefighters need fireproof zippers. Openings should be down the front of the
clothing; surgeons wear gowns that have antibacte- garment. Hook-and-loop tape rather than traditional
rial, static-free, and low-linting characteristics. An in- fasteners should be considered.
depth coverage of occupational clothing is outside Children’s coats and snowsuits sometimes feature
the realm of our discussion of ready-to-wear; to learn mitten ties that attach the mittens to the garment with
more, refer to Watkins (1984). a cord; they prevent the loss of the mittens. Knee and
elbow patches add durability to play clothing that re-
Childrenswear. Infants’ clothing must help babies ceives hard wear. Straps should be secured with loops
maintain constant body temperature because their at the shoulders so they do not fall off the shoulders.
natural body “thermostat” is not yet fully developed. Children like pockets. Pockets, cuffs, trims, and
Functional details in infants’ and toddlers’ clothing other details should be sewn on flat, not left dangling
are the snap crotches and inseams; the snaps make dia- to catch on things or trip the child. Colors that stand
pering more convenient. The safety of details on out make children easier to see when they are
clothing for these age groups is another major con- playing, increasing safety. Nonslip (but breathable for
sideration. Buttons and snaps on infant and toddler comfort) soles on footed pajamas are another safety
clothing should be securely attached; if closures feature.
come off, the baby may swallow them. On in-
fantswear, do not use drawstrings and avoid elastic Maternity Wear. Maternity clothing features details
around the neck or anywhere that a danger of stran- that make garments expandable for the expectant
gulation exists. Also, materials used to make clothing mother. Excess fabric is the most common approach.
for children size 2 and under must be nontoxic. Adjustable openings at the waistline accommodate
Sleepwear should be tight-fitting to avoid catching the enlarging abdomen. Stretch panels may be in-
fire; loose-fitting sleepwear in sizes larger than serted in the abdominal area of maternity-wear bot-
9 months must meet federal flammability standards. toms; stretch panels expand as the abdomen en-
For comfort, fabric for young children’s clothing larges. They should be long enough and wide enough
140 CHAPTER 5
to avoid uncomfortable binding. They are usually Clothing for people with special needs, whether
concealed by long maternity tops. mass produced or custom adapted, is characterized
Nursing garments have openings over the breasts by functional details that vary according to the indi-
for convenient breast-feeding. The openings are con- vidual and the circumstances. Most details are kept as
cealed by fabric overlays when not in use. inconspicuous as possible, while some become a
focal point of the item of apparel. (Clothing adapted
Clothing for Older Adults. Clothing for older for wheelchair users is illustrated in Chapter 6,
adults, male and female, needs to be designed pri- Figure 6–13.) The following are just a few examples
marily for comfort. While people over 50 are still of functional details for consideration in special need
fashion conscious, they put increasing value on being apparel.
comfortable in their clothing. Dissatisfaction with fit
is more common among mature women than any 1. Mastectomy bras contain special pockets to hold
other group. Safety features are very important for the prostheses or breast replacements in position
mature individuals who are not 100% mobile, as are for women who have had breast-removal surgery.
features contributing to freedom of movement and 2. Action-back pleats are pleats in the back shoulder
ease and independence of dressing. Features meeting area of garments, for example, shirts, blouses, or
these needs include: jackets. They provide reaching room in otherwise
fitted garments. Most action-back pleats are fairly
1. fabrics that stretch and give inconspicuous. They are comfortable for crutch
2. roomy armholes users and people in wheelchairs and for anyone
3. kimono and raglan sleeves involved in active sports, because they increase
4. short or elbow-length sleeves freedom of movement and reaching in the
5. back fullness shoulder area.
6. unfitted or elasticized waistlines 3. Underarm padding and reinforcement in clothing for
7. large neck openings crutch users provide comfort for the wearer and
8. V-necklines extend the life of the garment.
9. long, front openings 4. For wheelchair users, low pockets (on lower pant
10. closures that are easy to grasp, or elasticized legs, for instance) provide better access than tradi-
openings that eliminate the need for hard-to- tional pocket locations.
manipulate closures, especially for those with 5. For those with limited finger mobility, hook-and-
limited mobility brought on by strokes or loop tape sewn on behind buttons makes closures
arthritis easier to manipulate.
Avoid long, loose sleeves that can catch fire on 6. Loops inside garments help with pulling them on.
