Advanced Geomorphology

Montri Choowong, Ph.D

Department of Geology
Faculty of Science
Chulalongkorn University
Bangkok, Thailand

First version as lecture note distributed to student in 2006

2008 Montri Choowong
This book is prepared for Advanced Geomorphology and Geomorphology courses of the
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University. Some modifications,
transmission or reproduction may be made with the permission from author in writing form.

Preface
This book was developed from a lecture note over the years while teaching
Advanced Geomorphology and Geomorphology in the Department of
Geology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University. The book itself is not
intended as a complete account of all you need to know about
geomorphology or its related sedimentology. But rather offer definitions,
explanations of those parts of geomorphology and related sedimentology to
which students most often find difficult to understand. It is intended primarily
for postgraduate and undergraduate students.
Geomorphological study in the present day becomes very important in
terms of how to explain the processes of the recent geological changes. I
hope all students who read this book will appreciate by now that the book will
help acquire the knowledge of the basic essentials of geomorphology, leading
to advance it with some other related subjects like sedimentology, even
remote-sensing. Also, the benefit of the book is that student can easily find
references at the end of each chapter for their continue reading and
researches.
Apart from my written chapters, this book is partly updated from some
selected content in book of a training course Introduction to Quaternary
Geology, edited by Dr. Narong Thiramongkol and Dr. J.A.M. Ten Cate. Both
senior editors combined all essential basic knowledge of geomorphology and
Quaternary Geology together under training program sponsored from The
Committee for Co-ordination of Offshore Prospecting in East Asia (CCOP)
held in January 1984. In that book contains two volumes with a large number
of experts written in their easy reading styles. I use some major parts in that
book for several years, developed it as my own lecture note. I found that it has
direct benefit to students, if I can include more advanced research result into it.
There are six parts, Part I starts with a brief introduction to basic
principles underlying the study of forms, landforms. Definitions and terms of
some essential geomorphological terms are described and summarized. The
use of geomorphological map and some of its applications is also introduced.
Coastal landforms and range of coastal variation and sediment dynamic on
the coast is at the end of the Part I. Part II deals with the description of
sedimentary environment and processes to which they often mentioned to
relate with geomorphological processes and landforms. Summary of example
research findings in palynology and paleontology studies in special relation to
the variation in stratigraphy is the main theme of Part III. Among landform
development, the Quaternary process is of significant to involve with the most
recent evolution of landforms. Therefore, Part IV deals directly with the
process normally occur in Quaternary period. Special attention is paid to the
change in climate condition leading to the change in global sea-level variation.
At the end of this part, the most up-to-date Quaternary Geology in Thailand
chapter was introduced that is based solely on the on-going publication in
book series Geology of Thailand that will be officially published by the
Geological Society of London. This part is one sample of what Thai geologist
did in the part in the theme of Quaternary research. Part V includes some
techniques that often apply for basic and advanced geomorphology. Students
i

will learn the field and laboratory concept to be able to conduct their future
researches. Drilling and sampling method are among the significant technique
students strongly need to know. In the last Part VI, the weathering product
from the change in climate and physical properties of surface material will de
discussed in terms of how soil developed through time. Special emphasis is
on the place where tropical climate is dominated.

Montri Choowong, Ph.D

ii

Acknowledgements
Apart from my written chapters, permission to make this book possible,
definitely, has come directly from Dr. Narong Thiramongkol, main editor of
CCOP training course manual. Dr. Narong has encouraged me to modify part
of his book to be appropriately updated for my teaching in Geomorphology
and Advanced Geomorphology courses. He cheered me up every time we
met and guided to include some more up-to-dated data, for example,
Quaternary and geomorphology of Thailand. Until now, I have been spent
almost 5 years developing this book, starting from make it as a lecture note.
Surely, this is not a final version, but it will be developed again and again by
the next coming years.
Thanks are also to the original articles by several experts I selected
and modified their written to include in this book. They include Dr. J.A.M. Ten
Cate, Dr. J.A. Okkerman, Dr. R. Hillen, Dr. I. Khemruenromna.
People who made this book possible include my former M.Sc students.
They are Pannipa Tien, Rottana Ladachart and Rattakorn Songmuang
(passed away). Without their will and power, I cannot finish this for sure. Also,
this book tributes to Rattakorn. The comment from students has made a lot of
improvement arisen to the book. I learned a lot on what are the main points
students often find difficult to understand. Those comments are of my
appreciation and inspired me to modified and also updated figures and tables
in all chapters. Thanks are to students indeed.
Finally, I am, of course, solely responsible for any shortcomings or
errors that may remain in the text. As stated earlier, this book is not the final
version of Advance Geomorphology, it rather provides a summary of what
students need to know as a basis. More up-to-date idea and result of more
recent research will surely be included in the future. However, with my strong
intension to do so, I wish this version of the book will be able to inspire
geology students who eager to know more about Geomorphology as we
named this book Advanced Geomorphology as its name implied.

iii

Contents
Page
Preface
Acknowledgements

i
iii

Part I: Geomorphology
1.1 Definitions: landforms and forms
1.2 Processes
1.3 Landforms in the humid tropics
1.4 Geomorphological maps and some of its applications
1.5 Range of coastal variation and sediment dynamic on
the coast

1
1
10
19
32

Part II: Sedimentology

2.1 Sedimentary environment I
2.2 Sedimentary environment II
2.3 Sedimentary processes

42
42
64
77

Part III: Palaeotology

3.1 Palaeotology and stratigraphy
3.2 Palynology

90
90
98

Part IV: Quaternary

4.1 Introduction to Quaternary
4.2 Climate and climatic changes
4.3 Sea level (short, medium, long and very long-term)
4.4 Quaternary geology in Thailand

107
107
110
117
126

Part V: Geomorphological techniques

5.1 Geomorphological survey and mapping
5.2 Grain size determination and mineral separation
techniques
5.3 Drilling and sampling

