African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 7 (3), pp.

181-191, 5 February, 2008

Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB
ISSN 1684–5315 © 2008 Academic Journals

Review

Selected soil enzymes: Examples of their potential

roles in the ecosystem
Joachim H. J. R. Makoi1 and Patrick A. Ndakidemi2*
1
Faculty of Applied Sciences, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town Campus, Keizergracht, P.O. Box
652, Cape Town 8000, South Africa.
2
Research and Technology Promotion, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town Campus, Keizergracht,
P.O. Box 652, Cape Town 8000, South Africa.
Accepted 30 January, 2008

Soil enzymes regulate ecosystem functioning and in particular play a key role in nutrient cycling. In
this review we briefly summarise potential roles of selected enzymes such as amylase,
arylsulphatases, -glucosidase, cellulose, chitinase, dehydrogenase, phosphatase, protease and
urease in the ecosystem. We also highlight areas where further research is needed to increase our
understanding of other possible role(s) of enzymes and factors that may affect their activities in the
ecosystem.

Key words: amylase, arylsulphatases, -glucosidase, cellulose, chitinase, dehydrogenase, phosphatase,

protease and urease.

INTRODUCTION

Soil enzymes play key biochemical functions in the matter content, composition and activity of its living
overall process of organic matter decomposition in the organisms and intensity of the biological processes
soil system (Burns, 1983; Sinsabaugh et al., 1991). They (Stevenson, 1986). In practice, the biochemical reactions
are important in catalysing several important reactions are brought about largely through the catalytic
necessary for the life processes of micro-organisms in contribution of enzymes and variable sub-strates that
soils and the stabilisation of soil structure, the serve as energy sources for micro-organisms (Kiss et al.,
decomposition of organic wastes, organic matter 1978). These enzymes may include amylase,
formation and nutrient cycling (Dick et al., 1994). These arylsulphatases, -glucosidase, cellulose, chitinase,
enzymes are constantly being synthesised, accumulated, dehydrogenase, phosphatase, protease and urease
inactivated and/or decomposed in the soil, hence playing released from plants (Miwa et al., 1937), animals (Kanfer
an important role in agriculture and particularly in et al., 1974), organic compounds and micro-organisms
nutrients cycling (Tabatabai, 1994; Dick, 1997). The (Dick and Tabatabai, 1984; James et al., 1991;
activities of these enzymes in soils undergo complex Richmond, 1991; Hans and Snivasan, 1969; Shawale
biochemical processes consisting of integrated and and Sadana, 1981) and soils (Cooper, 1972; Gupta et al.,
ecologically-connected synthetic processes, and in the 1993; Gareshamurthy et al., 1995).
immobilisation and enzyme stability (Khaziyev and Gulke, A better understanding of the role of these soil enzyme-
1991). In this regard, all soils contain a group of enzymes es activity in the ecosystem will potentially provide a
that determine soil metabolic processes (McLaren, 1975) unique opportunity for an integrated biological assess-
which, in turn, depend on its physical, chemical, ment of soils due to their crucial role in several soil
microbiological and biochemical properties. The enzyme biological activities, their ease of measurement, and their
levels in soil systems vary in amounts primarily due to the rapid response to changes in soil management practices
fact that each soil type has different amounts of organic (Dick, 1994; Dick, 1997; Bandick and Dick, 1999).
Studies indicate that high enzyme activity signals mineral
element limitation in the ecosystem (Sinsabaugh et al.,
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: 1993; Ndakidemi, 2006). Although there have been
+27214603128. Fax: +27214603887. extensive studies on soil enzymes (Lizararo et al., 2005;
182 Afr. J. Biotechnol.