burners or heaters, short openings, back openings, 7. Openings that stretch (for example, cuff buttons
small armholes, and very close-fitting garments. sewn on with elastic) simplify dressing and un-
dressing.
Clothing for People with Physical Disabilities. For 8. Zippered pant inseams and/or outseams allow easy
the most part, individuals with physical disabilities access to catheters.
are just as fashion conscious as individuals without 9. For people with severe handicaps who cannot
special needs. Their physical disability usually is not dress without assistance, clothing should be de-
as significant or noticeable to them as it is to others. signed for easy removal and replacement.
They have either been born with their special needs
or have adapted to them. Therefore, people with dis-
abilities do not choose clothing any differently than
other people. We all want fashion, fit, and comfort.
SUMMARY
Unfortunately, due to the uniqueness of each spe- Garments are made from flat fabrics shaped to fit the
cial need situation, it is not possible to mass produce human body. To hang straight, garments should be
appropriate apparel cost-effectively. Therefore, the se- cut on the straight of the fabric’s grain. They may be
lection of ready-to-wear special clothing is limited. cut on the bias for special effects. All garments con-
For this reason, individuals with special needs who tain darts or dart equivalents that introduce shape
can afford to do so may have clothing custom-made. into the garment. Darts are triangular folds stitched
Others may customize ready-to-wear on their own, into the fabric that shape it to fit the body. The size,
learning techniques to adapt mass-produced apparel length, and angle of the dart should accommodate
to their needs. the body curve it is intended to fit. Shaped seams
such as princess seams, gore seams in skirts, and tailored
yoke seams may incorporate dart shapes to help the grain
garment fit the figure. Released darts and extra fabric lengthwise grain/warp
add style fullness. Style fullness may be fitted to the selvages
body with ease, gathers, shirring, smocking, elastic, crosswise grain/fill/filling/weft
or drawstrings. Other dart substitutes include stretch straight-of-grain
fabrics, bias-cut pieces, pleats and tucks, godets, gus- bias
sets, full-fashioned knits, and lacing. true bias
Underlying fabrics provide additional shape, sup- shaping methods
port, and smoothness to garments. Interfacing is used basic block/sloper
in detail areas. Lining covers the inner construction dart
of the garment. Fully lined garments are generally single-pointed dart
more costly but are more durable, more comfortable, French dart
and more attractive than unlined garments. double-pointed/contour dart
Underlining is constructed as one with the garment dart equivalent/dart substitute
and has many of the same advantages as lining, ex- princess seam
cept it does not cover inner construction details. yoke
(However, underlining does make inner construction riser
details invisible from the outside of the garment.) midriff yokes
Interlinings are applied strictly for warmth. split yoke
Supporting devices are used to maintain shape as the gore
design demands. released dart
The identifying characteristics of a garment deter- ease
mine its style. Variations in silhouette, length, waist- gathers
line, and edge treatments and in neckline, collar, shirring
sleeves, cuffs, pockets, and decorative details result in smocking
different styles. Style is evaluated based on fashion applied elastic
trends, personal preferences, appropriateness, func- casing
tion, and principles of aesthetic design. header
Collars are either flat, standing, or rolled. Sleeves drawstring
are one of three types: kimono, which is cut in one gusset
with the garment; raglan, which is attached to the godet
garment with a diagonal seam; and set-in, which is full-fashioned marks
attached to the armhole of the garment. Cuffs include lacing
open-band, closed-band, and turned-back. Pockets body/fashion/shell fabric
usually contribute to consumer satisfaction. The interfacing
main pocket types are patch, in-seam, and slashed. lining
Decorative details integral to the garment include underlining
tucks, pleats, creases, ruffles, bows, and tabs. interlining
Garments must be functionally designed with the balance
end use and the end user in mind. Garments for proportion
special markets—childrenswear, maternity wear, rhythm
clothing for mature figures, clothing for people with emphasis
physical disabilities, and occupational clothing— unity
may require special design features. silhouette
style
hip hugger
New Terms empire waistline
collar
If you can define each of these terms and differentiate flat collar
between related terms, you have gained a good standing collar
working vocabulary for discussing the topics in this rolled collar
chapter. The terms are listed in the order in which sleeve
they appear in this chapter. armscye
142 CHAPTER 5
set-in sleeve Review Questions