156
156

Part VI: Soil process

6.1 Main soil groups
6.2 Weathering and tropical landform evolution

180
180
189

Author Biography

204

37

164
174

Advanced Geomorphology

Montri Choowong, Ph.D

1.1 Definition: Landforms and Forms

1. Landforms
In landform studies slope is implying any inclined geometric element of the
earth's surface. The ground surface is composed of sloping and flat elements (linear
elements), and of convex and concave elements, several of which may combine in a
single landform.
On the basis of absolute height (height above sea-level), relative height
(difference in height between two forms), and external shape of the form we may
distinguish for example the following list of landforms:
I.
Positive forms
A. Mountain
A1 Very high mountain
A1a Rel. height > 800 m
A1b Rel. height 500 < h < 800 m; abs. height > 2000 m
A2 Moderately high mountain
A2a Rel. height 500 < h < 800 m; abs. height < 2000 m
A2b Rel. height 500 < h < 500 m; abs. height > 2000 m
A3 Low mountain
A3a Rel. height 300 < h < 500 m; abs. height < 2000 m
A3b Rel. height 200 < h < 300 m; abs. height > 2000 m
A3c Rel. height 200 < h < 300 m; abs. height < 2000 m
B. Hill
B1 High hill
B1a Rel. height 100 < h < 200 m; abs. height > 2000 m
B1b Rel. height 100 < h < 200 m; abs. height 500 < h < 200 m
B1c Rel. height 100 < h < 200 m; abs. height < 500 m
B2 Low hill
B2a Rel. height 50 < h < 100 m
C. Hillock
C1 High hillock
C1a Rel. height 25 < h 50 m
C2 Low hillock
C2a Rel. height 5 < h < 25 m
D. Rise
D1 High rise
D1a Rel. height 1 1/2 <h < 5 m
D2 Low rise
D2a Rel. height 1 1/2 <h < 1 1/2 m
E. Plateau
E1 High plateau
E1a Rel. height > 200 m
E1b Rel. height 30 < h < 200 m; abs. height > 500 m

Advanced Geomorphology

Montri Choowong, Ph.D

E2 Low plateau
E2a Rel. height 30 < h < 200 m; abs. height < 500 m
E3 Plateau-like form
E3a Rel. height < 30 m
F. Terrace
A subdivision of terrace forms could be based on the height above the main
stream for example;
F1: < 5 m; F2: 5 < h < 30 m; etc.
G. Fan-shaped form
H. Slope (slope-angle > 2), see paragraph 2: slopes
K. Slightly inclined surface (slope-angle 1/2 < degree < 2)
II. Neutral forms
L. Plain
III. Negative forms
M. Depression
N. Valley
A subdivision of valleys could be based on the depth of the valleys for example
N1: < 5 m depth; N2: 5-30 m depth, etc. the type of valley can also be indicated
for example V-shaped valley, flat-bottom valley, etc.
2. Slopes
A knowledge of slope angles is necessary for the study of present-day
processes and to understand the development of the relief. Measurement and direct
representation of slopes are needed for most geomorphological studies.
The sources of slope data are either estimates or measurements in the field,
on air photo's, or on a map. Slope angles can be easily determined from contour
maps (slope lengths and differences in height):
tg A = h
P
Where A is the slope angle in degree, h is the difference in height in metres
and P is the horizontal projection of the slope distance in metres.
In the following slope categories, notes are given on a) landforms, b)
characteristic present-day and partly past geomorphological processes, and c)
economic values:

Advanced Geomorphology

0-2

2-5

5-15

15-35

> 35

Montri Choowong, Ph.D

plain and slightly inclined surface

a) floodplains, terraces, slopes of watersheds, planation surfaces,
slightly undulating areas
b) sheet wash absent or relatively weak, beginning of soil erosion
c) no obstacles to walking, road and railway transport; best conditions
for the construction of houses, settlement and industries;
mechanization of agriculture and forestry possible
Gently inclined slope
a) some dune areas and valley sides, slopes of terraces, undulating
areas, fan-shaped forms
b) mass movements start (solifluction, rill-wash and sheet-wash, soil
erosion). Some soil protection in agricultural regions necessary
c) transport difficulties for wheeled vehicles; cultivation still possible
with large tractors. Cultivation in the direction of contours advisable.
Difficulties with irrigation plants. Still favourable conditions for the
construction of settlements and industries
Strongly inclined slope
a) valley sides, slopes of terraces and plateaus, dunes
b) strong erosion (sheet and rill erosion), mass-movements of various
kinds. Soil protection in agricultural areas is necessary
c) difficulties in transport, and in road building. Ploughing without
contour terraces impossible. Difficulties for tractors. Problems in
construction of settlements and industries
Moderately steep slopes
a) typical valley sides in mountainous areas, inactive coastal cliffs
b) intensive denudation processes, great menace by soil erosion
c) limit of cultivation; walking exhausting; limit for road transport with
special vehicles; above 25 no possibility for agriculture or house
building, and predominantly forest
Very steep slopes
a) undercut slopes of valleys, slope of hogbacks and cliffs, canyons
b) intensive denudation and erosion
c) mostly forest, but also limit of utilization in forestry; very difficult to
walk; cultivation not possible; debris fall

Slopes are full of irregularities. A slope, which appears smooth from a

distance, may be rough in reality. If the slope is being compared with slopes in
contrasted morphogenetic regions, the overall characteristics may be more
important, but if it is being compared with other slopes in the same valley or some
general areas, then the detailed characteristics will be significant. Savigear (1967)
has suggested that problem of scale in slope studies may be tackled by recognizing
that a hillslope from divide to stream channel consists of a number of components,
which are themselves composed of a number of smaller forms called units (figure 1).

