Picturebooks as Aesthetic Objects

Lawrence R. Sipe
University of Pennsylvania

ABSTRACT

Picturebooks have an important place in every primary classroom, and teachers use them in various ways to help children
develop skills in reading and writing. This article provides a
brief introduction for teachers who want to explore other ways
of studying picturebooks: ways that enhance childrens visual
literacy. Picturebooks are unified artistic wholes in which text
and pictures, covers and endpages, and the details of design
work together to provide an aesthetically satisfying experience
for children.

Note: In this article, the spelling picturebookas one wordis

utilized intentionally in order to emphasize the unity of words
and pictures that is the most important hallmark of this type
of book.

Literacy Teaching and Learning

Volume 6, Number 1

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Literacy Teaching and Learning

Volume 6, Number 1

Visiting the childrens section of a bookstore can be an experience of wonder

and delight. Examining the many picturebooks, we find ourselves in the presence of beautiful art of every imaginable medium and style and an endless variety of stories. Contemporary picturebooks are now recognized as more than
useful pedagogical tools or nursery entertainments: they are seen as unique
combinations of literature and visual art, worthy of serious attention. This article outlines a model for picturebook criticism which focuses on the formal
aspects and elements of the picturebook as an aesthetic object. It is intended for
teachers and other educational practitioners who want an introduction to discussing the visual aspects of picturebooks with children.
WHAT IS A PICTUREBOOK?
Sutherland and Hearne (1977) suggest that a picture book is one in which the
pictures either dominate the text or are as important (p. 158). Their goal is to
define so as to include the broadest possibilities of the genre (p. 160). Stewig
(1995) focuses on the picture storybook, in which the story and pictures are of
equal importance. The two elements together form an artistic unit that is
stronger than either of them would be alone (p. 9). The present discussion follows Kiefers (1995) criterion of interdependence of text and illustrations and
adds Marantz (1977) elucidation: A picturebook, unlike an illustrated book, is
properly conceived of as a unit, a totality that integrates all the designated parts
in a sequence in which the relationships among themthe cover, endpapers,
typography, picturesare crucial to understanding the book (p. 3).
In semiotic terms, each part of the picturebook functions as a sign and has
the potential to contribute meaning to the book. I will describe these parts separately in the following sections and describe how each part contributes to the
overall meaning of the book.
Physical Characteristics of the Picturebook and
Their Meaningful Functions
Size and Shape

We might first consider the overall size and proportions of the book. A very
small size, for example, may afford us the opportunity for a more private, intimate experience. Doonan (1986), in discussing Anthony Brownes Willy, the
Wimp (1984), suggests that although Browne deals with some serious issues, he
achieves an overall lightness (p. 171), which comes partly from the physical
size and weight of the picturebook. The small size of Willy, the Wimp makes it
possible for young hands to hold it comfortably: a book which the reader or
viewer may curl up with easily in private. The unpretentiousness of the size

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reflects the nature of the hero. Nodelman (1988) points out that we tend to
expect rambunctious, energetic stories like the ones by Dr. Seuss from large
books and more fragile, delicate stories like those by Beatrix Potter from smaller
ones (p. 44).
The proportions of a book are chosen for certain reasons as well. A strongly
horizontal shape is likely to be chosen for a book whose illustrations include
much background, landscape, or long panoramic perspectives (Doonan, 1993),
while a strongly vertical shape allows the artist to depict human characters on a
large, close-up scale. A horizontal shape may encourage us to take a broader,
more objective view of characters and situations, while the artist may increase
our empathy and identification with a character who can be more closely portrayed within a vertical shape.
Cover

Moebius (1986) comments that skipping the cover and the title page is like
arriving at the opera after the overture (p. 152). All the elements of the picturebook which we see before we come to the first text opening (where the
words of the story begin) communicate a mood and may give us signals about
the thematic thrust of the story. In some picturebooks the storyline begins with
the cover, the endpapers, or the illustrations included with the front matter, half
title, or title page, as in Steven Kelloggs version of Jack and the Beanstalk
(1991), where we learn from the front endpapers how the giant obtained his
treasures before we begin reading the text of the tale. In Maurice Sendaks We
Are All in the Dumps With Jack and Guy (1993), the front cover of the dust
jacket consists of an illustration that seems actually to conclude the book in a
triumphant manner, as the little homeless, nameless boy climbs out of the cavelike mouth of the moon with a stalk of grain in his hand.
We might ask whether the dust jacket is identical to the cover of the book
or whether the cover reveals something different. For example, many of Jan
Bretts books (published by Putnam) have entirely different dust jackets and
covers; this allows Brett an extra space to display her carefully detailed style,
adding to the beauty of the book. There is a more substantive reason for the
difference between the dust jacket and the cover of We Are All in the Dumps.
In this book, the dust jacket contains a color illustration, while the cover itself
is a plain light brown and quite thick, suggestive of a corrugated cardboard
box. Since the book is concerned with the issue of homelessness, this choice is
meaningful for its evocation of the situation of people whose only home is a
cardboard box: the characters in Sendaks book, as it were, live inside these boxlike covers.
When the cover or dust jacket is opened fully so that both the front and
the back are visible, we can see whether the artist has chosen to present us with

