3D computer graphics

3D computer graphics (in contrast to 2D computer graphics) are graphics that use a three-dimensional representation of geometric data (often Cartesian)
that is stored in the computer for the purposes of performing calculations and rendering 2D images. Such images may be stored for viewing later or displayed
in real-time.
3D computer graphics rely on many of the same algorithms as 2D computer vector graphics in the wire-frame model and 2D computer raster graphics in the
final rendered display. In computer graphics software, the distinction between 2D and 3D is occasionally blurred; 2D applications may use 3D techniques to
achieve effects such as lighting, and 3D may use 2D rendering techniques.
3D computer graphics are often referred to as 3D models. Apart from the rendered graphic, the model is contained within the graphical data file. However,
there are differences: a 3D model is the mathematical representation of any three-dimensional object. A model is not technically a graphic until it is
displayed. A model can be displayed visually as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering or used in non-graphical computer
simulations and calculations. With 3D printing, 3D models are similarly rendered into a 3D physical representation of the model, with limitations to how
accurate the rendering can match the virtual model.

History

William Fetter was credited with coining the term computer graphics in 1961[1][2] to describe his work at Boeing. One of the first displays of computer
animation was Futureworld (1976), which included an animation of a human face and a hand that had originally appeared in the 1971 experimental short A
Computer Animated Hand, created by University of Utah students Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke.[3]

Overview
3D computer graphics creation falls into three basic phases:
3D modeling the process of forming a computer model of an object's shape
Layout and animation the motion and placement of objects within a scene
3D rendering the computer calculations that, based on light placement, surface types, and other qualities, generate the image

Modeling
Main article: 3D modeling
The model describes the process of forming the shape of an object. The two most common sources of 3D models are those that an artist or engineer
originates on the computer with some kind of 3D modeling tool, and models scanned into a computer from real-world objects. Models can also be produced
procedurally or via physical simulation. Basically, a 3D model is formed from points called vertices (or vertexes) that define the shape and form polygons.
A polygon is an area formed from at least three vertexes (a triangle). A four-point polygon is called a quad, and a polygon of more than four points is an ngon[citation needed]. The overall integrity of the model and its suitability to use in animation depend on the structure of the polygons.

Layout and animation

Before rendering into an image, objects must be laid out (place) in a scene. This defines spatial relationships between objects, including location and size.
Animation refers to the temporal description of an object (i.e., how it moves and deforms over time. Popular methods include keyframing, inverse
kinematics, and motion capture). These techniques are often used in combination. As with animation, physical simulation also specifies motion.

Rendering
Rendering converts a model into an image either by simulating light transport to get photo-realistic images, or by applying an art style as in nonphotorealistic rendering. The two basic operations in realistic rendering are transport (how much light gets from one place to another) and scattering (how
surfaces interact with light). This step is usually performed using 3D computer graphics software or a 3D graphics API. Altering the scene into a suitable
form for rendering also involves 3D projection, which displays a three-dimensional image in two dimensions.
Examples of 3D rendering

Left: A 3D rendering with ray tracing and ambient occlusion using Blender and YafaRay.
Center: A 3d model of a Dunkerque-class battleship rendered with flat shading.
Right: During the 3D rendering step, the number of reflections light rays can take, as well as various other attributes, can be tailored to achieve a desired
visual effect. Rendered with Cobalt.

Communities
There are a multitude of websites designed to help educate and support 3D graphic artists. Some are managed by software developers and content providers,
but there are standalone sites as well. These communities allow for members to seek advice, post tutorials, provide product reviews or post examples of their
own work.

Differences with other types of computer graphics

Distinction from photorealistic 2D graphics
Not all computer graphics that appear 3D are based on a wireframe model. 2D computer graphics with 3D photorealistic effects are often achieved without
wireframe modeling and are sometimes indistinguishable in the final form. Some graphic art software includes filters that can be applied to 2D vector
graphics or 2D raster graphics on transparent layers. Visual artists may also copy or visualize 3D effects and manually render photorealistic effects without
the use of filters.

Pseudo-3D and true 3D

Some video games use restricted projections of three-dimensional environments, such as isometric graphics or virtual cameras with fixed angles, either as a
way to improve performance of the game engine, or for stylistic and gameplay concerns. Such games are said to use pseudo-3D graphics. By contrast, games
using 3D computer graphics without such restrictions are said to use true 3D.

3D modeling
In 3D computer graphics, 3D modeling (or modelling) is the process of developing a mathematical representation of any three-dimensional surface of an
object (either inanimate or living) via specialized software. The product is called a 3D model. It can be displayed as a two-dimensional image through a
process called 3D rendering or used in a computer simulation of physical phenomena. The model can also be physically created using 3D printing devices.
Models may be created automatically or manually. The manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic
arts such as sculpting.
3D modeling software is a class of 3D computer graphics software used to produce 3D models. Individual programs of this class are called modeling
applications or modelers.

Models
3D model of a spectrograph[1]

3D models represent a 3D object using a collection of points in 3D space, connected by various geometric entities such
as triangles, lines, curved surfaces, etc. Being a collection of data (points and other information), 3D models can be
created by hand, algorithmically (procedural modeling), or scanned.
3D models are widely used anywhere in 3D graphics. Actually, their use predates the widespread use of 3D graphics on
personal computers. Many computer games used pre-rendered images of 3D models as sprites before computers could
render them in real-time.
Today, 3D models are used in a wide variety of fields. The medical industry uses detailed models of organs; these may
be created with multiple 2-D image slices from an MRI or CT scan. The movie industry uses them as characters and
3

objects for animated and real-life motion pictures.. The video game industry uses them as assets for computer and video games.
games The science sector uses them
as highly detailed models of chemical compounds.[2] The architecture industry uses them to demonstrate propo
proposed
sed buildings and landscapes through
Software Architectural Models.. The engineering community uses them as designs of new devices, vehicles and struc
structures
tures as well as a host of other uses. In
recent decades the earth science community has started to construct 3D geological models as a standard practice. 3D models can also be the
th basis for
physical devices that are built with 3D printers or CNC machines
machines.

Representation
A modern render off the iconic Utah teapot model developed by Martin Newell (1975).
975). The Utah teapot is one of the most common models used
in 3D graphics education.

Almost all 3D models can be divided into two categories.

Solid - These models define the volume of the object they represent (like a rock). These are more realistic, but more
difficult to build. Solid models are mostly used for nonvisual simulations such as medical and engineering simulations,
for CAD and specialized visual applications such as ray tracing and constructive solid geometry
Shell/boundary - these models represent the surface, e.g. the boundary of the object, not its volume (like an
infinitesimally thin eggshell). These are easier to work with than solid models. Almost all visual models used in games
and film are shell models.
Because the appearance of an object depends largely on the exterior of the object, boundary representations are common
in computer graphics. Two dimensional surfaces are a good an
analogy
alogy for the objects used in graphics, though quite often these objects are non-manifold.
non
Since surfaces are not finite, a discrete digital approximation is required: polygonal meshes (and to a lesser extent subdivision surfaces)
surfaces are by far the most
common representation, although point-based representations have been gaining some popularity in recent years. Level sets are a useful representation for
deforming surfaces which undergo many topological changes such as fluids.
The process of transforming representations of objects, such as the middle point coordinate of a sphere and a point on its circumference into a polygon
representation of a sphere, is called tessellation.. This step is used in polygon
polygon-based
based rendering, where objects are broken down from abstract representations
("primitives") such as spheres, cones etc., to so-called meshes
meshes,, which are nets of interconnected triangles. Meshes of triangles (instead of e.g. squares) are
popular as they have proven to be easy to render using scanline rendering.[3] Polygon representations are
re not used in all rendering techniques, and in these
cases the tessellation step is not included in the transition from abstract representation to rendered scene.

Modeling process
3D polygonal modelling of a human face.

There are three popular ways to represent a model:

1. Polygonal modeling - Points in 3D space, called vertices, are connected by line segments to form a Polygon
mesh. The vast majority of 3D models today are built as textured polygonal models, because they are flexible and
because computers can render them so quickly. However, polygons are planar and can only approximate curved surfaces
using many polygons.
2. Curve modeling - Surfaces are defined by curves, which are influenced by weighted control points. The curve
follows (but does not necessarily interpolate) the points. Increasing the weight for a point will pull the curve closer to
that point. Curve types include nonuniform rational B-spline (NURBS), splines, patches, and geometric primitives
3. Digital sculpting - Still a fairly new method of modeling, 3D sculpting has become very popular in the few
years it has been around.[citation needed] There are currently 3 types of digital sculpting: Displacement which is the most widely used among
applications at this moment, volumetric, and dynamic tessellation. Displacement uses a dense model (often generated by Subdivision surfaces of a
polygon control mesh) and stores new locations for the vertex positions through use of a 32bit image map that stores the adjusted locations.
Volumetric which is based loosely on Voxels has similar capabilities as displacement but does not suffer from polygon stretching when there are not
enough polygons in a region to achieve a deformation. Dynamic tesselation Is similar to Voxel but divides the surface using triangulation to maintain
a smooth surface and allow finer details. These methods allow for very artistic exploration as the model will have a new topology created over it once
the models form and possibly details have been sculpted. The new mesh will usually have the original high resolution mesh information transferred
into displacement data or normal map data if for a game engine.
The modeling stage consists of shaping individual objects that are later used in the scene. There are a number of modeling techniques, including:
constructive solid geometry
implicit surfaces
subdivision surfaces
Modeling can be performed by means of a dedicated program (e.g., Cinema 4D, formZ, Maya, 3DS Max, Blender, Lightwave, Modo, solidThinking) or an
application component (Shaper, Lofter in 3DS Max) or some scene description language (as in POV-Ray). In some cases, there is no strict distinction
between these phases; in such cases modeling is just part of the scene creation process (this is the case, for example, with Caligari trueSpace and Realsoft
3D).
Complex materials such as blowing sand, clouds, and liquid sprays are modeled with particle systems, and are a mass of 3D coordinates which have either
points, polygons, texture splats, or sprites assigned to them.

Compared to 2D methods
A fully textured and lit rendering of a 3D model.

3D photorealistic effects are often achieved without wireframe modeling and are sometimes indistinguishable in the
final form. Some graphic art software includes filters that can be applied to 2D vector graphics or 2D raster graphics
on transparent layers.
Advantages of wireframe 3D modeling over exclusively 2D methods include:
Flexibility, ability to change angles or animate images with quicker rendering of the changes;
Ease of rendering, automatic calculation and rendering photorealistic effects rather than mentally visualizing or estimating;
Accurate photorealism, less chance of human error in misplacing, overdoing, or forgetting to include a visual effect.
Disadvantages compare to 2D photorealistic rendering may include a software learning curve and difficulty
achieving certain photorealistic effects. Some photorealistic effects may be achieved with special rendering filters
included in the 3D modeling software. For the best of both worlds, some artists use a combination of 3D modeling
followed by editing the 2D computer-rendered images from the 3D model.

3D model market
A large market for 3D models (as well as 3D-related content, such as textures, scripts, etc.) still exists - either for individual models or large collections.
Online marketplaces for 3D content, such as TurboSquid, The3DStudio, 3DExport, CreativeCrash, CGTrader, FlatPyramid, NoneCG, CGPeopleNetwork,
Design Connected and DAZ 3D, allow individual artists to sell content that they have created. Often, the artists' goal is to get additional value out of assets
they have previously created for projects. By doing so, artists can earn more money out of their old content, and companies can save money by buying premade models instead of paying an employee to create one from scratch. These marketplaces typically split the sale between themselves and the artist that
created the asset, artists get 40% to 95% of the sales according the marketplace. In most cases, the artist retains ownership of the 3d model; the customer
only buys the right to use and present the model. Some artists sell their products directly in its own stores offering their products at a lower price by not using
intermediaries.
Over the last several years numerous marketplaces specialized in 3D printing models have emerged. Some of the 3D printing marketplaces are combination
of models sharing sites, with or without a built in e-com capability. Some of those platforms also offer 3D printing services on demand, software for model
rendering and dynamic viewing of items, etc. Among the most popular 3D printing file sharing platforms are Shapeways, Pinshape, Thingiverse, 3DExport,
CGTrader, Threeding, MyMiniFactory and GrabCAD.

3D printing
3D printing is a form of additive manufacturing technology where a three dimensional object is created by laying down successive layers of material.
In recent years, there has been an upsurge in the number of companies offering personalised 3D printed models of objects that have been scanned, rendered
in three dimensions in computer software, and then printed to the customer's requirements. As previously mentioned, 3D models can be purchased from
online marketplaces and printed by individuals or companies using commercially available 3D printers, enabling the home-production of objects such as
spare parts,[4] and even medical equipment.[5]
6

Human models
The first widely available commercial application of human virtual models appeared in 1998 on the Lands' End web site. The human virtual models were
created by the company My Virtual Mode Inc. and enabled users to create a model of themselves and try on 3D clothing.[6] There are several modern
programs that allow for the creation of virtual human models ((Poser being one example).

Uses

Steps of forensic facial reconstruction of a mummy made in Blender by the Brazilian 3D designer Ccero Moraes.
3D modeling is used in various industries like films, animation and gaming, interior designing and architecture. They are also used in the medical industry
for the interactive representations of anatomy. A wide number of 3D software are also used in constructing digital representation
representa
of mechanical models or
parts before they are actually manufactured. CAD/CAM related software are used in such fields, and with these software, not only can you construct the
parts, but also assemble them, and observe their functionality.
3D modelling is also used in the field of Industrial Design, wherein pro
products
ducts are 3D modeled before representing them to the clients. In Media and Event
industries, 3D modelling is used in Stage/Set Design.

3D scanner

3D scanner used to create 3D animation and special effects

3D scanned interior of St Joseph's Church, Subiaco

A 3D scanner is a device that analyses a real-world object or environment to collect data on its shape and possibly its appearance (e.g. colour). The collected
data can then be used to construct digital three-dimensional models.
Many different technologies can be used to build these 3D-scanning devices; each technology comes with its own limitations, advantages and costs. Many
limitations in the kind of objects that can be digitised are still present, for example, optical technologies encounter many difficulties with shiny, mirroring or
transparent objects. For example, industrial computed tomography scanning can be used to construct digital 3D models, applying non-destructive testing.
Collected 3D data is useful for a wide variety of applications. These devices are used extensively by the entertainment industry in the production of movies
and video games. Other common applications of this technology include industrial design, orthotics and prosthetics, reverse engineering and prototyping,
quality control/inspection and documentation of cultural artifacts.

Functionality
3D scanning of a fin whale skeleton in the Natural History Museum of Slovenia (August 2013)

The purpose of a 3D scanner is usually to create a point cloud of geometric samples on the surface of the subject. These points can then be used to
extrapolate the shape of the subject (a process called reconstruction). If colour information is collected at each point,
then the colours on the surface of the subject can also be determined.
3D scanners share several traits with cameras. Like cameras, they have a cone-like field of view, and like cameras, they
can only collect information about surfaces that are not obscured. While a camera collects colour information about
surfaces within its field of view, a 3D scanner collects distance information about surfaces within its field of view. The
"picture" produced by a 3D scanner describes the distance to a surface at each point in the picture. This allows the three
dimensional position of each point in the picture to be identified.
For most situations, a single scan will not produce a complete model of the subject. Multiple scans, even hundreds, from
many different directions are usually required to obtain information about all sides of the subject. These scans have to be
brought into a common reference system, a process that is usually called alignment or registration, and then merged to create a complete model. This whole
process, going from the single range map to the whole model, is usually known as the 3D scanning pipeline.[1]
8

Technology

There are a variety of technologies for digitally acquiring the shape of a 3D object. A well established classification[2] divides them into two types: contact
and non-contact. Non-contact
contact solutions can be further divided into two main categories, active and passive. There are a variety of technologies that fall under
each of these categories.

Contact
A coordinate measuring machine with rigid perpendicular arms.

Contact 3D scanners probe the subject through physical touch, while the object is in contact with or resting
resti on a
precision flat surface plate
plate, ground and polished to a specific maximum of surface roughness. Where the object to be
scanned is not flat or can not rest stably on a flat surface, it is supported and held firmly in place by a fixture.
The
he scanner mechanism may have three different forms:
A carriage system with rigid arms held tightly in perpendicular relationship and each axis gliding along a track. Such
systems work best with flat profile shapes or simple convex curved surfaces.
An articulated
culated arm with rigid bones and high precision angular sensors. The location of the end of the arm involves
complex math calculating the wrist rotation angle and hinge angle of each joint. This is ideal for probing into crevasses and
interior spaces with a small mouth opening.
A combination of both methods may be used, such as an articulated arm suspended from a traveling carriage, for
mapping large objects with interior cavities or overlapping surfaces.

A CMM (coordinate
coordinate measuring machine
machine)) is an example of a contact 3D scanner. It is used mostly in manufacturing and
can be very precise. The disadvantage of CMMs though, is that it requires contact with
wi the object being scanned. Thus,
the act of scanning the object might modify or damage it. This fact is very significant when scanning delicate or valuable
objects such as historical artifacts. The other disadvantage of CMMs is that they are relatively slow
s
compared to the
other scanning methods. Physically moving the arm that the probe is mounted on can be very slow and the fastest
CMMs can only operate on a few hundred hertz. In contrast, an optical system like a laser scanner can operate from 10
to 500 kHz.
Other examples are the hand driven touch probes used to digitise clay models in computer animation industry.

Non-contact active
Active scanners emit some kind of radiation or light and detect its reflection or radiation passing through object in order
ord to probe an object or environment.
Possible types of emissions used include light, ultrasound or x-ray.

Time-of-flight
This lidar scanner may be used to scan buildings, rock formations, etc., to produce a 3D model. The lidar can aim its laser beam
in a wide range: its head rotates horizontally, a mirror flips vertically. The laser beam is used to measure the distance to the
first object on its path.