Advanced Geomorphology

Montri Choowong, Ph.D

3. Erosional and depositional zones of slope components

As water removes material and carries it down a slope, it tends to erode the
upper section of the slope but if the removal of material at the base of the slope is
not equal to the rate of material from above, it may deposit material at the foot of the
slope, thus creating an upper erosional zone and a lower depositional zone on any
given slope.
Fringing may hillslopes in the humid tropics are zones of colluvium, material
either washed downslope by water or carried by mass movement.
Even on a uniform lithology, the contrasted effects of erosion on the upper
part of a slope and accumulation on the lower part would be expected to produce
differences in form. The depositional and erosional parts of slopes may be regarded
as two separate components.
Erosional slopes contain an upper convexity where soil creep (a type of mass
movement) is dominant and a lower concavity principally formed by concentrated
flow. Such a convex-concave slope is represented by the lowest of the four
schematic slope profiles in figure 1 (Baulig, 1940).
This simple slope is but one of a variety of slope forms to be found in humid
regions. Lithological variations along a slope greatly affect slope form (in humid
tropical areas less than in humid temperate areas). Also vegetation influences slope:
loose sand and gravel debris have an average angle of repose of about 33, while
natural forested slopes on this material have a mean angle of 41.
These lithological and biotic factors introduce complications into the simple
convex-concave type of slope.
To accommodate this variety of slopes, Dalrymple et al. (1968) has
developed a hypothetical 9-unit land surface model (figure 1). Figure 2 gives
examples of the application of the 9-unit land surface model.

Figure 1 Theoretical combinations of slope convexity and concavity (after Douglas,

1977)

Advanced Geomorphology

Montri Choowong, Ph.D

Figure 2. Applications of the 9-unit land surface model to slope profiles from different
environments (after Douglas, 1977)

Advanced Geomorphology

Montri Choowong, Ph.D

On the interfluve (unit 1 of the 9-unit model) pedological processes involving

the vertical movement of subsurface water are dominant. Unit 2 is a seepage zone
where through flow and thus lateral eluviation is important. The convex unit 3 is
dominated by soil creep, while unit 4 is the free face of rock outcrop affected by
rockfalls. Unit 5, the transport mid-slope, is similar, but not equivalent to the straight,
or constant slope mentioned previously. The dominant process is the transport of
material across the unit. The deposition of colluvial material from above dominated
the straight or concave unit 6, while unit 7 (the equivalent of a river floodplain) is
dominated by the deposition of alluvial material brought down the valley by a river.
The erosive and transport actions of the river dominate the channel wall (unit 8) and
the channel bed (unit 9).
While slopes are of crucial significance in all landform studies, they should not
be studied in isolation, but should be related to the whole morphological
environment, which in humid landform areas means that slope processes and forms
must be related to river processes and fluvial landforms.
Considerations of the relationship between slope angle and slope stability
inevitably lead to questions of the way in which slope forms change with time. Such
changes are so slow that observational techniques can hardly provide direct
evidence of the pattern of slope evolution. Experiments in slope evolution have been
carried out (physical model experiments and mathematical models). In the humid
tropics, Nossin (1964) and Swan (1970) have found that in West Malaysia slopes
receded through the migration of the weathering front back into the hillslope.
4. Fluvial forms as example
Rivers act as a transporting agent for both excess of water and sediment.
Furthermore they are an erosional and depositional medium creating characteristic
landscapes and morphological features. The character and appearance of a river
normally changes markedly on its way from the mountainous "hinterland" to the
relatively flat coastal/deltaic plain.
The uppermost part is the collecting subsystem or sediment source area. Part
two is the transfer-zone, where for a stable channel input of sediment can equal
output. The lowermost part is the area of deposition.
4.1 The collecting subsystem
The collecting subsystem is formed by the tributaries in the headwaters of a
drainage basin. Here water and sediment are collected and transported through
valleys (V-liked valleys, flat-bottom valleys, asymmetric valleys, etc.).
A drainage pattern is the arrangement of natural lines (main streams and
their tributaries) in an area. The various types of drainage patterns are related to
local geology and geological history.
The drainage density is the relative spacing of drainage lines and is
depending on rainfall, vegetation, rock permeability, infiltration capacity, and relief.

Advanced Geomorphology

Montri Choowong, Ph.D

The drainage basin (or catchment area) of a river is the entire tract of
country drained by that river and its tributaries. The boundary line between adjacent
drainage basins is the divide (or watershed).
An alluvial fan is a body of detrital sediments built up by a steam or
processes of mass wasting. The shape of the fan resembles a segment of a cone.
Most fans have a concave upward profile. The angle of dip rarely exceeds 10, the
lower parts are generally much less steep. The channel system runs from apex to
foot and sweeps systematically over the fan surface.
4.2 The transporting system
Rivers can be classified based on various characteristics, for example the
origin of water (snow-, glacier-, and rain-rivers) or the changes in water discharge
(intermittent, permanent). The most common subdivision of rivers is the one based
on their channel pattern. Among the recognized channel patterns are: meandering,
braided, straight and anastomosed. The former two are by far the most common.
A stream is called meandering if its single channel has a sinuosity (ratio of
channel length to valley length) of at least 1.5. In and near bends, a meandering
channel is asymmetric in cross-section; greatest depths occur near outer banks. In
between bends, the cross-sections are more or less symmetrical. The deeps at
bends are called pools, the shallows in between bends are called riffles. At low water
stages riffles tend to be eroded, their material is collected in the pools. When
discharge increases again, pools are scoured, anew bringing the eroded sediment
onto the (downstream) riffles.
Braided channels are single channel bed-load rivers, which at low water
have islands of sediments, or relatively permanent vegetated islands exposed in the
channels. They have a much greater width-depth ratio than meandering channels.
The small absolute depth of the channels implies that the highest velocities,
occurring at or near the water surface, are also close to the bed. It means that the
traction power on the bed is high.
Straight channels are those, which have a sinuosity of, less than 1.5. The
"talwegs" (line jointing the lowest points along a valley) of straight rivers are sinuous
in plan, moving from near one bank to near the other between bars of sediments
arranged alternately along the banks. Also pools and riffles develop.
Anastomosed rivers form an interconnected network of low-gradient,
relatively deep and narrow, straight to sinuous channels with stable banks
composed of fine-grained sediment.
The most important factors influencing the channel pattern are: discharge,
sediment load and gradient (slope). It is important to note that most of the channel
configuration is decided at bankfull discharge (the stage above which the
riverbanks are flooded).
The main features of braided rivers are: bar and channel (active, dry, and
abandoned).
The main features of meandering rivers are: pointbar, channels (active and
abandoned), natural levee, flood basin (or back-swamp) and washover fans.

