Chord Progressions

The number of ways chords can go together to produce new and interesting sounds is nearly infinite. Musicians use
their intuition and experience to arrange chords in ways that move the music along. This notion of movement is
important to understanding how to compose and improvise a piece of music. Chord progressions are what gives a
piece of music its harmonic movement.

Harmonic Movement
Usually the interplay between chords in a piece of music creates the feeling of movement and change. Some chord
combinations sound uplifting, others sound somber, and some sound like ocean waves. While these harmonies and
how we interpret them are nearly endless, there is a very simple principle at work.
Most pieces of music tend to first establish a feeling of stability, depart from it, create tension, then return to the
feeling of stability. Though some pieces of music demonstrate this more dramatically than others, as you train your
ear you will become increasingly aware of it.

Progression Formulas
The way chords are placed one after the other in a piece of music is called a chord progression. The chords in a
progression have different harmonic functions. Some chords provide the stability, some the departure, and some
provide the dynamic tension.
Roman numerals are used to indicate the chords in a progression. The numerals are based on the scale pattern of
the diatonic scale. For example, in the key of C major a I, IV, V7 (one, four, five) progression indicates the chords
Cmaj, Fmaj, and Gdom7. In the key of F these chords would be Fmaj, Bbmaj, and Cdom7.

The diagram below shows the formulas of the more common chord progressions in major and minor keys.

The Roman numerals in a chord progression formula signify the triad form of the chord. It is harmonically permissible
to extend these chords with additional diatonic tones to create different chords. In other words, you can add notes to
these chords as long as the notes are part of the diatonic scale. The harmonic function of the chord does not change.

The Roman numerals refer to the position of each chord in the diatonic scale. The diagram below shows how the
Roman numeral scale degree can be interpreted with different chords. All of the examples below can be interpreted
from the same chord formula.

Chord formulas are written in Roman numerals to represent the generic form of the progression. Often musicians will
learn a piece of music by its chord progression formula. One reason for this is that it is easier to remember since
many songs are based on the same formula. Another reason is, it is easier to play a song in different keys if you
know the formula. However, this assumes you know which chords make up which keys.
It's not uncommon for a rehearsal conversation to go like this:
Singer: "Hey, I've got this new song I want to do. It's basically a six-two-five progression."
Pianist: "What key do you like?"
Singer: "I don't know. Maybe Bb."
You can see if you are the pianist you need to be ready to play the same progression in several keys.
The chords indicated by the Roman numerals also have names. For instance, the first chord of the scale is the tonic.
The fifth chord is the dominant. The diagram below shows the functional names and scale degree of the diatonic
scale. Beneath this are notes from several common keys that match the function and degree.

Other scales whose scale patterns differ from the diatonic scale are assigned chord degrees according to the
sharpness or flatness of their notes. That is, the diatonic scale creates a "ruler" that other scales are measured
against. That is why the resulting chord based on the third note of the C natural minor scale is bIIIm (Ebm) and not III
as in the diatonic scale.
The chart below shows how different scales compare. Because the notes of the scales are spaced differently they
produce different chords.

Chord Substitutions
To add variety to the movement you can substitute chords, play dominant chords in place of minor chords, and vise
versa. Play diminished chords instead of a dominant. Play chords with extensions. In other words, explore the
different ways you can link chords together to create harmonic movement.
Example:
One of the most common progressions in music is the I, IV, V (one, four, five) and say we want to explore this
progression in the key of C major.
Since we are in the key of C Major our tonic chord will be a major chord with C as its root. There are several chords
we could choose but for this example let's pick Cmaj7.
Next, we've got the IV (the four chord). It's also a major chord but since it is derived from the fourth degree of the C
Major scale its root must be F. Normally we might choose Fmaj7 but let's bend the rules and experiment. Let's make
this an Fm7b5 chord (F,Ab,B, Eb). F7 has an Eb and an Ab, neither which belong to the key of C Major. However,
most importantly we are changing the major chord into a minor. That creates a completely different sound. That's
where we are bending the rules. However, the most basic rule in music theory is that if it sounds okay, it's allowed.
The V chord can act as a stronger dominant chord if we add the 7th note of the Mixolydian mode. In this case we
produce a Gdom7 (G, B, D, F). Now we have a I, IV7, V7 progression. We can spice up this progression even more.
The V (five chord) is the chord that expresses the most tension in a progression and if we want to add more tension
we can alter the chord. This means we can add notes that don't belong to the key which almost always produces a
dissonant harmony that creates tension.
So, if we sharp the fifth and the ninth degree of the G7 chord we end up with G7#5#9 (G, B, Eb, Bb). Our final
formula is: Imaj7, IVm7b5, V7#5#9. Notice how this sounds compares to the original I, IV, V.
There are more substitutions that can be made. This is just the beginning. Experiment and explore to create different
harmonic movements. Let your ear decide what's right and not right.

This is a chart of the chord symbols and their meaning.