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one continuous picture, with front and back covers having separate illustrations, or with a blank back cover. In Saint George and the Dragon (1984), Trina
Schart Hymans front cover illustration alerts us to the major conflict within by
showing us both the saint with his battered shield and the horrific dragon in a
threatening pose; the back cover depicts a scribe writing the story or illuminating a manuscript, providing both an appropriate closure to the book and suggesting the connection of the medieval story with the book we hold in our
hands. The front and back covers are connected stylistically with each other and
with the illustrations inside through the frames and borders which suggest a
stained glass window. Another connection between the books front and back
covers is that all the lettering on the front cover is hand-lettered in a medieval
style, which we may imagine has been done by the scribe on the back cover. In
Where the Wild Things Are (Sendak, 1963), on the other hand, the front cover,
spine, and back cover comprise one illustration, wrapping the book in Maxs
dream. Sendak uses both covers as an expression of the spaciousness of his fantasy (Landes, 1985, p. 52).
Endpapers

The artist and illustrator Will Hillenbrand likes to think of the endpapers (also
called endpages) as the stage curtains for a play, which are the first thing the
audience sees when it enters the theater, as well as the last thing seen when the
play is over (Sipe, 1998, p. 40). Endpapers may be printed in a color which is
chosen to set the mood for the story, as in Saint George and the Dragon where
the endpapers are a bluish gray, indicating the serious tone of the story as a
whole and suggesting a twilight atmosphere. In the two openings before the
text begins (the title page and dedication page), the sun is just beginning to
rise; thus, the endpapers provide an atmospheric prelude in both a literal and
figurative sense. (Note that opening here refers to any two facing pages.
Picturebooks are rarely paginated; in the absence of page numbers, we can refer
to, for example, the second opening or the seventh opening.)
In David Macaulays Black and White (1990), the reader or viewer first
reads the words black and white on the cover and then opens the book to see
bright red endpapers. The endpapers in this case seem to make a visual pun,
making us think of the old riddle about what is black and white and red all
over; indeed, newspapers do have a part to play in the story or stories (Kiefer,
1995). If there are illustrated endpapers, they are frequently designed as a stylized or repeated pattern with motifs important to the story, as in the suggestion
of tropical leaves in the endpapers for Where the Wild Things Are.
While most front and back endpapers are identical, there may be a reason
to provide different ones. In Good Morning, Good Night (1991), Ivan Gantschev
uses endpapers containing two areas of color representing the sun and the

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moon, the two major characters of the story. In the front endpapers, a yellow
area appears above a darker purple area, while in the back endpapers, the order
is reversed, with the purple area on top and the yellow area below. Because the
narrative in this book proceeds from the suns point of the view to the moons
point of view, this change is appropriate and meaningful, indicating the story
structure in a visual way.
Choice of Paper

The choice of paper can also add to the meaning the artist is trying to convey.
Nodelman (1988) comments that glossy paper gives colors a glistening clarity,
but it is distancing, partially because the light shines equally through all the colors and creates an overall sheen that attracts attention to the surface of a picture
and therefore makes it more difficult for us to focus on specific objects
depicted (p. 47). On the other hand, the use of a matte or rougher stock
invites our touch and our sensuous interaction. Chris Van Allsburg exploits this
potential in Jumanji (1981), where the matte surface of the paper allows the
delicate tones of silvery gray to be communicated more directly to us; one
wants to caress the surfaces of the objects depicted.
Binding

The nature and quality of the binding will determine how flat the book will
lie and how well the inner edges of the left and right pages will line up
especially important for books with illustrations extending across the entire
double page spread.
The most complete statement of the art of the picturebook is usually found
in the trade edition. The library edition and paperback edition often omit or
truncate the carefully planned unity of the book. In the library edition of We
Are All in the Dumps for example, the cover is not plain light brown, suggestive
of a cardboard box, but rather the same illustration that appears on the dust
jacket of the trade edition. Thus, this subtle contribution to the total meaning
of the book is lost in the library edition. The endpapers are frequently omitted
or changed to plain white in a paperback edition. As well, the size and proportions of the book are sometimes changed in a library or paperback edition.
Although I have dealt with the parts separately, it must be stressed that in a
carefully crafted picturebook, each of the parts makes its own contribution to a
harmonious whole. With the book in our hands, we should be able to understand how the choices involved in the size and shape of the book, the dust
jacket, front and back covers, endpapers, title page, and front matterthe peritext of the picturebook (Genette, 1982)all work together to convey a meaningful and unified experience.