Advanced Geomorphology

Montri Choowong, Ph.D

A river-terrace is a remnant of a former valley flat (flood plain) in which the

river has incised its new channel. Thus, there is always a difference in elevation
between a terrace and the present valley floor of a river, paired terraces are located
at equal elevation on both sides of the valley. They result primarily from lateral
erosion of the river with only minor vertical erosion before renewed incision took
place. Non-paired terraces result from continued vertical as well as lateral erosion.
Criteria used for correlation of terraces are: elevation, lithology, and soil formation
and weathering. The most common causes for terrace formation are changes in
climate (i.e. changes in river pattern, changes in sediment supply), eustatic changes
in sea-level (i.e. change in base level) and tectonic movements.

Figure 3. The fluvial system (picture from

http://www.daac.gsfc.nasa.gov/.../GEO_PLATE_F-12.shtml

Advanced Geomorphology

Montri Choowong, Ph.D

References
Baulig, H., 1940. Le profil d' equilibre des versants. Annales Geogr., 49, pp. 81-97.
Chorley, R.J., ed., 1971. Introduction to fluvial processes. Methuen, London.
Dalrymple, J.B., Bloug, R.J., and Conacher, A.J., 1968. An hypothetical nine unit
landsurface model. Zeitschr.f. Geomorphologie, N.F., 12, pp. 60-76.
Demek, J., 1972. Mannual of detailed geomorphological mapping. Czezhoslovakia
Academy of Sciences, Akademia, Prague, 344 p.
Douglas, I., 1977. Humid landforms. Australian Nat. Univ. Press, Canberra, 288 p.
Leopold, L.B. and Wolman, M.G., 1960. River meanders. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 71,
pp. 769-794.
Lewin, J., 1978. Floodplain geomorphology. Prog. Phys. Geogr. 2, pp. 408-737.
Nossin, J.J., 1964. Geomorphology of the surroundings of Kuantan (Eastern
Malaysia). Geologie en Mijnbouw, 44, pp. 157-182.
Savigear, R.A.G., 1967. The analysis and classification of slope profiles. In Macar,
P. (ed.), L' evolution des versants. V Rapport de la Commission pour l'
etudedes versants de l' U.G.I. Liege (Belgium), pp. 271-290.
Schumm, S.A., 1977. The fluvial system. Wiley, new York.
Swan, S.B. St C., 1970. Relationships between regolith, lithology and slope in humid
tropical region, Johore, Malaysia. Trans. Inst. Br. Geogr., 51,pp. 189-200.

Questions
1. What are difference between braided system and meandering system?
2. What is the morphology of river terrace after long-term weathering and
erosion?
3. What are the causes of slope gradient difference on rocky highland?

Exercises
1. Group discussion on the pattern of drainage system difference in Thailand.
2. Short presentation and discussion on how to recognize difference in drainage
pattern from topographical map.

Advanced Geomorphology

Montri Choowong, Ph.D

1.2 Processes

1. Introduction
Geomorphological processes are all those physical and chemical changes,
which effect a modification of the earth's surficial forms.
The present landforms are the result of endogenetic, exogenetic, and
extraterrestrial processes.
Endogenetic is a term applied to processes originating within the earth;
exogenetic is a term applied to processes originating at or near the surface of the
earth; and extraterrestrial is a term applied to processes from outside the earth.
All the processes, which bring the surface of the earth lithosphere to a
common level, are called "gradation". Gradational processes belong to two
categories: those, which level down "degradation", and those, which level up
"aggradation".
The three distinct degradational processes are: weathering, denudation and
erosion.
Weathering is the physical disintegration and chemical and biogenetic
decomposition of rock that produces an in situ mantle of waste and prepares
sediments for transportation. Most weathering occurs at the surface, but may reach
considerable depths in tropical areas. Denudation is the transportation of
weathering products down slopes by mass movement and/or sheet wash. Erosion
is the wear of solid rock and loose material by the impact of detrital fragments and
particles carried by running water (concentrated and unconcentrated), groundwater,
wind, glaciers or the sea, and the removal of the loosened material (erosion includes
transportation). Mass movement or mass wasting is the transfer of weathering
products down slopes under the direct influence of gravity. Sheet wash is the
transfer of weathering product downslopes under the direct influence of
concentrated run-off.
2. Endogenetic processes and forms
2.1 Process
Forces responsible for endogenetic processes originate at some depth within
the earth crust. They elevate or built-up portions of the earth surface and prevent
that the earth land will be reduced to sea level.
Geologists have long recognized that the earth has its own source of internal
energy, which is manifested repeatedly by earthquakes, volcanic activity, and
mountain-building, but it was not until the late 1960s that an unifying theory of earth
dynamics was developed. This theory, known as plate tectonics, has radically
transformed our thinking about the crust and its movements. Abandoned is the old
idea that the crust is a fixed and rigid sphere, with movements being largely vertical.
We now have evidence that the crust is in continual motion, with individual
fragments or plates moving thousands of kilometers. As the plates move, split apart,

