PETRONAS TECHNICAL STANDARDS

DESIGN AND ENGINEERING PRACTICE

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR

STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND
ENGINEERING

PTS 34.00.01.30
NOVEMBER 2010

2010 PETROLIAM NASIONAL BERHAD (PETRONAS)

All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means
(electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the permission of the copyright owner.

PTS
Circular

PETRONA51

2010 - 1
PTS No:
34.00.01.30

PTS
MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS
STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING DESIGN AND

Publication Title:

This

revision

of

FOR STRUCTURAL

FOR

34.00.01.30 - MINIMUM
REQUIREMENTS
DESIGN AND ENGINEERING has been updated

PTS

to incorporate PETRONAS Lessons Learnt, Best Practice and new information

issued by relevant industry code and standards. All updates in the document are
highlighted in italic font.
The previous version of this PTS
removed from PTS
binder! e-repository
from herein
onwards.

34.00.01.30 (July,

1998) will

The custodian of this PTS

is:
Name
Ir. Mohd. Nazri bin
Mustafa
Tel. No
03 - 2783
6413
Please direct any questions regarding this PTS to the
above-named.

Document
Approval
Name
Prepared!
Reviewed

Designation

lamil bin lamaluddin

Civil Engineer Iq

Approved

Ir. Mohd Nazri bin

Mustafa

Verified

Hashim bin Zainal

Manager, Abidin

Senior
(CSP), GTS

Verified

Pau Kiew Huai

General
Manager,
Engineering,
GTS

Endorsed

Sazali bin Hamzah

Revision
History
Date
Version

t.-;

Date

/11/'

Principal Engineer

6-6. P -(0

14[1).-/1
15. (2

Senior General
Ib/I1.(IO
Manager,
GTS

Description

of

Updates

be

Author

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
PREFACE

PETRONAS Technical Standards (PTS) publications reflect the views, at the time of
publication, of
PETRONAS
OPUs/Divisions.
They
are based
on the experience
acquiredofduring
the involvement
with
the design,
construction,
operation
and on,
maintenance
processing
units
and and
facilities.
Where
appropriate
they
are
based
or
reference
is
made
to,
national
international
standards and codes of practice.
The
objective
is to set the
recommended
for goodfacilities,
technical refineries,
practice togas
be
applied
by plants,
PETRONAS'
OPUs
in oil
and standard
gas
production
processing
chemical
plants,
marketing
facilities
or
any
other
such
facility,
and
thereby to achieve maximum technical and economic benefit from standardisation.
The
information
set
forth toin implement.
these publications
provided
to users where
for their
consideration
and
decision
Thisofiscondition
of is
particular
importance
PTS
may
not
cover
every
requirement
or
diversity
at
each
locality.
The
system
of
PTS
is
expected
to
be
sufciently
flexible
to
allow
individual
operating
units
to
adapt
the information set forth in PTS to their own environment and requirements.
When
Contractors
or Manufacturers/Suppliers
use PTS
they
shall design
be solely
responsible
for the quality
of work for
and
the requirements
attainment
ofnot
the
required
and
engineering
standards.
In
particular,
those
specifically
covered,
it
is
expected
ofsame
themlevel
to follow
those design
and engineering
practices
which will
achieve
the
of
integrity
as
reflected
in
the
PTS.
If
in
doubt,
the
Contractor
or
Manufacturer/Supplier
shall,
without
detracting
from
his
own
responsibility, consult the owner.
The right to use PTS rests with three categories of
users:
1)

PETRONAS and its

afliates.
2)
3)

Other parties
who are authorised to use PTS subject to appropriate
contractual
arrangements.
Contractors/subcontractors
and Manufacturers/Suppliers
under
a contract
with
users
referred
to under
1) and
which
requires on
that
tenders
forsaid
projects,
materials
supplied
or - generally
-2)work
performed
behalf
of the
users
comply with
the relevant
standards.

Subject
to any
terms disclaims
and conditions
as may
be set forth
in specific
agreements
with particular
users,
PETRONAS
any
liability
of whatsoever
nature
for any
damage
(including
injury
or
death)
suffered
by
any
company
or
person
whomsoever
as
a
result
of
or
in
connection
with
the
use,
application
or
implementation
of
any
PTS,
combination
of
PTS
or
any
part
thereof.
The
benefit
of
this
disclaimer
shall
inure
in
all
respects
PETRONAS
and/or any company afliated to PETRONAS that may issue PTS
or requiretothe
use of PTS.
Without
prejudice
toarrangements,
any specific
terms not,
in without
respectthe
of prior
confidentiality
under
relevant
contractual
writtenand
consent
of
PETRONAS,
be exclusively
disclosed
by
users
to PTS
any shall
company
or person
whomsoever
theThey
PTS
shall
be
used
for
the
purpose
they
have
been
provided
to
the
user.
shall
be
returned
after
use,
including
any
copies
which
shall
only
be
made
by
users
with
the express
priorarrange
written for
consent
PETRONAS.
The
copyright
of PTS vests
in
PETRONAS.
Users information
shall
PTS to of
be
held in safein
custody
and
PETRONAS
may
at
any
time
require
satisfactory
to
PETRONAS
order
to
ascertain
how
users
implement this requirement.

PTS
34.00.01.30
November

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................4
1.1
SCOPE........................................................................................................................4
1.2
DISTRIBUTION, INTENDED USE AND REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS..........4
1.3
DEFINITIONS
.............................................................................................................4
2.
DESIGN LOADS AND
CRITERIA...............................................................................5
2.1
GENERAL
...................................................................................................................5
2.2
STRUCTURE
PROPER..............................................................................................5
2.3
ROTATING AND STATIC EQUIPMENT
....................................................................5
2.4
CRANE LOADS AND MOVING
LOADS.....................................................................6
2.5
LIVE LOADS (IMPOSED
LOADS)..............................................................................6
2.6
WIND LOADS
.............................................................................................................7
2.7
SNOW LOAD, ICE LOAD, SAND LOAD AND WATER
LOAD...................................7
2.8
DYNAMIC LOADS
......................................................................................................7
2.9
EXPLOSION AND IMPACT
LOADS...........................................................................8
2.10
THERMAL EFFECTS
.................................................................................................8
2.11
LOADS DURING ERECTION AND MAINTENANCE
.................................................9
2.12
EARTHQUAKE LOADS
..............................................................................................9
2.13
DIFFERENTIAL
SETTLEMENT..................................................................................9
2.14
LOAD COMBINATIONS
...........................................................................................10
3.
SITE INVESTIGATION AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
.................................12
4.