Modulation
Modulation refers to the changing of the tonal center in a piece of music. While modulation can be achieved by
simply introducing chords and notes from another key their are more subtle ways to do this.
Pivot Chord Modulation
The smoothest transition you can make from one key to another is by pivot chord modulation. This type of
modulation works by using a chord that is shared by two keys to pivot from one key to the other.
For example, in the key of C major the I, VIm, IIm, V7 chord progression (C, Am, Dm, and Gdom7) establishes the
tonal center at C. However, since Am is also the IIm chord in the key of G, we could pivot into this key. Often the V
chord of the new key follows the pivot chord to announce the new tonal center.
Below is a chord progression that modulates from the key of C major to G major using Am7 as a pivot chord.

Below is another example of pivot chord modulation from C Major to G Major by pivoting on the tonic chord. The tonic
chord of C Major becomes the sub-dominant (four chord) of G Major.

Below is another example of pivoting. This time the tonic chord of C Minor becomes the submediant (six chord) of Eb
Major.

Below shows C diminished as the pivot chord. While C diminished is the VIIdim (seven chord) in the key of Db major,
in the key of Bb harmonic minor it is the IIdim (two chord).

In this example we actually pivoted into a Harmonic Minor scale form. We could have just as easily pivoted into Bb
natural minor but we would have ended up with an Fm (Vm of Bb natural minor) acting as a dominant chord which
does not create as much movement as the F7 (V7 of Bb harmonic minor).
Direct Modulation
Another way to go from one key to another is by way of direct modulation. This is often done by changing the chord
type without changing the root of the chord. For instance, changing from Am7 to A7.

Because of its construction, a diminished seventh chord (dim7) offers several inverted combinations that work as
chord substitutes. This chord is made up of four notes spaced a b3rd (minor third) apart. The notes of the diminished
seventh repeat every 1-1/2 steps up or down the scale. The diminished seventh chord is not diatonic to the major
scale; instead it is derived from the harmonic minor scale.

This type of modulation is not so subtle. It is easy to hear the shift in the tonal center. That makes it a common way to
add tonal variety to a song.
Chromatic Modulation
This type of modulation get you from one key to another by moving chromatic to that key. That is, you step up or
down the scale using chords a half-step at a time.

The root walks up the scale until it comes to a chord that is diatonic to the new key (C Major in this example above).

Chord Names & Types

Chords are named according to their root note and the intervals between the notes that make up the chord. Chords
of a diatonic major scale fall into four types: major, minor, dominant, and diminished. Chord names also depend on
what notes are in them. To understand the names, we must first know how chords are constructed.
Chord Construction
A chord is simply a group of notes sounded simultaneously. A group of three notes is called a triad. Commonly, triads
are made of the first, third, and fifth notes of a scale or mode. Other notes can be added, but in the diatonic system
any note added to a triad must belong to the key.
Major Chord
For example, the C major triad is made up of C, E, and G. Observe that the interval from C to E is a major third (2
steps) and the interval from E to G is a minor third (1 steps). This arrangement of intervals produces a major chord.
When we add the seventh note of the major scale, we create a four-note chord known as a major 7th.

Even though the notes of the Lydian mode (beginning on the fourth note of the major scale) are spaced differently
than the major scale, its 1st, 3rd, 5th, and 7th notes produce a major 7th chord.

The second note in the C major scale is D from which the Dorian mode is derived. When we choose the first, third,
and fifth notes of this mode we get a different-sounding chord from the major. Here the interval from D to F is a minor
third (1 steps) and the interval from F to A is a major third (2 steps). This arrangement of intervals produces a minor
chord.
When we add the seventh note of the mode, we create a four-note chord known as a minor 7th.

The other modes in the diatonic scale that produce a minor chord are Phrygian and Aeolian. In the key of C major
they look like this.

The Aeolian mode is also known as the natural minor scale. The Aeolian mode is also referred to as the relative
minor key of the major key from which it is derived.
In the example below, the A Aeolian mode is the natural minor scale relative to C major scale.

Dominant Chord
The fifth note of a diatonic scale begins the Mixolydian mode. When we choose the 1st, 3rd, 5th notes of this mode, it
produces a dominant chord. A dominant chord, whether it has three, four, or five notes, creates harmonic tension
when played as part of a chord progression.
The dominant triad is simply a major chord since the distance from its root and second note is a major 3rd. However,
when the 7th note of the mode is added to the chord, it produces another minor 3rd interval between the third and
fourth notes. These four notes combine to produce a chord which sounds slightly dissonate. This dissonance creates
tension in a piece of music which is released by moving to another chord, usually the tonic chord. This phenomenon
will be discussed further in the Chord Progression Map section of this guide.
When we choose the 1st, 3rd, 5th, and 7th notes of the Mixolydian mode to create a chord, we produce a chord
known as a dominant 7th.