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Montri Choowong, Ph.D

collide, and descent back into the mantle, they create earthquakes, volcanism,
mountain-building, and other features in the "solid" part of the surface.
The basic elements of the plate tectonic theory are quite simple. The
lithosphere, which includes the oceanic and continental crust, and the upper mantle
is rigid, whereas the underlying asthenosphere yields to plastic flow (figure 1).
Although there are many unsolved questions, radiogenic heat in the upper mantle
is considered to be the basic source of energy.
The heat causes the material in the asthenosphere to move slowly in a
convection cell, with the hot material rising to the base of the lithosphere where it
than moves laterally, cools, and descends to become reheated, beginning the cycle
again. Where the convecting mantle rises, it arches the lithosphere to form the midoceanic ridge and, as it moves laterally, it pulls the rigid lithosphere apart (sea-floor
spreading). The lithosphere is thus broken into a series of fragments or plates,
which are several thousand kilometers in diameter. As the plates move apart, molten
rock from the hot asthenosphere rises into the rift zone and cools to form new crust.
The continental blocks, composed of relatively light granitic rock, float
passively on the denser lower part of the lithosphere, sometimes splitting and
sometimes colliding. Plates containing dense oceanic crust move via the descending
convection currents down into the asthenosphere at the deep oceanic trenches and
are consumed. By contrast, plates containing light continental crust cannot sink back
into the mantle. Instead, continental margins adjacent to the descending plates are
deformed into linear folded mountain belts.
The boundaries of plates thus coincide with ridges and trenches, and mark
zones of earthquakes and volcanic activity. According to the plate tectonic theory,
the lithosphere is moving at a rate of 2 to 16 cm per year.

Figure 1. Generalized global tectonic model

(http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol111/pltect.htm).

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Montri Choowong, Ph.D

2.2 Forms
Surface forms created by endogenetic processes can be divided into three
groups of forms.
a) Neotectonic forms caused by tectonic movements in the crust e.g. fault scarps,
crests of anticlinal arches, slope of horsts and "grabens", earthquake
displacements and salt domes represented by topographic highs.
b) Volcanic forms include all forms due to volcanic eruptions. Central eruption
build/volcanic cones of various types. Fissure eruptions take place along a
fissure or series of fissures. Many types of volcanoes can be recognized (see
e.g. Rittmann, 1960). Examples of destructional forms are: volcanic rift opened
by an explosive eruption, and craters. Examples of constructional forms are: lava
slopes and lava plateaus (from fissure eruptions) and outer flanks of volcano
(from central eruptions).
c) Forms resulting from deposition by hot springs they include all forms due to
hydrothermal activities as geyser cones and mud volcanoes.

3. Exogenetic processes and forms

3.1 Aggradation or deposition
This process contributes to the general leveling (leveling-up) of the earth's
surface. Deposition, except where groundwater is involved, results from a loss in
transporting power of running water; waves, currents, tides and tsunami (a Japanese
term for a long-period wave caused by any large-scale disturbance on the sea-floor
of short duration, such as volcanic eruption or earthquakes); wind, and glaciers.
Deposition from groundwater results from changes in condition of pressure
and temperature. Deposition by a glacier as it melts may be considered a special
type of loss in transporting power.
3.2 Degradation
The three degradational processes are weathering, denudation and erosion.
3.2.1 Weathering
At least four variable factors influence the type and rate of rock weathering.
There are two main weathering processes: physical and chemical processes. In the
lecture note: "weathering and tropical landform evolution" attention will be paid to the
subject "weathering".
3.2.2 Denudation
Two denudational processes may be distinguished: mass movement and
sheet wash.
A. Mass movement or mass wasting
The classification of types of mass wasting of Sharpe (1938) seems still to be
best available and has become into rather general usage:

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Slow flowage types

Creep
The slow movement (+1 m/yr) downslope of soil and rock debris
which is usually not perceptible except through extended
observation.
Soil creep: downslope movement of soil
Talus creep: downslope movement of talus or scree
Rock creep: downslope movement of individual rock blocks
Rock-glacier creep: downslope movement of tongues of rock
waste
Solifluction
The flowing (+ 10 m/hour) downslope of masses of rock debris
which are saturated with water and not confined to definite
channels.
Rapid flowage types
Earthflow
The downslope movement (10-100 m/hour) of water-saturated
clayey or silty earth material.
Mudflow
The movement (100-1000 m/hour) of water-saturated rock debris
down definite channels.
Debris
The extremely rapid flow or slide of rock debris in narrow tracks
avalanche
down steep slopes.
Torrential
The surge (1-5 km/hour) of soil and rock debris in a water-stream
mud
down narrow track. Large blocks carried among ill-sorted material.
cascades
Landslides The movement of relatively dry masses of earth debris
Slump
The downward slipping of one or several units of rock debris
usually with a backward rotation with respect to the slope over
which movement takes place.
Debris slide
The rapid rolling or sliding of unconsolidated earth debris without
backward rotation of the mass.
Debris fall
The nearly free fall of earth debris from a vertical or overhanging
face.
Rockslide
The sliding or falling of individual rock masses down bedding, joint
or fault surfaces.
Rockfall
The free falling of rock blocks over any steep slope
Subsidence the downward displacement of material into subsurface voids with no
lateral movement.
B. Sheet wash
This is the removal of finely weathered particles in off-flowing films of water or
in a network of shallow rills not yet concentrated into definite channels.