kimono sleeve
raglan sleeve 1. Why are most garments cut on straight-of-grain?
dolman sleeve Which grain is typically placed parallel to the
cuff length of the body and why? Describe the charac-
open-band cuff teristics of garments cut on the bias.
barrel/shirt cuff
2. Why are shaping methods like darts and dart
convertible cuff
equivalents needed in all garments? List the dart
French/double-cuff
equivalents.
closed-band cuff
3. Compare and contrast
turned-back cuff
a. gussets and gores
pocket
patch pocket/applied pocket b. gathers and ease
in-seam pocket c. yokes and split yokes
slashed pocket d. smocking and shirring
single-welt pocket 4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
double-welt/double-besom pocket a. lining a garment?
flap pocket b. underlining a garment?
upturned-flap pocket c. interfacing a garment?
tuck d. interlining a garment?
pleat 5. List the various garment lengths.
crease 6. What are the three main collar types? What deter-
ruffle/flounce mines a type of collar? Its style?
peplum 7. What are the three main sleeve types? How are
bow they differentiated? List the various sleeve lengths.
tab 8. Are pockets functional or decorative features of a
epaulet garment? Support your answer.
shadow panel
grommets
growth tuck Activities
1. Examine a low-price and a high-price example of
Shape, Silhouette, and Style Checklist the following garments for use of grain and grain
trueness. Do you find any differences based on
price? On classification?
If you can answer yes to the following questions
a. men’s necktie
regarding the garment you are evaluating, it con-
tains high-quality shape, silhouette, and style b. jeans
variations. c. men’s shirt
d. skirt
Is the garment cut on the straight-of-grain (or on e. T-shirt
the bias for special effects)? f. jacket
Is an appropriate dart or dart equivalent used 2. Fold a dart in a piece of paper. How does this af-
wherever there is a body curve? fect the shape of the paper? Try to closely con-
Are pleats full-depth? form a piece of fabric to a dress form or human
Are bows full and preferably cut on the bias? body. What is required?
Do gussets have sharp, even, secure points? 3. Examine a garment with darts. What body curve
Does interfacing provide support where needed? is each dart intended to fit?
Is the garment fully lined? 4. Choose 10 different garments at random from a
Does the style meet fashion, personal, aesthetic, store, from a catalog or magazine, from a historic
and end-use functional and appropriateness costume collection, and from your wardrobe.
expectations? What shaping methods are used in each? Does
Are practical details included whenever they the classification of the garment influence the
would enhance the function of the garment, type of shaping method used? Does fashion in-
particularly for special markets? fluence the popularity of certain shaping
methods? Do you have a personal preference for 9. Find examples of the following cuff styles:
some shaping methods over others? Explain your a. barrel
answers. b. convertible
5. Visit an apparel manufacturer. Ask c. French
a. to see their basic blocks d. closed-band
b. how they build shape into their garments e. turned-back
c. what cost-cutting measure they take to elimi- 10. Find examples of the following sleeve styles:
nate costly shaping methods but ensure that a. set-in
garments still fit the customer. b. kimono
d. what types of supporting fabrics they use and c. raglan
why. d. puffed
e. what other supporting devices they use. e. melon/balloon
6. Visit a high-price and a low-price source of ath- f. bell
letic apparel. Examine the sweatpants for quality g. petal
and quantity of shaping and supporting features. h. draped
For example, look for elastic, gussets, and draw- i. two-piece tailored
strings. Why are supporting fabrics and other j. bishop
supporting devices not used? k. leg o’mutton
7. Find examples of the following neckline styles: l. angel
a. plain/jewel m. shirt
b. keyhole 11. Cut collars from paper with the following neck-
c. V line shapes:
d. scoop a. straight
e. sweetheart b. slightly curved
f. bateau/boat c. round
g. crew Try on the collars. What collar type does each
h. halter produce?
i. décolletage
j. gathered
k. cowl
l. bib Guiding the Discussion
m. bow
n. Henley Try a Real-Life Scenario 5-1. Layout is not efficient
o. tab
when nap must run in both directions. There is high
p. Queen Anne
fallout and the marker has to be adapted. Piping, top-
8. Find examples of the following collar styles:
stitching, etc., could emphasize design details but not
a. convertible
in the unique manner as a change of nap—these al-
b. pointed shirt
ternatives would be cheaper but do not replicate the
c. polo/tab
exact effect desired by the designers. This situation
d. shawl
represents the age-old “practical versus creative”
e. stand-up
struggle between production and design—produc-
f. Edwardian
tion staff thinking about ways to reduce costs and de-
g. ascot
sign staff working to execute an aesthetic concept. In
h. jabot
this case, the designers must make a decision about
i. mandarin
whether or not they can get enough money back in
j. turtleneck
the price of the garment to justify the cost of the look
k. peter pan
they desire.
l. portrait
m. puritan Try a Real-Life Scenario 5-2. Some retailers might
n. Chelsea hasten to get rid of the vendor, and if this is a brand
o. sailor new vendor, that is likely to happen. But if the retailer
p. cowl has a long-term relationship with the vendor, and the
q. wing rest of their record is on time and good quality at the
r. peaked lapels right price, the relationship is valuable and worth the
144 CHAPTER 5
time it takes to help the vendor improve the product. and working together to solve the problem is impor-
The current inventory of slacks should be cleared out tant in preserving the relationship with the vendor.
through discounting. Then the retailer can help the Retailers need to bring the cost of such returns to the
vendor redesign the slacks to better fit the retailer’s attention of vendors and negotiate something to the
customers. The feedback should benefit everyone, satisfaction of both parties.