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ELEMENTS AND CODES APPLICABLE TO ILLUSTRATIONS

IN ISOLATION
The illustrations in a picturebook are contextualized in a certain format and
stand in a dynamic relationship to one another. However, since we see them
one page opening at a time in a simultaneous display of two facing pages
(Bader, 1976, p. 1), the elements of their design and their total composition
can be partially understood in the same way that all pictorial art is understood.
Traditional Elements of Design
Color, line, shape, and texture have been traditionally considered to be the elements of visual design (Richard, 1969); Kiefer (1995) adds value, referring to
the range of tones in either color or black and white. These elements comprise
the artists language or grammar in the sense that the artist uses them to communicate meaning in a nonverbal and visual manner (Cianciolo, 1984).
Our reaction to color consists, according to some theorists, in both its natural associations and the associations we learn through our culture. In some
cultures, black is associated with mourning; in other cultures, white is the culturally constructed symbol for grief. Universal associations seem to exist
between blue and calm, detachment, serenity, or melancholy; yellow and happiness; and red with warmth, anger, energy, or passion. Artists use these associations in their work extensively. In Alan Says Grandfathers Journey (1993), for
example, the almost total absence of red in Says evenly muted palette adds to
an impression of reserved spirituality (McClelland, 1993, p. 245).
The three aspects of colorhue, tone, and saturationmay help us to analyze the colors used in an illustration. Hue refers to the different segments of
the spectrum, allowing us to distinguish all that might be called red from all
that might be called orange (though the distinctions are of course blurry,
because the spectrum is a continuum). Tone refers to the amount of darkness or
brightness of a hue and can further be broken down into tint (the addition of
white, or water in the case of watercolor) and shade (the addition of black).
Saturation refers to the intensity or purity of a color.
What does this terminology have to tell us about, say, Sendaks Where the
Wild Things Are? A study of Sendaks illustrations reveals that the color used is
generally of low intensity and dark tone, and that shades of blue predominate.
Sendaks choices are predicated on his illustrating a story that is a dream or fantasy, taking place at night or twilight. Truly bold colors of high intensity and
bright tone would be inappropriate here. Most artists choices are like Sendaks:
based not on a naturalistic rendering of objects, but on the emotional effects
the colors engender. Changes in color can be signs of changing mood, as in the
backgrounds of We Are All in the Dumps With Jack and Guy, where the range is
from dark and somber to almost jet black to very light tints of blue, pink, and

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yellow. Lastly, the deliberate lack of color in picturebook illustrations is an

interesting choice, especially nowadays when the technology of color reproduction is so advanced. This is clearly not a matter of the artist choosing to be limited by a range of black, grays, and white. Black and white seems a meager way
of describing Van Allsburgs subtle palette in Jumanji (1981), where the surreal
quality of the story is heightened by the lack of color.
Another aspect of the depiction of color and light is the use of light and
shadow to both manipulate our attention and to suggest symbolic meaning
(Arnheim, 1974). In the fourth opening of Grandfathers Journey (1993), for
example, Allen Say shows his grandfathers face in deep shadow, which contrasts
sharply with the white of his hat and the whites and light grays of the factory
town behind him. The text reads, Huge cities of factories and tall buildings
bewildered and yet excited him. The viewers attention is drawn to the white
hat and to the dark face beneath; in symbolic terms, the contrast between the
hat and the face suggests the simultaneous bewilderment and excitement that
Grandfather feels.
Line can vary greatly and is perhaps the most powerful expressive tool in
the artists arsenal. Randolph Caldecott, arguably the first picturebook artist,
relied on pen-and-ink drawing for a flowing, expressive line which needed very
little shading to communicate life and energy (Cech, 19831984). Black outlining is a common technique in picturebook illustrations. The weight of line
can vary from thick and definite to thin, feathery, and airy. Marcia Browns
illustrations for Cinderella (1954) have this latter quality, which is appropriate
to the refinement of a French ballroom (Golden, 1990). The possibilities or
functions for line include suggesting contour, modeling, shading, and a sign
for movement (Doonan, 1993, p. 23). The fine crosshatched lines on the
monsters in the three double spreads at the center of Wild Things invest the
monsters with energy and motion, appropriate to the wild rumpus. The
smoothness or roughness of the lines can suggest either serenity or anxiety, stasis or energy.
Arnheim (1974) believes that all shape is meaningful: Form always goes
beyond the practical function of things by finding in their shape the visual
qualities of roundness or sharpness, strength or frailty, harmony or discord. It
thereby reads them symbolically as images of the human condition (p. 97).
Shape is illuminatingly discussed in Molly Bangs Picture This (1991), which
explains several general principles of shapes in pictorial art. Bang suggests that
horizontal shapes give us a sense of stability and calm (p. 56), while vertical
shapes are more exciting and suggest energy. Diagonal shapes are the most
dynamic of all, evoking a sense of motion or tension. Pointed shapes create
more anxiety and fear because of their association with sharp objects, while
rounded, curved shapes make us feel more comfortable and safe.
The placement of the shapes on the page (one element of composition) is

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also important. According to Bang (1991; see also Moebius, 1986), shape
placement in the upper half of a picture implies freedom, happiness, triumph,
or spirituality; while placement in the bottom half is a sign of greater pictorial
weight or down-to-earth-ness and may also mean more threat or sadness.
Placement at the center of the page is what Moebius calls the ham factor (p.
148). Center stage in an illustration is associated with greater importance, just
as it is in the theater. The larger the object in a picture, the stronger it feels to
us. Moebius also suggests that a character shown on the left page is likely to be
in a more secure, albeit potentially confined space than one shown on the right,
who is likely to be moving into a situation of risk or adventure (p. 149). In a
well-composed picture, the artist leads the viewers eye around the illustration
from shape to shape through the overall arrangement of shapes and their colors.
Another factor is the number of shapes, which determines how busy or
sparse the illustration appears. An illustration with fewer shapes tends to give
the impression of calm or quiet. Arnheim (1974) also suggests that a detail may
acquire weight if it has intrinsic interest. The triangular shape which is a
repeated motif throughout Anthony Brownes Hansel and Gretel (1981) is an
example of such a detail that takes on weight through its repetition and the
association we make with a witchs hat.
On the flat, smooth, two-dimensional surface of a piece of paper, texture,
like motion, can only be suggested, though todays sophisticated color printing
techniques make it possible to convey an effective illusion of texture.
Sometimes the rough texture of the paper for the original illustrations is noticeable on the reproduced pages of the picturebook, as in Van Allsburgs The
Garden of Abdul Gasazi (1979). In contrast, the texture of the illustrations in
Jumanji (1981) is smooth and almost silky. The use of collage gives the illusion
of three dimensions and of many different textures to the backgrounds in
David Diazs illustrations for Smoky Night (Bunting, 1994).
Style