The time-of-flight
flight 3D laser scanner is an active scanner that uses laser light to probe the subject. At the heart of this
type of scanner is a time
time-of-flight laser range finder.. The laser range finder finds the distance of a surface by timing
the round-trip
trip time of a pulse of light. A laser is used to emit a pulse of light and the amount of time before the
reflected
ted light is seen by a detector is measured. Since the speed of light is known, the round-trip
round
time determines
the travel distance of the light, which is twice the distance bbetween
etween the scanner and the surface. If is the round-trip
time, then distance is equal to
. The accuracy of a time-of-flight
flight 3D laser scanner depends on how precisely we
can measure the time: 3.3 picoseconds (approx.) is the time taken for light to travel 1 millimetre.
The laser range finder only detects the distance of one point in its direction of view. Thus, the scanner scans its entire
field of view one point at a time by changin
changing
g the range finder's direction of view to scan different points. The view
direction of the laser range finder can be changed either by rotating the range finder itself, or by using a system of
rotating mirrors. The latter method is commonly used because mi
mirrors
rrors are much lighter and can thus be rotated much
faster and with greater accuracy. Typical time
time-of-flight
flight 3D laser scanners can measure the distance of
10,000~100,000 points every second.
Time-of-flight
flight devices are also available in a 2D configuration. This is referred to as a time-of-flight camera.
Triangulation
Principle of a laser triangulation sensor. Two object positions are shown.

Triangulation based 33D

D laser scanners are also active scanners that use laser light to probe the environment. With
respect to time--of-flight
flight 3D laser scanner the triangulation laser shines a laser on the subject and exploits a camera to
look for the location of the laser dot. Depending on how far away the laser strikes a surface, the laser dot appears at
different places in the camera's field of view. This technique is called triangulation because the laser dot, the camera
and the laser emitter form a triangle. The length of on
onee side of the triangle, the distance between the camera and the
laser emitter is known. The angle of the laser emitter corner is also known. The angle of the camera corner can be
determined by looking at the location of the laser dot in the camera's field of view. These three pieces of information
fully determine the shape and size of the triangle and give the location of the laser dot corner of the triangle. In most
cases a laser stripe, instead of a single laser dot, is swept across the object to speed up the acquisition process. The
National Research Council of Canada was among the first institutes to develop the triangulation based laser
l
scanning
[3]
technology in 1978.
10

Strengths and weaknesses

Time-of-flight and triangulation range finders each have strengths and weaknesses that make them suitable for different situations. The advantage of time-offlight range finders is that they are capable of operating over very long distances, on the order of kilometres. These scanners are thus suitable for scanning
large structures like buildings or geographic features. The disadvantage of time-of-flight range finders is their accuracy. Due to the high speed of light, timing
the round-trip time is difficult and the accuracy of the distance measurement is relatively low, on the order of millimetres.
Triangulation range finders are exactly the opposite. They have a limited range of some meters, but their accuracy is relatively high. The accuracy of
triangulation range finders is on the order of tens of micrometers.
Time-of-flight scanners' accuracy can be lost when the laser hits the edge of an object because the information that is sent back to the scanner is from two
different locations for one laser pulse. The coordinate relative to the scanner's position for a point that has hit the edge of an object will be calculated based
on an average and therefore will put the point in the wrong place. When using a high resolution scan on an object the chances of the beam hitting an edge are
increased and the resulting data will show noise just behind the edges of the object. Scanners with a smaller beam width will help to solve this problem but
will be limited by range as the beam width will increase over distance. Software can also help by determining that the first object to be hit by the laser beam
should cancel out the second.
At a rate of 10,000 sample points per second, low resolution scans can take less than a second, but high resolution scans, requiring millions of samples, can
take minutes for some time-of-flight scanners. The problem this creates is distortion from motion. Since each point is sampled at a different time, any motion
in the subject or the scanner will distort the collected data. Thus, it is usually necessary to mount both the subject and the scanner on stable platforms and
minimise vibration. Using these scanners to scan objects in motion is very difficult.
Recently, there has been research on compensating for distortion from small amounts of vibration [4] and distortions due to motion and/or rotation.[5]
When scanning in one position for any length of time slight movement can occur in the scanner position due to changes in temperature. If the scanner is set
on a tripod and there is strong sunlight on one side of the scanner then that side of the tripod will expand and slowly distort the scan data from one side to
another. Some laser scanners have level compensators built into them to counteract any movement of the scanner during the scan process.
Conoscopic holography

Conoscopic holography measures distances by using the polarization properties of a converging light cone that reflect from an object. At the core of the
technology stands an anisotropic crystal: a ray that traverses it splits into two components that share the same path but have orthogonal polarizations. The
crystals anisotropic structure forces each of the polarized light rays to propagate at a different velocity, thus creating a phase difference between them. This
phase difference enables the formation of an interference pattern that varies with the distance from the object under measurement.
In classical holography, a hologram is created by recording an interference pattern formed between an object beam and a reference beam using a coherent
light source. The two beams propagate at the same velocity (same refractive index), but follow different geometric paths. This means that when overlapped,
the phase difference between the two beams depends only on the geometric path difference. This phase difference is responsible for the creation of a
measurable interference pattern that can later be used to reconstruct the original light field.
In conoscopic holography, however, a light beam that traverses an optically anisotropic crystal is split into two beams that share the same geometric path but
have orthogonal polarization modes. The refractive indices of these two beams generally differ from each other. Therefore, after the two beams exit the
crystal an interference pattern is generated. The features of this pattern depend on the distance from the light's source.
11

Since both beams propagate through the same geometric path, conoscopic holography is highly stable in comparison to interferometry-based measurement
techniques. Moreover, it is also possible to perform measurements using incoherent light. Conoscopic Holography was first introduced by Optimet (Optical
Metrology Ltd) and the company has several technological patents in this field. It was founded in 1995 by Ophir Optronics Solutions a part of Newport
Corporation. The sensor sometimes called Laser displacement sensor, or distance sensor, eventually provide a cloud of points which a 3D model can be
extract of it.
The sensor emits an eye-safe laser beam, which is focused by an objective lens, and hits the specimen being measured. Part of the scattered light travels back
from the specimen into the sensor, and enters the conoscopic unit that contains the optically anisotropic crystal. The resulting interference pattern is detected,
and signal processing algorithms are then used to retrieve the distance information from the measured data.
Conoscopic Holography sensor allows both diffusive and reflective material measurement, and its unique advantage is wide angle coverage of up to 170 deg,
high accuracy of down to 1 micron, and the ability to go into small holes to measure bottom and side walls.
Using a periscope allows to into small diameter holes and measure bottom and side walls.

Hand-held laser scanners

Hand-held laser scanners create a 3D image through the triangulation mechanism described above: a laser dot or line is
projected onto an object from a hand-held device and a sensor (typically a charge-coupled device or position sensitive
device) measures the distance to the surface. Data is collected in relation to an internal coordinate system and therefore
to collect data where the scanner is in motion the position of the scanner must be determined. The position can be
determined by the scanner using reference features on the surface being scanned (typically adhesive reflective tabs, but
natural features have been also used in research work [6][7]) or by using an external tracking method. External tracking
often takes the form of a laser tracker (to provide the sensor position) with integrated camera (to determine the
orientation of the scanner) or a photogrammetric solution using 3 or more cameras providing the complete Six degrees
of freedom of the scanner. Both techniques tend to use infra red Light-emitting diodes attached to the scanner which are
seen by the camera(s) through filters providing resilience to ambient lighting.
Data is collected by a computer and recorded as data points within Three-dimensional space, with processing this can be
converted into a triangulated mesh and then a Computer-aided design model, often as Non uniform rational B-spline
surfaces. Hand-held laser scanners can combine this data with passive, visible-light sensors which capture surface
textures and colours to build (or "reverse engineer") a full 3D model.

Structured light
Structured-light 3D scanners project a pattern of light on the subject and look at the deformation of the pattern on the subject. The pattern is projected onto
the subject using either an LCD projector or other stable light source. A camera, offset slightly from the pattern projector, looks at the shape of the pattern
and calculates the distance of every point in the field of view.
Structured-light scanning is still a very active area of research with many research papers published each year. Perfect maps have also been proven useful as
structured light patterns that solve the correspondence problem and allow for error detection and error correction.[24] [See Morano, R., et al. "Structured
Light Using Pseudorandom Codes," IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.
12

The advantage of structured-light 3D scanners is speed and precision. Instead of scanning one point at a time, structured light scanners scan multiple points
or the entire field of view at once. Scanning an entire field of view in a fraction of a second reduces or eliminates the problem of distortion from motion.
Some existing systems are capable of scanning moving objects in real-time. VisionMaster creates a 3D scanning system with a 5-megapixel camera 5
million data points are acquired in every frame.
A real-time scanner using digital fringe projection and phase-shifting technique (certain kinds of structured light methods) was developed, to capture,
reconstruct, and render high-density details of dynamically deformable objects (such as facial expressions) at 40 frames per second.[8] Recently, another
scanner has been developed. Different patterns can be applied to this system, and the frame rate for capturing and data processing achieves 120 frames per
second. It can also scan isolated surfaces, for example two moving hands.[9] By utilising the binary defocusing technique, speed breakthroughs have been
made that could reach hundreds of [10] to thousands of frames per second.[11]

Modulated light
Modulated light 3D scanners shine a continually changing light at the subject. Usually the light source simply cycles its amplitude in a sinusoidal pattern. A
camera detects the reflected light and the amount the pattern is shifted by determines the distance the light travelled. Modulated light also allows the scanner
to ignore light from sources other than a laser, so there is no interference.

Volumetric techniques
Medical

Computed tomography (CT) is a medical imaging method which generates a three-dimensional image of the inside of an object from a large series of twodimensional X-ray images, similarly Magnetic resonance imaging is another medical imaging technique that provides much greater contrast between the
different soft tissues of the body than computed tomography (CT) does, making it especially useful in neurological (brain), musculoskeletal, cardiovascular,
and oncological (cancer) imaging. These techniques produce a discrete 3D volumetric representation that can be directly visualised, manipulated or
converted to traditional 3D surface by mean of isosurface extraction algorithms.
Industrial

Although most common in medicine, Industrial computed tomography, Microtomography and MRI are also used in other fields for acquiring a digital
representation of an object and its interior, such as non destructive materials testing, reverse engineering, or studying biological and paleontological
specimens.

Non-contact passive
Passive 3D imaging solutions do not emit any kind of radiation themselves, but instead rely on detecting reflected ambient radiation. Most solutions of this
type detect visible light because it is a readily available ambient radiation. Other types of radiation, such as infra red could also be used. Passive methods can
be very cheap, because in most cases they do not need particular hardware but simple digital cameras.

Stereoscopic systems usually employ two video cameras, slightly apart, looking at the same scene. By analysing the slight differences between the images seen
by each camera, it is possible to determine the distance at each point in the images. This method is based on the same principles driving human stereoscopic
vision[1].
13

Photometric systems usually use a single camera, but take multiple images under varying lighting conditions. These techniques attempt to invert the image
formation model in order to recover the surface orientation at each pixel.
Silhouette techniques use outlines created from a sequence of photographs around a three-dimensional object against a well contrasted background. These
silhouettes are extruded and intersected to form the visual hull approximation of the object. With these approaches some concavities of an object (like the
interior of a bowl) cannot be detected.

User assisted (image-based modelling)

There are other methods that, based on the user assisted detection and identification of some features and shapes on a set of different pictures of an object are
able to build an approximation of the object itself. This kind of techniques are useful to build fast approximation of simple shaped objects like buildings.
Various commercial packages are available like D-Sculptor, iModeller, Autodesk ImageModeler, 123DCatch or PhotoModeler.
This sort of 3D imaging solution is based on the principles of photogrammetry. It is also somewhat similar in methodology to panoramic photography,
except that the photos are taken of one object on a three-dimensional space in order to replicate it instead of taking a series of photos from one point in a
three-dimensional space in order to replicate the surrounding environment.

Reconstruction
From point clouds
The point clouds produced by 3D scanners and 3D imaging can be used directly for measurement and visualisation in the architecture and construction
world.

From models
Most applications, however, use instead polygonal 3D models, NURBS surface models, or editable feature-based CAD models (aka Solid models).

Polygon mesh models: In a polygonal representation of a shape, a curved surface is modeled as many small faceted flat surfaces (think of a sphere modeled as a
disco ball). Polygon modelsalso called Mesh models, are useful for visualisation, for some CAM (i.e., machining), but are generally "heavy" ( i.e., very large data
sets), and are relatively un-editable in this form. Reconstruction to polygonal model involves finding and connecting adjacent points with straight lines in order to
create a continuous surface. Many applications, both free and nonfree, are available for this purpose (e.g. MeshLab, PointCab, kubit PointCloud for AutoCAD, JRC
3D Reconstructor, imagemodel, PolyWorks, Rapidform, Geomagic, Imageware, Rhino 3D etc.).
Surface models: The next level of sophistication in modeling involves using a quilt of curved surface patches to model our shape. These might be NURBS, TSplines
or other curved representations of curved topology. Using NURBS, our sphere is a true mathematical sphere. Some applications offer patch layout by hand but
the best in class offer both automated patch layout and manual layout. These patches have the advantage of being lighter and more manipulable when exported
to CAD. Surface models are somewhat editable, but only in a sculptural sense of pushing and pulling to deform the surface. This representation lends itself well
to modelling organic and artistic shapes. Providers of surface modellers include Rapidform, Geomagic, Rhino 3D, Maya, T Splines etc.
Solid CAD models: From an engineering/manufacturing perspective, the ultimate representation of a digitised shape is the editable, parametric CAD model. After
all, CAD is the common "language" of industry to describe, edit and maintain the shape of the enterprise's assets. In CAD, our sphere is described by parametric
features which are easily edited by changing a value (e.g., centre point and radius).

14

These CAD models describe not simply the envelope or shape of the object, but CAD models also embody the "design intent" (i.e., critical features and their
relationship to other features). An example of design intent not evident in the shape alone might be a brake drum's lug bolts, which must be concentric with
the hole in the centre of the drum. This knowledge would drive the sequence and method of creating the CAD model; a designer with an awareness of this
relationship would not design the lug bolts referenced to the outside diameter, but instead, to the center. A modeler creating a CAD model will want to
include both Shape and design intent in the complete CAD model.
Vendors offer different approaches to getting to the parametric CAD model. Some export the NURBS surfaces and leave it to the CAD designer to complete
the model in CAD (e.g., Geomagic, Imageware, Rhino 3D). Others use the scan data to create an editable and verifiable feature based model that is imported
into CAD with full feature tree intact, yielding a complete, native CAD model, capturing both shape and design intent (e.g. Geomagic, Rapidform). Still
other CAD applications are robust enough to manipulate limited points or polygon models within the CAD environment (e.g., CATIA, AutoCAD, Revit).

From a set of 2D slices

3D reconstruction of the brain and eyeballs from CT scanned DICOM images. In this image, areas with the density of bone or air were made
transparent, and the slices stacked up in an approximate free-space alignment. The outer ring of material around the brain are the soft tissues
of skin and muscle on the outside of the skull. A black box encloses the slices to provide the black background. Since these are simply 2D
images stacked up, when viewed on edge the slices disappear since they have effectively zero thickness. Each DICOM scan represents about
5mm of material averaged into a thin slice.

CT, industrial CT, MRI, or Micro-CT scanners do not produce point clouds but a set of 2D slices (each termed a "tomogram")
which are then 'stacked together' to produce a 3D representation. There are several ways to do this depending on the output required:

Volume rendering: Different parts of an object usually have different threshold values or greyscale densities. From this, a 3-dimensional model can be
constructed and displayed on screen. Multiple models can be constructed from various thresholds, allowing different colours to represent each component of
the object. Volume rendering is usually only used for visualisation of the scanned object.
Image segmentation: Where different structures have similar threshold/greyscale values, it can become impossible to separate them simply by adjusting volume
rendering parameters. The solution is called segmentation, a manual or automatic procedure that can remove the unwanted structures from the image. Image
segmentation software usually allows export of the segmented structures in CAD or STL format for further manipulation.
Image-based meshing: When using 3D image data for computational analysis (e.g. CFD and FEA), simply segmenting the data and meshing from CAD can become
time consuming, and virtually intractable for the complex topologies typical of image data. The solution is called image-based meshing, an automated process of
generating an accurate and realistic geometrical description of the scan data.

From laser scans

Laser scanning describes the general method to sample or scan a surface using laser technology. Several areas of application exist that mainly differ in the power of
the lasers that are used, and in the results of the scanning process. Low laser power is used when the scanned surface doesn't have to be influenced, e.g. when it only
has to be digitised. Confocal or 3D laser scanning are methods to get information about the scanned surface. Another low-power application uses structured light
projection systems for solar cell flatness metrology, enabling stress calculation throughout in excess of 2000 wafers per hour.[12]
The laser power used for laser scanning equipment in industrial applications is typically less than 1W. The power level is usually on the order of 200 mW or less.
15

Applications
Construction industry and civil engineering

Robotic control: e.g. a laser scanner may function as the "eye" of a robot.[13][14]
As-built drawings of bridges, industrial plants, and monuments
Documentation of historical sites
Site modelling and lay outing
Quality control
Quantity surveys
Freeway redesign
Establishing a bench mark of pre-existing shape/state in order to detect structural changes resulting from exposure to extreme loadings such as earthquake,
vessel/truck impact or fire.
Create GIS (geographic information system) maps and geomatics.
Subsurface laser scanning in mines and Karst voids.[15]
Forensic documentation [16]

Design process

Increasing accuracy working with complex parts and shapes,

Coordinating product design using parts from multiple sources,
Updating old CD scans with those from more current technology,
Replacing missing or older parts,
Creating cost savings by allowing as-built design services, for example in automotive manufacturing plants,
"Bringing the plant to the engineers" with web shared scans, and
Saving travel costs.