DESIGN AND CALCULATIONS

...............................................................................13
4.1
BASIC
DESIGN.........................................................................................................13
4.2
DETAILED
DESIGN..................................................................................................14
5.

DRAWINGS AND RELATED

DOCUMENTS............................................................15
5.1
GENERAL
.................................................................................................................15
5.2
STRUCTURAL
CONCRETE.....................................................................................16
5.3
STRUCTURAL STEEL
.............................................................................................17
6.
REFERENCES..........................................................................................................18
APPENDIX 1

CALCULATION OF WIND LOADS

.................................................................19

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
1.
1.1

INTRODUCTION
SCOPE
This
PTS
requirements and gives recommendations for structural
design
andspecifies
engineering.
This
PTS is also
applicable
torequirements
jetties and platforms
but these
special structures
will normally
need
additional
to be specified
separately.
This is a revision of the PTS of the same number dated
July 1998.
It
is intended
for use in oil
refineries,
chemical
plants, gas plants, and where
applicable,
in exploration,
production
and
new ventures.

1.2

DISTRIBUTION, INTENDED USE AND REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS

Unless
otherwise
authorised
PETRONAS,
the distribution
PTS is
confined
toby
companies
formingby
part
of the PETRONAS
group andof
to this
Contractors
nominated
them.
This PTS is intended for use by all involved in the creation, maintenance and
use of PTS.
If
national
and/or
local regulations
which
some ofshall
the determine
requirements
may
bescrutiny
more
stringent
than
in thisexist
PTS,inthe
Contractor
by
careful
which
of
the
requirements
are
the
more
stringent
andsafety,
which
combination
ofeconomic
requirements
willaspects.
be acceptable
as
regards
environmental,
and
legal
In
all
cases
the
Contractor
shall
inform
the Principal
of any deviation
from
requirements
of this and/or
PTS which
is
considered
to
bePrincipal
necessary
inthen
order
to the
comply
with
national
local
regulations.
The
may
negotiate
with
the
Authorities
concerned
with the object of obtaining agreement to follow this PTS as closely as possible.

1.3

DEFINITIONS
The
Contractor
is the party
which carries
out all or or
part
of the design,
engineering,
procurement,
construction,
management
of a
project,
or of
operation
or of
maintenance
of a commissioning
facility. The Principal
may undertake
all or part
the duties
the Contractor.
The
Manufacturer/Supplier
is the the
party
which
manufactures
or supplies
equipment
and services to perform
duties
specified
by the Contractor.
The
Principal
is the party which
initiates the
and ultimately
for its
design
and construction.
The Principal
willproject
generally
thepays
technical
requirements.
Principal
also include
an
agent or specify
consultant
authorised
to act for, and The
on behalf
of, may
the Principal.
The word shall indicates a
requirement.
The
word
should
indicates
a
recommendation.

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
2.
2.1

DESIGN LOADS AND CRITERIA

GENERAL
The
loads below.
which shall
be taken
into account in the design of structures are
described
The in
various
calculations
are given
(2.14).combinations of these loads to be used in the

2.2

STRUCTURE PROPER
The
dead weight of the structure shall be calculated, including the weight of
any fireproofing.

2.3
2.3.1

ROTATING AND STATIC EQUIPMENT

Weight of Rotating and Static Equipment
The
weight
of rotating
andshall
static
equipment
shall be derived as far as possible
from
Vendor
data and
include
controls,
insulation
on equipment
and related
piping,
etc. auxiliary machinery, piping,

2.3.2

Various Load Combinations

The
following
combinations of rotating and static equipment shall be
included
in the load
calculations.
2.3.2.1 Empty Weight of Rotating and/or Static Equipment
This
is the layers,
dead weight
of etc.,
the equipment,
insulation,
protection,
protective
internals
and shall beincluding
derived from
Vendorfire
data.
See note 5, Table 1 - Load Combination A
to E.
2.3.2.2

Operating Weight of Rotating and/or Static Equipment

This
is of
the
empty
weightcontents
(incl. internals)
of vessels,
columns,
weight
their
maximum
during operation
of the
plant. etc., plus the
2.3.2.3 Hydrostatic Test Load of Rotating and/or Static Equipment
When
pressure
testing
of with
equipment
required
at site, the weight
of
thishydrostatic
equipment
completely
filled
water is
shall
be incorporated
in the
design
of
the supporting
structure.
When
more
than
one
piece
of equipment
is supported
by one
structure, will
the
structure
need
only
betime,
designed
on the
basis
that
one
piece
ofempty
equipment
be
tested
at
any
one
and
that
the
others
will
either
be
or
still
in
operation.

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
2.4

CRANE LOADS AND MOVING LOADS

The
proposed
craneand
load criteriaCrane
applicable
cranesbealso
apply to at
other lifting
facilities
such
asincluding
monorails
loadsto shall
assumed
maximum
values
liftinghoists.
capacity
(operational
capacity
test load their
level) as
well as
the maximum
horizontal
loads caused
by braking
orand
acceleration.
At
least oneasroad
leading
to the main
process
or distribution area(s)
shall
be
designated
a heavy
equipment
route
and
bridges/culverts
including
other
underground
facilities
shall
be
designed
for
the
maximum
expected
loading
condition caused by transportation of heavy equipment.
For
theor
design
of moving
each structural
element
most unfavourable
position
of the
crane
other
shall
be the
considered.
For following
moving
loads
an
appropriate
impact
factor loads
shall be
applied
according
to the
guideline:
Loads applied due to cranes and moving sources shall not be less than the
following
(Ref.:ANSI/ASCE 7-95 CL 4.10 or BS 449 Part 2 - 1969
Chapter 3):
Electric Operation
Vertical impact loads increase maximum wheel
loads by:
Horizontal forces on rails taken as a percentage of
the
rated capacity of the crane
and
the weight of the hoist and
trolley
Transverseforces
to each
Horizontal
onrail:
rails taken as a percentage of
the
maximum wheel loads of
the
crane:

