Raccoon

Raccoon
1 Etymology
For other species called raccoon in the genus Procyon,

see Procyon (genus). For other uses, see Raccoon
(disambiguation).
The raccoon ( * i/rkun/, Procyon lotor), sometimes

spelled racoon,* [3] also known as the common raccoon,* [4] North American raccoon,* [5] northern raccoon* [6] and colloquially as coon,* [7] is a medium-sized
mammal native to North America. The raccoon is the
largest of the procyonid family, having a body length of
40 to 70 cm (16 to 28 in) and a body weight of 3.5
to 9 kg (8 to 20 lb). Its grayish coat mostly consists
of dense underfur which insulates against cold weather.
Two of the raccoon's most distinctive features are its extremely dexterous front paws and its facial mask, which
are themes in the mythology of several Native American
ethnic groups. Raccoons are noted for their intelligence,
with studies showing that they are able to remember the
solution to tasks for up to three years.* [8] The diet of the The mask of a raccoon is often interrupted by a brown-black
omnivorous raccoon, which is usually nocturnal, consists streak that extends from forehead to nose.* [9]
of about 40% invertebrates, 33% plant foods, and 27%
vertebrates.
The word raccoonwas adopted into English from the
The original habitats of the raccoon are deciduous and native Powhatan term, as used in the Virginia Colony. It
mixed forests, but due to their adaptability they have ex- was recorded on Captain John Smith's list of Powhatan
tended their range to mountainous areas, coastal marshes, words as aroughcun, and on that of William Strachey as
*
and urban areas, where some homeowners consider them arathkone. [10] It has also been identied as a Prototo be pests. As a result of escapes and deliberate Algonquian root *ahrah-koon-em, meaning "[the] one
*
introductions in the mid-20th century, raccoons are now who rubs, scrubs and scratches with its hands. [11]
also distributed across mainland Europe, Caucasia, and Similarly, Spanish colonists adopted the Spanish word
Japan.
mapache from the Nahuatl mapachitli of the Aztecs,
meaning "[the] one who takes everything in its hands
.* [12] In many languages, the raccoon is named for its
characteristic dousing behavior in conjunction with that
language's term for bear, for example Waschbr in German, orsetto lavatore in Italian, mosmedve in Hungarian
and araiguma () in Japanese. In French and
European Portuguese, the washing behavior is combined
with these languages' term for rat, yielding, respectively,
raton laveur and rato-lavadeiro. The raccoon's scientic
name, Procyon lotor, is neo-Latin, meaningbefore-dog
washer, with lotor Latin forwasherand Procyon Latinized Greek from -, beforeand , dog
.
Though previously thought to be solitary, there is now

evidence that raccoons engage in gender-specic social
behavior. Related females often share a common area,
while unrelated males live together in groups of up to
four animals to maintain their positions against foreign
males during the mating season, and other potential invaders. Home range sizes vary anywhere from 3 hectares
(7 acres) for females in cities to 50 km2 (20 sq mi) for
males in prairies. After a gestation period of about 65
days, two to ve young, known as kits, are born in
spring. The kits are subsequently raised by their mother
until dispersal in late fall. Although captive raccoons have
been known to live over 20 years, their life expectancy in
the wild is only 1.8 to 3.1 years. In many areas, hunting
and vehicular injury are the two most common causes of
death.
The colloquial abbreviation coon is used in words like

coonskin for fur clothing and in phrases like old coon as a
self-designation of trappers.* [13] In the 1830s, the U.S.
Whig Party used the raccoon as an emblem, causing them
to be pejoratively known as 'coons' by their political opponents, who saw them as too sympathetic to African1
2 TAXONOMY
Americans. Soon after that it became an ethnic slur,* [14]

especially in use between 1880 and 1920 (see coon song),
and the term is still considered oensive.* [15]
1.1
Local and indigenous names
Taxonomy
In the rst decades after its discovery by the members

of the expedition of Christopher Columbus, who was the
rst person to leave a written record about the species,
taxonomists thought the raccoon was related to many different species, including dogs, cats, badgers and particularly bears.* [25] Carl Linnaeus, the father of modern
taxonomy, placed the raccoon in the genus Ursus, rst as
Ursus cauda elongata (long-tailed bear) in the second
edition of his Systema Naturae (1740), then as Ursus Lotor (washer bear) in the tenth edition (175859).* [26]
In 1780, Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr placed the raccoon in its own genus Procyon, which can be translated
as eitherbefore the dogordoglike.* [27] It is also
possible that Storr had its nocturnal lifestyle in mind and
chose the star Procyon as eponym for the species.* [28]
2.1
Evolution
Based on fossil evidence from France and Germany, the