Mungai et al., 2005; Wirth and Wolf, 1992; Ross, 1976; (Stickland and Fitzgerald, 1984; Fitzgerald and Stickland,
Perucci and Scarponi, 1984), little has been reported on 1987). Arylsulphatases are typically widespread in nature
their roles in agricultural development. To better under- (Dodgson et al., 1982) as well as in soils (Tabatabai and
stand the roles of these enzymes’ activity and efficiency, Bremner, 1790a, b; Cooper, 1972; Spier et al., 1980;
nine enzymes in soils were reviewed for agricultural Gupta et al., 1993; Ganeshamurthy et al., 1995). They
development. are responsible for the hydrolysis of sulphate esters in
the soil (Kertesz and Mirleau, 2004) and are secreted by
bacteria into the external environment as a response to
AMYLASE sulphur limitation (McGill and Colle, 1981). Its occur-
rence in different soil systems is often correlated with
Amylase is a starch hydrolysing enzyme (Ross, 1976). It microbial biomass and rate of S immobilisation (Klose et
is known to be constituted by -amylase and -amylase al., 1999; Klose and Tabatabai, 1999; Vong et al., 2003).
(Pazur, 1965; King, 1967; Thoma et al., 1971). Studies The role of this enzyme in the hydrolysis of aromatic
-
have shown that -amylases are synthesised by plants, sulphate esters (R-O-SO3 ) to phenols (R-OH) and
-2
animals and micro-organisms, whereas, -amylase is sulphate, or sulphate sulphur (SO4 or SO4-S) is shown
mainly synthesized by plants (Pazur, 1965; Thoma et al., in the following simple chemical equation (Spencer, 1958;
1971). This enzyme is widely distributed in plants and Tabatabai, 1994):
soils so it plays a significant role in the breakdown of
starch. Research evidence suggests that several other − Hydrolysis −2
enzymes are involved in the hydrolysis of starch, but of R − O − SO3 R − OH + SO4
major importance are -amylase which converts starch Arylsulphatases
like substrates to glucose and/or oligosaccharides and -
amylase, which converts starch to maltose (Thoma et al., Studies have shown that the release of sulphate from
1971). soluble and insoluble sulphate esters in the soil is
Studies have, however, indicated that the roles and affected by various environmental factors (Burns, 1982)
activities of -amylase and -amylase enzymes may be such as heavy metal pollution (Tyler, 1981); pH changes
influenced by different factors ranging from cultural prac- in the soil solution (Acosta-Martinez and Tabatabai,
tices, type of vegetation, environment and soil types 2000); organic matter content and its type (Tabatabai and
(Ross, 1968; Rose and Roberts, 1970; Pancholy and Bremner, 1971; Ladd, 1978; Sarathchandra and Perrott,
Rice, 1973; Rose, 1975a). For example, plants may 1981; Dalal, 1982); the concentration of organic sulphate
influence the amylase enzyme activities of soil by directly esters (Dogson and Rose, 1976); the extent to which
supplying enzymes from their residues or excreted organic sulphate esters are protected against enzymatic
compounds, or indirectly providing substrates for the hydrolysis such as sorption to particles surfaces in soils,
synthetic activities of micro-organisms. Greater under- and the activity persistence of extracellular arylsul-
standing the role(s) and other chemical, biological, phatases in the soil.
physical and agronomic factors influencing functioning of Considering the importance of S in plant nutrition, a
amylase enzymes in the soil will further define the signifi- better understanding of the role(s) of arylsulphatases in S
cance of these enzymes in the soil, and enable proper mobilisation in agricultural soils is critical. So far, very
management techniques to be devised to maximise the little is known about specific microbial genera or species
benefits that may be derived from such enzymes. that play an important role in the soil organosulphur circle
(Kertesz and Mirleau, 2004) in which arylsulphatases is
the key enzyme. Researchers may also establish other
ARYLSULPHATASES unknown factors that affect activities of these enzymes in
the ecosystem.
It has been established that sulphur uptake in plants is in
the form of inorganic sulphate (SO4) and its availability
depends on its mineralisation or mobilisation (Williams, -GLUCOSIDASE
1975; Fitzgerald, 1976) from aromatic sulphate esters (R-
-
O-SO3 ). This is due to the fact that certain proportions of -glucosidase is a common and predominant enzyme in
sulphur in different soil profiles are bound into organic soils (Eivazi and Tabatabai, 1988; Tabatabai, 1994). It is
compounds and are indirectly available to plants. In this named according to the type of bond that it hydrolyses.
regard, its availability will depend on the extracellular This enzyme plays an important role in soils because it is
hydrolysis of these aromatic sulphate esters or intra- involved in catalysing the hydrolysis and biodegradation
cellular oxidation of soluble organic matter absorbed by of various -glucosides present in plant debris decom-
the micro-organisms to yield energy and carbon skele- posing in the ecosystem (Ajwa and Tabatabai, 1994;
tons for biosynthesis by which some SO4-S are released Martinez and Tabatabai, 1997). Its final product is glu-
as a by-product (Dodgson et al., 1982). All these cose, an important C energy source of life to microbes in
processes are dependent on arylsuphatases enzymes the soil (Esen, 1993). There is considerable evidence
 Makoi and Ndakidemi 183