Entertainment
3D scanners are used by the entertainment industry to create digital 3D models for movies, video games and leisure purposes. They are heavily utilised in
virtual cinematography. In cases where a real-world equivalent of a model exists, it is much faster to scan the real-world object than to manually create a
model using 3D modeling software. Frequently, artists sculpt physical models of what they want and scan them into digital form rather than directly creating
digital models on a computer.

Reverse engineering
Reverse engineering of a mechanical component requires a precise digital model of the objects to be reproduced. Rather than a set of points a precise digital
model can be represented by a polygon mesh, a set of flat or curved NURBS surfaces, or ideally for mechanical components, a CAD solid model. A 3D
16

scanner can be used to digitise free-form or gradually changing shaped components as well as prismatic geometries whereas a coordinate measuring machine
is usually used only to determine simple dimensions of a highly prismatic model. These data points are then processed to create a usable digital model,
usually using specialized reverse engineering software.

Cultural heritage
There have been many research projects undertaken via the scanning of historical sites and artifacts both for documentation and analysis purposes.
The combined use of 3D scanning and 3D printing technologies allows the replication of real objects without the use of traditional plaster casting techniques,
that in many cases can be too invasive for being performed on precious or delicate cultural heritage artifacts.[17] In an example of a typical application
scenario, a gargoyle model was digitally acquired using a 3D scanner and the produced 3D data was processed using MeshLab. The resulting digital 3D
model was fed to a rapid prototyping machine to create a real resin replica of the original object.
Michelangelo

In 1999, two different research groups started scanning Michelangelo's statues. Stanford University with a group led by Marc Levoy[18] used a custom laser
triangulation scanner built by Cyberware to scan Michelangelo's statues in Florence, notably the David, the Prigioni and the four statues in The Medici
Chapel. The scans produced a data point density of one sample per 0.25 mm, detailed enough to see Michelangelo's chisel marks. These detailed scans
produced a large amount of data (up to 32 gigabytes) and processing the data from his scans took 5 months. Approximately in the same period a research
group from IBM, led by H. Rushmeier and F. Bernardini scanned the Piet of Florence acquiring both geometric and colour details. The digital model, result
of the Stanford scanning campaign, was thoroughly used in the 2004 subsequent restoration of the statue.[19]
Monticello

In 2002, David Luebke, et al. scanned Thomas Jefferson's Monticello.[20] A commercial time of flight laser scanner, the DeltaSphere 3000, was used. The
scanner data was later combined with colour data from digital photographs to create the Virtual Monticello, and the Jefferson's Cabinet exhibits in the New
Orleans Museum of Art in 2003. The Virtual Monticello exhibit simulated a window looking into Jefferson's Library. The exhibit consisted of a rear
projection display on a wall and a pair of stereo glasses for the viewer. The glasses, combined with polarised projectors, provided a 3D effect. Position
tracking hardware on the glasses allowed the display to adapt as the viewer moves around, creating the illusion that the display is actually a hole in the wall
looking into Jefferson's Library. The Jefferson's Cabinet exhibit was a barrier stereogram (essentially a non-active hologram that appears different from
different angles) of Jefferson's Cabinet.
Cuneiform tablets

In 2003, Subodh Kumar, et al. undertook the 3D scanning of ancient cuneiform tablets.[21] Again, a laser triangulation scanner was used. The tablets were
scanned on a regular grid pattern at a resolution of 0.025 mm (0.00098 in).
Kasubi Tombs

A 2009 CyArk 3D scanning project at Uganda's historic Kasubi Tombs, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, using a Leica HDS 4500, produced detailed
architectural models of Muzibu Azaala Mpanga, the main building at the complex and tomb of the Kabakas (Kings) of Uganda. A fire on March 16, 2010,
burned down much of the Muzibu Azaala Mpanga structure, and reconstruction work is likely to lean heavily upon the dataset produced by the 3D scan
mission.[22]

17

"Plastico di Roma antica"

In 2005, Gabriele Guidi, et al. scanned the "Plastico di Roma antica",[23] a model of Rome created in the last century. Neither the triangulation method, nor
the time of flight method satisfied the requirements of this project because the item to be scanned was both large and contained small details. They found
though, that a modulated light scanner was able to provide both the ability to scan an object the size of the model and the accuracy that was needed. The
modulated light scanner was supplemented by a triangulation scanner which was used to scan some parts of the model.
Other projects

The 3D Encounters Project at the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology aims to use 3D laser scanning to create a high quality 3D image library of
artefacts and enable digital travelling exhibitions of fragile Egyptian artefacts, English Heritage has investigated the use of 3D laser scanning for a wide
range of applications to gain archaeological and condition data, and the National Conservation Centre in Liverpool has also produced 3D laser scans on
commission, including portable object and in situ scans of archaeological sites.[24] The Smithsonian Institution has a project called Smithsonian X 3D notable
for the breadth of types of 3D objects they are attempting to scan. These include small objects such as insects and flowers, to human sized objects such as
Amelia Earhart's Flight Suit to room sized objects such as the Gunboat Philadelphia to historic sites such as Liang Bua in Indonesia. Also of note the data
from these scans is being made available to the public for free and downloadable in several data formats.

Medical CAD/CAM
3D scanners are used to capture the 3D shape of a patient in orthotics and dentistry. It gradually supplants tedious plaster cast. CAD/CAM software are then
used to design and manufacture the orthosis, prosthesis or dental implants.
Many Chairside dental CAD/CAM systems and Dental Laboratory CAD/CAM systems use 3D Scanner technologies to capture the 3D surface of a dental
preparation (either in vivo or in vitro), in order to produce a restoration digitally using CAD software and ultimately produce the final restoration using a
CAM technology (such as a CNC milling machine, or 3D printer). The chairside systems are designed to facilitate the 3D scanning of a preparation in vivo
and produce the restoration (such as a Crown, Onlay, Inlay or Veneer).

Quality assurance and industrial metrology

The digitalisation of real-world objects is of vital importance in various application domains. This method is especially applied in industrial quality assurance
to measure the geometric dimension accuracy. Industrial processes such as assembly are complex, highly automated and typically based on CAD (Computer
Aided Design) data. The problem is that the same degree of automation is also required for quality assurance. It is, for example, a very complex task to
assemble a modern car, since it consists of many parts that must fit together at the very end of the production line. The optimal performance of this process is
guaranteed by quality assurance systems. Especially the geometry of the metal parts must be checked in order to assure that they have the correct
dimensions, fit together and finally work reliably.
Within highly automated processes, the resulting geometric measures are transferred to machines that manufacture the desired objects. Due to mechanical
uncertainties and abrasions, the result may differ from its digital nominal. In order to automatically capture and evaluate these deviations, the manufactured
part must be digitised as well. For this purpose, 3D scanners are applied to generate point samples from the object's surface which are finally compared
against the nominal data.[25]
The process of comparing 3D data against a CAD model is referred to as CAD-Compare, and can be a useful technique for applications such as determining
wear patterns on moulds and tooling, determining accuracy of final build, analysing gap and flush, or analysing highly complex sculpted surfaces. At
present, laser triangulation scanners, structured light and contact scanning are the predominant technologies employed for industrial purposes, with contact
scanning remaining the slowest, but overall most accurate option.
18

3D rendering
3D rendering is the 3D computer graphics process
ess of automatically converting 3D wire frame models into 2D images with 3D photorealistic effects or nonphotorealistic rendering on a computer.

Rendering methods
A photo realistic 3D render of 6 computer fans using radiosity rendering, DOF and procedural materials

Rendering is the final process of creating the actual 2D image or animation from the prepared scene. This can be
compared to taking a photo or filming the scene after the setup is finished in real life. Several different, and often
specialized, rendering methods have been developed. These range from the distinctly non-realistic
non
wireframe
rendering through polygon
polygon-based
based rendering, to more advanced techniques such as: scanline rendering, ray tracing,
or radiosity.. Rendering may take from fractions of a second to days for a single image/frame. In general, different
methods are better suited for either photo
photo-realistic rendering, or real-time
time rendering.
rendering

Real-time
A screenshot from Second Life,, an example of a modern simulation which renders frames in real time.

Rendering for interactive media, such as games and simulations, is calculated and displayed in real time, at rates of
approximately 20 to 120 frames per second. In real
real-time
time rendering, the goal is to show as much information as
possible as the eye can process in a fraction of a second (a.k.a. in one frame. In the case of 30 frame-per-second
frame
animation a frame encompasses one 30th of a second). The primary goal is to achieve an as high as possible degree
of photorealism at an acceptable minimum rendering speed (usually 24 frames per second, as that is the minimum
the human eye needs tto
o see to successfully create the illusion of movement). In fact, exploitations can be applied in
the way the eye 'perceives' the world, and as a result the final image presented is not necessarily that of the realreal
world, but one close enough for the human eye to tolerate. Rendering software may simulate such visual effects as lens flares,
flares depth of field or motion blur.
These are attempts to simulate visual phenomena resulting from the optical characteristics of cameras and of the human eye. These
T
effects can lend an
element of realism
m to a scene, even if the effect is merely a simulated artifact of a camera. This is the basic method employed in games, interactive
inte
worlds
and VRML.. The rapid increase in computer processing pow
power
er has allowed a progressively higher degree of realism even for real-time
real
rendering, including
techniques such as HDR rendering. Real-time rendering
ng is often polygonal and aided by the computer's GPU.

19

Non real-time

An example of a ray-traced image that typically takes seconds/

seconds/minutes to render.

Computer-generated
generated image created by Gilles Tran.

Animations for non-interactive

interactive media, such as feature films and video, are rendered much more slowly. Non
Non-real
real time rendering enables the leveraging of
limited processing power in order to obtain higher image quality. Rendering times for individual frames may vary from a few seconds to several days for
complex scenes. Rendered frames are stored on a hard disk then can be transferred to other media such as motion picture film or optical disk. These frames
are then displayed sequentially at high frame rates, typically 24, 25, or 30 frames per second, to achieve the illusion of movement.
mo
When the goal is photo-realism, techniques such as ray tracing or radiosity are employed. This is the basic method employed in digital media and artistic
works. Techniques
chniques have been developed for the purpose of simulating other naturally
naturally-occurring
occurring effects, such as the interaction of light with various forms of
matter. Examples of such techniques include particle systems (which can simulate rain, smoke, or fire), volumetric sampling (to simulate fog, dust and other
spatial atmospheric effects), caustics (to simulate light focusing by uneven light
light-refracting
refracting surfaces, such as the light ripples seen on the bottom of a
swimming pool), and subsurface scattering (to simulate light reflecting inside the volumes of solid objects such as human skin).
The rendering process is computationally expensive, given the complex variety of physical processes being simulated. Computer processing power has
increased rapidly over the years, allowing for a progressively higher degree of realistic rendering. Film studios that produce
produc computer-generated animations
typically make use of a render farm to generate images in a timely manner. However, falling hardware costs mean that it is entirely possible to create small
amounts of 3D animation on a home computer system. Th
Thee output of the renderer is often used as only one small part of a completed motion-picture
motion
scene.
Many layers of material may be rendered separately and integrated into the final shot using compositing software.

Reflection and shading models

Models of reflection/scattering and shading are used to describe the appearance of a surface. Although these issues may seem like problems all on their own,
they are studied almost exclusively within the context of rendering. Modern 3D computer graphics rely heavily on a simplified reflection model called Phong
20

reflection model (not to be confused with Phong shading). In refraction of light, an important concept is the refractive index. In most 3D programming
implementations, the term for this value is "index of refraction," usually abbreviated "IOR." Shading can be broken down into two orthogonal issues, which
are often studied independently:

Reflection/Scattering - How light interacts with the surface at a given point

Shading - How material properties vary across the surface

Reflection
The Utah teapot

Reflection or scattering is the relationship between the incoming and outgoing illumination at a given point.
Descriptions of scattering are usually given in terms of a bidirectional scattering distribution function or
BSDF. Popular reflection rendering techniques in 3D computer graphics include:
Flat shading: A technique that shades each polygon of an object based on the polygon's "normal" and the position
and intensity of a light source.
Gouraud shading: Invented by H. Gouraud in 1971, a fast and resource-conscious vertex shading technique used to
simulate smoothly shaded surfaces.
Texture mapping: A technique for simulating a large amount of surface detail by mapping images (textures) onto
polygons.
Phong shading: Invented by Bui Tuong Phong, used to simulate specular highlights and smooth shaded surfaces.
Bump mapping: Invented by Jim Blinn, a normal-perturbation technique used to simulate wrinkled surfaces.
Cel shading: A technique used to imitate the look of hand-drawn animation.

Shading

Shading addresses how different types of scattering are distributed across the surface (i.e., which scattering function applies where). Descriptions of this kind
are typically expressed with a program called a shader. (Note that there is some confusion since the word "shader" is sometimes used for programs that
describe local geometric variation.) A simple example of shading is texture mapping, which uses an image to specify the diffuse color at each point on a
surface, giving it more apparent detail.

Transport
Transport describes how illumination in a scene gets from one place to another. Visibility is a major component of light transport.

21

Projection
Perspective Projection

The shaded three-dimensional objects must be flattened so that the display device - namely a
monitor - can display it in only two dimensions, this process is called 3D projection. This is done
using projection and, for most applications, perspective projection. The basic idea behind
perspective projection is that objects that are further away are made smaller in relation to those that
are closer to the eye. Programs produce perspective by multiplying a dilation constant raised to the
power of the negative of the distance from the observer. A dilation constant of one means that there
is no perspective. High dilation constants can cause a "fish-eye" effect in which image distortion
begins to occur. Orthographic projection is used mainly in CAD or CAM applications where
scientific modeling requires precise measurements and preservation of the third dimension.

3D printing
For methods of applying a 2D image on a 3D surface, see pad printing. For methods of copying 2D parallax stereograms that seem 3D to the eye, see lenticular printing
and holography.
A MakerBot 3d Printer

3D printing also known as additive manufacturing is any of various processes used to make a three-dimensional object.[1]
In 3D printing, additive processes are used, in which successive layers of material are laid down under computer control.[2]
These objects can be of almost any shape or geometry, and are produced from a 3D model or other electronic data source. A
3D printer is a type of industrial robot.
3D printing in the term's original sense refers to processes that sequentially deposit material onto a powder bed with inkjet
printer heads. More recently the meaning of the term has expanded to encompass a wider variety of techniques such as
extrusion and sintering based processes. Technical standards generally use the term additive manufacturing for this broader
sense.

22

History
Terminology and methods
CAD model used for 3D printing

Earlier Additive Manufacturing (AM) equipment and materials were developed in the 1980s.[3] In 1981,
Hideo Kodama of Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute invented two AM fabricating methods of
a three-dimensional plastic model with photo-hardening polymer, where the UV exposure area is controlled
by a mask pattern or the scanning fiber transmitter.[4][5] Then in 1984, Chuck Hull of 3D Systems
Corporation[6] developed a prototype system based on this process known as stereolithography, in which
layers are added by curing photopolymers with ultraviolet light lasers. Hull defined the process as a "system
for generating three-dimensional objects by creating a cross-sectional pattern of the object to be
formed,"[7][8] but this had been already invented by Kodama. Hull's contribution is the design of the STL
(STereoLithography) file format widely accepted by 3D printing software as well as the digital slicing and
infill strategies common to many processes today. The term 3D printing originally referred to a process
employing standard and custom inkjet print heads. The technology used by most 3D printers to dateespecially hobbyist and consumer-oriented modelsis
fused deposition modeling, a special application of plastic extrusion.
AM processes for metal sintering or melting (such as selective laser sintering, direct metal laser sintering, and selective laser melting) usually went by their
own individual names in the 1980s and 1990s. Nearly all metalworking production at the time was by casting, fabrication, stamping, and machining; even
though plenty of automation was applied to those technologies (such as by robot welding and CNC), the idea of a tool or head moving through a 3D work
envelope transforming a mass of raw material into a desired shape layer by layer was associated by most people only with processes that removed metal
(rather than adding it), such as CNC milling, CNC EDM, and many others. But AM-type sintering was beginning to challenge that assumption. By the mid
1990s, new techniques for material deposition were developed at Stanford and Carnegie Mellon University, including microcasting[9] and sprayed
materials.[10] Sacrificial and support materials had also become more common, enabling new object geometries.[11]
The umbrella term additive manufacturing gained wider currency in the decade of the 2000s[12] as the various additive processes matured and it became clear
that soon metal removal would no longer be the only metalworking process done under that type of control (a tool or head moving through a 3D work
envelope transforming a mass of raw material into a desired shape layer by layer). It was during this decade that the term subtractive manufacturing appeared
as a retronym for the large family of machining processes with metal removal as their common theme. However, at the time, the term 3D printing still
referred only to the polymer technologies in most minds, and the term AM was likelier to be used in metalworking contexts than among
polymer/inkjet/stereolithography enthusiasts. The term subtractive has not replaced the term machining, instead complementing it when a term that covers
any removal method is needed.
By the early 2010s, the terms 3D printing and additive manufacturing developed senses in which they were synonymous umbrella terms for all AM
technologies. Although this was a departure from their earlier technically narrower senses, it reflects the simple fact that the technologies all share the
common theme of sequential-layer material addition/joining throughout a 3D work envelope under automated control. (Other terms that have appeared,
which are usually used as AM synonyms (although sometimes as hypernyms), have been desktop manufacturing, rapid manufacturing [as the logical
23

production-level successor to rapid prototyping], and on-demand manufacturing [which echoes on-demand printing in the 2D sense of printing].) The 2010s
were the first decade in which metal parts such as engine brackets[13] and large nuts[14] would be grown (either before or instead of machining) in job
production rather than obligately being machined from bar stock or plate.
With the maturation of the technology, several authors had begun to speculate that 3-D printing could aid in sustainable development in the developing
world.[15][16][17]

General principles
3D model slicing

Modeling
Main article: 3D modeling

3D printable models may be created with a computer aided design (CAD) package or via a 3D scanner or via a plain
digital camera and photogrammetry software.
The manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as
sculpting. 3D scanning is a process of analysing and collecting digital data on the shape and appearance of a real object.
Based on this data, three-dimensional models of the scanned object can then be produced.
Regardless of the 3D modeling software used, the 3D model (often in .skp, .dae, .3ds or some other format) then needs
to be converted to either a .STL or a .OBJ format, to allow the printing (a.k.a. "CAM") software to be able to read it.