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C. The slope denudation system

Any slope may undergo some components of the various forms of denudation
activity mentioned before. Although biological activity and creep may be continuous,
much denudation activity is episodic in occurrence, from the rare earthquake event
of great magnitude to the impact of raindrops from rainstorms. The processes
operate between the upper end of the slope, which may be a hard caprock, a
plateau surface, or a ridge crest, and the base of the slope. Slope forms will change
as a result of the operation of the denudation system depending of the variable:
lithology, structure, tectonic activity, slope angle, biological activity, climate and man.
3.2.3 Erosion
There are five major media which are capable of securing and transporting
loose material. These media or agencies are: running water; groundwater (excluding
underground streams); waves, currents, tides and tsunami; wind; and glaciers.
The processes by which these agencies acquire the loosened materials are:
a) Hydraulic action the sweeping away of loose material by moving water
b) Deflation the blowing away of loose material by the wind
c) Scouring the removal of loose material by ice moving over a land/surface
The processes by which earth surfaces are eroded by materials in transit (in
the agencies) are:
a) Corrasion the mechanical wear of rocks by the effect of material being
transported by wind, ice, or running water
b) Abrasion the mechanical wear of rocks by the effect of material being
transported by breakers on the coast
c) Corrosion the removal of material by solution
Attrition is the wear that rock particles undergo through mutual rubbing,
grinding, knocking, scraping and bumping with the result a decrease in size.
Transportation may be accomplished by the agencies in five ways:
a) Traction the transport of material on or close to the bottom (in water and
air) by rolling, pushing and sliding. Moving water can transport both smalland large- size particles in this way but wind can only transport material of
much smaller size because its density is much lower. At extreme velocities
wind can move pebbles by traction.
b) Saltation the transport of material by lifting in a steep upward movement
and then followed by a more gentle downward gliding.
c) Suspension the temporary transport of rock particles by moving air or
water. It is possible because the flow of air and water is mainly turbulent
with upward currents which can lift and keep particles in suspension.
d) Solution a part of the load carried by moving water is in solution and
becomes part of the fluid.
e) Floatation is a minor transporting process. Some inorganic materials such
as rock pumice or sheets of mica may be carried in this way.

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Figure 2. A portion of the Green River basin and erosion pattern is seen from the
Green River Overlook in Canyonlands National Park (http://images.google.co.th).

Figure 3. Erosion induced by solution on the rocky coast (http://images.google.co.th)

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3.3 Exogenetic forms

Under this heading all forms are included directly created by exogenetic
processes.
3.3.1 denudation forms
They include all destructional and constructional forms developed
predominantly by transportation of weathering products down slopes without the
decisive co-operation of other processes. These forms are mainly surface forms built
of solid rocks in dissected regions such as uplands and mountains (fragments of
structural surface, ridge formed by intersection of valley sides, hard rock ridges,
summits, passes, etc.). Many forms continued by the structure of the rocks belong
here, mainly those on rocks with contrasted resistance to denudational processes,
such as edge of mesa of cuesta.
This group of forms includes also forms due to mass movements and sheet
wash, e.g. destructional form: scar of landslide, and constructional form: landslide
tongue.
Other examples of denudation forms are fragments of planation surfaces.
3.3.2 Fluvial forms
This group of forms includes constructional and destructional forms
developed by the activity of running water in narrower or wider courses
(concentrated) such as torrents, brooks rivers. Examples of destructional forms are:
river bed of perennial stream, channels in seasonal streams, abandoned loops (cutoff, ox-bows, etc.), rapids and waterfalls, scarps of river-terraces, etc.
Examples of constructional forms are: river-built plains (levees, back-swamps,
etc.), river terraces, alluvial fans, delta plans, etc.
3.3.3 Fluvio-denudational forms
These forms include all valley sides created by river erosion and denudation
(mass movement and sheet wash), small valleys, etc.
3.3.4 Fluvio-glacial forms
They embrace all forms created by melt waters of glaciers during either their
subglacial courses or after outflow from the glacier.
3.3.5 Karst forms
These forms develop because of the solubility of certain sedimentary rocks
(limestone, anhydrite, and gypsum) by percolating surface water, flowing streams
and sea spray. On the basis of morphological processes they can be divided into
five groups.
a) Karst forms caused by solution of bedrocks, such as "Karren", solution sinkholes
(dolines), uvala, polje, ponors, etc.
b) Karst forms reproduced in unsoluble rocks (pseudo-karst forms).

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c) Karst forms originating from solution and erosion by running water such as blind
valleys, cupola karst (a corrosion relief), cone karst or tower karst (a corrosion erosion relief), etc.
d) Karst forms resulting from deposition of calcium carbonate (Travertine,
duricrusts).
e) Karst forms resulting from solution and marine abrasion such as point and ridges,
tidal niches, a pitted abrasion platform, etc.
3.3.6 Suffosion forms
By the term "suffosion" we understand the underground removal of rock parts
by underground water. These types of forms are rare and occur mainly on slopes
with a thick weathering layer resulting in depressions and blind valleys.

3.3.7 Glacial forms

Many types of destructional and constructional forms can be distinguished
(nunatakh's, drumlins, glacial striae, glacially eroded surfaces and valleys, ground
moraine ridges, etc.).
3.3.8 Nivation and cryogenetic forms
These forms occur in recent and Pleistocene periglacial regions with regular
freeze-thow-action (stone polygons, pingo's, cryoplanation terraces, etc.).
3.3.9 Thermokarst forms
They include all forms resulting from degradation of permafrost (the melting of
ground ice and dead ice blocks).
3.3.10 Aeolian forms
These forms occur in all regions in which a thin or disturbed vegetation cover
allows the wind either today or in the geological past to blow away the loose material
(deflation and transport), use it as abrasion material on solid rock (corrosion), and to
deposit it on another place. Examples of aeolian forms are: deflation hollow
(destructional), irregular dunes and loess plateaus (both constructional forms).
3.3.11 Marine and Lacustrine forms
These forms occur in the border area between water and land. They are
produced by the processes of wave action and shore currents induced by wind and
tides.
Examples of destructional forms are cliff faces, wave cut notches, sea arches
and channels of tidal waters.
Examples of constructional forms are beaches, beach ridges, tidal flats,
marshes and mangrove swamp plains.