Nodelman (1988) defines style as all the aspects of a work of art considered
together (p. 77). According to Novitz (1977), style can be defined on three
levels. First, there is pictorial style: a recognizable style characteristic of a particular time or place. The Renaissance fascination with perspective and the
Impressionist fascination with the immediate, unmediated visual image would
be examples of pictorial style. Second, there is artistic style, which involves
changes in emphasis or in subject matter but not in overall methods of
depicting (Kiefer, 1993, p. 76). Finally, an individual artist has a unique
personal style.
In picturebooks, artists may use both their personal style and make references to historic pictorial or artistic styles, as when Sendak gives a nod to the

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Impressionists in Mr. Rabbit and the Lovely Present (Zolotow, 1962). In The
Castle Builder (1987), Dennis Nolan makes use of the pointillist artistic style of
Seurat. All of the illustrations are done with thousands of tiny dots, which
seems quite appropriate for a fantasy about sand castles. For the folktale narrative of Swamp Angel (Isaacs, 1994), Paul Zelinsky chose to paint on wooden
surfaces in a manner suggestive of American folk art. These artists use of recognizable styles from other eras or cultures is the visual version of intertextuality.
These interrelationships can be serious or comically ironic. Anthony Browne is
a picturebook artist who makes playful and conscious use of the history of art;
his books frequently include depictions of interiors with reproductions of wellknown paintings from a variety of eras and artistic styles. The Big Baby (1993),
for example, includes the work of Hopper, Degas, Dali, and Fuseli (all recognizable but changed in amusing ways), along with a reproduction of one of
Ernest Shepherds illustrations for Winnie-the-Pooh thrown in for good measure.
On whatever level we consider style, we must always ask how the style is
appropriate to the subject or theme of the picturebook: how it conveys meaning and supports the meaning of the text. Hellman (1977) and Genova (1979)
suggest that style has both formal, objectively describable qualities as well as
subjective properties which convey meaning. This is perhaps best illustrated
with a negative example: the illustrations for Robert Munschs controversial
Love You Forever (1986). Whatever one may think of the verbal textand opinions range widely on this matterthere can be little doubt that the illustration
style has not been chosen to match the text in any way or to add to its meaning. The naturalistic, highly colored, and clearly outlined style of the illustrations conflicts severely with the dream-like reverie of the text with its repetitions and evoked memories. If this text should be illustrated at all, it would perhaps be best done with an understated, altogether less naturalistic style in either
muted colors or black and white.
Point of View

Point of view refers to the position of the viewer in relation to the space of the
illustration. Where are we in this constructed space? If there is a table in the
illustration, for example, are we on a level with the tables surface, looking at it
from underneath, or viewing it from above? Chris Van Allsburg is one of the
masters of the use of point of view. In the first opening of Jumanji where Peter
sits in a chair, we see him almost from the level of the floor. In the third opening, which depicts Judy and Peter beginning to play the board game that will
cause them so much trouble, the viewer is placed almost directly overhead.
Some of the surreal quality of the illustrations (appropriate for this surreal
story) is due to these odd perspectives and the abrupt changes from one perspective to another (Neumeyer, 1990).

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Distance

We can also consider how close or far the viewer is placed to the scene in the
illustration. Does the artist give us a long panoramic view, are we up close and
personal with the characters, or somewhere in between? The closer we seem to
the action, the more empathy and emotion we may feel; whereas a long view
tends to make us more objective and detached, viewing the action from a safe
distance. In Peter Spiers almost wordless Noahs Ark (1977), most of the illustrations are close-ups and very detailed, and make us feel great sympathy for
poor Noah and his family, who are trying to cope with so many different animal needs and preferences. In two illustrations, however, Spier draws us back
from the ark and relieves our claustrophobia by depicting the ark surrounded
by the limitless water of the Flood.
Medium or Media Used