Printing
Play media
Timelapse video of a hyperboloid object (designed by George W. Hart) made of PLA using a RepRap "Prusa Mendel"
3 printer for molten polymer deposition

Before printing a 3D model from an STL file, it must first be examined for "manifold errors," this step
being called the "fixup." Especially STLs that have been produced from a model obtained through 3D
scanning often have many manifold errors in them that need to be fixed. Examples of manifold errors are
surfaces that do not connect, or gaps in the models.[citation needed]
Once that's done, the .STL file needs to be processed by a piece of software called a "slicer" which converts
the model into a series of thin layers and produces a G-code file containing instructions tailored to a specific
type of 3D printer (FDM printers). This G-code file can then be printed with 3D printing client software (which loads the G-code, and uses it to instruct the
3D printer during the 3D printing process).[citation needed]
Printer resolution describes layer thickness and X-Y resolution in dots per inch (dpi) or micrometers (m). Typical layer thickness is around 100 m
(250 DPI), although some machines can print layers as thin as 16 m (1,600 DPI).[18] X-Y resolution is comparable to that of laser printers. The particles (3D
dots) are around 50 to 100 m (510 to 250 DPI) in diameter.
24

Construction of a model with contemporary methods can take anywhere from several hours to several days, depending on the method used and the size and
complexity of the model. Additive systems can typically reduce this time to a few hours, although it varies widely depending on the type of machine used
and the size and number of models being produced simultaneously.
Traditional techniques like injection moulding can be less expensive for manufacturing polymer products in high quantities, but additive manufacturing can
be faster, more flexible and less expensive when producing relatively small quantities of parts. 3D printers give designers and concept development teams
the ability to produce parts and concept models using a desktop size printer.

Finishing
Though the printer-produced resolution is sufficient for many applications, printing a slightly oversized version of the desired object in standard resolution
and then removing material[19] with a higher-resolution subtractive process can achieve greater precision.
Some printable polymers allow the surface finish to be smoothed and improved using chemical vapour processes.
Some additive manufacturing techniques are capable of using multiple materials in the course of constructing parts. These techniques are able to print in
multiple colors and color combinations simultaneously, and would not necessarily require painting.
Some printing techniques require internal supports to be built for overhanging features during construction. These supports must be mechanically removed or
dissolved upon completion of the print.
All of the commercialized metal 3-D printers involve cutting the metal component off of the metal substrate after deposition. A new process for the GMAW
3-D printing allows for substrate surface modifications to remove aluminum[20] or steel.[21]

Processes
Several different 3D printing processes have been invented since the late 1970s. The printers were originally large, expensive, and highly limited in what
they could produce.[3]
A large number of additive processes are now available. The main differences between processes are in the way layers are deposited to create parts and in the
materials that are used. Some methods melt or soften material to produce the layers, e.g. selective laser melting (SLM) or direct metal laser sintering
(DMLS), selective laser sintering (SLS), fused deposition modeling (FDM),[22] or fused filament fabrication (FFF), while others cure liquid materials using
different sophisticated technologies, e.g. stereolithography (SLA). With laminated object manufacturing (LOM), thin layers are cut to shape and joined
together (e.g. paper, polymer, metal). Each method has its own advantages and drawbacks, which is why some companies consequently offer a choice
between powder and polymer for the material used to build the object.[23] Other companies sometimes use standard, off-the-shelf business paper as the build
material to produce a durable prototype. The main considerations in choosing a machine are generally speed, cost of the 3D printer, cost of the printed
prototype, cost and choice of materials, and color capabilities.[24]
Printers that work directly with metals are expensive. In some cases, however, less expensive printers can be used to make a mould, which is then used to
make metal parts.[25]

25

Type
Extrusion
Light
polymerised

Powder Bed

Laminated
Wire

Technologies

Materials

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) or Fused Filament

Fabrication (FFF)

Thermoplastics, eutectic metals, edible materials, Rubbers,

Rubbers Modeling clay, Plasticine, Metal clay
(including Precious Metal Clay)

Robocasting or Direct Ink Writing (DIW)

Ceramic materials, Metal alloy, cermet, metal matrix composite,

composite ceramic matrix composite

Stereolithography (SLA)

photopolymer

Digital Light Processing (DLP)

photopolymer

Powder bed and inkjet head 3D printing (3DP)

Almost any metal alloy, powdered polymers, Plaster

Electron-beam melting (EBM)

Almost any metal alloy including Titanium alloys

Selective laser melting (SLM)

Titanium alloys, Cobalt Chrome alloys, Stainless Steel,, Aluminium

[26]

Selective heat sintering (SHS)

Thermoplastic powder

Selective laser sintering (SLS)

Thermoplastics, metal powders, ceramic powders

Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS)

Almost any metal alloy

Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)

Paper, metal foil, plastic film

3

Electron Beam Freeform Fabrication (EBF )

Almost any metal alloy

Extrusion deposition
Fused deposition modeling: 1 nozzle ejecting molten material, 2 deposited material (modeled part),
pa 3 controlled movable
table

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) was developed by S. Scott Crump in the late 1980s and was commercialized in 1990
by Stratasys.[27] After the patent on this technology expired, a large open
open-source
source development community developed and
both commercial
mmercial and DIY variants utilizing this type of 3D printer appeared. As a result, the price of this technology has
dropped by two orders of magnitude since its creation.
In fused deposition modeli
modeling
ng the model or part is produced by extruding small beads of material which harden
immediately to form layers. A thermoplastic filament or metal wire that is wound on a coil is unreeled to supply material
to an extrusion nozzle head ((3D printer extruder). The nozzle head heats the material and turns the flow on and off.
Typically stepper motors or servo motors are employed
ployed to move the extrusion head and adjust the flow. The printer usually has 3 axes of motion. A
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software package
age is used to generate the G
G-Code that is sent to a microcontroller which controls the motors.
Various polymers are used, including acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polycarbonate (PC), polylactic acid (PLA), high density polyethylene (HDPE),
PC/ABS, polyphenylsulfone (PPSU) and high impact polystyrene (HIPS). In general, the polymer is in the form of a filament fabricated
fabr
from virgin resins.
26

There are multiple projects in the open-sourced community aimed at processing post-consumer plastic waste into filament. These involve machines used to
shred and extrude the plastic material into filament.
FDM is somewhat restricted in the variation of shapes that may be fabricated. For example, FDM usually cannot produce stalactite-like structures, since they
would be unsupported during the build. Otherwise, a thin support must be designed into the structure which can be broken away during finishing. Fused
deposition modeling is also referred to as fused filament fabrication (FFF) by companies who do not hold the original patents like Stratasys does.

Binding of granular materials

Another 3D printing approach is the selective fusing of materials in a granular bed. The technique fuses parts of the layer and then moves downward in the
working area, adding another layer of granules and repeating the process until the piece has built up. This process uses the unfused media to support
overhangs and thin walls in the part being produced, which reduces the need for temporary auxiliary supports for the piece. A laser is typically used to sinter
the media into a solid. Examples include selective laser sintering (SLS), with both metals and polymers (e.g. PA, PA-GF, Rigid GF, PEEK, PS, Alumide,
Carbonmide, elastomers), and direct metal laser sintering (DMLS).[28]
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) was developed and patented by Dr. Carl Deckard and Dr. Joseph Beaman at the University of Texas at Austin in the mid1980s, under sponsorship of DARPA.[29] A similar process was patented without being commercialized by R. F. Housholder in 1979.[30]
Selective laser melting (SLM) does not use sintering for the fusion of powder granules but will completely melt the powder using a high-energy laser to
create fully dense materials in a layer-wise method that has mechanical properties similar to those of conventional manufactured metals.
Electron beam melting (EBM) is a similar type of additive manufacturing technology for metal parts (e.g. titanium alloys). EBM manufactures parts by
melting metal powder layer by layer with an electron beam in a high vacuum. Unlike metal sintering techniques that operate below melting point, EBM parts
are fully dense, void-free, and very strong.[31][32]
Another method consists of an inkjet 3D printing system. The printer creates the model one layer at a time by spreading a layer of powder (plaster, or resins)
and printing a binder in the cross-section of the part using an inkjet-like process. This is repeated until every layer has been printed. This technology allows
the printing of full color prototypes, overhangs, and elastomer parts. The strength of bonded powder prints can be enhanced with wax or thermoset polymer
impregnation.

Lamination
Main article: Laminated object manufacturing

In some printers, paper can be used as the build material, resulting in a lower cost to print. During the 1990s some companies marketed printers that cut cross
sections out of special adhesive coated paper using a carbon dioxide laser and then laminated them together.
In 2005 Mcor Technologies Ltd developed a different process using ordinary sheets of office paper, a tungsten carbide blade to cut the shape, and selective
deposition of adhesive and pressure to bond the prototype.[33]
There are also a number of companies selling printers that print laminated objects using thin plastic and metal sheets.

27

Photopolymerization
Stereolithography apparatus

Stereolithography was patented in 1986 by Chuck Hull.[34] Photopolymerization is primarily used in stereolithography
(SLA) to produce a solid part from a liquid. This process was a dramatic departure from the "photosculpture" method of
Franois Willme (18301905) developed in 1860 and the photopolymerization of Mitsubishi's Matsubara in 1974.[35]
The "photosculpture" method consisted of photographing a subject from a variety of equidistant angles and projecting
each photograph onto a screen, where a pantagraph was used to trace the outline onto modeling clay[36][37][38]) In photopolymerization, a vat of liquid polymer is exposed to controlled lighting under safelight conditions. The exposed liquid
polymer hardens. The build plate then moves down in small increments and the liquid polymer is again exposed to light.
The process repeats until the model has been built. The liquid polymer is then drained from the vat, leaving the solid
model. The EnvisionTEC Perfactory[39] is an example of a DLP rapid prototyping system.
Inkjet printer systems like the Objet PolyJet system spray photopolymer materials onto a build tray in ultra-thin layers
(between 16 and 30 m) until the part is completed. Each photopolymer layer is cured with UV light after it is jetted, producing fully cured models that can
be handled and used immediately, without post-curing. The gel-like support material, which is designed to support complicated geometries, is removed by
hand and water jetting. It is also suitable for elastomers.
Ultra-small features can be made with the 3D micro-fabrication technique used in multiphoton photopolymerisation. This approach uses a focused laser to
trace the desired 3D object into a block of gel. Due to the nonlinear nature of photo excitation, the gel is cured to a solid only in the places where the laser
was focused while the remaining gel is then washed away. Feature sizes of under 100 nm are easily produced, as well as complex structures with moving and
interlocked parts.[40]
Yet another approach uses a synthetic resin that is solidified using LEDs.[41]
In Mask-image-projection-based stereolithography a 3D digital model is sliced by a set of horizontal planes. Each slice is converted into a two-dimensional
mask image. The mask image is then projected onto a photocurable liquid resin surface and light is projected onto the resin to cure it in the shape of the
layer.[42] The technique has been used to create objects composed of multiple materials that cure at different rates.[42] In research systems, the light is
projected from below, allowing the resin to be quickly spread into uniform thin layers, reducing production time from hours to minutes.[42] Commercially
available devices such as Objet Connex apply the resin via small nozzles.[42]

Printers
Industry use
As October 2012, additive manufacturing systems were on the market that ranged from $2,000 to $500,000 in price and were employed in industries
including aerospace, architecture, automotive, defense, and medical replacements, among many others. For example, General Electric uses the high-end
model to build parts for turbines.[43]
28

Consumer use
RepRap version 2.0 (Mendel)

Several projects and companies are making efforts to develop affordable 3D printers for home desktop use. Much of this
work has been driven by and targeted at DIY/enthusiast/early adopter communities, with additional ties to the academic
and hacker communities.[44]
RepRap is one of the longest running projects in the desktop category. The RepRap project aims to produce a free and
open source hardware (FOSH) 3D printer, whose full specifications are released under the GNU General Public License,
and which is capable of replicating itself by printing many of its own (plastic) parts to create more machines.[45][46]
RepRaps have already been shown to be able to print circuit boards[47] and metal parts.[48][49]
Because of the FOSH aims of RepRap, many related projects have used their design for inspiration, creating an
ecosystem of related or derivative 3D printers, most of which are also open source designs. The availability of these open source designs means that variants
of 3D printers are easy to invent. The quality and complexity of printer designs, however, as well as the quality of kit or finished products, varies greatly
from project to project. This rapid development of open source 3D printers is gaining interest in many spheres as it enables hyper-customization and the use
of public domain designs to fabricate open source appropriate technology. This technology can also assist initiatives in sustainable development since
technologies are easily and economically made from resources available to local communities.[15][16]
The cost of 3D printers has decreased dramatically since about 2010, with machines that used to cost $20,000 now costing less than $1,000.[50] For instance,
as of 2013, several companies and individuals are selling parts to build various RepRap designs, with prices starting at about 400 / US$500.[51] The open
source Fab@Home project[52] has developed printers for general use with anything that can be squirted through a nozzle, from chocolate to silicone sealant
and chemical reactants. Printers following the project's designs have been available from suppliers in kits or in pre-assembled form since 2012 at prices in
the US$2000 range.[51] The Kickstarter funded Peachy Printer is designed to cost $100[53] and several other new 3D printers are aimed at the small,
inexpensive market including the mUVe3D and Lumifold. Rapide 3D has designed a professional grade crowdsourced 3D-printer costing $1499 which has
no fumes nor constant rattle during use.[54] The 3Doodler, "3D printing pen", raised $2.3 million on Kickstarter with the pens selling at $99,[55] though the 3D
Doodler has been criticised for being more of a crafting pen than a 3D printer.[56]
As the costs of 3D printers have come down they are becoming more appealing financially to use for self-manufacturing of personal products.[57] In addition, 3D
printing products at home may reduce the environmental impacts of manufacturing by reducing material use and distribution impacts.[58]
In addition, several RecycleBots such as the commercialised Filastruder have been designed and fabricated to convert waste plastic, such as shampoo containers
and milk jugs, into inexpensive RepRap filament.[59] There is some evidence that using this approach of distributed recycling is better for the environment.[60]
The development and hyper-customization of the RepRap-based 3D printers has produced a new category of printers suitable for small business and
consumer use. Manufacturers such as Solidoodle,[43] Robo 3D, RepRapPro and Pirx 3D have introduced models and kits priced at less than $1,000,
thousands less than they were in September 2012.[43] Depending on the application, the print resolution and speed of manufacturing lies somewhere between
a personal printer and an industrial printer. A list of printers with pricing and other information is maintained.[51] Most recently delta robots, like the
TripodMaker, have been utilised for 3D printing to increase fabrication speed further.[61] For delta 3D printers, due to its geometry and differentiation
movements, the accuracy of the print depends on the position of the printer head.[62]
Some companies are also offering software for 3D printing, as a support for hardware manufactured by other companies.[63]
29

Large 3D printers
Large 3D printers have been developed for industrial, education, and demonstrative uses. A large delta-style 3D printer was built in 2014 by SeeMeCNC.
The printer is capable of making an object with diameter of up to 4 feet (1.2 m) and up to 10 feet (3.0 m) in height. It also uses plastic pellets as the raw
material instead of the typical plastic filaments used in other 3D printers.[64]
Another type of large printer is Big Area Additive Manufacturing (BAAM). The goal is to develop printers that can produce a large object in high speed. A
BAAM machine of Cincinnati Incorporated can produce an object at the speeds 200-500 times faster than typical 3D printers available in 2014. Another
BAAM machine is being developed by Lockheed Martin with an aim to print long objects of up to 100 feet (30 m) to be used in aerospace industries.[65]

Microscale and Nanoscale 3D printing

Microelectronic device fabrication methods can be employed to perform the 3D printing of nanoscale-size objects. Such printed objects are typically grown
on a solid substrate, e.g. silicon wafer, to which they adhere after printing as they're too small and fragile to be manipulated post-construction.
In one technique, 3D nanostructures can be printed by physically moving a dynamic stencil mask during the material deposition process, somewhat
analogous to the extrusion method of traditional 3D printers. Programmable-height nanostructures with resolutions as small as 10 nm have been produced in
this fashion, by metallic physical vapor deposition through a piezo-actuator controlled stencil mask having a milled nanopore in a silicon nitride
membrane.[66]
Another method enhances the photopolymerization process on a much smaller scale, using finely-focused lasers controlled by adjustable mirrors. This
method has produced objects with feature resolutions of 100 nm.[67]

Manufacturing applications
Three-dimensional printing makes it as cheap to create single items as it is to produce thousands and thus undermines economies of scale. It may have as profound an
impact on the world as the coming of the factory did....Just as nobody could have predicted the impact of the steam engine in 1750or the printing press in 1450, or the
transistor in 1950it is impossible to foresee the long-term impact of 3D printing. But the technology is coming, and it is likely to disrupt every field it touches.
AM technologies found applications starting in the 1980s in product development, data visualization, rapid prototyping, and specialized manufacturing. Their expansion
into production (job production, mass production, and distributed manufacturing) has been under development in the decades since. Industrial production roles within
the metalworking industries[69] achieved significant scale for the first time in the early 2010s. Since the start of the 21st century there has been a large growth in the sales
of AM machines, and their price has dropped substantially.[70] According to Wohlers Associates, a consultancy, the market for 3D printers and services was worth
$2.2 billion worldwide in 2012, up 29% from 2011.[71] There are many applications for AM technologies, including architecture, construction (AEC), industrial design,
automotive, aerospace,[72] military, engineering, dental and medical industries, biotech (human tissue replacement), fashion, footwear, jewelry, eyewear, education,
geographic information systems, food, and many other fields.
Additive manufacturing's earliest applications have been on the toolroom end of the manufacturing spectrum. For example, rapid prototyping was one of the earliest
additive variants, and its mission was to reduce the lead time and cost of developing prototypes of new parts and devices, which was earlier only done with subtractive
toolroom methods (typically slowly and expensively).[73] With technological advances in additive manufacturing, however, and the dissemination of those advances into
the business world, additive methods are moving ever further into the production end of manufacturing in creative and sometimes unexpected ways.[73] Parts that were
formerly the sole province of subtractive methods can now in some cases be made more profitably via additive ones.
30

Distributed manufacturing

Additive manufacturing in combination with cloud computing technologies allows decentralized and geographically independent distributed production.[74] Distributed
manufacturing as such is carried out by some enterprises; there is also a service to put people needing 3D printing in contact with owners of printers.[75]
Some companies offer on-line 3D printing services to both commercial and private customers,[76] working from 3D designs uploaded to the company
website. 3D-printed designs are either shipped to the customer or picked up from the service provider.[77]

Mass customization

Wearable 3D printed shoes

Miniature face models (from FaceGen) produced using several colored plastics

Companies have created services where consumers can customise objects using simplified web based customisation software, and order the resulting items
as 3D printed unique objects.[78][79] This now allows consumers to create custom cases for their mobile phones.[80] Nokia has released the 3D designs for its
case so that owners can customise their own case and have it 3D printed.[81]

Rapid manufacturing
Advances in RP technology have introduced materials that are appropriate for final manufacture, which has in turn introduced the possibility of directly
manufacturing finished components. One advantage of 3D printing for rapid manufacturing lies in the relatively inexpensive production of small numbers of parts.
Rapid manufacturing is a new method of manufacturing and many of its processes remain unproven. 3D printing is now entering the field of rapid
manufacturing and was identified as a "next level" technology by many experts in a 2009 report.[82] One of the most promising processes looks to be the
adaptation of selective laser sintering (SLS), or direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) some of the better-established rapid prototyping methods. As of 2006,
however, these techniques were still very much in their infancy, with many obstacles to be overcome before RM could be considered a realistic
manufacturing method.[83]
31

Rapid prototyping
Main article: rapid prototyping

Industrial 3D printers have existed since the early 1980s and have been used extensively for rapid prototyping and research purposes. These are generally
larger machines that use proprietary powdered metals, casting media (e.g. sand), plastics, paper or cartridges, and are used for rapid prototyping by
universities and commercial companies.