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3.3.12 Organogenetic forms

They include forms related to the activities of animals and growing plants
(such as coral reefs and peat accumulations).
The majority of the tropical lowland peats occur at or near sea-level, mainly in
the form of peat domes. Three main types of reefs are recognized. A fringing reef
grows directly against the bedrock of a coast. A barrier reef lies off the coast and is
separated from it by a lagoon usually too deep to permit coral growth. A reef ring
enclosing a lagoon lacking an island of non-reef origin is called an atoll.
Other forms are e.g. beaver dams and termite mounds.
3.3.13 Anthropogenic forms
They include all forms resulting from the activities of man e.g. pits and
quarries, dumps, embankments and polders ("made-ground" reclaimed from the sea
or lake).

References
Douglas, I., 1977. Humid landforms. Australian National University Press, Canberra,
288 p.
Demex, J., 1972. Manual of detailed geomorphological mapping. Czechoslovakia
Academy of Sciences, Academia, Prague, 344p.
Sharpe, C.F.S., 1938. Landslides and related phenomena. Columbia University
Press, New York, 137 p.
Thornbury, W.D., 1964. Principles of geomorphology. John Wiley & sons Inc., New
York, 618 p.

Exercises
1. Each student selects one clear form or landform and then make short assay
to explain how selected form or landform develops through time.
2. Each student gives an example of marine, transitional landforms in Thailand
and discusses how those landforms responded to the ancient and recent
climatic change.
3. Group discussion on the possibility to see organogenetic forms along the
coastal zone of Thailand.

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1.3 Landforms in the humid tropics

1. Fluvial processes and forms

1.1 Distinctive forms of tropical river channels
1.1.1 Mobile stream channels
Mobile stream channels are cut from friable alluvium, regolith, or rocks whose
texture is such that the materials can be moved by hydrodynamic forces, which
means that the form of the stream channel is rapidly adjusted to them. Streams with
mobile channels are normally developed in alluvial plains, but they also exist in
friable rocks such as shales, poorly consolidated sandstones, and conglomerates. In
the humid tropics, as opposed to other morpho-climatic zones, streams with mobile
channels are exceptionally frequent even on solid rocks because of the importance
of weathering.
Valley bottoms in the wet tropics are favourable to weathering because of
their constant humidity. The presence of groundwater allows water to infiltrate the
joints and fissures of the fresh rock and to weather it little by little. Even with poor
groundwater circulation due to lack of permeability or lack of slope, weathering ends
by being very effective in the long run. Various engineering works carried out for the
construction of dams and bridges have generally revealed a considerable thickness
of regolith below the surface of typical valleys.
Because of intense weathering many streams flowing through regions of solid
rocks have mobile channels even if the alluvium only forms a thin veneer, 3 to 4 m
thick (9 to12 ft), on the valley bottom. Such a disposition occurs when two conditions
are simultaneously realised: a) an easy penetration of the water into joints and
fissures; the ease of penetration is all the more important as the ground water
circulation is difficult and slow; and b) a good susceptibility to weathering.
Weathering also determines the peculiar texture of the alluvium. The
exceptional outcrops of fresh rock, the weakness of the forces of disintegration
working upon them, the slowing down of overland flow by the comb-like effect of the
plant cover all contribute to the fact that the hillsides provide the streams with only a
very small amount of coarse debris. The only important coarse fractions come from
earthflows that have stipped off coarse material from the lower layers of the subsoil
transitional to the fresh rock. Furthermore, such earthflows should reach a riverbed.
If they spread on a gentle slope or on the flood plain the material continues to
weather before being reworked by the stream.
1.1.2 Rock channels
Rockbars are extremely frequent on tropical rivers, especially, it seems, in the
forested zone. Contrary to what is the case in temperate latitudes, they do not
necessarily reflect important breaks in the long-profile. For instance, the elevation of
the Maroni (on the border between French Guiana and Surinam) at 125 km (78
miles) from the coast is only 20 m (66 ft) in spite of several dozen rapids. According
to Bakker (1975b) the room (330 ft) contour interval is reached only at a distance of

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200 to 300 km (125 to 185 miles) from the river's mouth. Usually the rapids only
modify the water flow at high stage. At low stage the rock outcrops appear in the
channel and the water flows around them without forming important rapids.
Four kinds of inequalities of rock bars may be distinguished.
a) Waterfalls
b) Rapid with potholes
c) Polished rapids
2. Littoral processes and coastal landforms
The morphogenic processes responsible for the specific characteristics of the
littorals of the tropics have divers origins. Some forms, like the familiar offshore
bars, lagoons, and mudflats, are the direct result of the peculiar nature of tropical
rivers. They result from the great abundance of fine debris carried down by the
streams. Other forms result from the particularities of slope development, such as
cliffs caused by landslides, or forms due to corrosion, especially through the
crystallization of salt. Still others are tied to specific biotic activities, such as the
construction of coral reefs and the formation of algal crusts.
2.1 Particularities related to the abundance of fine sediments
The extent of coastal lowlands in the tropics is considerable, on the average
larger than in other latitudes, periglacial regions excepted. Even the crystalline
basement may be fringed by fluvio-marine plains instead of ending in the sea cliffs,
as does most of the east coast of Brazil from Rio Grande do Sul to Paraiba, the
coast of West Africa from the Casamance to Cameroon, and a great part of the
coasts of India, Java, the Malay peninsula, and Borneo. Mountains or hills seldom
reach the sea in the form of rocky coasts, as in the west of Ivory Coast. Rocky
promontories are usually small and isolated between fluvio-marine plains, as at
Monrovia, or at Cabo Frio and Ilheos in Brazil. They anchor the coast and frequently
cause a change in direction, as at Cabo Frio or Cape Palmas (West Africa), but
represent only an infinitesimal proportion of the coastline. There is an enormous
disproportion between rocky coasts and lowland coasts. It poses the problem of the
provenance of the alluviated material.
2.1.1 Origin of the littoral deposits
The enormous mass of sediments deposited in fluvio-marine plains surely
does not originate from a few sectors of sea cliffs through littoral drifting. As we have
mentioned for the East Coast of Brazil, the disproportion is enormous. Furthermore,
long stretches of depositional coasts exist in regions where there is not a single cliff
capable of furnishing the debris, except minor rocky promontories that produce a few
reefs, as, for example, the whole coast of the State of Bahia to the south of the Bay
of Todos os Santos (Brazil).
Sedimentological studies indicate the following sources of the sediments:
a) Streams, which bring mainly fine materials. In general fine sands and
clays predominate as a result of the decrease in current in the lower
stream course, affected by the Flandrian transgression. Coarse sands are