2.5

Hand Operation

25 %

10 %

10 %

5%

10 %

5%

Along the rails:

LIVE LOADS (IMPOSED LOADS)
The following live loads shall be taken into account:

For
floors,
platforms,
walkways
and
staircases
used
for
operational/maintenance purposes, the loads shall be derived from 2Vendor
data
withsingle
a uniformly
distributed
minimum
load
of more
5.00 unfavourable
kN/m or a
minimum
point
load
of
7.5
kN,
whichever
is
the
for the structural element(s) under consideration.
For floors,
platforms, walkways and staircases used for access only, 2
2
kN/m
or a single
loadelement(s)
of 3 kN,
is the more
unfavourable
for the point
structural
underwhichever
consideration.
2

For
roofsall accessible
for shall
inspection
andforrepair
1 2 kN/m
addition
roof members
be checked
a singleonly,
load of
kN. .
For railings a horizontal force of 1 kN at any one point.
For buildings see PTS 34.17.00.32 and PTS 34.17.10.30.

Note:

In

Where
applicable,
due regard
be given
to the
allowable
reduction
of live loads
for
multi-storey
buildings
or openshall
structures
under
maximum
wind
load conditions.

For
of eachpattern
structural
element the live
loads shall be applied in
the the
mostdesign
unfavourable
(checkerboard-type
loading).

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
The
of heat
exchangers
with removable
bundles
shall
calculated
on
a supports
pulling
force
of
of the weight
of the
bundle
unless
thebeprinciple
bundles
are
pulled
by means
of200%
a mechanical
device
which
acts
on the
of
equilibrium
of forces.
2.6

WIND LOADS
Wind
loads otherwise
shall be stipulated
determined
in accordance
withregulations,
Appendix see
1 of
this
PTS unless
by national
and/or local
(1.2).
The wind can blow in any direction and the most unfavourable case shall be
considered.
For
overhead
tracks
4 m wide
less, the pipe
wind tracks
load onofthe
three
pipes
shall
bepipe
taken
into of
account.
Fororshall
overhead
over
4 mlargest
wide,
the wind
load
on
the four
largest
pipes
be taken into
account.

2.7

SNOW LOAD, ICE LOAD, SAND LOAD AND WATER LOAD

Where
necessary,
snow,
and
sand load
be taken into account. The
load shall
be derived
fromice
local
regulations
or shall
experience.
Load due to rainwater accumulation shall also be taken into
account.
Note:

2.8

The maximum rainwater accumulation load with the drain pipes or down spouts blocked
shall be assessed.

DYNAMIC LOADS
A
detailedrequirements:
design and vibration analysis shall be made in accordance with the
following

2.8.1

Static deformation
The
static deformation
for
equipment
shall
be calculated
and
shown
toshall
be within
therotating
limits
stated
by
thefoundations
Vendor
of following
the
equipment.
calculations
include,
but
not
be
limited
to,
the
causesThe
of
deformation:
shrinkage and creep of
concrete;
- temperature
caused
by radiation
and convection of heat or cold
generated byefects
machinery,
piping
and ducting;
elastic deformation caused by changing vapour pressure in
condensers;
-

elastic deformation caused by soil settlement or elastic

compression of piles.
2.8.2

Vibration analysis
A
three-dimensional
vibration
analysis
for rotating
equipment
foundations
shall
be
made
and shall
show
that
the
dynamic
amplitudes
will not exceed
the lower
of the
following
values;
see
also
(2.8.6):
- the maximum allowable values stated by the Manufacturer of the
equipment;
- the
amplitude
(single amplitude) which causes the efective velocity of
vibration
to exceed:
a.
2 mm/s at the location of the machine-bearing
housings
structure b. 2.5 mm/s at any location of the
Note:

The effective
defined as
the square
of of
thea average
of the square
of the
the
velocity,
velocityvelocity
being ais function
of time.
In theroot
case
pure sinusoidal
function
effective velocity is 0.71 times the peak value of the velocity.

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
2.8.3

Exciting force
For
the vibration
analysis
of structures
and foundations
of rotating
(subject
to vibrations),
be taken
the equipment
maximum
values
tothe
theexciting
Vendor forces
of the shall
equipment,
will as
occur
during
the
lifetimethat,
of theaccording
equipment.

2.8.4

Schematic mechanical model

The
vibration
calculation
shall structure
be basedand
on foundation
a mechanical
wherein
the
weights
and
elasticity
of both
andmodel
the weight
of the
equipment
are
represented
in an appropriate
way.

2.8.5

Frequencies
All
natural frequencies
below
2 times
the operating
frequency
for reciprocating
equipment
and below 1.5
times
the operating
frequency
for rotating
equipment
shall be calculated.
It shall be demonstrated that the amplitudes of the natural frequencies
between 0.35 and
1.5 times the operating frequency are within the allowable values even
assuming that
resonance occurs due to diferences between the actual structure and the
assumed model.
In this case a reasonable amount of damping should be
estimated.
The
natural
frequency
of equipment.
the supporting structure shall not coincide with any
resonant
frequency
of the

2.8.6

Dynamic amplitudes
The dynamic amplitudes of any part of the foundation including any
reciprocating compressor shall be limited to a peak to peak amplitude of less
than 50 m or as otherwise specified by the Principal or Manufacturer/Supplier
of the rotating equipment.

2.9

EXPLOSION AND IMPACT LOADS

Explosion
impact
loads shall be included in the design, if required by the
Principal orand
local
standards.
Note:
collisions.

2.10
2.10.1

Impact loads may be due to explosions or

THERMAL EFFECTS
Thermal loads
When
thermal
expansion
resultsasinthe
friction
between
and times
supports,
the
friction
force
shall
be taken
operating
load equipment
on the support
the
applicable
friction
coeficient
given in the
table below.
Surfaces

Friction coefficient

Steel to steel (not

corroded)
Stainless steel to PTFE

0.30

PTFE to PTFE

0.08

Graphite to graphite

0.15

0.08

Note:
The maximum sliding bearing pressures of the above materials shall be taken
into account.

In
the design
of pipe supporting
beams,
the racks
horizontal slip
forces exerted
by
expanding
contracting
pipes
steel
pipe
assumed
be 15
%
of the or
operating
weight
ononthe
beam.
These shall
'slip be
forces'
shalltonot
be
distributed
to the foundations.