Research
3D printing can be particularly useful in research labs due to its ability to make specialised, bespoke geometries. In 2012 a proof of principle project at the
University of Glasgow, UK, showed that it is possible to use 3D printing techniques to assist in the production of chemical compounds. They first printed
chemical reaction vessels, then used the printer to deposit reactants into them.[84] They have produced new compounds to verify the validity of the process,
but have not pursued anything with a particular application.[84]

Food

Cornell Creative Machines Lab announced in 2012 that it was possible to produce customised food with 3D Hydrocolloid Printing.[85] Additative
manufacturing of food is currently being developed by squeezing out food, layer by layer, into three-dimensional objects. A large variety of foods are
appropriate candidates, such as chocolate and candy, and flat foods such as crackers, pasta,[86] and pizza.[87]
Professor Leroy Cronin of Glasgow University proposed in a 2012 TED Talk that it was possible to use chemical inks to print medicine.[88]

Industrial applications
Apparel

3D printing has spread into the world of clothing with fashion designers experimenting with 3D-printed bikinis, shoes, and dresses.[89] In commercial
production Nike is using 3D printing to prototype and manufacture the 2012 Vapor Laser Talon football shoe for players of American football, and New
Balance is 3D manufacturing custom-fit shoes for athletes.[89][90]
3D printing has come to the point where companies are printing consumer grade eyewear with on demand custom fit and styling (although they cannot print
the lenses). On demand customization of glasses is possible with rapid prototyping.[91]

32

Vehicle
The Audi RSQ was made with rapid prototyping industrial KUKA robots

In early 2014, the Swedish supercar manufacturer, Koenigsegg, announced the One:1, a supercar that utilises many
components that were 3D printed. In the limited run of vehicles Koenigsegg produces, the One:1 has side-mirror
internals, air ducts, titanium exhaust components, and even complete turbocharger assembles that have been 3D printed
as part of the manufacturing process.[92]
Urbee is the name of the first car in the world car mounted using the technology 3D printing (his bodywork and his car windows
were "printed"). Created in 2010 through the partnership between the US engineering group Kor Ecologic and the company
Stratasys (manufacturer of printers Stratasys 3D), it is a hybrid vehicle with futuristic look.[93][94][95]
In May 2015 Airbus announced that its new Airbus A350 XWB included over 1000 components manufactured by 3D printing.
3D printing is also being utilized by air forces to print spare parts for planes. In 2015, a Royal Air Force Eurofighter Typhoon fighter jet flew with printed
parts. The United States Air Force has begun to work with 3D printers, and the Israeli Air Force has also purchased a 3D printer to print spare parts.[96]

Construction
Until recent years models were built by hand, often taking a long time. Thus, architects are often forced to show their clients drawings of their projects.
According to Erik Kinipper, clients usually need to see the product from all possible viewpoints in space to get a clearer picture of the design and make an
informed decision. In order to get these scale models to clients in a small amount of time, architects and architecture firms tend to rely on 3D printing.[97]
Using 3D printing, these firms can reduce lead times of production by 50 to 80 percent, producing scale models up to 60 percent lighter than the machined
part while being sturdy.[98] Thus, the designs and the models are only limited by a persons imagination.
The improvements on accuracy, speed and quality of materials in 3D printing technology have opened new doors for it to move beyond the use of 3-D
printing in the modeling process and actually move it to manufacturing strategy. A good example is Dr. Behrokh Khoshnevis research at the University of
Southern California which resulted in a 3D printer that can build a house in 24 hours .The process is called Contour Crafting. Khoshnevis, Russell, Kwon, &
Bukkapatnam, define contour crafting as an additive manufacturing process which uses computer controlled systems to repeatedly lay down layers of
materials such as concrete.[99] Bushey also discussed Khoshnevis's robot which comes equipped with a nozzle that spews out concrete and can build a home
based on a set computer pattern. Contour Crafting technology has great potential for automating the construction of whole structures as well as subcomponents. Using this process, a single house or a colony of houses, each with possibly a different design, may be automatically constructed in a single run,
embedded in each house all the conduits for electrical, plumbing and air-conditioning.[99]

Firearms
In 2012, the US-based group Defense Distributed disclosed plans to "[design] a working plastic gun that could be downloaded and reproduced by anybody
with a 3D printer."[100][101] Defense Distributed has also designed a 3D printable AR-15 type rifle lower receiver (capable of lasting more than 650 rounds)
and a 30 round M16 magazine The AR-15 has multiple receivers (both an upper and lower receiver), but the legally controlled part is the one that is
serialised (the lower, in the AR-15's case). Soon after Defense Distributed succeeded in designing the first working blueprint to produce a plastic gun with a
33

3D printer in May 2013, the United States Department of State demanded that they remove the instructions from their website.[102] After Defense Distributed
released their plans, questions were raised regarding the effects that 3D printing and widespread consumer-level CNC machining[103][104] may have on gun
control effectiveness.[105][106][107][108]
In 2014, a man from Japan became the first person in the world to be imprisoned for making 3D printed firearms.[109] Yoshitomo Imura posted videos and
blueprints of the gun online and was sentenced to jail for two years. Police found at least two guns in his household that were capable of firing bullets.[109]

Medical
3D printing has been used to print patient specific implant and device for medical use. Successful operations include a titanium pelvis implanted into a
British patient, titanium lower jaw transplanted to a Belgian patient,[110] and a plastic tracheal splint for an American infant.[111] The hearing aid and dental
industries are expected to be the biggest area of future development using the custom 3D printing technology.[112] In March 2014, surgeons in Swansea used
3D printed parts to rebuild the face of a motorcyclist who had been seriously injured in a road accident.[113] Research is also being conducted on methods to
bio-print replacements for lost tissue due to arthritis and cancer.[114]
Medical devices

In October 24, 2014, a five-year-old girl born without fully formed fingers on her left hand became the first child in the UK to have a prosthetic hand made
with 3D printing technology. Her hand was designed by US-based E-nable, an open source design organisation which uses a network of volunteers to design
and make prosthetics mainly for children. The prosthetic hand was based on a plaster cast made by her parents.[115] A boy named Alex was also born with a
missing arm from just above the elbow. The team was able to use 3D printing to upload an e-NABLE Myoelectric arm that runs off of servos and batteries
that are actuated by the electromyography muscle. With the use of 3D printers, E-NABLE has so far distributed more than 400 plastic hands to children.
Printed prosthetics have been used in rehabilitation of crippled animals. In 2013, a 3D printed foot let a crippled duckling walk again.[116] In 2014 a
chihuahua born without front legs was fitted with a harness and wheels created with a 3D printer.[117] 3D printed hermit crab shells let hermit crabs inhabit a
new style home.[118] A prosthetic beak was another tool developed by the use of 3D printing to help aid a bald eagle named Beauty, whose beak was severely
mutilated from a shot in the face. Since 2014, commercially available titanium knee implants made with 3D printer for dogs have been used to restore the
animal mobility. Over 10,000 dogs in Europe and United States have been treated after only one year.[119]
In February 2015, FDA approved the marketing of a surgical bolt which facilitates less-invasive foot surgery and eliminates the need to drill through bone.
The 3-D printed titanium device, 'FastForward Bone Tether Plate' is approved to use in correction surgery to treat bunion.[120]
Bio-printing

As of 2012, 3D bio-printing technology has been studied by biotechnology firms and academia for possible use in tissue engineering applications in which
organs and body parts are built using inkjet techniques. In this process, layers of living cells are deposited onto a gel medium or sugar matrix and slowly
built up to form three-dimensional structures including vascular systems.[121] The first production system for 3D tissue printing was delivered in 2009, based
on NovoGen bioprinting technology.[122] Several terms have been used to refer to this field of research: organ printing, bio-printing, body part printing,[123]
and computer-aided tissue engineering, among others.[124] The possibility of using 3D tissue printing to create soft tissue architectures for reconstructive
surgery is also being explored.[125]
In 2013, Chinese scientists began printing ears, livers and kidneys, with living tissue. Researchers in China have been able to successfully print human
organs using specialised 3D bio printers that use living cells instead of plastic. Researchers at Hangzhou Dianzi University designed the "3D bio printer"
dubbed the "Regenovo". Xu Mingen, Regenovo's developer, said that it takes the printer under an hour to produce either a mini liver sample or a four to five
34

inch ear cartilage sample. Xu also predicted that fully functional printed organs may be possible within the next ten to twenty years.[126][127] In the same year,
researchers at the University of Hasselt, in Belgium had successfully printed a new jawbone for an 83-year-old Belgian woman.[128]
Pills

The first pill manufactured by 3D printing was approved by FDA in August 2015. Binder-jetting into a powder bed of the drug allows very porous pills to be
produced, which enables high drug doses in a single pill which dissolves quickly and can be ingested easily.[129] This has been demonstrated for Spritam, a
reformulation of levetiracetam for the treatment of epilepsy.

Computers and robots

See also: Modular design and Open-source robotics

3D printing can be used to make laptops and other computers, including cases, as Novena and VIA OpenBook standard laptop cases. I.e. a Novena
motherboard can be bought and be used in a printed VIA OpenBook case.[130]
Open-source robots are built using 3D printers. Double Robotics grant access to their technology (an open SDK).[131][132][133] On the other hand, 3&DBot is
an Arduino 3D printer-robot with wheels[134] and ODOI is a 3D printed humanoid robot.[135]

Space
See also: 3D-printed spacecraft and 3D printing Construction

In September 2014, SpaceX delivered the first zero-gravity 3-D printer to the International Space Station (ISS). On December 19, 2014, NASA emailed
CAD drawings for a socket wrench to astronauts aboard the ISS, who then printed the tool using its 3-D printer. Applications for space offer the ability to
print parts or tools on-site, as opposed to using rockets to bring along pre-manufactured items for space missions to human colonies on the moon, Mars, or
elsewhere.[136] The European Space Agency plans to deliver its new Portable On-Board 3D Printer (POP3D for short) to the International Space Station by
June 2015, making it the second 3D printer in space.[137][138]
Furthermore, the Sinterhab project is researching a lunar base constructed by 3D printing using lunar regolith as a base material. Instead of adding a binding
agent to the regolith, researchers are experimenting with microwave sintering to create solid blocks from the raw material.[139]
Similar researches and projects like these could allow faster construction for lower costs, and has been investigated for construction of off-Earth
habitats.[140][141]

35

Sociocultural applications

An example of 3D printed limited edition jewellery. This

necklace is made of glassfiber-filled dyed nylon. It has
rotating linkages that were produced in the same
manufacturing step as the other parts

Guardians of Time by Manfred Kielnhofer, 3D printing

polished nickel steel by Shapeways 2014

3D printed ceramic pot

In 2005, a rapidly expanding hobbyist and home-use market was established with the inauguration of the open-source RepRap and Fab@Home projects.
Virtually all home-use 3D printers released to-date have their technical roots in the ongoing RepRap Project and associated open-source software
initiatives.[142] In distributed manufacturing, one study has found[143] that 3D printing could become a mass market product enabling consumers to save
money associated with purchasing common household objects.[57] For example, instead of going to a store to buy an object made in a factory by injection
molding (such as a measuring cup or a funnel), a person might instead print it at home from a downloaded 3D model.

Art

In 2005, academic journals had begun to report on the possible artistic applications of 3D printing technology.[144] By 2007 the mass media followed with an
article in the Wall Street Journal[145] and Time Magazine, listing a 3D printed design among their 100 most influential designs of the year.[146] During the
2011 London Design Festival, an installation, curated by Murray Moss and focused on 3D Printing, was held in the Victoria and Albert Museum (the V&A).
The installation was called Industrial Revolution 2.0: How the Material World will Newly Materialize.[147]
36

flower model made with a 3D printer

Some of the recent developments in 3D printing were revealed at the 3DPrintshow in London, which took place in
November 2013 and 2014. The art section had in exposition artworks made with 3D printed plastic and metal. Several
artists such as Joshua Harker, Davide Prete, Sophie Kahn, Helena Lukasova, Foteini Setaki showed how 3D printing can
modify aesthetic and art processes. One part of the show focused on ways in which 3D printing can advance the medical
field. The underlying theme of these advances was that these printers can be used to create parts that are printed with
specifications to meet each individual. This makes the process safer and more efficient. One of these advances is the use
of 3D printers to produce casts that are created to mimic the bones that they are supporting. These custom-fitted casts are
open, which allow the wearer to scratch any itches and also wash the damaged area. Being open also allows for open
ventilation. One of the best features is that they can be recycled to create more casts.[148]
3D printing is becoming more popular in the customisable gifts industry, with products such as personalised mobile
phone cases and dolls,[149] as well as 3D printed chocolate.[150]
The use of 3D scanning technologies allows the replication of real objects without the use of moulding techniques that in
many cases can be more expensive, more difficult, or too invasive to be performed, particularly for precious or delicate
cultural heritage artifacts[151] where direct contact with the moulding substances could harm the original object's surface.
Critical making refers to the hands on productive activities that link digital technologies to society. It is invented to
bridge the gap between creative physical and conceptual exploration.[152] The term was popularized by Matt Ratto, an
Assistant Professor and director of the Critical Making lab in the Faculty of Information at the University of Toronto. Ratto describes one of the main goals
of critical as "to use material forms of engagement with technologies to supplement and extend critical reflection and, in doing so, to reconnect our lived
experiences with technologies to social and conceptual critique".[153] The main focus of critical making is open design,[154] which includes, in addition to 3D
printing technologies, also other digital software and hardware. People usually reference spectacular design when explaining critical making.[155]

Communication
Employing additive layer technology offered by 3D printing, Terahertz devices which act as waveguides, couplers and bends have been created. The
complex shape of these devices could not be achieved using conventional fabrication techniques. Commercially available professional grade printer EDEN
260V was used to create structures with minimum feature size of 100 m. The printed structures were later DC sputter coated with gold (or any other metal)
to create a Terahertz Plasmonic Device.[156]

Domestic use
As of 2012, domestic 3D printing was mainly practised by hobbyists and enthusiasts, and was little used for practical household applications. A working
clock was made[157] and gears were printed for home woodworking machines among other purposes.[158] 3D printing was also used for ornamental objects.
Web sites associated with home 3D printing tended to include backscratchers, coathooks, doorknobs etc.[159]
The open source Fab@Home project[52] has developed printers for general use. They have been used in research environments to produce chemical
compounds with 3D printing technology, including new ones, initially without immediate application as proof of principle.[84] The printer can print with
37

anything that can be dispensed from a syringe as liquid or paste. The developers of the chemical application envisage both industrial and domestic use for
this technology, including enabling users in remote locations to be able to produce their own medicine or household chemicals.[160][161]
3D printing is now working its way into households and more and more children are being introduced to the concept of 3D printing at earlier ages. The
prospects of 3D printing are growing and as more people have access to this new innovation, new uses in households will emerge.[162]
The OpenReflex SLR film camera was developed for 3D printing as an open-source student project.[163]