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deposited in deltas where they form sand banks. Special circumstances

are necessary to account for the presence of coarse sands and granules
(2 to 4 mm), as, for instance, at the mouth of the Sassandra in Ivory
Coast. This river clears important rapids 10 km (6 miles) from the ocean
and then empties into a narrow estuary, where the current is strong during
destructive spates that come down a long-profile rich in rapids for the last
100 km (60 miles). At the moment strong currents destroy the bar at the
river's mouth and allow the arrival of granules onto the subaquatic delta
constructed at the mouth of the passes. Most of the granules are
ferruginous concretions of pedologic origin.
Deltas are more common than estuaries. Their very gentle gradients,
even on large rivers, do not allow the transport of coarse sands out to
sea. For example, the Senegal, although in the semiarid Sahelian zone,
only transports medium and fine sands (medians of 200-300 microns) into
the ocean in spite of a discharge exceeding 6,000 cu.m (200,000 cu.ft) at
high stage.
b) Weathering of the continental shelf during marine regressions, especially
during the Wurm. Even in regions of crystalline basement, as in Guinea,
considerable areas of the continental shelf emerged down to depths of 60
to 80 m (200 to 265 ft) during the last glaciation. The duration of the
regression, under climates assuredly somewhat different from the present
ones, has been long enough to permit a considerable degree of
weathering, which, judging from what may be observed on terraces and
slopes dated to the same period, may have reached a thickness of 1 to 2
m (3 to 6 ft).
During the Flandrian transgression the ocean progressively invaded
these plains, sometimes surmounted by residual reliefs, such as the Los
islands off Conakry. The rising sea removed the weathered products,
even scoured part of the decomposed rock, churned it all up, pushing
most of it, little by little, before it during its advance. Whereas the clays
were dispersed, the sands piled up at the end of the transgression into
enormous offshore bars (Dunkirkian), always very well developed on
inter-tropical coasts, especially in regions where rocks rich in quartz
liberate much sand (granites, gneisses, certain mica-schists), as along
the central part of the east coast of Brazil or in Ivory Coast (Tertiary
sands).
2.1.2 Conditions of deposition
The considerable masses of clastics deposited on tropical shores are mainly
fines, for three reasons: the nature of the fluvial sediments, the materials weathered
on the continental shelf during regressions and, in some cases, the biotic conditions.
Clays and fine sands predominate. Coarse sands are uncommon: apart from the
mouths of certain rivers they are mainly found on beaches where high swells
progressively concentrate them, dispersing the finer clastics out at sea. For

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example, the grade size graphs made at Recife by Ottmann et al. give the following
medians:
180-300 microns
immediately below lowest spring-tide level
140-600 microns
on the shore
170-180 microns
on the storm beach
The storm beach sand is thrown up from the offshore during storms, and for
this reason it is finer.
An important characteristic of the sediments of inter-tropical shores is their
very high mobility. It is due, first of all, to grade size, especially the usual absence of
pebbles, which are less easily transported than sands or clays. But it is also
promoted by other factors:
a) High temperature, which seems to affect the mobility of clays as a result of
an appreciable decrease in the viscosity of the water that increases its
turbulence and thus helps colloids to remain in suspension. The
suspended load of rivers in flood colours the sea over great distances.
The Amazon is held responsible for the muddy shores that extend from its
mouth all the way to French Guinea. But it is difficult to determine exactly
how much more suspended matter is carried and just how much more
mobile colloids are with increased temperature. Such measurements have
never been made, and we remain in the realm of hypotheses.
b) The tropical oceanic regime, which is generally charaterised by a high and
much more constant swell than in other latitudes. The ocean normally
does not become unruly as in the temperate zone subject to cyclonic
storms although on certain coasts hurricanes and typhoons accompanied
by surging seas locally produce catastrophes that destroy beaches and
modify tidal inlets. But the swell is powerful enough throughout the year
thoroughly to work the sand of exposed beaches. This constant working of
the sand contributes to its fragmentation and wear and explains the
concentration by elutriation of the coarser fractions on beaches where
there is a tendency to erosion. The coarse sand, in turn, causes the
appearance of extremely convex beaches with upper slopes of 15 to 20,
not counting micro-cliffs.
Nevertheless, a certain number of antagonistic elements intervene that
reduce the mobility and facilitate the deposition of the sediments:
a) Mangroves: on the shores of estuaries the brackish waters are occupied
by mangrove, which tolerates rivers degrees of salinity and, in the case of
some species, even a temporary submersion by fresh water. These
shrubs are remarkable well adapted to the environment: Avicennia seeds,
for instance, are contained in fruits shaped like pointed bombs which when
they fall stick in the mud, where they germinate.
Mangrove always grows on muddy ground subjected to frequent
submersion usually by the tides but occasionally only by river floods, as
certain Rhizophora of the lagoonal shores of Ivory Coast. It plays a
comparable role, which only differs in details, on tropical shores to that of
Spartina in the temperate zone. Although the water circulates easily

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