suggesting that a significant fraction of enzyme activity organisms, cellulose in plant debris has to be degraded
measured in soil originates from abiontic enzymes into glucose, cellobiose and high molecular weight
(enzymes of biological origin no longer associated with oligosaccharides by cellulases enzymes (White, 1982).
living cells) excreted into the soil solution or immobilised Cellulases are a group of enzymes that catalyse the
enzymes of microbial origin sorbed to clays or humic degradation of cellulose, polysaccharides build up of -1,
colloids (Skujins, 1976; Hayano and Katami, 1977; Busto 4 linked glucose units (Deng and Tabatabai, 1994). It has
and Perez-Mateos, 1995; 2000; Hayano and Tubaki, been reported that cellulases in soils are derived mainly
1985; Hopes and Burns, 1987). from plant debris incorporated into the soil, and that a
-glucosidase is characteristically useful as a soil qua- limited amount may also originate from fungi and bacteria
lity indicator, and may give a reflection of past biological in soils (Richmond, 1991). Currently, it is generally
activity, the capacity of soil to stabilise the soil organic accepted that the cellulases system comprises of three
matter, and can be used to detect management effect on major types of enzymes. They include: endo-1, 4- -
soils (Bandick and Dick, 1999; Ndiaye et al., 2000). This glucanase which attacks the cellulose chains at random,
has greatly facilitated its adoption for soil quality testing exo-1, 4- -glucanase which removes glucose or
(Bandick and Dick, 1999). Generally, -glucosidase acti- cellobiose from the non-reducing end of the cellulose
vities can provide advanced evidence of changes in chains, and -D-glucosidase which hydrolyses cellobiose
organic carbon long before it can be accurately measured and other water soluble cellodextrins to glucose.
by other routine methods (Dick, 1994; Dick et al., 1996; Previously, several hypotheses were proposed about the
Wick et al., 1998). Several researchers have however mechanisms involved in the degradation of cellulose by
also reported its phytopathological effects in the ecosys- the cellulases (Rees et al., 1950; Rees, 1975; White,
tem (Davis et al., 1953; Sherrod and Domsch, 1970; 1982; Wood, 1991) although none of them has been fully
Melouk and Horner, 1973). For example, some of the accepted.
aglycons are known to be the precursors of the toxic Demonstrating the effects of increasing concentrations
substances which cause soil sickness where plants are of fungicides on cellulases activities, Petkar and Rai
grown as monocrops (Patrick, 1955; Borner, 1958). (1992) showed that there was a decreasing effect with
-glucosidase enzyme is very sensitive to changes in fungicides captan, cosan, thiram, zinels and sandolex.
pH, and soil management practices (Dick et al., 1996; More recently, Arinze and Yubedee (2000) reported that
Acosta-Martinez and Tabatabai, 2000; Kuperman and fungicides benlate, calixin and captan inhibited cellulase