Education and research

3D printing, and open source RepRap 3D printers in particular, are the latest technology making inroads into the classroom.[164][165][166] 3D printing allows
students to create prototypes of items without the use of expensive tooling required in subtractive methods. Students design and produce actual models they
can hold. The classroom environment allows students to learn and employ new applications for 3D printing.[167] RepRaps, for example, have already been
used for an educational mobile robotics platform.[168]
Some authors have claimed that RepRap 3D printers offer an unprecedented "revolution" in STEM education.[169] The evidence for such claims comes from
both the low cost ability for rapid prototyping in the classroom by students, but also the fabrication of low-cost high-quality scientific equipment from open
hardware designs forming open-source labs.[170] Engineering and design principles are explored as well as architectural planning. Students recreate duplicates
of museum items such as fossils and historical artifacts for study in the classroom without possibly damaging sensitive collections. Other students interested
in graphic designing can construct models with complex working parts. 3D printing gives students a new perspective with topographic maps. Science
students can study cross-sections of internal organs of the human body and other biological specimens. And chemistry students can explore 3D models of
molecules and the relationship within chemical compounds.[171]
According to a recent paper by Kostakis et al.,[172] 3D printing and design can electrify various literacies and creative capacities of children in accordance
with the spirit of the interconnected, information-based world.
Future applications for 3D printing might include creating open-source scientific equipment.[170][173]

Environmental use
In Bahrain, large-scale 3D printing using a sandstone-like material has been used to create unique coral-shaped structures, which encourage coral polyps to
colonise and regenerate damaged reefs. These structures have a much more natural shape than other structures used to create artificial reefs, and, unlike
concrete, are neither acid nor alkaline with neutral pH.[174]

Specialty materials
Consumer grade 3D printing has resulted in new materials that have been developed specifically for 3D printers. For example, filament materials have been
developed to imitate wood, in its appearance as well as its texture. Furthermore, new technologies, such as infusing carbon fiber[175] into printable plastics,
allowing for a stronger, lighter material. In addition to new structural materials that have been developed due to 3D printing, new technologies have allowed
for patterns to be applied directly to 3D printed parts. Iron oxide-free Portland cement powder has been used to create architectural structures up to 9 feet in
height.[176][177][178]
38

Legal aspects
Intellectual property
3D printing has existed for decades within certain manufacturing industries where many legal regimes, including patents, industrial design rights, copyright,
and trademark may apply. However, there is not much jurisprudence to say how these laws will apply if 3D printers become mainstream and individuals and
hobbyist communities begin manufacturing items for personal use, for non-profit distribution, or for sale.
Any of the mentioned legal regimes may prohibit the distribution of the designs used in 3D printing, or the distribution or sale of the printed item. To be
allowed to do these things, where an active intellectual property was involved, a person would have to contact the owner and ask for a licence, which may
come with conditions and a price. However, many patent, design and copyright laws contain a standard limitation or exception for 'private', 'non-commercial'
use of inventions, designs or works of art protected under intellectual property (IP). That standard limitation or exception may leave such private, noncommercial uses outside the scope of IP rights.
Patents cover inventions including processes, machines, manufactures, and compositions of matter and have a finite duration which varies between countries,
but generally 20 years from the date of application. Therefore, if a type of wheel is patented, printing, using, or selling such a wheel could be an infringement
of the patent.[179]
Copyright covers an expression[180] in a tangible, fixed medium and often lasts for the life of the author plus 70 years thereafter.[181] If someone makes a
statue, they may have copyright on the look of that statue, so if someone sees that statue, they cannot then distribute designs to print an identical or similar
statue.
When a feature has both artistic (copyrightable) and functional (patentable) merits, when the question has appeared in US court, the courts have often held
the feature is not copyrightable unless it can be separated from the functional aspects of the item.[181] In other countries the law and the courts may apply a
different approach allowing, for example, the design of a useful device to be registered (as a whole) as an industrial design on the understanding that, in case
of unauthorised copying, only the non-functional features may be claimed under design law whereas any technical features could only be claimed if covered
by a valid patent.

Gun legislation and administration

The US Department of Homeland Security and the Joint Regional Intelligence Center released a memo stating that "significant advances in threedimensional (3D) printing capabilities, availability of free digital 3D printable files for firearms components, and difficulty regulating file sharing may
present public safety risks from unqualified gun seekers who obtain or manufacture 3D printed guns," and that "proposed legislation to ban 3D printing of
weapons may deter, but cannot completely prevent their production. Even if the practice is prohibited by new legislation, online distribution of these 3D
printable files will be as difficult to control as any other illegally traded music, movie or software files."[182]
Internationally, where gun controls are generally tighter than in the United States, some commentators have said the impact may be more strongly felt, as
alternative firearms are not as easily obtainable.[183] European officials have noted that producing a 3D printed gun would be illegal under their gun control
laws,[184] and that criminals have access to other sources of weapons, but noted that as the technology improved the risks of an effect would increase.[185][186]
Downloads of the plans from the UK, Germany, Spain, and Brazil were heavy.[187][188]
39

Attempting to restrict the distribution over the Internet of gun plans has been likened to the futility of preventing the widespread distribution of DeCSS
which enabled DVD ripping.[189][190][191][192] After the US government had Defense Distributed take down the plans, they were still widely available via The
Pirate Bay and other file sharing sites.[193] Some US legislators have proposed regulations on 3D printers, to prevent them being used for printing
guns.[194][195] 3D printing advocates have suggested that such regulations would be futile, could cripple the 3D printing industry, and could infringe on free
speech rights, with early pioneer of 3D printing Professor Hod Lipson suggesting that gunpowder could be controlled instead.[196][197][198][199][200][201][202]

Impact
Additive manufacturing, starting with today's infancy period, requires manufacturing firms to be flexible, ever-improving users of all available technologies
to remain competitive. Advocates of additive manufacturing also predict that this arc of technological development will counter globalisation, as end users
will do much of their own manufacturing rather than engage in trade to buy products from other people and corporations.[3] The real integration of the newer
additive technologies into commercial production, however, is more a matter of complementing traditional subtractive methods rather than displacing them
entirely.[203]

Social change
Since the 1950s, a number of writers and social commentators have speculated in some depth about the social and cultural changes that might result from the
advent of commercially affordable additive manufacturing technology.[204] Amongst the more notable ideas to have emerged from these inquiries has been
the suggestion that, as more and more 3D printers start to enter people's homes, so the conventional relationship between the home and the workplace might
get further eroded.[205] Likewise, it has also been suggested that, as it becomes easier for businesses to transmit designs for new objects around the globe, so
the need for high-speed freight services might also become less.[206] Finally, given the ease with which certain objects can now be replicated, it remains to be
seen whether changes will be made to current copyright legislation so as to protect intellectual property rights with the new technology widely available.
As 3D printers became more accessible to consumers, online social platforms have developed to support the community.[207] This includes websites that
allow users to access information such as how to build a 3D printer, as well as social forums that discuss how to improve 3D print quality and discuss 3D
printing news, as well as social media websites that are dedicated to share 3D models.[208][209][210] RepRap is a wiki based website that was created to hold all
information on 3d printing, and has developed into a community that aims to bring 3D printing to everyone. Furthermore, there are other sites such as
Pinshape, Thingiverse and MyMiniFactory, which was created initially to allow users to post 3D files for anyone to print, allowing for decreased transaction
cost of sharing 3D files. These websites have allowed for greater social interaction between users, creating communities dedicated around 3D printing.
Some [211][212][213] call attention to the conjunction of Commons-based peer production with 3D printing and other low-cost manufacturing techniques. The
self-reinforced fantasy of a system of eternal growth can be overcome with the development of economies of scope, and here, the civil society can play an
important role contributing to the raising of the whole productive structure to a higher plateau of more sustainable and customised productivity.[211] Further,
it is true that many issues, problems and threats rise due to the large democratisation of the means of production, and especially regarding the physical
ones.[211] For instance, the recyclability of advanced nanomaterials is still questioned; weapons manufacturing could become easier; not to mention the
implications on counterfeiting [214] and on IP.[215] It might be maintained that in contrast to the industrial paradigm whose competitive dynamics were about
economies of scale, Commons-based peer production and 3D printing could develop economies of scope. While the advantages of scale rest on cheap global
transportation, the economies of scope share infrastructure costs (intangible and tangible productive resources), taking advantage of the capabilities of the
40

fabrication tools.[211] And following Neil Gershenfeld [216] in that "some of the least developed parts of the world need some of the most advanced
technologies", Commons-based peer production and 3D printing may offer the necessary tools for thinking globally but act locally in response to certain
problems and needs.
Larry Summers wrote about the "devastating consequences" of 3-D printing and other technologies (robots, artificial intelligence, etc.) for those who perform
routine tasks. In his view, "already there are more American men on disability insurance than doing production work in manufacturing. And the trends are all
in the wrong direction, particularly for the less skilled, as the capacity of capital embodying artificial intelligence to replace white-collar as well as bluecollar work will increase rapidly in the years ahead." Summers recommends more vigorous cooperative efforts to address the "myriad devices" (e.g. tax
havens, bank secrecy, money laundering, and regulatory arbitrage) enabling the holders of great wealth to "avoid paying" income and estate taxes, and to
make it more difficult to accumulate great fortunes without requiring "great social contributions" in return, including: more vigorous enforcement of antimonopoly laws, reductions in "excessive" protection for intellectual property, greater encouragement of profit-sharing schemes that may benefit workers and
give them a stake in wealth accumulation, strengthening of collective bargaining arrangements, improvements in corporate governance, strengthening of
financial regulation to eliminate subsidies to financial activity, easing of land-use restrictions that may cause the real estate of the rich to keep rising in value,
better training for young people and retraining for displaced workers, and increased public and private investment in infrastructure development, e.g. in
energy production and transportation.[217]
Michael Spence wrote that "Now comes a ... powerful, wave of digital technology that is replacing labor in increasingly complex tasks. This process of labor
substitution and disintermediation has been underway for some time in service sectors think of ATMs, online banking, enterprise resource planning,
customer relationship management, mobile payment systems, and much more. This revolution is spreading to the production of goods, where robots and 3D
printing are displacing labor." In his view, the vast majority of the cost of digital technologies comes at the start, in the design of hardware (e.g. 3D printers)
and, more important, in creating the software that enables machines to carry out various tasks. "Once this is achieved, the marginal cost of the hardware is
relatively low (and declines as scale rises), and the marginal cost of replicating the software is essentially zero. With a huge potential global market to
amortize the upfront fixed costs of design and testing, the incentives to invest [in digital technologies] are compelling." Spence believes that, unlike prior
digital technologies, which drove firms to deploy underutilized pools of valuable labor around the world, the motivating force in the current wave of digital
technologies "is cost reduction via the replacement of labor." For example, as the cost of 3D printing technology declines, it is "easy to imagine" that
production may become "extremely" local and customized. Moreover, production may occur in response to actual demand, not anticipated or forecast
demand. Spence believes that labor, no matter how inexpensive, will become a less important asset for growth and employment expansion, with laborintensive, process-oriented manufacturing becoming less effective, and that re-localization will appear in both developed and developing countries. In his
view, production will not disappear, but it will be less labor-intensive, and all countries will eventually need to rebuild their growth models around digital
technologies and the human capital supporting their deployment and expansion. Spence writes that "the world we are entering is one in which the most
powerful global flows will be ideas and digital capital, not goods, services, and traditional capital. Adapting to this will require shifts in mindsets, policies,
investments (especially in human capital), and quite possibly models of employment and distribution."[218]
Forbes investment pundits have predicted that 3D printing may lead to a resurgence of American Manufacturing, citing the small, creative companies that
comprise the current industry landscape, and the lack of the necessary complex infrastructure in typical outsource markets.[219]

41

3D computer graphics software

3D computer graphics software produces computer-generated imagery (CGI) through 3D modeling and 3D rendering or produces 3D models for analytic,
scientific and industrial purposes.

Classification
Modeling
3D modeling software is a class of 3D computer graphics software used to produce 3D models. Individual programs of this class are called modeling
applications or modelers.
3D modelers allow users to create and alter models via their 3D mesh. Users can add, subtract, stretch and otherwise change the mesh to their desire. Models
can be viewed from a variety of angles, usually simultaneously. Models can be rotated and the view can be zoomed in and out.
3D modelers can export their models to files, which can then be imported into other applications as long as the metadata are compatible. Many modelers
allow importers and exporters to be plugged-in, so they can read and write data in the native formats of other applications.
Most 3D modelers contain a number of related features, such as ray tracers and other rendering alternatives and texture mapping facilities. Some also contain
features that support or allow animation of models. Some may be able to generate full-motion video of a series of rendered scenes (i.e. animation).

Rendering
Although 3D modeling and CAD software may perform 3D rendering as well (e.g. Autodesk 3ds Max or Blender), exclusive 3D rendering software also exists.

Computer-aided design
Computer aided design software may employ the same fundamental 3D modeling techniques that 3D modeling software use but their goal differs. They are
used in computer-aided engineering, computer-aided manufacturing, Finite element analysis, product lifecycle management, 3D printing and Computeraided architectural design.

Complementary tools
After producing video, studios then edit or composite the video using programs such as Adobe Premiere Pro or Final Cut Pro at the low end, or Autodesk
Combustion, Digital Fusion, Shake at the high-end. Match moving software is commonly used to match live video with computer-generated video, keeping
the two in sync as the camera moves.
Use of real-time computer graphics engines to create a cinematic production is called machinima.

42

Comparison of 3D computer graphics software

3D computer graphics software refers to programs used to create 3D computer-generated imagery.

General information
This is a chart about notable software on basic comparative elements that is based on the raw software without the inclusion of additional plugins.
Application

Latest release date

and version

Developed by

Platforms

Mainly Used For

License

3ds Max

"2015"

Autodesk

Microsoft Windows

Modeling, Animation (Video Games), Lighting, Rendering

Proprietary

AC3D

2014-03-03
v 7.2.17

Inivis

Linux, Mac OS X, Microsoft

Windows

Modeling

Proprietary

AOI

2013-09-23
v 3.0

Peter Eastman

Java Virtual Machine

supported platforms

Animation, Lighting, Modelling, Rendering

GNU GPLv2

Blender

2015-03-31
v 2.75

Blender Foundation

Bryce

2010-12-23
7.1.0.109

DAZ 3D

Microsoft Windows, Mac OS

X

Animation, Landscape Modeling, Fractal Geometry

Proprietary

Carrara

2010-04-21
8.0

DAZ 3D

Microsoft Windows, Mac OS

X

Animation, Modeling

Proprietary

Cheetah 3D

2013-12-30
v 6.3

Dr. Martin
Wengenmayer

Mac OS X

Animation, Modeling

Proprietary

MAXON

Mac OS X, Microsoft
[2]
Windows, Amiga OS

Animation, Lighting, Modeling, Visual 3D Effects, Rendering,

Simulation

Proprietary

Procedural

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows, Linux

Procedural Modeling of 3D Cities

Proprietary

Modeling, Animation, Rendering

Proprietary

Cinema 4D
CityEngine

R16
v 2013

Microsoft Windows, Mac OS Animation, Lighting, Modeling, Rendering, Video Game Creation, Visual 3D
X, Linux, BSD, Solaris,
Effects, Sculpting, Basic Post-Production Video Editing, Motion Tracking,
AmigaOS 4, MorphOS
Python Scripting, Fluid Simulation, Particles, Physics, Compositing

GNU GPLv2+ /
[1]
Apache 2.0

Clara.io

2013-07-09

Exocortex

Mozilla FireFox, Google

Chrome, Microsoft Internet
Explorer

Cobalt

2009-12-11
v8 SP2r3

Ashlar-Vellum

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows

Modeling, Computer Aided Design, Animation

Proprietary

Electric Image
Animation System

2009-05
v8.0.

EIAS3D

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows

Animation, Lighting, Rendering, Film, Television, Visual 3D Effects

Proprietary

43

Application

Latest release date

and version

Developed by

Platforms

Mainly Used For

License

form-Z / form-Z
Renderzone Plus

2013-10-11
7.3

autodessys, Inc.