rst known members of the family Procyonidae lived
in Europe in the late Oligocene about 25 million years
ago.* [29] Similar tooth and skull structures suggest procyonids and weasels share a common ancestor, but molecular analysis indicates a closer relationship between raccoons and bears.* [30] After the then-existing species
crossed the Bering Strait at least six million years later
in the early Miocene, the center of its distribution was
probably in Central America.* [31] Coatis (Nasua and
Nasuella) and raccoons (Procyon) have been considered
to share common descent from a species in the genus
Paranasua present between 5.2 and 6.0 million years
ago.* [32] This assumption, based on morphological comparisons of fossils, conicts with a 2006 genetic analysis which indicates raccoons are more closely related to
ringtails.* [33] Unlike other procyonids, such as the crabeating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus), the ancestors of
the common raccoon left tropical and subtropical areas
and migrated farther north about 2.5 million years ago,
in a migration that has been conrmed by the discovery of fossils in the Great Plains dating back to the middle of the Pliocene.* [34] Its most recent ancestor was
likely Procyon rexroadensis, a large Blancan raccoon from
the Rexroad Formation characterized by its narrow back
teeth and large lower jaw.* [35]
A Torch Key raccoon (P. l. incautus) in Cudjoe Key, Florida.

Subspecies inhabiting the Florida Keys are characterized by their
small size and very pale fur.
2.2 Subspecies
As of 2005, Mammal Species of the World recognizes
22 subspecies.* [36] Four of these subspecies found only
on small Central American and Caribbean islands were
often regarded as distinct species after their discovery.
These are the Bahaman raccoon and Guadeloupe raccoon, which are very similar to each other; the Tres
Marias raccoon, which is larger than average and has an
angular skull; and the extinct Barbados raccoon. Studies
of their morphological and genetic traits in 1999, 2003
and 2005 led all these island raccoons to be listed as
subspecies of the common raccoon in Mammal Species
of the World's third edition. A fth island raccoon population, the Cozumel raccoon, which weighs only 3 to 4 kg
(6.6 to 8.8 lb) and has notably small teeth, is still regarded
as a separate species.* [36]* [37]* [38]* [39]
The four smallest raccoon subspecies, with a typical
weight of 1.8 to 2.7 kg (4.0 to 6.0 lb), are found along the
southern coast of Florida and on the adjacent islands; an
example is the Ten Thousand Island raccoon (Procyon lotor marinus).* [40] Most of the other 15 subspecies dier
only slightly from each other in coat color, size and other
physical characteristics.* [41] The two most widespread
subspecies are the Eastern raccoon (Procyon lotor lotor)
and the Upper Mississippi Valley raccoon (Procyon lotor
hirtus). Both share a comparatively dark coat with long
hairs, but the Upper Mississippi Valley raccoon is larger
than the Eastern raccoon. The Eastern raccoon occurs
in all U.S. states and Canadian provinces to the north of
South Carolina and Tennessee. The adjacent range of the
Upper Mississippi Valley raccoon covers all U.S. states
and Canadian provinces to the north of Louisiana, Texas
and New Mexico.* [42]
3.1
Physical characteristics
The taxonomic identity of feral raccoons inhabiting Eura- 28.4 kg (62.6 lb) and measured 140 cm (55 in) in tosia is unknown, as the founding populations consisted of tal length, by far the largest size recorded for a procyuncategorized specimens from zoos and fur farms.* [43] onid.* [72]* [73]
Description
Skull with dentition: 2/2 molars, 4/4 premolars, 1/1 canines, 3/3
incisors
3.1
The most characteristic physical feature of the raccoon

is the area of black fur around the eyes, which contrasts
sharply with the surrounding white face coloring. This is
reminiscent of a "bandit's mask" and has thus enhanced
the animal's reputation for mischief.* [74] The slightly
rounded ears are also bordered by white fur. Raccoons
are assumed to recognize the facial expression and posture of other members of their species more quickly because of the conspicuous facial coloration and the alternating light and dark rings on the tail.* [75]* [76] The dark
mask may also reduce glare and thus enhance night vision.* [76] On other parts of the body, the long and sti
guard hairs, which shed moisture, are usually colored in
shades of gray and, to a lesser extent, brown.* [77] Raccoons with a very dark coat are more common in the German population because individuals with such coloring
were among those initially released to the wild.* [78] The
dense underfur, which accounts for almost 90% of the
coat, insulates against cold weather and is composed of 2
to 3 cm (0.8 to 1.2 in) long hairs.* [77]
Physical characteristics
Skeleton
Head to hindquarters, raccoons measure between 40 and