Carreiro, 1997; Bergstrom et al., 1998; Leiros et al., activity in Fusarium monoliforme isolates. Captatol
1999; Bandick and Dick, 1999; Madejon et al., 2001). inhibited cellulose activity in the sandy loam soil (Atlas et
Acosta-Martinez and Tabatabai (2000) reported -gluco- al., 1978), and chlorothalonil showed a clear reduction in
sidase as sensitive to pH changes. This property can be cellulase activity under flooded or non-flooded conditions
used as a good biochemical indicator for measuring (Vicent and Sisler, 1968).
ecological changes resulting from soil acidification in Studies have shown that activities of cellulases in
situations involving activities of this enzyme. -glucosi- agricultural soils are affected by several factors. These
dase enzyme is also known to be inhibited by heavy include temperature, soil pH, water and oxygen contents
metal contamination such as Cu and several others (abiotic conditions), the chemical structure of organic
(Haanstra and Doelman, 1991; Deng and Tabatabai, matter and its location in the soil profile horizon (Rubidge,
1995; Wenzel et al., 1995). For instance, studies have 1977; Gomah, 1980; Tabatabai, 1982; Klein, 1989; Deng
shown that plant debris did not decomposed or show - and Tabatabai, 1994; Alf and Nannipieri, 1995), quality of
glucosidase activities when exposed to heavy metal organic matter/plant debris and soil mineral elements
polluted soils (Watson et al., 1976; Geiger et al., 1993). (Burns, 1978; Hope and Burns, 1987; Klein, 1989;
Consequently, more understanding of the -glucosidase Sinsabaugh and Linkins, 1989; Deng and Tabatabai,
enzyme activities and factors influencing them in the 1994) and the trace elements from fungicides (Deng and
ecosystem may contribute significantly to soil health Tabatabai, 1994; Petkar and Rai, 1992; Arinze and
studies. Yubedee 2000; Atlas et al., 1978; Vicent and Sisler,
1968). Srinivasulu and Rangaswamy (2006) reported a
significantly more stimulatory effect of cellulases in black
CELLULASES soil than red soil. Several mechanisms have been
Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound in the proposed in the degradation of cellulose by cellulases
biosphere, comprising almost 50% of the biomass (Rees et al., 1950; Rees, 1975; White, 1982, Wood,
synthesised by photosynthetic fixation of CO2 (Eriksson 1991). For instance, chitin in the presence of cellulose
et al., 1990). Growth and survival of micro-organisms induces the synthesis of chitinase and other cell wall lytic
important in most agricultural soils depends on the enzymes which promote the release of the intramural -
carbon source contained in the cellulose occurring in the glucosidase into the medium. All these findings suggest
soils (Deng and Tabatabai, 1994). However, for carbon to that activities of cellulases can be used to give preli-
be released as an energy source for use by the micro- minary indication of some of the physical chemical pro-
184 Afr. J. Biotechnol.