The dominant seventh chord differs from the major seventh chord by the interval between the 3rd and 4th notes of
the chord.
Diminished Chord
The last note of the diatonic scale begins the Locrian mode. When we choose the 1st, 3rd, and 5th notes of this
mode we produce an interesting triad known as a diminished chord. In the key of C major the Locrian mode begins
on B. Here the interval between the 1st and 3rd notes is a minor third and the interval from the 3rd to the 5th is also a
minor third. When we add the 7th note of the Locrian mode to the chord, the interval between the 5th and 7th notes is
a major third (2 steps). This chord is sometimes called a half-diminished seventh. However, since the first interval is a
minor third, it is also known as a minor seventh flat-five chord. When the chord has B in the root, it can be written
Bm7b5. This chord is almost a regular minor seventh chord, except that the third note of the chord is a half-step
lower than it would be normally. Below is a comparison between a minor seventh chord (m7) and a minor seventh
flat-five chord (m7b5).

Flats & Sharps with Intervals

A sharp (#) in front of an interval indicates that it is augmented a half step. A flat (b) in front indicates that it is
diminished a half step.

* The diminished seventh is derived from a mode whose 7th note is a whole step lower than the 7th note of the major
scale. This is called a double-flatted 7th interval. It is equal to a major 6th (4-1/2 steps).

Secondary Dominant Chords & Backcycling

If you want to add a stronger sense of harmonic movement in your compositions, you will want to add secondary
dominant chords. Dominant chords have a special tension about them that is relieved by the chord following it,
usually a tonic. These chords cause the listener to anticipate the tonal center to come. In ways a dominant chord is
like holding one's breath and the tonic chord is like a big exhale.
Specifically, you can create this dominant-to-tonic movement to any chord by inserting a major chord whose root is a
fifth above root of the original chord.

In the above example line #1 shows a I - IIm - V chord progression. Each chord takes up one measure.
In line #2 a secondary dominant chord (A7) is inserted before the Dm7. The reason why this secondary dominant has
an A as its root is because A is a fifth above D. Harmonically, going from A7 to a D chord creates a dominant-to-tonic
felling even though Dm is not the tonic chord of the progression.
Line #3 has a special kind of trick that creates a mini-chord progression called backcycling. Once you insert the
dominant chord, (the A7 in this case) it can be considered to be the V (five) chord of a progression that points to the a
major or minor tonic chord. Thinking of the dominant chord this way, we can backcycle and insert the IIm chord in
front of it. This IIm chord comes from the second scale degree of the mode that the V chord is derived from.
The diagram below will make this clearer. The complete backcycling process goes like this. "I'm playing along and I
see a Dm7 chord. I decide to throw in a secondary dominant in front of it. I think to my self, what note is a fifth above
D. It's A. So I get ready to play an A7. But wait, why don't I add more movement and backcycle. Ok, A7 is the V chord
of D Major (and often D Minor*). Now, what's the two chord of D Major (of Minor). Em. I'll extend the chord and play
an Em7. The Em7 - A7 combination is the IIm - V chord progression in the key of D Major (or Minor.)"
This is a lot to be thinking about seeing how I had only had two beats to do it in. Like most of music, you really don't
think about it. You just practice it until it is automatic.
* The dominant seven chord is often substituted for the Vm that occurs in the Natural Minor scale.
Music nomenclature (what things are called) can be confusing. In the example above you will notice these chords are
called major and minor. Yes, chords are called major and minor and scales are called major and minor. On this
website I will try to make it clear which is which by capitalizing the scale name. That is, C Major will refer to the
seven-note scale (also known as key of C Major). C major will refer to the three-note chord.

When backcycling you are always looking one or two chords changes ahead and thinking what chord gets you there.

Since the Em7 - A7 combination is a IIm - V chord progression in the key of D Major its arguably a key change from
the original C Major. Technically, this is true. However, you will notice that the resulting chord progression of line #3
above looks like a I - IIIm - VIm - V chord progression in the key of C. The only difference is that the Am7 has
changed to a dominant A7. The only difference between Am7 and A7 is that the minor chord form consists of a C
while the dominant form has a C#. This is not enough to deflect the tonal center of the progression from C.
For improvisors, secondary dominants and backcycling present harmonic options that are very useful for those
musical passages that have only a single chord playing. If you are fast enough, you can add these harmonic
embellishments on the fly.
Below is a chart showing IIm - V7 combinations in all keys and the root of the tonic chord the V chord resolves to.
Remember, the tonic chord could be either major or minor.

This backcycling technique is based on the sequence of notes as they appear on the circle of fifths. If you can visualize this
wheel in your head, you'll be a backcycling wiz.

NOTE: In the example at the top of the page we backcycled to from Dm7 to Em7, however, we could continue the process
further in two ways. 1) We could continue to backcycle from the A7 and insert an F#m before the Em7. This creates a IIImVIm-IIm-V progression in the key of D Major. 2) We could backcycle from the Em7 and insert F#m - B7 in front of it. In
either case, It may not be practical to add so much movement. It may be too much of a good thing. As always, your ear is
your guide.