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows

Animation, Modeling, Lighting, Render, Fabrication, Set Design

Proprietary

Hexagon

2008-05-20
2.5

DAZ 3D

Microsoft Windows, Mac OS

X

Subdivision Modeling, UV Mapping

Proprietary

Houdini

2015-01-15
v 14

Side Effects
Software

Microsoft Windows, Mac OS

X, Linux

Animation, Lighting, Modeling, Visual 3D Effects

Proprietary

IClone

2014
v 6.0

Reallusion

Microsoft Windows

Animation, Film and Television Previz, Videogame Asset Creation,

Lighting, Visual 3D Effects

Proprietary

LightWave 3D

2014
v 11.6.2

NewTek

Mac OS X, Microsoft
[3]
Windows, Amiga OS

Modeling, Animation, Lighting, Rendering, Film and Television

Previz, Videogame Asset Creation

Proprietary

MASSIVE

?
v 3.5

Massive Software

Microsoft Windows, Linux

Artificial Intelligence in Models

Proprietary

Maya

2014
"2015"

Autodesk

Microsoft Windows, Mac OS

X, Linux

Modeling, Animation (Video), Lighting, Rendering, Visual 3D

Effects

Proprietary

Metasequoia

2011-05
2.4.13 (Metasequoia), R2.4a
(MetasequoiaLE)

O. Mizno

Microsoft Windows

Modeling

Proprietary

MODO

2014-04-24
v 801

The Foundry

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows, Linux

Modeling, Animation, Rendering

Proprietary

Autodesk

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows, Linux

Lighting, Sculpting (the deformation of the model)

Proprietary

Mudbox

v 2015

POV-Ray

2004-10-03
v 3.6

The POV-Team

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows, Linux, AmigaOS

Lighting, Visual 3D effects

GNU AGPLv3

Pro/Engineer

Template:September 2009
2009 Wildfire 5.0

Parametric
Technology
Corporation

Microsoft Windows, HP-UX,

Unix

Modeling

Proprietary

Remo 3D

v 2.5.1

Remograph

Microsoft Windows, Linux

Modeling, Virtual Reality, Real-time modeling, Video Game

Creation, Computer Aided Design

Proprietary

Rhinoceros 3D

v5

McNeel

Microsoft Windows, Mac OS

X in beta

Modeling, Computer Aided Design

Proprietary

Sculptris

2011-07-22
v Alpha 6

Pixologic

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows

Sculpting, Texturing

Proprietary

44

Application

Latest release date

and version

Developed by

Platforms

Mainly Used For

License

Shade 3D

2014
v 14.1.2

Shade3D

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows

Modeling, Rendering, Animation

Proprietary

Silo

2008-08-13
v 2.1

Nevercenter

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows

Modeling

Proprietary

SketchUp /
SketchUp Pro

2015-02-5
v 15.3.331 (Win64)
v 15.3.330 (Win32)
v 15.3.329 (Mac)

Trimble Navigation

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows

Computer Aided Design

Proprietary

Autodesk

Microsoft Windows, Linux

Modeling, Animation, Video Game Creation, Lighting, Rendering,

Visual 3d Effects

Proprietary

Softimage

"2015" (Final Release)

Solid Edge

2014-08-08
ST7

Siemens PLM
Software

Microsoft Windows

Computer Aided Design

Proprietary

solidThinking

2014
v 2014

solidThinking

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows

Modeling

Proprietary

SolidWorks

2014-09-09
v 2015

Dassault systems

Microsoft Windows

Computer Aided Design

Proprietary

SpaceClaim

2014-11-19
v 2015

SpaceClaim
Corporation

Microsoft Windows

Computer Aided Design

Proprietary

Swift 3D

2009-06-03
v6.0 (Final Release)

Electric Rain

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows

Modeling, Animation

Proprietary

TopSolid

7.9
2014

Missler Software

Microsoft Windows

Computer Aided Design/ Computer Aided Manufacturing

Proprietary

trueSpace

2009-05-25
v 7.61

Caligari Corporation

Microsoft Windows,
AmigaOS

Animation, Modeling

Proprietary

E-on Software

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows

Animation, Landscape Modeling, Lighting

Proprietary

E-on Vue

v 2014

Verto Studio 3D

2012-10-9
v 1.3.1

Michael L. Farrell

Mac OS X, iOS

Mobile Modeling, Texture Mapping, Lighting

Proprietary

ZBrush

2015-01-29
v 4R7

Pixologic

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows

Modeling, Texturing, Lighting, Sculpting (the deformation of the

model), Rendering

Proprietary

Wings3d

2014-04-14
1.5.3

Dan Gudmundsson
(maintainer)

Mac OS X, Microsoft
Windows, BSD, Linux

Modeling, Sculpting (the deformation of the model), UV mapping

BSD

45

Operating system support

The operating systems on which the editors can run natively (without emulation or compatibility layers), meaning which operating systems have which
editors specifically coded for them (not, for example, Wings 3D for Windows running on Linux with Wine).
Name
3ds Max
AC3D
Art of Illusion
Blender
Carrara
Cheetah 3D
Cinema 4D
Clara.io
Electric Image Animation System
form-Z
Houdini
IClone
LightWave 3D
MakeHuman
Massive
Maya
Metasequoia
Modo
POV-Ray
Remo 3D
Shade
Silo
SketchUp
SketchUp Pro
Softimage
Solid Edge
solidThinking
solidWorks

Windows
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Mac OS X
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No

Linux Unix BSD

No
No No
Yes
No No
Yes
Yes No
Yes
Yes Yes
No
No No
No
No No
No
No No
Yes
Yes Yes
No
No No
No
No No
Yes
No No
No
No No
No
No No
Yes
No No
Yes
No No
Yes
No No
No
No No
Yes
No No
Yes
No No
Yes
No No
No
No No
Yes
No No
No
No No
No
No No
Yes
No No
No
No No
No
No No
No
No No

Other
No
No
No
Solaris, AmigaOS 4, MorphOS
No
No
Amiga OS
Chrome OS, Android
No
No
No
No
AmigaOS
No
No
No
No
No
Amiga OS, Atari TOS
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No

46

Name
SpaceClaim
Swift 3D
TopSolid
trueSpace
Verto Studio 3D
E-on Vue
Wings 3D
ZBrush

Windows
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes

Mac OS X
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

Linux Unix BSD

No
No No
No
No No
No
No No
No
No No
No
No No
No
No No
Yes
No No
No
No No

Other
No
No
No
Amiga OS
iOS
No
No
No

Features
Wireframe

Animation

Rendering

3ds Max

Yes

Yes

Yes

AC3D

Yes

No

Blender

Yes

Yes

Yes

Imports
FBX, 3DS, PRJ, AI, DAE, DEM, XML, DDF, DWG, DXF,
FLT, HTR, IGE, IGS, IGES, IPT, WIRE, IAM, LS, VW, LP,
OBJ, SAT, SHP, SKP, STL, TRC

Exports
FBX, 3DS, AI, ASE, ATR, BLK, DAE, DF, DWG,
DXF, FLT, HTR, IGS, LAY, LP, M3G, OBJ, SAT,
STL, VW, WRL
GIF, JPG, PNG, BMP, DDS, PPM, Targa, TIFF,
GIF, JPG, PNG, BMP, DDS, PPM, Targa, TIFF, 3D
3D Studio, 3D Studio ASE, AC3D, DirectX,
Studio, AC3D, DXF,COLLADA, LDraw (Lego),
Dive, DVS, DXF, COLLADA, Inventor, LDraw
Lightwave, Massive, Milkshape Ascii, Obj
(Lego), Lightwave, Massive, Milkshape Ascii,
(Wavefront), OFF, Pointfield, Points, Quake BSP,
Obj (Wavefront), Ogre, PovRay, Quake MD2,
Quake MD2, Renderware, SMF, SOF Airfoil, STL
Quake Map, Renderman, SMF, STL (ascii),
[4]
(ascii), Terragen, Triangle, Vector, VRML 1.0
Triangle, Unreal Tournament, VRML 1.0,
[4]
VRML 2.0, X3D
TGA, JPG, PNG, OpenEXR, DPX, Cineon,
TGA, JPG, PNG, OpenEXR, DPX, Cineon, Radiance
Radiance HDR, Iris, SGI Movie, IFF, AVI and
HDR, Iris, SGI Movie, IFF, AVI and QuickTime GIF,
QuickTime GIF, TIFF, PSD, MOV (Windows
TIFF, PSD, MOV (Windows and Mac OS X),3D Studio, and Mac OS X),3D Studio, AC3D, COLLADA,
Autodesk FBX, AC3D, COLLADA, DXF, Wavefront OBJ, Autodesk FBX, Adobe After Effects JSX, DXF,
DEC Object File Format, DirectX, Lightwave LWO,
Wavefront OBJ, DEC Object File Format,
MD2, Motion Capture, Nendo, OpenFlight, PLY, Pro
DirectX, Lightwave LWO, MD2, Motion
Engineer, Radiosity, Raw Triangle, Softimage, STL,
Capture, Nendo, OpenFlight, PLY, Pro
TrueSpace, VideoScape, VRML, VRML97, X3D
Engineer, Radiosity, Raw Triangle, Softimage,
Extensible 3D
STL, TrueSpace, VideoScape, VRML, VRML97,
X3D Extensible 3D, xfig export

47

Electric Image Animation System

Yes

Yes

Yes

Cinema 4D

Yes

Yes

Yes

Clara.io

Yes

Yes

Yes

Cobalt

Yes

Yes

Yes

IClone

Yes

Yes

Yes

Lightwave 3D

Yes

Yes

Yes

MakeHuman

No

No

No

Maya

Yes

Yes

Yes

Metasequoia

Yes

No

Yes

Modo

Yes

Yes

Yes

TGA, JPG, PNG, BMP, Radiance HDR, AVI and

QuickTime, TIFF, PSD, MOV, 3D Studio, FBX, DXF,
Wavefront OBJ, LWO, MDD
FBX, OBJ, 3DS, QD3D, STL, DEM, VRML 1, VRML 2,
LWO/LWS, DXF
FBX, OBJ, Collada, MD2, MD3, MD5, 3DS, STL, DXF,
Three.js, LWO, GEO, IRR, PLY, POV, SHP, XGL, ZGL, X,
WRL, WRZ, AC, BLEND, BVH, CSM, LWS, PNG, JPG

PNG, BMP, AVI and QuickTime GIF, TIFF,

MOV,3D Studio, DXF, Wavefront OBJ, LWO
FBX, OBJ, 3DS, QD3D, STL, W3D, VRML 1,
VRML 2, DXF
FBX, OBJ, Collada, STL, Three.js, glTF,
Babylon.js

ACIS SAT, AI, ASCII Text, BMP, CATIA v4, CGM,

3DS, ACIS SAT, AI, ASCII Text, BMP, CATIA v4, CGM,
CO (native), Drawing board, DWG/DXF, Facet,
CCAD, CO (native), Drawing board, DWG/DXF, Facet,
GIF, Grid Surface, IGS (IGES), JPEG, Parasolid
GIF, Grid Surface, IGS (IGES), JPEG, Parasolid XT, PICT,
XT, PDF, PICT, PNG, PPM, Pro/E, RAW
PNG, PPM, Pro/E, Rhino 3DM, Spline, STP (STEP),
Triangle, Shockwave 3D, STP (STEP), VRML,
VRML, XBM, XPM
XBM, XPM
FBX, OBJ, BVH (via 3DXChange) | JPG, BMP,
FBX, OBJ, BVH, SKP (via 3DXChange) | JPG, BMP, GIF,
GIF, TGA, PNG | WMV, AVI, MP4, popVideo,
TGA, PNG | AVI, WMV, MP3, WAV, popVideo
FLV, iWidget
TGA, JPG, PNG, AI, EPS, BMP, IFF, Radiance HDR, AVI TGA, JPG, PNG, BMP, Radiance HDR, IFF, AVI
and QuickTime GIF, TIFF, PSD, MOV, 3D Studio,
and QuickTime GIF, TIFF, PSD, MOV,3D
COLLADA, FBX, DXF, Wavefront OBJ, LWO, FBXMD2, Studio, COLLADA, FBX, DXF, Wavefront OBJ,
VideoScape, VRML, VRML97
LWO, MD2, VRML, VRML97
COLLADA, FBX Export, MD5, MHX, Wavefront
N/A
OBJ, Ogre3D, STL
Maya Ascii, Maya Binary, Mel, FBX, DXF, OBJ,
Ai, Pix, AVI, Cineon, EPS, GIF, Jpeg, Swf, Maya IFF,
IGES, StudioTools Wire, VRML2, GE2, RTG,
Maya16 IFF, MacPaint, PSD, PNG, Quantel,
Mental Ray, RIB, Open Inventor2, OpenFlight,
Quickdraw, MOV, RLA, SVG, SGI, SGI16, SGI Movie,
Maya IFF, AVI, QT, GIF, Softimage, RLA, BMP,
TGA, TIF, BMP, HDR, Maya Ascii, Maya Binary, MEL,
TIF, SGI RGB, Alias PIX, Jpeg, EPS, Cineon,
FBX, DXF, OBJ, IGES, StudioTools Wire, Aiff, VRML2,
Quantel, TGA, Macpaint, PSD, PNG,
Openflight, STL
Quickdraw, DDS.
3DS, COB (Caligari Object), DirectX, DXF,
3DS, COB (Caligari Object), DXF, LWO, OBJ, ROK
LWO, OBJ, POV-Ray, RDS (Ray Dream Studio),
(Rokkaku Dai), RSD (PlayStation), SUF (DoGA CGA RIB, ROK (Rokkaku Dai), RSD (PlayStation),
System)
SCE (SoftF/X Model), SUF (DoGA CGA
System), VRML 1.0
LXO, sldprt, sldasm*, LWO2, LWOB, DXF, FBX, 3DS, LXO, LWO, X3D, DXF, FBX, PLT, PSD, GEO, OBJ,
GEO, EPS, AI, PSD, OBJ, DAE, MDD, FLX, TGA, BMP, DAE, FLX, TGA, BMP, GIF, HDR, JP2, JPG, JPEG,
GIF, HDR, HDR, JP2, JPG, JPEG, PNG, SGI, openEXR
PNG, TIF, openEXR, MOV, MWV

48

Remo 3D

Yes

Yes

Yes

Shade

Yes

Yes

Yes

Softimage

Yes

Yes

Yes

Solid Edge

Yes

Yes

Yes

[5]

Yes

[5]

Yes

SketchUp

Yes

SketchUp Pro

Yes

Wings3D

Yes

[5]

Yes

[5]

Yes

No

[5]

[5]

Yes

3DC, 3DS, AC, DAE, DW, DXF, LWO, LWS, MD2, OBJ,
3DS, DAE, DOT, OBJ, OSG, OSGB, OSGT, OSGX,
OSG, OSGB, OSGT, OSGX, IVE, OSGA, P3D, PFB, PLY,
IVE, P3D, IVE, STL
STL, STA, SHP, X
COLLADA, DXF, OBJ, RIB, SWF, QuickTime VR,
DXF, OBJ, SketchUp, XML; (Pro) 3DS, BVH, COLLADA,
Second Life Sculpted Prim, XML; (Pro) 3DS,
LWO
Blue Mars, DirectX, EPix, LWO, VRML 2.0
?
?
IGES, STEP, DXF, JT, ACIS (SAT), ProE, SolidWorks, NX, IGES, STEP, STL, PDF, EMS, JT, XGL, XML, DXF,
SDRC, Microstation, Inventor, CATIA (V4/V5),
Parasolid, CATIA (V4/V5), ACIS (SAT),
Parasolid, Autocad, STL, XML, MDS
Microstation, Autocad
JPG, PNG, TIF, TGA, BMP, SKP, SKP+KMZ, 3DS, DEM,
[7]
JPG, PNG, TIF, BMP, DAE, SKP, SKP+KMZ
[6]
DDF
JPG, PNG, TIF, BMP, DAE, SKP, SKP+KMZ, PDF,
JPG, PNG, TIF, TGA, BMP, SKP, SKP+KMZ, 3DS, DWG,
EPS, EPX, DWG, DXF, 3DS, FBX, OBJ, XSI,
[6]
DXF, DEM, DDF
[7]
VRML, MOV(on Mac), AVI (on Windows)
3DS, BZFlag, COLLADA, DirectX, Kerkythea,
3DS, AI, EPS, LWO, LXO, Nendo, OBJ, STL, SVG,
LWO, LXO, Nendo, OBJ, POV-Ray,
Wings3D
Renderware, STL, SVG, VRML 2.0, Wings3D

List of 3D computer graphics software

123D is Autodesk's entry into the hobbyist 3D modelling market.
3D-Coat is a digital sculpting program specializing in voxel and polygonal sculpting.
3Delight is a RenderMan-compliant renderer.
3DCrafter (previously known as 3D Canvas) is a 3D modelling and animation tool available in a freeware version, as well as paid versions (3D Canvas Plus and 3D Canvas

Pro).
3ds Max (Autodesk), originally called 3D Studio MAX, is a comprehensive and versatile 3D application used in film, television, video games and architecture for

Windows and Apple Macintosh (but only running via Parallels or other VM software). It can be extended and customized through its SDK or scripting using a Maxscript. It
can use third party rendering options such as Brazil R/S, finalRender and V-Ray.
3D Model Maker by Marjupi Software is a modelling tool designed primarily for tablets.
AC3D (Inivis) is a 3D modeling application that began in the 1990s on the Amiga platform. Used in a number of industries, MathWorks actively recommends it in many
of their aerospace-related articles[1] due to price and compatibility. AC3D does not feature its own renderer, but can generate output files for both RenderMan and POVRay among others.
Aladdin4D (DiscreetFX), first created for the Amiga, was originally developed by Adspec Programming. After acquisition by DiscreetFX, it is multi-platform for OS X,
Amiga OS 4.1, MorphOS, Linux, AROS and Windows.
Anim8or is a discontinued proprietary freeware 3D rendering and animation package.
49

 Animation:Master from HASH, Inc is a modeling and animation package that focuses on ease of use. It is a spline-based modeler. Its strength lies in character

animation.
Aqsis is a free and open source rendering suite compliant with the RenderMan standard.
Art of Illusion is a free software package developed under the GPL.
AutoQ3D Community is not a professional CAD program and it is focused to beginners who want to make rapid 3D designs. It is a free software package developed

under the GPL.[2] It has a commercial sibling called AutoQ3D CAD.[3]