It is not always possible to identify the medium or media the artist used: tempera, gouache, acrylic, and oil paint are not easy to distinguish in a picturebook, where the physical surface texture (which might give its own clues) is not
reproduced. A welcome trend in picturebook format is the inclusion of a note,
often with the publishing information, which explains how the illustrations
were created.
Each artistic medium has its own potential as well as its own limitations.
For example, the medium of watercolor lends itself to a flowing, impressionistic
interpretation that is evocative and suggestive rather than precise, whereas
acrylic or tempera with a dry brush makes possible a very detailed and meticulous style. Whatever medium or combination of media is chosen, however, it
must be appropriate to the text in some way. I have already discussed the
appropriateness of cont pencil, with its silvery tones of gray, to the storyline of
Jumanji. The translucent quality of watercolor is appropriate to Saint George
and the Dragon, given that Hyman intends for us to have the impression of
looking through stained glass windows. Peter Spier exploits the potential of pen
and ink for detail in Noahs Ark (1978) in order to portray the multitude of
birds, animals, and every living thing gathered by Noah and his family; and
his use of watercolor in such a watery story seems appropriate as well.
Elements and Characteristics of the Illustrations
in the Picturebook Context
As a part of a picturebook, illustrations have particular qualities and characteristics which are specific to that context, in addition to the general elements
indicated in the preceding section. Here I will consider the choices the artist

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makes in relation to the framing, shape, and arrangement on the double page
spread. I will also discuss the pictures as a narrative sequence.
Framing

The importance of frames in pictorial art has long been recognized; when we
see a painting hanging on a wall, the presence or absence of a frame, as well as
the frames size and composition, are noteworthy factors in the total impression
we receive. Dooley (1980) comments that frames often serve to convey the
impression that we are looking through a window. Picturebook artists also pay
careful attention to the frames they give their illustrations, making a window
in the book (p. 109). The most common way of framing is to simply leave
some space around the illustration. The wider the space, the more set-off the
illustration seems, and the more objective and detached we can be about it
(Nodelman, 1988, p. 51). Moebius (1986) puts it this way: Framed, the illustration provides a limited glimpse into a world. Unframed, the illustration
constitutes a total experience, the view from within (p. 150). In Grandfathers
Journey (1993), Allen Say frames the illustrations in white and adds a thin black
line around the edges of the illustrations; this is a restrained and contemplative
book, and this treatment adds to these qualities.
When an illustration extends to the edges of the page without any frame, it
is said to bleed. Full bleed means that the illustration extends to the edges of the
page on all four sides. In a full-bleed double page spread, the illustration completely covers the two pages of the opening. This is perhaps the ultimate view
from within (Moebius, 1986, p. 150). Doonan (1993) comments that full
bleed suggests a life going on beyond the confines of the page, so that the
beholder becomes more of a participant than a spectator of the pictured events
(p. 81). In We Are All in the Dumps With Jack and Guy, all of the illustrations
are presented in this way. Sendaks decision must be related to the shocking
immediacy and intensity of his story about homeless children: from the beginning to the end, the illustrations jump out and clutch at us. They attempt to
enter the viewers space and become one with it. This is the visual equivalent of
a physical assault or a high-speed chase; the intensity never diminishes or modulates. In Where the Wild Things Are, on the other hand, Sendak reserves the
full-bleed double spread format for the middle (and climax) of the book, where
he depicts the wild rumpus on three successive spreads.
Breaking the framewhere part of the illustration extends beyond the
straight line separating it from the white space of the frameis a technique
that often results in a feeling of tension or excitement for the viewer. When an
illustration breaks the frame, it is as if it is struggling to emerge from the
restraint provided by the frame. In the seventh opening of Where the Wild

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Things Are, the tree on the left side of the illustration of Maxs private boat
breaks the frame onto the left-hand page; it intensifies the feeling of an expanding world as Max nears the place where the wild things are. In Paul Zelinskys
illustrations for Swamp Angel (Issacs, 1994), the giant female protagonist breaks
the frame in several pictures, including the cover illustration. This serves to
accentuate her size; it seems as if she is too large to fit inside the illustration.
Because the frame is the borderline between the illusion of the illustration
and the reality of the physical page (Uspensky, 1973; Whalen-Levitt, 1986), a
bounded time and space between the real and imagined world, or a transition
from the real world and the world of representation (Harms & Lettow, 1989,
p. 140), breaking the frame also blurs the distinction between illusion and reality. This principle is memorably and amusingly demonstrated in Jon Scieszkas
The Book That Jack Wrote (1994), in which each illustration is framed in a
trompe loeil picture frame. The last illustration depicts a book, with the same
illustrated cover as the one we are holding in our hands, lying on top of Jack
(only his red shoes are showing, like the very dead Wicked Witch of the East in
The Wizard of Oz!), surrounded by fragments of the broken wooden frame.
This is frame-breaking with a vengeance!
Artists may also frame their illustrations by adding an illustrated border.
The stained glass window effect of Saint George and the Dragon has already
been mentioned; the borders are created by the thick brown lines that resemble
the lead bars in stained glass. Many of the borders in the book are filled with
detailed illustrations of plants indigenous to medieval England. In their detail
and their use of the organic forms of plants, the borders contribute to the illusion of the book as a medieval illuminated manuscript. The much simpler borders in Chicka Chicka Boom Boom (Martin & Archambault, 1989) are polkadotted and add an energetic, repetitive, and rhythmic component which parallels the lively and heavily rhythmic qualities of the verbal text. Jan Brett is
known for the elaborate borders in her picturebooks. She often uses borders to
enhance her narrative: the borders often contain an anticipatory clue about
what will happen next or a parallel story. The effect of this utilization of the
border is to create yet another text for the reader or viewer to absorb and to
integrate into the verbal text and the main illustrative text; the border adds
another layer of narrative meaning.
Arrangement on the Page