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
A concrete pipe rack beam shall be designed for an arbitrary horizontal pipe
anchor force of
15 kN acting at mid span, which likewise shall not be distributed to the
foundations.
For
pipe anchor
forces transferred
byoflongitudinal
girders
to per
structural
anchors
(bracing),
an
arbitrary
force design
of 5 %
the totaldictate
pipe
load
layer
shall
be
taken
into
account,
unless
calculations
a
higher
force.
These
forces shall be distributed to the foundations.
2.10.2

Thermo-mechanical forces and stresses

Foundations
and liquid retainingeffects
structures
fireproofing)
that
subject
to thermo-mechanical
shall(including
alsothat
bemay
designed
for are
the
thermal loads
and for any temperature diference
occur.
Heat transfer calculations shall be used to determine the
effects of:
a) thermo-mechanical forces and
stresses;
b) changing of any properties of
materials used.
Specific
attention
potential
changes
in properties shall be given if the
temperature
of the to
concrete
exceeds
70 C.

2.11

LOADS DURING ERECTION AND MAINTENANCE

All
possible loading
conditions during erection and maintenance shall be taken
into
eachaccount.
member.The most unfavourable condition shall be taken into account for
The
loads
of scafolding,
including the wind loads, shall be taken into account
for the
design
of the structure.
Heavy
equipment
lowered
onto a supporting
structure
can introduce
extreme
point
loads
on structural
members,
exceeding(lining
any operating
or test load.
After
placing
of extreme
equipment,
the
exact
positioning
out
and levelling)
can
also
introduce
point
loads.
The
above
should
be
interpreted
on
the
basis
of
the Contractor's practical experience and the Vendor's information.
Beams
and
floor the
slabs
multi-storeyloads
structures,
e.g. the
fire props
decks,supporting
shall be
designed
to carry
fullinconstruction
imposed
the
structure
immediately
above.the
A note
shall
be by
added
to
the relevant
construction
drawings
to
inform
field
engineer
of
the
adopted
design
philosophy.

2.12

EARTHQUAKE LOADS
Where applicable, earthquake loads shall be taken into
account.
The
frequency
offrom
occurrence
of earthquakes,
and
their intensity
and
duration
shall
be derived
seismological
data and/or
accelerograms
(i.e.
recordings
of
actual
accelerations
during
an earthquake),
local
codes
and
standards
orground
as specified
by the Principal.
Expansion joints shall be so designed that members of the structure do
not collide.
Where
necessary
a special
soil investigation
shall
besoil
conducted
to predict the
possibility
of ground
displacements,
settlements
and
liquefaction.
The origin of the earthquake data shall be given in the
calculations.
Note:
The "Uniform Building Code, UBC 1997, Volume 2" shall be used to obtain
earthquake loads.

2.13

DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT
The
variability of the
soil strata
mayand
result
in diferential
The
resulting
moments,
shear
axial
forces due settlement.
to diferential
settlementbending
shall be considered.

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
2.14

LOAD COMBINATIONS
Piles,
structures
and members
structures
as well as their support and fixing
points
shall
designed
for theofvarious
loading
in which
thebe
following
components
shall be
used:combinations given in Table 1,
a weight of structure
(2.2)
b

weight of rotating equipment

(2.3.1)

crane loads and movable loads

(2.4)

empty weight of rotating and/or static

equipment
operating weight of rotating and/or static

(2.3.2.1
)(2.3.2.2

-equipment
hydrostatic test load of rotating and/or static
-equipment
live loads

)
(2.3.2.3
)(2.5)

wind loads

(2.6)

snow/sand/water loads

(2.7)

dynamic loads

(2.8)

thermal efects

(2.10)

loads during erection and maintenance

(2.11)

earthquake loads

(2.12)

diferential settlement

(2.13)

e
f

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
TABLE 1

LOAD COMBINATIONS A TO E

Load
a
b
c

d
e
f

weight of structure
weight of rotating
and/or
rotating equipment
crane and movable loads
empty weight of rotating
and/or static equipment
operating weight of rotating
and/or static equipment
hydrostatic test load of
rotating and/or static
equipment

Operatio
without wind n
with wind
A
B
x
x
x

E
x

x5)

x1)

x
x

live loads
wind loads
snow/sand/water
loads

dynamic loads

l
m

thermal effects
loads
during erection
and maintenance

n
o

earthquake loads
diferential settlement
1.

x1)

g
h
j

Notes:

Earthquake

c
x

Erection
Maintenanc
e
D
x

Test

x
x

x3) 4)

x4)

x
x
x

x2)

x
x

The most unfavourable load combination shall be taken into account.

2. Only if the structure supports rotating equipment that will be in operation while a
vessel is being tested with water.
3. Only 50% wind load shall be taken into account.
4. The effect of wind forces acting on temporary scafolding erected during
construction
or for
subsequent When
maintenance
which
will be
transferred
to the
vessel
or column shall
be considered.
considering
these
effects,
the actual
projected
area of the should
scafold
the correct the
shape
factor
and of
drag
coefficient
bemembers
used. As together
an initialwith
approximation,
overall
width
the
scaffolding
itself
can
be
taken
as
1.5
m
on
each
side
of
the
vessel
or
column
with
50% closed surface and shape factor 1.
5. be
Temporary
load
situations of empty weight of equipment during erection shall
taken into
account.

x
x

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
3.

SITE INVESTIGATION AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

A
site investigation shall be carried out to determine the character and
variability
structures. of the soil strata underlying the foundations of the proposed
Reference
is made
PTS and
34.11.00.10
contains guidelines
for the
determination
of the to
extent
scope ofwhich
site investigations
and associated
reports.
The
selection
ofresults
foundation
whether piled, soil
bearing, etc.)
shall be
based
on the
of atypes
site (i.e.
investigation.
geotechnical
aspects
of
foundation
design
and engineering
are covered in The
PTS 34.11.00.12.
For the design of reinforced concrete foundations reference is made to PTS
34.19.20.31.

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
4.