perties of soil, thus, easing agricultural soil management intact cells but does not accumulate extracellularly in the
strategies. Since cellulases enzymes play an important soil. Dehydrogenase enzyme is known to oxidise soil
role in global recycling of the most abundant polymer, organic matter by transferring protons and electrons from
cellulose in nature, it would be of critical importance to substrates to acceptors. These processes are part of
understand this enzyme better so that it may be used respiration pathways of soil micro-organisms and are
more regularly as a predictive tool in our soil fertility closely related to the type of soil and soil air-water condi-
programmes. More information on the role of this enzyme tions (Doelman and Haanstra, 1979; Kandeler et al.,
is needed since it is affected by different factors which 1996; Glinski and Stepniewski, 1985). Since these
may jeopardise its involvement in the decomposition of processes are part of respiration pathways of soil micro-
cellulolytic materials in the soil for microbial use and organisms, studies on the activities of dehydrogenase
improved soil health in agricultural ecosystems. enzyme in the soil is very important as it may give
indications of the potential of the soil to support bioche-
mical processes which are essential for maintaining soil
CHITINASE fertility.
Chitinase or chitinolytic enzymes are key enzymes With regard to soil air-water relationships, studies have
responsible for the degradation and hydrolysis of chitin shown that dehydrogenase enzyme was greater in
(poly -1-4-(2-ncetamido-2-deoxy)-D-glucoside). They flooded compared to non-flooded soil (Dkhar and Mishra,
are also considered as the major structural component of 1983; Baruah and Mishra, 1984; Benckiser et al., 1984;
many fungal cell walls that use the hyperparasitism Tiwari et al., 1989). The increase in this enzyme after
mechanisms against pests/pathogen attack, (Bartinicki- flooding was also related to decreased redox potential
Garcia, 1968; Chet and Henis, 1969; Chet and Henis, (Okazaki et al., 1983; Pedrazzini and McKee, 1984). A
l975; Chet, 1987). These biological agents also reduce study by Brzezinska et al. (1998) suggested that soil
disease producing agents by using other mechanisms water content and temperature influence dehydrogenase
such as antibiosis or competition mechanisms (Parl, activity indirectly by affecting the soil redox status.
1960). This agriculturally important enzyme is produced After flooding the soil, oxygen present is rapidly
or released by various organisms including plants and exhausted so that a shift of the activity from aerobic to
micro-organisms (Deshpande, 1986). For example, in anaerobic micro-organisms takes place. Such redox tran-
plants, the chitinase enzyme is induced and accumulated sformations are closely connected with respiration activity
in response to microbial infections and it is thought to be of soil micro-organisms. They may serve as indicators of
involved in the defence of plants against pathogen the microbiological redox systems in soils and can be
infections (Boiler et al., 1983; Boiler, 1985). Its presence considered a possible measure of microbial oxidative
in different forms in the ecosystem has demonstrated its activity (Glinski and Stepniewski, 1985; Gunnison, et al.,
effectiveness in the control of soil-borne diseases such 1985; Skujins, 1973; Casida, 1977; Tabatabai, 1982;
as Sclerotium rolfsii and Rhizoctonia solani in beans and Trevors, 1984). The relationship between dehydrogenase
2+
cotton, respectively (Ordentlich et al., 1988; Shapira et activity and redox potential (Eh) as well as Fe content
al., 1989). Biological control of damping off caused by R. may also be used to illustrate the reactions of soil micro-
solani was achieved by applying antagonistic fungi and organisms to the changes in soil environment. For
bacteria isolated from coastal soils with chitinase instance, lack of oxygen may trigger facultative
activities (Ordentlich et al., 1988; Gal, 1992; Tweddel et anaerobes to initiate metabolic processes involving
al. 1994). One of the mechanisms proposed involves lytic dehydrogenase activities and the use of Fe (III) forms as
enzymes that cause the degradation of cell walls of terminal electron acceptors (Bromfield, 1954, Galstian,
pathogenic fungi (Sneh, 1981; Elad et al., 1982; Hadar et 1974), a process that may affect iron availability to plants
al., 1983; Ordentlich et al, 1988; Chet et al., 1990; Singh in the ecosystem (Benckiser et. al., 1984). Some studies
et al., 1999). As biological control of most pathogenic have shown that reducing conditions in the soil were
2+
diseases is increasingly gaining popularity in recent times associated with high Fe concentration in the soil
due to their environmental friendliness, better under- solution and a significant increase of extra plasmatic Fe
standing of the chitinolytic enzymes is likely to uncover in roots of maize due to intense stimulation of microbial
more application avenues for this enzyme in agricultural growth and dehydrogenase activities in the ecosystem
systems and, consequently, increase plant growth and (Fiedler et. al., 2004).
final yields. Additionally, dehydrogenase enzyme is often used as a
measure of any disruption caused by pesticides, trace
elements or management practices to the soil (Reddy
DEHYDROGENASE and Faza, 1989; Wilke, 1991; Frank and Malkomes,
1993), as well as a direct measure of soil microbial
The dehydrogenase enzyme activity is commonly used activity (Skujins, 1978; Trevors, 1984; Garcia and
as an indicator of biological activity in soils (Burns, 1978). Hernandez, 1997). It can also indicate the type and sig-
This enzyme is considered to exist as an integral part of nificance of pollution in soils. For example, dehydroge-
 Makoi and Ndakidemi 185