The artist can manipulate the space on the page in many ways. One common
way is to place the text on one side and the illustration on the other. Double
page spreads have already been mentioned. It is also possible to include several
illustrations on one page opening as a montage. A good example of this is the
first opening of Sendaks In the Night Kitchen (1970), where there are three

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illustrations of Mickey in bed, comprising what Schwarcz (1982) calls continuous narration (p. 24). This is one way in which the illustrator can indicate
action, motion, or the sequence of time. In the Night Kitchen has many
instances of montage, and most of them are also instances of continuous narration. For example, in the eleventh opening, we see four panels depicting
Mickey in his dough plane, flying higher and higher until he is on the same
level as the giant milk bottle.
Vignettes, small illustrations used to break up sections of text or otherwise
decorate a page, are more characteristic of illustrated books than picturebooks.
A notable exception is the round vignette on the last page of In the Night
Kitchen, where the text surrounds an image of Mickey with a milk bottle
against the background of a stylized sun. Vignettes are also sometimes found on
the back covers of picturebooks. In the Night Kitchen provides an example of
this as well, with a small image of Mickey and the milk bottle, this time with
his back to the viewer, as if we walked around the last page and viewed it from
the other side.
Shape of the Illustrations Perimeter

While most illustrations in picturebooks are rectangular or square, the artist

may choose to give a round or oval (or arched) shape to the illustration.
Zelinskys illustrations for Swamp Angel are varied in this way, in imitation of
the frequent use of round, oval, or arched frames in folk art. A rounded shape
for an entire illustration is similar in its effect to rounded shapes in the composition: it often communicates a serene, calming, contemplative quality. In
Virginia Lee Burtons The Little House (1942), the rather sad experiences of the
little house are belied by the rounded shapes inside the illustrations (the house
and the other buildings curve, in defiance of reality) and by the round perimeters of many of the illustrations. Partly because of the gentle quality of these
rounded shapes, we have the feeling that everything will be all right in the end.
The last line of text in the book, and all was quiet and peaceful in the country, is depicted by an oval-shaped illustration. If we imagine how out of place a
rectangular or square illustration would look here, we can understand the wisdom of Burtons choice.
Narrative Sequence

One of the unique qualities of the picturebook is the dynamic nature of the
narrative sequence of the illustrations. As Schwarcz and Schwarcz (1991)
remind us, it is essential to realize that the illustrations in childrens books are a
serial art form (p. 5). Picturebook illustrations are not intended to be viewed
separately, but in a certain order; this order constitutes the visual narrative of

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the book. Narrative implies both action and time, and a number of critics have
compared the dynamics of narrative to the art of the cinema. Roxburgh
(19831984) comments that just as the images on a strip of motion-picture
film have a dynamic sequential existence, so do the images in a picturebook
(p. 20). Illustrator Don Wood has observed that the picture book is a spectacular child of the marriage of image and text. As such it is probably as close to
drama or a thirty-two-page movie as it is to either literature or art (quoted in
Considine, 1987, p. 639). Nodelman (1988) suggests that picturebook artists
use devices which closely resemble film techniques.
For example, both illustrators and filmmakers use a storyboard as part of
their planning process. Illustrators often vary the point of view and distance in
the same way that a film presents its images as seen from far away, moving to a
zoom shot for a closer look. Nodelman (1988, p. 179) discusses the title page
of Rosies Walk (Hutchins, 1968) as an example of what filmmakers call an
establishing shot, because it depicts the entire barnyard area around which Rosie
will walk, giving us the big picture before starting on the action sequence. The
title and dedication pages of Saint George and the Dragon function in a similar
way, as we first see the fairies pointing toward the right-hand side of the page,
and then see on the following page the Red Cross Knight, Una, and her servant
dwarf riding in the distance. On the next page, the illustrators camera pans
nearer, as it were, to give us a much closer view of the three figures which fill
the illustration.
There is an obvious dissimilarity between film and picturebooks; however,
the illustrator has only a small number of opportunities to tell the story.
Whereas the filmmaker can spend time looking at an object or scene from
many different angles, the illustrator must choose carefully what will be illustrated and what will be omitted. In The Act of Reading (1978), Wolfgang Iser
argues that every text has gaps or parts which readers must fill in as they read: a
visual text includes gaps arising out the extremely limited number of shots the
illustrator has available. Of course, the montage technique allows an increased
number of illustrations. In Noahs Ark (1997), the ark is a visually rich and busy
place; Peter Spier makes use of montage on almost every page to give us images
of as many animals and situations as possible: one of his double page spreads
contains a montage of seven separate illustrations. But even so, there is a limit,
and careful choice is critical. Keeping in mind the principle that choice always
involves rejection, we must ask, What did the artist choose to include? What
did the artist choose to omit?
Another dissimilarity between the film and the picturebook is that we have
the possibility of studying one illustration for a long time before going on to
the next; we can also look back to previous illustrations, though with the
advent of the video cassette recorder, these things are possible with film as well.
The picturebook artist makes use of this opportunity by creating recurring