DESIGN AND CALCULATIONS

4.1

BASIC DESIGN
Prior to starting detailed design, a basic design shall be made
consisting of:
-

a basic sketch

(4.1.1)
-

calculation

(4.1.2)
stability check (4.1.3)
and
-

main structural members

(4.1.4).
4.1.1

Basic sketch
The
shall show the proposed structure (in perspective and/or a series of
crosssketch
sections).
Structural members may be shown as
single lines.
The
sketch
the foundations,
will be
steelshall
and include
which part(s)
concrete. and also which part(s) of the structure
If
steel structures
needetc.,
to be
fireproofed,
e.g. air
heat
exchanger
structures,
pipe racks
maximum
use shall
be cooled
made of
prefabricated
concrete members.
All
applied loads shall be shown on the sketch, excluding the weight of the
structure
to (2.14). proper. The applied loads shall be classified in accordance with (2.1)

4.1.2

Calculation
The
calculation
shall give
the
design
shall follow
all loads,
including
the estimated
dead
weights
of philosophy
the relevantand
structural
components.
The
calculation
shall stateshear
the loads
in the main
structural members (axial
loads,
bending
moments,
and or
possibly
loads on
the foundation
(load per pile
per unittorsion),
of area).and shall include the
The calculation shall take into account the soil investigation
report (3.).
If
any computer
programs
to bestage
used for
the detailed
these shall
be
identified
during
the basicare
design
and
requireddesign,
documentation
shall
be supplied
to demonstrate
their accuracy
andall
applicability.

4.1.3

Stability check
The stability of the structure shall be checked for the non-factored load
combinations B, C
and D and, if applicable, E, (see
2.14).
The
following
ratios
shall
be used loads:
in calculations to prevent
foundations
fromstability
overturning
owing
to horizontal
for load combinations B, C and D a minimum
factor of 1.5.
for load combination E a minimum factor
of 1.25.

4.1.4

Main structural members

In
assessment
of combination
the sizes andshall
dimensions
of the main structural members
thethe
most
critical load
be considered.
Structural
details,
such
asfull
connections
ofreinforced
steel beams
and columns
or details
of
reinforcing
steel over
the
length of a
concrete
beam,
need
notthe
be
shown.
However,
when
prefabricated
concrete
elements
are
used
connections between the various elements shall be shown.

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
4.2

DETAILED DESIGN
The detailed design shall be based on the basic
design (4.1). The calculation shall clearly indicate:
1.
2.

The table of contents

Design philosophy

3.

Applicable codes, formulas, graphs/tables

4.
5.

References to literature, etc., for subjects not covered by applicable codes

Loading tables with loading location diagrams

6.

If computer programs are used, the following information shall be supplied:

a)

Logic and theory

used b)

User's

manual
c) Analytical model of the structure used for computer analysis
d) A manual calculation to prove the validity of the
computer analysis e) Loads and load combinations

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
5.

DRAWINGS AND RELATED DOCUMENTS

5.1

GENERAL
Drawings
shall be to
of the standard
sizes given
in PTS 02.00.00.10.They
shall be
suitably
prepared
electronic
storage
CD-ROM) and
a
revision
numberingfacilitate
and indication
system,
also(e.g.
in accordance
withincorporate
the above
PTS
publication.
Dimensions on the drawings shall be in the SI system, unless otherwise
specified. See PTS
00.00.20.1
0.
Levels shall be indicated in metres, all other dimensions in
millimetres.
Lay-out
drawings
the
highest point of grade, 0.00, and the reference
of this level
to theshall
localshow
datum
level.
All text shall be in
English.
Each drawing shall bear the following information, in the bottom righthand corner:
-

order number of the

Principal
name of
plant
name of
unit
name of part of the
unit
Exampl
e:
-

order

number
catalytic cracking
unit
compressor
building
portal
frames
Only drawings marked "Released for construction" shall be used
at the site.
This
mark "Released
construction"
responsible
for designfor
and
engineering.can be given only by the Contractor
Drawings
shall required
be submitted
together towith
relevant calculations,
including those
for submission
localthe
authorities.
Claim
to all drawings
preparedthe
by Principal,
the Contractor
under
order
placed
by
the
Principal
shall be vested
latterany
shall
have
the right
to use
these drawings
for anyinpurpose
withoutand
anythe
obligation
to the
Contractor.
The
Contractor
shall not
disclose
or issue
to third
without
written
consent
of the Principal
any
documents,
drawings,
etc.,parties
placed
at his disposal
by
the
Principal
or
any
documents
prepared
by
himself
in
connection
with
enquiries
and
orders
for purposes other than the preparation of a quotation
or
carrying out
these
orders.

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
5.2
5.2.1

STRUCTURAL CONCRETE
Plan drawing
On
thisondrawing
the general
shall be shown as General
Notes
the righthand
side ofinformation/data
the drawing.
The general notes shall state that:
1.
2.
3.

Levels are expressed in metres, with reference to the highest point of grade
Dimensions are expressed in millimetres
Bar diameters are expressed in millimetres

Furthermore, the general notes shall list:

4.
5.
6.

The quality (or qualities) of concrete*

The quality (or qualities) of steel reinforcing bars*
The quality (or qualities) of cement to be used*

* Including an indication for which part(s) each quality is to be used.

7. Concrete blinding (location, quality and thickness)
8. Polyethylene sheeting, if applicable (location and quality)
9. The concrete cover on bars (type of construction, location and thickness)
10. The list of reference drawings and related documents stating their title and
number
5.2.2

Detail drawings
On each of the detail drawings, the following information/data shall be listed:
1. For general notes, see Drawing No. ........ (5.2.1)
2. This detail drawing refers to Drawing No. .......
3.
For bar bending list(s), see No. ......, sheet 1 to ....... (5.2.3)
4. For weight list(s), see No. ........, sheet 1 to ........ (5.2.3)
5. Quantity of concrete (for each quality of concrete separately, including
environmental
classes of the location where the concrete will be
applied)

5.2.3

Bending and weight lists

These
listspreferably
shall always
be made,
unless explicitly
lists shall
be prepared
on separate
sheets. stated otherwise. The

5.2.4

Scale of drawings
Plan drawings shall be made to a scale of 1:50 and detail drawings to a scale of
1:20.

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
5.3
5.3.1

STRUCTURAL STEEL
General
Part
of the
supplied
the Principal
may be inprovided,
the form all
of
one
or
moreinformation/data
instruction
If by
instruction
the
dimensions
shown ondrawings.
these drawings
shall alsodrawings
appear onare
the Contractor's
drawings.