Shape, Silhouette, Style: Focus On Design Development: Chapter Objectives

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What are some important considerations when shaping garments?

What are some important considerations when shaping garments?

What is the role of fabric grain in garment construction?

What is the role of fabric grain in garment construction?

5

Shape, Silhouette, Style: Focus

supporting devices that help a garment retain its Cut End

Figure 5–2 Correct positions of fabric

Figure 5–3 Different drapes of skirts

Try a Real-Life Scenario 5-1: Planning Grain/Nap

Skirt Back Back Pants Back

Bodice Back Jacket Back

Skirt Front Front Pants Front

(c) (d) Bodice

not smooth. (See the section on Released Darts later Bodice

Shaped Seams. Not all seams are dart substitutes;

Fullness. Garments may fit the body simply by al-

Gores. Gores are vertical divisions within a gar-

Figure 5–10 Gathers: (a) as dart equivalent, and (b) with

ment, adding significantly to the fabric costs of the

Figure 5–15 Shaded areas should be

Figure 5–17 Partial lining in summer weight jacket. Note

Straight Bell Bottoms Baggies Palazzo

Straight A-line Flared Gathered/Dirndl

Trumpet Peg Top Circular

Shell Vest Peasant

Bolero Chanel Cardigan Blazer/

Shift/ Sheath Shirtwaist

The silhouette and style of a garment are important

Above Knee Deck

waist and hips. In hip huggers, the waistline falls at Necklines

Figure 5–21 (a) Waistline levels, (b)

Peter Pan Portrait Puritan

Two-Piece/ Bishop Leg o’ Angel Shirt

Figure 5–25 Sleeve lengths and styles.

Figure 5–27 Pockets: (a) flap with no pocket, (b) flap on

labor costs. Nonfunctional, fake slashed pockets,

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 5–32 (a) Double-layer ruffle, and

Try a Real-Life Scenario 5-2: Functional Design

set-in sleeve Review Questions

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