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motifs, patterns, or rhythms in the illustrative sequence. These devices assist in

creating narrative continuity. For example, the image of a cage is a recurring
motif in Anthony Brownes version of Hansel and Gretel (1981). The cage is
thematically appropriate to this story of capture, entrapment, and escape. I have
already mentioned the use of recurring triangular shapes suggestive of witches
hats. This triangle motif is one way in which Browne makes a psychological
connection between the wicked stepmother and the witch (Doonan, 1986).
The beginning and ending of a narrative are especially important. One way
of critically examining the narrative structure of a picturebook is to look at the
first and the last illustrations and to try to understand how they are connected.
John Ciardi has remarked that a good ending must use up all of the story,
[using] the metaphor of a fire so carefully laid that the ashes are equally
burnedwith no uneven lumps (cited in Landes, 1985, p. 52). Donald
Murray, the Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist and novelist, has said that a good
ending always circles back to the beginning. This is as true for a visual text as it
is for a verbal one. This brings the story to a satisfying closure and is one of the
principal ways the artist achieves resolution and a sense of completion. I would
go so far as to say that every carefully crafted picturebook makes important
connections in some way between the first and last illustrations. In the Night
Kitchen begins and ends with Mickey safe in bed. Where the Wild Things Are
opens with Max being sent to his room and closes with him back in the same
room, with the symbolic assurance of his mothers love in the form of a supper
that is still hot. This symmetry is aesthetically pleasing to us because it is so
unlike the experiences of our everyday lives, where true closure and resolution
happen so seldom.
A narrative always has rises and falls in its emotional trajectory. It should be
possible to graph the level of energy or emotion at various points in the story; if
we did so, the climaxthe point at which our emotions are engaged the most
intenselywould be the highest peak on the graph. In Saint George and the
Dragon, we have a story with the climax in the middle, in the knights battle
with the dragon. Hymans illustrations take us abruptly from the panoramic,
pastoral scene of the knight and his entourage riding through the fields to the
next page and our first sight of the spectacularly hideous dragon, its bat-wings
spread from one side of the illustration to the other. The emotion-charged
atmosphere continues through several pages, though Hyman wisely intersperses
one calming illustration of the knight, lying unconscious while Una prepares to
cover him with a blanket. The effect of this illustration is to help us catch our
breath along with the knight, so that the illustration on the following page will
have an even greater effect.
I have already pointed out that the illustrator of a picturebook must make
some difficult decisions about what to illustrate and what not to illustrate in the
narrative sequence. The high points in the narrative trajectory are frequently

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chosen for illustration, but this is not always the case. In some picturebooks, it
seems as if the illustrator has consciously avoided the vertical moments. Nancy
Ekholm Burkerts (1972) Snow White and the Seven Dwarves is an example of
such a book. In an extended and fascinating comparison of Burkerts version of
the Snow White story to that of Trina Schart Hyman (1974), Perry Nodelman
(1988) points out that Burkerts rejection of the highly charged narrative
moments for illustration is one of the many ways in which Burkert presents a
cool, contemplative version of the tale. In contrast, Hymans version illustrates
many of the vertical moments, and this is one of the factors that contribute to
the emotionally tempestuous, sensually charged quality of her interpretation.
Page Turns

One last point needs to be made about the narrative progression of a picturebook. In Barbara Baders (1976) memorable phrase, we experience the drama
of the turning of the page (p. 1) as we proceed from one set of facing pages to
the next. Steiner (1982) points out that in most books, the particular portions
of the text on successive pages are meaningless divisions in a continuous span
of meaning (p. 142). When we read a novel, the page breaks contribute nothing to our experience; they are a necessary nuisance more than anything else,
momentarily breaking the narrative flow as we hurry to continue reading. In
contrast, the page turns in a picturebook have a complex semiotic significance
because they have been carefully planned. The picturebook is not only a slowmotion series of presented verbal and visual images; the author or illustrator can
use the brief hiatus in various meaningful ways as we turn the page. Page breaks
can function as signals of changing perspectives, psychological states, or changing emotions on the part of the characters in the book; they may redirect our
feelings or our attention. They may create suspense and drama, they may confirm or foil our predictions, and they may represent gaps in the narrative that
the reader or viewer must bridge.
In Where the Wild Things Are, Sendak has used the page breaks in all of
these ways. Consider, for example, the first three openings. In the first opening,
we see a picture of Max in his wolf suit, using a huge hammer to nail a knotted
sheet into the wall as a support for his makeshift tent. The text reads, The
night Max wore his wolf suit and made mischief of one kind. This incomplete
sentence and phrase suggest that there is more mischief ahead; we might predict
that Max is going to be in deep trouble. The page turn gives us the opportunity
to engage in these speculations, which are confirmed in the second opening,
which shows Max in mid-leap, brandishing a fork and chasing a worriedlooking dog. The text reads, and anotherstill not completing the sentence.
The first two openings are connected by rising action, as Maxs antics become
more naughty. The page turn to the third opening provides the time to ask