5.3.2

General arrangement drawings

This
drawingand
shall
show
the to
complete
to be supplied. All main
dimensions
the
section
be usedstructure
shall be included.
All members to be fireproofed shall be marked FP, as defined in PTS
34.19.20.11.
The
fireproofing
zone, as drawing.
defined in PTS 34.19.20.11., shall be indicated on
the general
arrangement
For
of the
general
arrangement
drawing, the Contractor
may the
usepreparation
a reproducible
of the
instruction
drawing(s).
For small and simple structures this drawing may be combined with the base
plate drawing
(5.3.3
).

5.3.3

Base plate drawing

This
drawing shall
allshall
dimensions
and
details
of the
base
plateof
including
holding-down
bolts,show
which
be taken
into
account
in the
design
the
(concrete) foundation.
When
theis need
for a
slight
holding-down bolts during
erection
expected,
this
shall adjustment
be indicatedof
on the
the drawing.
The scale for details shall be at least
1:10.
For
simple structures
this drawing may be combined with
the small
generaland
arrangement
drawing (5.3.2).

5.3.4

Construction drawings
These drawings shall clearly show all constructional details of the structure to
be supplied. The location of the various parts in the structure shall be
indicated.

5.3.5

Scale of drawings
Drawings shall be made on an appropriate
scale.

5.3.6

Mark drawing
On
this drawing
each part of the structure shall be properly marked for
identification
purposes.

5.3.7

Bills of material
Bills
of material shall show the weights of all large members, for the
purposes
structure. of transportation and erection at site, and also the total weight of the

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
6.

REFERENCES
In this specification, reference is made to the following publications.
Note:
The latest issue of each publication shall be used together with any
amendments/supplements/
revisions
to
such
publications.
It
is particularly
important
that when
the efect
international,
or other
standards
shall be
considered
they of
arerevisions
used in to
conjunction
withnational
PTS, unless
the
standard referred to has been prescribed by date.

PTS
Index
to PTS publications
and standard
PTS
00.00.05.05.
specifications
The use of SI units
PTS
00.00.20.10. Preparation and microfilming of technical drawings
PTS
02.00.00.10.
Site
investigation
PTS 34.11.00.10. Geotechnical and foundation engineering
PTS 34.11.00.12. Blast Resilient and Blast Resilient Control
Buildings
PTS 34.17.10.30.
/Field
Auxilliary
Rooms
Minimum
requirements
for design and engineering
34.17.00.32.
of buildings
Fire
hazards and
fireproofing/cold
34.19.20.11.
of steel
structures splash protection
Reinforced concrete foundations and structures
34.19.20.31.

PTS
PTS
PTS

INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
Model
for concrete chimneys, part A, "The
CICINDcode
Shell"
Model
code
for
steel
chimneys
CICIND
Issued by:
Perran House
Barnaby Mead Gillingham
Dorset SP8 4AL ENGLAND

AMERICAN STANDARD
1997
Uniform
Building design
Code : volume
2 : structural
Volume
2 engineering
provisions

UBC 1997,

Issued by:
ICBO
Headquarters,
5360 Workman Mill Road
Whittier, California 90601 - 2298

Minimum
design
ANSI/ASCE 7-95
Structur
es

loads

for

buildings

and

other

Issued by:
American Society of Civil Engineers
345 East 47th Street
New York, New York 10017-2398

BRITISH STANDARD
Specification for the use of structural steel in buildings
Part 2: 1969
Issued by:
British Standards Institution,
389 Chiswick High Road
London W4 4AL, England

BS 449,

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
APPENDIX 1
1.

CALCULATION OF WIND LOADS

WIND GUST DESIGN SPEED

Note:
Appendix.

For a list of symbols, see Section 7 of this

The Principal shall specify the mean hourly wind speed V10 (m/s) at a height of
10 m, which shall be accounted for in the design.
Note:

Normally the mean hourly wind speed can vary from 20 m/s up to 40 m/s. In
some
areas
withtornadoes,
cyclones,
hurricanes
or 50
typhoons,
mean
speed can
even
exceed 40 m/s
and values
between
m/s andthe
65 m/s
canhourly
occur.wind
The
values shall be taken from meteorological measurements.

All
structures
shall
be designed
forparts
a 10-second
gust, for
except
fora towers,
stacks
and
general
smaller
protruding
(e.g. ladders)
which
3-second
gust
shallin
used
in the
design.
For steel and concrete chimneys the requirements of the CICIND CODE for
Steel and
Concrete Chimneys shall apply. Uz (in m/s) is the design wind speed at
height z, hence:

U z F V

10

z

10

F and 1/ vary with gust duration and category of the locality, see Table 1.
TABLE 1
Category

2.

Topography
Extreme exposure - large
expanses of open water
and
grassland
Open country with low
obstructions - trees,
hedges,
2-storey buildings, etc.
Built-up areas and areas
with
high obstructions such as
towns and cities

F
3second

10second

1/

1.5

1.3

1/14

1.7

1.4

1/11

2.0

1.6

1/8

WIND PRESSURES ON CLOSED OR FULLY CLAD STRUCTURES

Wind
pressure
unit area acting on a structure in the direction of the wind
at height
z is pper
z
2
p = 0.637 x x C x K
(N/m )
z2
f
U
Values of Cf - the shape coefficient for infinitely long bodies - are
presented in Table 2. Values of K - the correction factor for aspect ratio are presented in Table 3.
The designer shall divide the height of the structure into sections, select values
of Cf and K
appropriate to each section, and compute the average wind pressure on each
section.

TABLE 2

Notes:

VALUES OF SHAPE COEFFICIENT Cf

1. This shape coefcient is applicable to all lengths of plate greater than the height.
2. The shape coeficients for sharp-edged bodies are substantially reduced by rounding the
edges.
The values in parentheses refer to the values obtained with a corner radius 1/4 the length
of a side
and decrease still further when the value of DUz increases beyond a critical value.
3.

The shape coefficients

for rounded
influenced
by the aerodynamic
surface roughness.
Thebodies
valuesare
quoted
are applicable
to values ofscale
the
and
by DU
the>7.
product
For DUz> 7 and circular pipes or tubes of normal surface roughness,
z
the
coeficient
varies
widely
but
does
not
exceed
0.7.
For
every
rough
surfaces
and
for
the 12-side polygonal section, a coeficient of 1.0 is more applicable.