Blender (Blender Foundation) is a free, open source, 3D studio for animation, modelling, rendering, and texturing offering a feature set comparable to commercial 3D
animation suites. It is developed under the GPL and is available on all major platforms including Windows, OS X, Linux, BSD, and Solaris.
BRL-CAD is an open source solid modeling computer-aided design system with interactive geometry editing, ray-tracing for rendering and geometric analysis, networkdistributed framebuffer display support, and image and signal processing tools. It supports a myriad of geometry representation types including boundary representation
(BREP) NURBS, triangle and polygonal models, volumetric data visualization, and efficient implicit constructive solid geometry (CSG). It's been under continuous active
development since 1984.
Brazil is a rendering engine for 3ds Max, Rhino and VIZ
Bryce (DAZ Productions) is most famous for landscapes and creating 'painterly' renderings, as well as its unique user interface. Daz3d has stopped its development and
it is not compatible with MAC OS 10.7x or higher. It is currently being given away for free via the daz3d website.
Carrara (DAZ Productions) is a 3D complete tool set package for 3D modeling, texturing animation and rendering.
CATIA is CAD/CAE/CAM software from Dassault Systmes for 3D modeling, texturing, animation and rendering.
Cheetah3D is a proprietary program for Apple Macintosh computers primarily aimed at amateur 3D artists with some medium- and high-end features
Cinema 4D (MAXON) is a light (Prime) to full featured (Studio) 3d package dependent on version used. Although used in film usually for 2.5d work, Cinema's largest
user base is in the television motion graphics and design/visualisation arenas. Originally developed for the Amiga, it is also available for OS X and Windows.
CityEngine (Procedural Inc) is a 3D modeling application specialized in the generation of three-dimensional urban environments. With the procedural modeling
approach, CityEngine enables the efficient creation of detailed large-scale 3D city models, it is available for OS X, Windows and Linux.
Clara.io (Exocortex) is a 3D polygon modeling, solid constructive geometry, animation, and rendering package that runs in any web browser that supports WebGL. It
supports collaborative real-time editing and revision control. It supports format conversions as well to popular web-formats including Three.js, glTF and Babylon.js.
CloudCompare is an open source 3D point cloud editing and processing software.
Cobalt is a parametric-based Computer-aided design (CAD) and 3D modeling software for both the Macintosh and Microsoft Windows. It integrates wireframe,
freeform surfacing, feature-based solid modeling and photo-realistic rendering (see Ray tracing), and animation.
DAZ Studio a free 3D rendering tool set for adjusting parameters of pre-existing models, posing and rendering them in full 3D scene environments. Imports objects
created in Poser and is similar to that program, but with fewer features.
DX Studio a complete integrated development environment for creating interactive 3D graphics. The system comprises both a real-time 3D engine and a suite of editing
tools, and is the first product to offer a complete range of tools in a single IDE.
Electric Image Animation System (EIAS3D) is a 3D animation and rendering package available on both OS X and Windows. Mostly known for its rendering quality and
rendering speed it does not include a built-in modeler. The popular film Pirates of the Caribbean[4] and the television series Lost[5] used the software.
FaceGen is a source of human face models for other programs. Users are able to generate face models either randomly or from input photographs.
FPrime for Lightwave adds a very fast preview and can in many cases be used for final rendering.
FreeCAD is a full-featured CAD/CAE open source software. Python scripting and various plugin modules are supported, e.g. CAM, Robotics, Meshing and FEM.
50

 formZ (AutoDesSys, Inc.) is a general purpose solid/surface 3D modeler. Its primary use is for modeling, but it also features photo realistic rendering and object-centric

animation support. formZ is used in architecture, interior design, illustration, product design, and set design. It supports plug-ins and scripts, has import/export
capabilities and was first released in 1991. It is currently available for both OS X and Windows.
fragMOTION is a powerful 3D modeler used for the creation and animation of characters.
Gelato is a hardware-accelerated, non-real-time renderer created by graphics card manufacturer NVIDIA.
Gmax is a deprecated lightweight freeware edition of Autodesk 3ds Max originally developed for hobbyists and game content creation. It is discontinued in 2005 but As
of December 2013, it is still available for download.
Grome is a 3D environment editor for terrain, water and vegetation suitable for games and other 3D real-time applications.
Hexagon (DAZ Productions) is a 3D subdivision modeler with an emphasis on organic modeling.
[6]
Houdini (Side Effects Software) is used for visual effects and character animation. It was used in Disney's feature film The Wild. Houdini uses a non-standard interface
that it refers to as a "NODE system". It has a hybrid micropolygon-raytracer renderer, Mantra, but it also has built-in support for commercial renderers like Pixar's
RenderMan and Mental Ray.
iClone (Reallusion Inc.) is a stand-alone, real-time 3D animation software used in previsualization, video games, Machinima, and story-telling, that specializes in quick
facial and body animation. iClone provides a global library of template-based content and a collection of animation tools including a motion capturing plug-in, and
content exporting capabilities to other 3D applications and game engines.
ICON Quote System a ClickOnce program that allows individuals to design their own metal buildings online, view a Real-time (3D rendering), and retrieve a cost
estimate via (PDF).
Indigo Renderer is an unbiased photorealistic renderer that uses XML for scene description. Exporters available for Blender, Maya (Mti), formZ, Cinema4D, Rhino, 3ds
Max.
Inventor (Autodesk) The Autodesk Inventor is for 3D mechanical design, product simulation, tooling creation, and design communication.
K-3D is a GNU modelling, animation, and rendering system available on Linux and Win32. It makes use of RenderMan-compliant render engines. It features scene graph
procedural modelling similar to that found in Houdini.
Kerkythea is a freeware rendering system that supports raytracing. Currently, it can be integrated with 3ds Max, Blender, SketchUp, and Silo (generally any software
that can export files in obj and 3ds formats). Kerkythea is a standalone renderer, using physically accurate materials and lighting.
KernelCAD is a large component aimed to present CAD as a GUI element for programming engineers. Includes interface to Open CASCADE
LightWave 3D (NewTek), first developed for the Amiga, was originally bundled as part of the Video Toaster package and entered the market as a low cost way for TV
production companies to create quality CGI for their programming. It first gained public attention with its use in the TV series Babylon 5[7] and is used in several
contemporary TV series.[8][9][10] Lightwave is also used in a variety of modern film productions.[11][12] It is available for both Windows and OS X.
LuxRender is an unbiased open source rendering engine featuring Metropolis light transport
MakeHuman is a GPL program that generates 3D parametric humanoids.
MASSIVE is a 3D animation system for generating crowd-related visual effects, targeted for use in film and television. Originally developed for controlling the largescale CGI battles in The Lord of the Rings,[13] Massive has become an industry standard for digital crowd control in high-end animation[citation needed] and has been used on
several other big-budget films. It is available for various Unix and Linux platforms as well as Windows.
Maxwell Render is a multi-platform renderer which forgoes raytracing, global illumination and radiosity in favor of photon rendering with a virtual electromagnetic
spectrum, resulting in very authentic looking renders. It was the first unbiased render to market.[citation needed]
51

 Maya (Autodesk) is currently used in the film, television, and gaming industry. Maya has developed over the years into an application platform in and of itself through

extendability via its MEL programming language. It is available for Windows, Linux and OS X.
mental ray is another popular renderer, and comes default with most of the high-end packages. (Now owned by NVIDIA)
MeshLab is a free Windows, Linux and OS X application for visualizing, simplifying, processing and converting large three-dimensional meshes to or from a variety of 3D

file formats.
MetaCreations Detailer and Painter 3D are discontinued software applications specifically for painting texture maps on 3-D Models.
MicroStation is proprietary 2D / 3D modelling program with extensive import/export capabilities by Bentley Systems.
MilkShape 3D is a shareware/trialware polygon 3D modelling program with extensive import/export capabilities.
Modo (The Foundry) is a subdivision modeling, texturing and rendering tool with support for camera motion and morphs/blendshapes.and is now used in the
Television Industry It is available for Windows, OS X and Linux (x86_64).
Moment of Inspiration (MoI) is a 3D modeling program designed for OS X and Microsoft Windows and aimed at designers and artists.
Mudbox is a high resolution brush-based 3D sculpting program, that claims to be the first of its type. The software was acquired by Autodesk in 2007, and has a current
rival in its field known as ZBrush (see below).
NX (Siemens PLM Software) is an integrated suite of software for computer-aided mechanical design (mechanical CAM), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), and
computer-aided engineering (CAE) formed by combining the former Unigraphics and SDRC I-deas software product lines.[14] NX is currently available for the following
operating systems: Windows XP and Vista, Apple Mac OS X,[15] and Novell SUSE Linux.[16]
Octane Render is an unbiased GPU-accelerated renderer based on Nvidia CUDA.
OpenFX is a modelling and animation studio, distributed under the GPL.
Photoshop (Adobe Systems) can import models from programs such as zbrush and 3ds max, it allows you to add complex textures
Pixie is an open source photorealistic renderer.
Poser (Smith Micro) Poser is a 3D rendering and animation computer program optimized for models that depict the human figure in three-dimensional form and is
specialized for adjusting features of preexisting character models via varying parameters. It is also for posing and rendering of models and characters. It includes some
specialized tools for walk cycle creation, cloth and hair.
POV-Ray (or The Persistence of Vision Raytracer) is a freeware (with source) ray tracer written for multiple platforms.
PowerAnimator (Alias Systems Corporation) was a high-end 3D package in the 1990s, running on Silicon Graphics (SGI) workstations. Alias took code from
PowerAnimator, TDI Explore and Wavefront to build Maya.
RenderMan (Pixar) is a renderer, used in many studios. Animation packages such as 3DS Max and Maya can pipeline to RenderMan to do all the rendering.
RealFlow simulates and renders particle systems of rigid bodies and fluids.
Realsoft 3D Full featured 3D modeling, animation, simulation and rendering software available for Windows, Linux, Mac OS X and Irix.
Remo 3D is a commercial 3D modeling tool specialized in creating 3D models for realtime visualization, available for Windows and Linux.
Rhinoceros 3D is a commercial modeling tool which has excellent support for freeform NURBS editing.
Sculptris is a program made by Pixologic its a free simple to use program, it is essentially just a beginners version of Zbrush
Shade 3D is a commercial modeling/rendering/animation tool from Japan with import/export format support for Adobe, Social Worlds, and QuickTime among others.
Seamless3d is a NURBS based modelling and animation software with much of the focus on creating avatars optimized for real time animation. It is free, open source
under the MIT license.
52

 Silo (Nevercenter) is a subdivision-surface modeler available for OS X and Windows. Silo does not include a renderer. Silo is the bundled in modeler for the Electric

Image Animation System suite.

Simplygon is a commercial mesh processing package for remeshing general input meshes into real-time renderable meshes.
SketchUp Free (Trimble) is a 3D modeling package that features a sketch-based modelling approach integrated with Google Earth and limits export to Google's "3D

Warehouse", where users can share their content. It has a pro version which supports 2D and 3D model export functions among other features.
SquidNet-NDP is a commercially available product for rendering 3D animations within a distributed network environment.
Softimage (Autodesk) (formerly Softimage|XSI) is a 3D modeling and animation package that integrates with mental ray rendering. It is feature-similar to Maya and 3ds
Max and is used in the production of professional films, commercials, video games, and other media.
Solid Edge ( Siemens PLM Software) is a commercial application for design, drafting, analysis, and simulation of products, systems, machines and tools. All versions
include feature-based parametric modeling, assembly modeling, drafting, sheetmetal, weldment, freeform surface design, and data management.[17] Applicationprogramming interfaces enable scripting in Visual Basic and C programming.
solidThinking (solidThinking) is a 3D solid/surface modeling and rendering suite which features a construction tree method of development. The tree is the "history" of
the model construction process and allows real-time updates when modifications are made to points, curves, parameters or entire objects.
SolidWorks (SolidWorks Corporation) is an application used for the design, detailing and validation of products, systems, machines and toolings. All versions include
modeling, assemblies, drawing, sheetmetal, weldment, and freeform surfacing functionality. It also has support for scripting in Visual Basic and C.
Spore (Maxis) is a game allowing users to design their own fully functioning creatures with a very rudimentary, easy-to-use interface. The game includes a COLLADA
exporter, so models can be downloaded and imported into any other 3D software listed here that supports the COLLADA format. Models can also be directly imported
into game development software such as Unity (game engine).
Sunflow is an open source, photo-realistic renderer written in Java.
Swift 3D (Electric Rain) is a relatively inexpensive 3D design, modeling, and animation application targeted to entry-level 3D users and Adobe Flash designers. Swift 3D
supports vector and raster-based 3D animations for Adobe Flash and Microsoft Silverlight XAML.
Typestry (Pixar) is an abandonware 3D computer program released in the 1990s by Pixar for Apple Macintosh and DOS-based PC computer systems. It rendered and
animated text in 3d in various fonts based on the user's input.
Terragen and Terragen 2 are scenery generators.
The Advanced Visualizer, a.k.a. TAV (Wavefront Technologies) was a high-end 3D package between the late 1980s and mid-1990s, running on Silicon Graphics (SGI)
workstations. Wavefront first acquired TDI in 1993, before Wavefront itself was acquired in 1995 along with Alias by SGI to form Alias|Wavefront.
TopSolid is a CAD/CAM solution for modelling, simulation and production (geometry, assemblies, structural calculation, dynamics, etc.) developed by Missler Software.
Such functions provide a powerful means to meet industry-specific requirements for the drafting, design and manufacture of products.
trueSpace (Caligari Corporation) is a discontinued 3D program for Windows, although the company Caligari first found its start on the Amiga platform. trueSpace
features modelling, animation, 3D-painting, and rendering capabilities. In 2009, Microsoft purchased TrueSpace and it is now available completely free of charge.
VRay is promoted for use in the architectural visualization field used in conjunction with 3ds max and 3ds viz. It is also commonly used with Maya and Rhino.
Vue (E-on Software) is a tool for creating, animating and rendering natural 3D environments. It was most recently used to create the background jungle environments
in the 2nd and 3rd Pirates of the Caribbean films.[18]
Wings 3D is a BSD-licensed, subdivision modeller.
YafRay is a raytracer/renderer distributed under the LGPL. This project is no longer being actively developed.
YafaRay YafRay's successor, a raytracer/renderer distributed under the LGPL.
ZBrush (Pixologic) is a digital sculpting and animation tool that combines 3D/2.5D modeling, texturing and painting. It is available for OS X and Windows. It is used to
create normal maps for low resolution models to make them look more detailed.
53

List of 3D modeling software

Computer-generated image created by Gilles Tran

Following is a list of notable 3D modeling software,, computer programs used for developing a mathematical representation of any three-dimensional
three
surface of objects, also called 3D modeling.
Title

License

3D rendering support

License

3D rendering support

3D-Coat

Commercial software

Yes

Autodesk Softimage

Commercial software

Yes

3D Slash

Freemium

Yes

Blender

GNU GPLv2+
GPLv2

Yes

3DVIA Shape

Commercial software

No

BRL-CAD

GNU LGPL and BSD

Yes

AC3D

Commercial software

No

Bryce

Commercial software

Yes

Freeware

Yes

CATIA

Commercial software

Yes

Commercial software

Yes

Carrara

Commercial
Commerc software

Yes

GNU GPL

Yes

Cheetah3D

Commercial software

Yes

Commercial software

Yes

Cinema 4D

Commercial software

Yes

GNU GPLv2 +

Yes

CityEngine

Commercial software

No

Commercial software

Yes

Clara.io

Freemium

Yes

Freeware

No

DAZ Studio

Freemium

Yes

Autodesk 3ds Max

Commercial software

Yes

Electric Image Animation System Commercial software

Yes

Autodesk Inventor

Commercial software

Yes

Flux

Freeware

No

Autodesk Maya

Commercial software

Yes

Form-Z

Commercial software

Yes

Autodesk Revit

Commercial software

Yes

fragMOTION

Commercial software

No

Anim8or
Animation:Master
Art of Illusion
AutoCAD
AutoQ3D Community
AutoQ3D
Autodesk 123D

Title

54

Title

License

3D rendering support

License

3D rendering support

FreeCAD

GNU LGPL

Yes

SOCET SET

Commercial software

No

Hexagon

Commercial software

No

Sculptris

Freeware

No

Houdini

Commercial software

Yes

Seamless3d

MIT

No

Leapfrog3D

Commercial software

Yes

Shade 3D

Commercial software

Yes

Trialware

Yes

Silo

Commercial software

No

MASSIVE

Commercial software

No

Sketchup

Freemium

Yes

Metasequoia

Commercial software

Yes

Solid Edge

Commercial software

Yes

Freeware

Yes

solidThinking

Commercial software

Yes

MilkShape 3D

Commercial software

No

SolidWorks

Commercial software

Yes

Modo

Commercial software

Yes

SpaceClaim

Commercial software

Yes

Moi3D

Commercial software

Yes

Strata 3D

Commercial software

Yes

Open CASCADE

GNU LGPL

Yes

Swift 3D

Commercial software

No

OpenSCAD

GNU GPL

Yes

TopMod

GNU GPL

No

Poser

Commercial software

Yes

TrueSpace

Freeware

Yes

Pro/ENGINEER

Commercial software

Yes

Unigraphics

Commercial software

No

GNU GPL

Yes

Wings 3D

BSD

Yes

RaySupreme

Commercial software

Yes

Vectorworks

Commercial software

Yes

Realsoft 3D

Commercial software

Yes

ZBrush

Commercial software

Yes

Remo 3D

Commercial software

Yes

Zmodeler

Freeware

Yes

Rhinoceros 3D

Commercial software

Yes

LightWave 3D

MikuMikuDance

Quake Army Knife

Title

55

List of 3D rendering software

This page provides a list of 3D rendering software. This is not the same as 3D modeling software, which involves the creation of 3D models, for which the
software listed below can produce realistic rendered visualisations. Also not included are general-purpose packages which can have their own built-in
rendering capabilities.
Title

License

3Delight

Proprietary

AIR

Proprietary

appleseed

Free and opensource

Title

License
source

Proprietary

Gelato

Proprietary

PhotoRealistic RenderMan

Proprietary

Guerilla Render

Freemium

IC3D Suite

Proprietary

Proprietary

iClone

Proprietary

Indigo Renderer

Proprietary

iRay

Proprietary

KeyShot

Proprietary

Proprietary

Bakery Relight

Proprietary

Brazil R/S

Proprietary

Bunkspeed SHOT

Proprietary

Caustic Visualizer (Brazil

variant)

Proprietary

Penguin

Artlantis Studio

Arnold

Octane Render

Proprietary

Proprietary
Free and opensource

License

FurryBall

Arion

Aqsis

Title

Kerkythea

Freeware

pbrt

Free and opensource

Pixie

Free and opensource

POV-Ray

Free and opensource

Radiance

Free and opensource

Kray

Proprietary

Raylectron

Proprietary

LightWorks

Proprietary

Redshift

Proprietary

Proprietary

LumenRT

Proprietary

RenderDotC

Proprietary

CentiLeo

Proprietary

Lumion

Proprietary

Spectral Studio

Proprietary

Clarisse IFX

Proprietary

LuxRender

Colimo

Proprietary

Corona Renderer

Proprietary

FELIX Render

Proprietary

finalRender SE 3.5

Proprietary

Flamingo

Proprietary

FluidRay RT

Proprietary

FPrime

Proprietary

Fujiyama

Free and open-

Free and opensource

Sunflow

Free and opensource

Maxwell Render

Proprietary

TheaRender

Proprietary

mental ray

Proprietary

Turtle

Proprietary

Mitsuba Render

Free and opensource

VRay

Proprietary

moskitoRender 1

Proprietary

YafRay

Free and opensource

Free and opensource

YafaRay

Free and opensource

NOX
nXtRender

Proprietary
56

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