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what will happen now and involves much gap-filling, because this third opening shows Max in his bedroom, with a sour look on his face and his hand defiantly on his hip. The text on this opening finally completes the sentence: his
mother called him WILD THING!/ and Max said ILL EAT YOU UP!/ so
he was sent to bed without eating anything. Clearly a lot has happened.
Mother has caught and scolded him, Max has been saucy, and Mother has
marched him up to his room and shut the door. The turning of the page has
signaled the change in Maxs mood and perhaps our change of attitude towards
him, as well: after being slightly shocked and amused on the first two openings,
we may now feel either a little pity for him or the satisfaction of knowing that
he has finally been punished.
The page turns in this book have been artfully designed; far from being
meaningless necessities, they have increased our engagement and pleasure, contributing positively to our total experience of the book.
CONCLUSION
At the beginning of Art and Illusion (1961), E. H. Gombrich reminds us that
to marvel is the beginning of knowledge and where we cease to marvel we may
be in danger of ceasing to know (p. 8). In Looking at Pictures in Picture Books
(1993), Jane Doonan analyzes two picturebooks closely, commenting, I
enjoyed both books at first glance, and then went on to try to find the source
of my pleasure (p. 47). Doonans method follows Gombrichs maxim: first, she
enjoys the books, marveling over the compelling illustrations and the wellwrought texts, then she tries to understand her enjoyment. This article suggests
a framework for doing thisfor actively exploring the source of our pleasure
and for appreciating the picturebook as a provocative, sophisticated, cultural
product (Schwarcz, 1982, p. 10). The ultimate purpose of analysis and criticism should be to assist us in returning to any given picturebook with the
power of seeing and feeling more intensely, thereby increasing our pleasure and
capacity for wonder.
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY
Lawrence R. Sipe, an assistant professor in the Reading/Writing/Literacy
Program at the University of Pennsylvanias Graduate School of Education,
teaches courses in literature for children and adolescents. In the Canadian
province of Newfoundland, he taught in a one-room school (Grades 18) for
two years, and he worked for 13 years as a school district coordinator of language arts (K6) and a facilitator of professional development. He also taught
in a multigrade (K2) classroom for four years in New Jersey.

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REFERENCES
Arnheim, R. (1974). Art and visual perception: A psychology of the creative eye.
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Bader, B. (1976). American picturebooks from Noahs ark to the beast within. New
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Considine, D. (1987). Visual literacy and the curriculum: More to it than
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Doonan, J. (1986). The object lesson: Picturebooks of Anthony Browne. Word
and Image, 2(2), 159172.
Doonan, J. (1993). Looking at pictures in picture books. Stroud, Gloucestershire,
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Genette, G. (1982). Palimpsestes. Paris, France: Seuil.
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Marantz, K. (1977, October). The picture book as art object: A call for balanced reviewing. Wilson Library Bulletin, 148151.
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Neumeyer, P. (1990). How picture books mean: The case of Chris Van
Allsburg. Childrens Literature Association Quarterly, 15(1), 28.
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Novitz, 1977, Pictures and their use in communication: A philosophical essay. The
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IL: American Library Association.
Sipe, L. R. (1998). First- and second-grade literary critics: Understanding childrens rich responses to literature. In T. E. Raphael & K. H. Au (Eds.),
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PICTUREBOOKS CITED
Brown, M. (1954). Cinderella. New York: Charles Scribners Sons.
Browne, A. (1981). Hansel and Gretel. London, England: Julia MacRae.
Browne, A. (1984). Willy, the wimp. London, England: Julia MacRae.
Browne, A. (1993). The big baby. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Bunting, E. (1994). Smoky night. Illus. D. Diaz. San Diego, CA: Harcourt
Brace.

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Burkert, N. E. (1972). Snow White and the seven dwarfs. By the Brothers
Grimm. Trans. Randall Jarrell. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.
Burton, V. (1942). The little house. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Gantschev, I. (1991). Good morning, good night. Saxonville, MA: Picture Book
Studio.
Hodges, M. (1984). Saint George and the dragon. Illus. T. S. Hyman. Boston,
MA: Little, Brown.
Hutchins, Pat (1968). Rosies walk. New York: Macmillan.
Hyman, T. S. (1974). Snow White. By the Brothers Grimm. Trans. Paul Heins.
Boston, MA: Atlantic Monthly Press-Little Brown.
Isaacs, A. (1994). Swamp Angel. Illus. P. Zelinsky. New York: Dutton.
Kellogg, Steven (1991). Jack and the beanstalk. New York: Morrow Junior
Books.
Macaulay, D. (1990). Black and white. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Martin, B., & Archambault, J. (1989). Chicka chicka boom boom. Illus. L.
Ehlert. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Munsch, R. (1986). Love you forever. Illus. Sheila McGraw. Scarborough,
Ontario: Firefly.
Nolan, D. (1987). The castle builder. New York: Macmillan.
Say, A. (1993). Grandfathers journey. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Scieczka, J. (1994). The book that Jack wrote. Illus. D. Abel. New York: Viking.
Sendak, M. (1963). Where the wild things are. New York: HarperTrophy.
Sendak, M. (1970). In the night kitchen. New York: Harper & Row.
Sendak, M. (1993). We are all in the dumps with Jack and Guy. New York:
HarperCollins.
Spier, P. (1977). Noahs ark. New York: Dell.
Van Allsburg, C. (1979). The garden of Abdul Gasazi. Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin.
Van Allsburg, C. (1981). Jumanji. Boston. MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Zolotow, C. (1962). Mr. Rabbit and the lovely present. Illus. M. Sendak. New
York: Harper.

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