TABLE 3

CORRECTION FACTOR K FOR ASPECT RATIO FOR SOLID BODIES

OR SHEETED IN STRUCTURES
Aspect
ratio
0 to 4
4 to 8
8 to
40

Notes:

K
0.6
0.7
0.8
1.0

1. When one end of a body rests on the ground, as for a chimney stack, = 2h/D
where D = external diameter.
2. correction
The influence
of aspect
ratio is much less for open structures for which no
factors
are applicable.
3. = aspect ratio, i.e. length to width of the aspect of a body normal to wind direction.

3.

WIND PRESSURES ON CONVENTIONAL BUILDINGS

The wind pressures
acting on sheeting or cladding of conventional closed
buildings per unit area is pz,
where pz = 0.637 x 2 x C (N/m2)
Uz
in which C is (Cpe - Cpi) or
C f:
Cpe, external pressure
coefficient; Cpi, internal
pressure coefcient.
The
pressure
coeficients
(C
pe) are given for a particular surface or part of the
surface
of aof
building.
The
total
windload
a building
is obtained
by vectorial
summation
the
loads
acting
on
all the on
surfaces
in a direction
normal
to that
surface.
Local
coefcients
shall
only be used
calculating
windloads
in the
designated
areas
andornot
for
calculating
the for
load
on entire
structural
elements
(i.e.
walls/roof
structure
as a whole).
Force coefcients (Cf) can be used for finding the total wind load on the building
as a whole. This (Cf) value difers from the pressure coefcients (Cpe) acting
on different faces of the
building. As the pressure coefcients represent the worst possible values the
critical value
shall be determined for each wind direction. However, these values shall not
be used for
vectorial
summation.
For
buildings which
areother
partly open
or provided with wide doors at the
windward
the
coefcient side
(Cpi) and
of +0.8
shall besides
used.of the building closed, an over pressure
In
buildings asanaforementioned
but partly open
or having
doors
at the
leeward
pressure
of -0.4
shalland
bewide
used.
For closed
buildings,side,
Cpi shallunder
be taken
as thecoefficient
more onerous
of +0.3
-0.3.
For
certain
of special
shape,
frictional
drag
shall
taken (e.g.
into
account.
For buildings
low
pitched
of large
areas
compared
with
the be
wall
multiple-span
roofs),
theroofs
contribution
ofapproximate
frictional
drag
acting
in area
the
wind
direction
may
become
significant.
An
value
for
the
frictional
coefcient is 0.05.

WIND LOAD COEFFICIENTS FOR BUILDINGS

PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS Cpe FOR THE WALLS OF RECTANGULAR
CLAD BUILDINGS
Building
height ratio

Wind
Angle B
degrees
0

+0.7

-0.2

-0.5

-0.5

90

-0.5

-0.5

+0.7

-0.2

3/2 < L/W < 4

0
90

+0.7
-0.5

-0.25
-0.5

-0.6
+0.7

-0.6
-0.7

-1.0

1 < L/W < 3/2

0
90

+0.7
-0.6

-0.25
-0.6

-0.6
+0.7

-0.6
-0.25

-1.1

+0.7

-0.3

-0.7

-0.7

90

-0.5

-0.5

+0.7

-0.1

0
90

+0.8
-0.8

-0.25
-0.8

-0.8
+0.8

-0.8
-0.25

+0.7

-0.4

-0.7

-0.7

90

-0.5

-0.5

+0.8

-0.1

Building
plan ratio
1 < L/W < 3/2

Cpe for surface

Local
Coefcient
s
-0.8

h/w < 1/2

1/2 < h/w <

3/2

3/2 < L/W < 4

1 < L/W < 3/2

-1.1

-1.2

3/2 < h/w < 6

3/2 < L/W < 4

Note:

-1.2

thelesser
heighthorizontal
to eaves of
parapet,of
L is
the greater
horizontalbelow.
dimension of a building and
whisisthe
dimension
a building
as indicated

PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS Cpe FOR PITCH ROOFS OF RECTANGULAR

CLAD BUILDINGS
Building
height ratio

h/w > 1/2

1/2 < h/w <

3/2

3/2 < h/w < 6

Note:

1
2
3

Roof
angle
degree
s
0
5
10
20
30
45
60

Wind
angle

Wind
angle

Local coefcients

EF

GH

EG

FH

-0.8
-0.9
-1.2
-0.4
0
+0.
3
+0.
7
-0.8

-0.4
-0.4
-0.4
-0.4
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6

-0.8
-0.8
-0.8
-0.7
-0.7
-0.7
-0.7

-0.4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.6
-0.6
-0.6
-0.6

-2.0
-1.4
-1.4
-1.0
-0.8

-2.0
-1.2
-1.4

-2.0
-1.2

-1.0
-1.2
-1.2
-1.1
-1.1
-1.1

-1.0
-0.9
-0.8
-0.8
-0.8
-0.8
-0.8

-0.6
-0.6
-0.6
-0.6
-0.8
-0.8
-0.8

-2.0
-2.0
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0

-2.0
-2.0
-2.0
-1.5

-2.0
-1.5
-1.5
-1.5

-0.9
-0.8
-0.8
-0.8
-0.8
-0.8
-0.8
-0.8

-0.7
-0.8
-0.8
-0.8
-0.7
-0.7
-0.7
-0.7

-2.0
-2.0
-2.0
-1.5
-1.5
-1.0

-2.0
-2.0
-2.0
-1.5

-2.0
-1.5
-1.5
-1.5

0
5
10
20
30
45
60

-0.9
-1.1
-0.7
-0.2
+0.2
+0.6

-0.6
-0.6
-0.6
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5

0
5
10
20
30
40
50
60

-0.7
-0.7
-0.7
-0.8
-1.0
-0.2
+0.2
+0.5

-0.6
-0.6
-0.6
-0.6
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5

-1.0
-1.2
-1.0
-1.0
-1.0

-1.0
-1.2
-1.2

h is the height to eaves or parapet and w is the lesser horizontal dimension of a building.
The
on the
underside
any roof overhang
should
be taken
as that on
the pressure
adjoiningcoefficient
wall surface.
Where
no localofcoefficients
are given
the overall
coefcients
apply.