nase enzyme is high in soils polluted with pulp and paper biologically-managed systems because of a higher quan-
mill effluents (McCarthy et al., 1994) but low in soils tity of organic C found in those systems. In fact, the
polluted with fly ash (Pitchel and Hayes, 1990). Similarly, activity of acid and alkaline phosphatases was found to
higher activities of dehydrogenases have been reported correlate with organic matter in various studies (Guan
at low doses of pesticides, and, lower activities of the 1989; Jordan and Kremer, 1994; Aon and Colaneri,
enzyme at higher doses of pesticides (Baruah and 2001). Another factor that influences the rate of syn-
Mishra, 1986). As most areas of the world are often pollu- thesis, release and stability of this enzyme is the soil pH
ted by different industrial bio-chemical products, better (Eivazi and Tabatabai, 1977; Juma and Tabatabai, 1977;
understanding of the role of this enzyme in environmental Tabatabai, 1994; Martínez and Tabatabai, 2000). For
science will open greater possibilities of using it as a example, phosphomonoesteraces inducibility and their
diagnostic tool for better ecosystem assessment and exudation intensity by plant roots and micro-organisms
amelioration. are determined by their orthophosphate need, which is in
turn affected by soil pH (Skujins, 1976). It is, therefore,
anticipated that management practices that induce P
PHOSPHATASES stress in the rhizosphere may also affect the secretion of
these enzymes in the ecosystem (Ndakidemi, 2006).
Phosphatases are a broad group of enzymes that are To date, there have been few studies examining the
capable of catalysing hydrolysis of esters and anhydrides influence of management options in the ecosystem on
of phosphoric acid (Schmidt and Lawoski 1961). In soil phosphatases activity in soil where most crops are
ecosystems, these enzymes are believed to play critical grown. Understanding the dynamics of enzyme activities
roles in P cycles (Speir and Ross, 1978) as evidence in these systems is crucial for predicting their interactions
shows that they are correlated to P stress and plant as their activities may, in turn, regulate nutrient uptake
growth. Apart from being good indicators of soil fertility, and plant growth.
phosphatase enzymes play key roles in the soil system
(Dick and Tabatai, 1992; Eivazi and Tabatabai, 1997;
Dick et al., 2000). PROTEASE
Land plants have evolved many morphological and
enzymatic adaptations to tolerate low phosphate Proteases in soil play a significant role in N mineralisation
availability. This includes transcription activity of acid (Ladd and Jackson, 1982), an important process
phosphatases, which tend to increase with high P stress regulating the amount of plant available N (Stevenson,
(Tarafdar and Jungk, 1987; Goldstein, 1992; Duff et al., 1986) and plant growth. This enzyme in the soil is
1994; del Pozo et al., 1999; Haran et al., 2000; Baldwin et generally associated with inorganic and organic colloids
al., 2001; Miller et al., 2001; Li et al., 2002). For example, (Burns, 1982; Nannipieri et al., 1996). Protease activities
when there is a signal indicating P deficiency in the soil, have been reported to occur partly in soil as a humo-
acid phosphatase secretion from plant roots is increased carbohydrate complex (Mayaudon et al., 1975; Batistic et
to enhance the solubilisation and remobilisation of al., 1980) from arable soil (Ladd, 1972; Mayaudon et al.,
phosphate, thus influencing the ability of the plant to cope 1975; Hayano et al., 1987); from solid municipal waste
with P-stressed conditions (Muchhal et al., 1996; Daram compost (Rad et al., 1995), and from forest or permanent
et al., 1999; Kai et al., 2002; Karthikeyan et al., 2002; grassland soils (Nannipieri et al., 1980, 1982, 1985). The
Mudge et al., 2002; Versaw and Harrison, 2002; Nakas et amount of this extracellular enzyme activity may be
al., 1987; Chrost, 1991; Hayes et al., 1999; Li et al., indicative not only of the biological capacity of soil for the
1997). enzymatic conversion of the substrate, which is indepen-
The amount of acid phosphatase exuded by plant roots dent of the extent of microbial activity, but might also
has been shown to differ between crop species and have an important role in the ecology of micro-organisms
varieties, (Ndakidemi, 2006; Izaguirre-Mayoral and in the ecosystem (Burns, 1982).
Carballo, 2002) as well as crop management practices Protease activities are affected by several biotic and
(Ndakidemi, 2006; Patra et al., 1990; Staddon et al., abiotic factors. For example, low concentrations of
-1
1998; Wright and Reddy, 2001). For instance, research neutralised soil humic acids (l-100 pg mL ) inhibit some
has shown that legumes secrete more phosphatase and stimulate other protease activity by mechanisms
enzymes than cereal (Yadav and Tarafdar, 2001). This involving primarily humic acid carboxyl groups (Ladd and
may probably be due to a higher requirement of P by Butler, 1969a, b; Butler and Ladd, 1969b). The enzyme
legumes in the symbiotic nitrogen fixation process as pronase is inhibited irrespective of the charge of the
compared to cereals. In their studies, Li et al. (2004) substrate hydrolysed, suggesting that decreased activity
reported that chickpea roots were also able to secrete results from humic acid combining with enzyme rather
greater amounts of acid phosphatase than maize. than with substrate (Ladd and Butler, 1969b). Further-
The ability to solubilise soil mineral elements by these more, quantitative considerations of the effects of humic
phosphomonoesteraces is expected to be a higher in acid and substrate concentrations on pronase hydrolysis
186 Afr. J. Biotechnol.

of carbobenzoxy-glycyl leucine indicates that inhibition is sensitive to toxic concentrations of heavy metals (Yang et
not due to the combination of humic acid and substrate al., 2006). Other studies with soil samples taken from
anions (Ladd and Butler, 1969a). horizons of different soil profiles revealed decreased
There is a need to study the properties and factors activities with increased soil depth. The differences were
affecting naturally-occurring enzyme complexes such as attributed to decreases in soil organic matter content with
those involving protease enzymes in the soil ecosystem depth (Hoffmann, 1959; Myers and McGarity, 1968; Ross
as they may reveal some unknown role(s) in soil fertility and Roberts, 1968; Skujins, 1967). The effect of tempera-
management. ture on urea hydrolysis has received considerable
research attention (Gould et al., 1973; Dalal, 1975;
Bremner and Mulvaney, 1978; Tomar and Mackenzie,
UREASE 1984; Kissel and Cabrera, 1988). Generally, urease
activity increases with increasing temperature. It is
Urease enzyme is responsible for the hydrolysis of urea suggested that higher temperatures increase the activity
fertiliser applied to the soil into NH3 and CO2 with the coefficient of this enzyme. Therefore, it is recommended
concomitant rise in soil pH (Andrews et al., 1989; Byrnes that urea be applied at times of the day when tempe-
and Amberger, 1989). This, in turn, results in a rapid N ratures are low. This is because during such times the
loss to the atmosphere through NH3 volatilisation (Fillery activation energy is low, thus, resulting in minimum loss
et al., 1984; Simpson et al., 1984, 1985; Simpson and of N by the volatilisation process.
Freney, 1988). Due to this role, urease activities in soils Since urease plays a vital role in the hydrolysis of urea
have received a lot of attention since it was first reported fertiliser, it is important to uncover other unknown factors
by Rotini (1935), a process considered vital in the that may reduce the efficiency of this enzyme in the
regulation of N supply to plants after urea fertilisation. ecosystem. A better understanding of this enzyme would
Often, urea is the main source of N in many crops provide more effective ways of managing urea fertiliser
including flooded or irrigated rice and maize in many especially in high rainfall areas, flooded soils and irriga-
parts of Africa and Asia (Stangel, 1984; Buresh et al., ted lands as well as where urea fertiliser is vulnerable to
1988; Byrnes and Amberger, 1989; Van Cleemput and urease enzyme.
Wang, 1991). Despite the importance of this fertiliser, its
efficiency has been reported as low (Mikkelsen et al.,
1978; Fillery et al., 1986; Vlek and Byrnes, 1986) due to CONCLUSION
substantial N lost to the atmosphere through
volatilisation, a process mediated by the urease enzyme Understanding other possible roles of soil enzymes is
(Fillery et al., 1984; Simpson et al., 1984, 1985; Simpson vital to soil health and fertility management in ecosys-
and Freney, 1988; Byrnes and Amberger, 1989). tems. These enzymes may have significant effects on soil
Soil urease originates mainly from plants (Polacco, biology, environmental management, growth and nutrient
1977) and micro-organisms found as both intra- and uptake in plants growing in ecosystems. Their activities
extra-cellular enzymes (Mulvaney and Bremner, 1981; may, however, be influenced by unknown cultural
Blakeley and Zerner, 1984; Burns, 1986; Mobley and management practices. Research efforts should focus on
Hausinger, 1989). The stability of this enzyme in the discovering new enzymes from microbial diversity in the
system is affected by several factors. For example, soil, the most appropriate practices that may positively
studies have shown that extracellular urease associated influence their activities for improved plant growth as well
with soil organo-mineral complexes is more stable than as improving the biological environments in order to
urease in the soil solution (Burns, 1986) and those sustain sustain other life types.
humus-urease complexes extracted from soil are highly
resistant to denaturing agents such as extreme ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
temperatures and proteolytic attack (Nannipieri et al.,
1978). On the other hand, urease extracted from plants This study was supported by the Cape Peninsula
or micro-organisms is rapidly degraded in soil by University of Technology through University Research
proteolytic enzymes (Burns et al., 1972a; Pettit et al., Funds 2007/RP03.
1976; Zantua and Bremner, 1977). This suggests that a
significant fraction of ureolytic activity in soil is carried out REFERENCES
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