y = h or 0.15 w
whichever
lesseris the

FORCE COEFFICIENTS Cf FOR RECTANGULAR CLAD BUILDINGS WITH

FLAT ROOFS (ACTING IN THE DIRECTION OF THE WIND)
L
w

b
d

4
1/4
3
1/3
2
1/2
1 1/2
2/3
1

3
2
1 1/2
1
Note:

Up to
1.2
0.7
1.1
0.7
1.0
0.95
0.8
0.9

1
1.3
0.7
1.2
0.75
1.05
0.75
1.0
0.85
0.95

Cf for height/width
ratio
2
4
6
1.4
0.75
1.25
0.75
1.1
0.75
1.05
0.9
1.0

1.5
0.75
1.35
0.75
1.15
0.8
1.1
0.95
1.05

1.6
0.75
1.4
0.8
1.2
0.85
1.15
1.0
1.1

10

12

0.9

1.2

1.4

b is the dimension
of the of
building
normal
to the
wind,horizontal
d is the dimension
ofof
the
building
measured
in the direction
the wind,
L is the
greater
dimension
a building
and w is the lesser horizontal dimension of a building.

4.

WIND FORCES ON OPEN STRUCTURES

1.

The total wind force on a frame at a height z is given by

2

the formula: Pz = A x 0.637 x Uz x Cfs

2.

(N)

For
structures
with similar
windward and leeward frames the
totalmulti-frame
wind load on
the structures
is:
2

Pz = A x 0.637 x x Cfm

(N)

Uz
where Cfm = Cfs I
n
x

for

(for = 1, Cfm = Cfs x n)

In this formula: n = number of frames

= shielding factor, see Table 5

TABLE 5 SHIELDING FACTOR

3.

0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
10.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.8

1.0

0.93
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

0.75
0.81
0.87
0.90
0.93
1.00

0.56
0.65
0.73
0.78
0.83
1.00

0.38
0.48
0.59
0.65
0.72
1.00

0.19
0.32
0.44
0.52
0.61
1.00

0.00
0.15
0.30
0.40
0.50
1.00

0.00
0.15
0.30
0.40
0.50
1.00

0.00
0.15
0.30
0.40
0.50
1.00

The dependence of Cfs on for single frames with flat-sided or round

members is given in Table 6.
TABLE 6 SHAPE COEFFICIENTS FOR A SINGLE FRAME OR TRUSS
Solidity ratio
0 to
0.1
0.1 to
Note:

Flat sided
members
2.0
1.8
1.6

Shape coefficients Cfs

Round members
DUz < 7
DUz > 7
1.2
0.8
1.3
0.9
1.5
1.1

D refers to the individual member.

Within 0.02 of the common boundary of the ranges of , the mean values
of Cfs for the two ranges may be used.
4. For practical values of , the influence of aspect ratio on the shape
coefcient for a single frame, Cfs may be disregarded.
5. aThe
above
give wind loads
where wind
direction
is normal
to
face
a methods
structure.
loads
be 20%
higher
when the
wind
is of
directed
along aMaximum
diagonal of
the may
section.
6. relationships
In deviation from
previous
paragraphs,
the following
simple
may the
be used
for triangular
section
towers when
( < 0.4:
Cfm = 3.5 - 4
for structures with flat-sided members, and
Cfm = 2.5 - 3

for structures
with round
members,
with
maximum
loads
occurring when
wind is
normal to
a face.

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
5.

WIND FORCES ON SOME SHORT

BODIES
Values for the shape coefcients are given in the following table:
TABLE 7

VALUES OF Cf FOR SOME SHORT BODIES = 1)

*
The wind force in a direction normal to the face of the bowl reaches a maximum in a wind
inclined 30 to
60 degrees to the
normal.

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
6.

VORTEX FORMATION
Most
bluffon
obstructions
a wind
stream
shed as
eddies
alternately
on onein side
and
then
the other, in
forming
what
is known
a von
Karman vortex
the
wake.
The
eddy shedding
may cause
cyclicmay
sideways
loading incyclic
the structure,
and
downstream
structures
also experience
sideways
loadingnearby
from the
vortex street.
In
the caseproblems
of tall slender
structures
and cyclic
chimneys
whichcoincides
are susceptible
to
oscillation,
arise if the
loading
with the
natural frequency
of may
the structure.
For slender structures, such as chimneys, the eddy shedding
frequency equals:

sv
D
where
section

(Hz)
S = 0.20 for structures of circular cross
S = 0.15 for structures of square cross section and for
flat plates

The
natural frequencies
susceptible
and with
structural
elements
shall
be
checked
to ensure of
that
they
do structures
notshall
coincide
the eddy
shedding
frequency.
Alternatively,
the
structure
be
stif
enough
to
prevent
excessive sway, or measures shall be taken to prevent vortex formation.
Note: For concrete or steel chimneys reference shall be made to the CICIND MODEL CODES
for Steel or
Concrete Chimneys

PTS
34.00.01.30
November
7.

LIST OF SYMBOLS
D
transverse dimension of the body normal to the wind direction,
(m)
U

design wind speed for specified period of less than 60

seconds, (m/s) Uz
v

U at height z

design wind speed for specified period longer than 60 seconds,

(m/s)
mean hourly wind speed,

(m/s) F = U/v
A

gust factor

total projected area of all individual members of one

2

frame, (m ) K

correction factor, depending on aspect ratio

Cf

shape coefficient

Cfs

shape coefficient for a single frame

Cfm

shape coefficient for a total multi-frame structure

Cp

pressure coefficient

pz
Pz
h
n

wind pressure at height z2 (N/m ), on closed or fully clad

structures
(Appendix 1; section 2), or wind pressure at
height
2 z on conventional buildings (Appendix 1; section 3),
(N/m )
total wind force at height z
height of building or structure, (m)
number of frames

1/

height above ground, (m)

shielding factor
wind direction
an exponent giving variation of the design wind speed with height

aspect ratio, i.e. length to width of the aspect of a body

normal to wind direction
spacing ratio, equals the distance, centre to centre, between
the frames divided by the least overall dimension of the
frame,
beam
or wind
girder measured at right angles to the
direction
of the

N
Newton m
metre
s

solidity ratio, i.e. ratio of the projected area of the individual

members of a frame to the total area enclosed by the frame

second