70 cm (16 and 28 in), not including the bushy tail which
can measure between 20 and 40 cm (8 and 16 in), but is
usually not much longer than 25 cm (10 in).* [67] The
shoulder height is between 23 and 30 cm (9 and 12
in).* [68] The body weight of an adult raccoon varies considerably with habitat, making the raccoon one of the
most variably sized mammals. It can range from 2 to 14
kilograms (4 to 30 lb), but is usually between 3.5 and
9 kilograms (8 and 20 lb). The smallest specimens are
found in Southern Florida, while those near the northern
limits of the raccoon's range tend to be the largest (see
Bergmann's rule).* [69] Males are usually 15 to 20% heavier than females.* [70] At the beginning of winter, a raccoon can weigh twice as much as in spring because of fat
storage.* [71] The largest recorded wild raccoon weighed
Baculum or penis bone
The raccoon, whose method of locomotion is usually considered to be plantigrade, can stand on its hind legs to
examine objects with its front paws.* [79] As raccoons
have short legs compared to their compact torso, they
are usually not able either to run quickly or jump great
distances.* [80] Their top speed over short distances is
16 to 24 km/h (10 to 15 mph).* [81]* [82] Raccoons can
swim with an average speed of about 5 km/h (3 mph) and
4 BEHAVIOR
can stay in the water for several hours.* [83] For climbing
down a tree headrstan unusual ability for a mammal of
its sizea raccoon rotates its hind feet so they are pointing backwards.* [84] Raccoons have a dual cooling system
to regulate their temperature; that is, they are able to both
sweat and pant for heat dissipation.* [85]
Raccoon skulls have a short and wide facial region and
a voluminous braincase. The facial length of the skull is
less than the cranial, and their nasal bones are short and
quite broad. The auditory bullae are inated in form, and
the sagittal crest is weakly developed.* [86] The dentition
40 teeth with the dental formula:3.1.4.23.1.4.2 is
adapted to their omnivorous diet: the carnassials are not
as sharp and pointed as those of a full-time carnivore, but
the molars are not as wide as those of a herbivore.* [87]
The penis bone of males is about 10 cm (4 in) long and
strongly bent at the front end.* [88] Juvenile males are distinguished from mature males by the shape and extrusibility of their penis bones.* [89] Seven of the thirteen identied vocal calls are used in communication between the
mother and her kits, one of these being the birdlike twittering of newborns.* [90]
Raccoons are thought to be color blind or at least poorly

able to distinguish color, though their eyes are welladapted for sensing green light.* [99] Although their
accommodation of 11 dioptre is comparable to that of humans and they see well in twilight because of the tapetum
lucidum behind the retina, visual perception is of subordinate importance to raccoons because of their poor longdistance vision.* [100] In addition to being useful for orientation in the dark, their sense of smell is important for
intraspecic communication. Glandular secretions (usually from their anal glands), urine and feces are used for
marking.* [101] With their broad auditory range, they can
perceive tones up to 5085 kHz as well as quiet noises,
like those produced by earthworms underground.* [102]
3.3 Intelligence
Zoologist Clinton Hart Merriam described raccoons as

clever beasts, and that in certain directions their
cunning surpasses that of the fox.The animal's intelligence gave rise to the epithetsly coon.* [103] Only a
few studies have been undertaken to determine the mental
abilities of raccoons, most of them based on the animal's
sense of touch. In a study by the ethologist H. B. Davis
in 1908, raccoons were able to open 11 of 13 complex
locks in fewer than 10 tries and had no problems repeating
the action when the locks were rearranged or turned upside down. Davis concluded they understood the abstract
principles of the locking mechanisms and their learning
speed was equivalent to that of rhesus macaques.* [104]
Studies in 1963, 1973, 1975 and 1992 concentrated on
raccoon memory showed they can remember the solutions to tasks for up to three years.* [8] In a study by B.
Pohl in 1992, raccoons were able to instantly dierentiate
between identical and dierent symbols three years after the short initial learning phase.* [8] Stanislas Dehaene
Bottom side of the front paw with visible vibrissae on the tips of reports in his book The Number Sense raccoons can distinguish boxes containing two or four grapes from those
the digits
containing three.* [105]
3.2
Senses
The most important sense for the raccoon is its sense

of touch.* [91] The hyper sensitive* [92] front paws
are protected by a thin horny layer which becomes pliable when wet.* [93] The ve digits of the paws have
no webbing between them, which is unusual for a
carnivoran.* [94] Almost two-thirds of the area responsible for sensory perception in the raccoon's cerebral cortex is specialized for the interpretation of tactile impulses,
more than in any other studied animal.* [95] They are able
to identify objects before touching them with vibrissae
located above their sharp, nonretractable claws.* [96] The
raccoon's paws lack an opposable thumb; thus, it does not
have the agility of the hands of primates.* [97] There is no
observed negative eect on tactile perception when a raccoon stands in water below 10 C (50 F) for hours.* [98]
4 Behavior
4.1 Social behavior
Studies in the 1990s by the ethologists Stanley D. Gehrt
and Ulf Hohmann indicated raccoons engage in genderspecic social behaviors and are not typically solitary, as
was previously thought.* [106]* [107] Related females often live in a so-called "ssion-fusion society", that is, they
share a common area and occasionally meet at feeding or
resting grounds.* [108] Unrelated males often form loose
male social groups to maintain their position against foreign males during the mating seasonor against other
potential invaders.* [109] Such a group does not usually
consist of more than four individuals.* [110] Since some
males show aggressive behavior towards unrelated kits,
4.3
Dousing
Eastern raccoons (P. l. lotor) in a tree: The raccoon's social

structure is grouped into what Ulf Hohmann calls a three class
society.
mothers will isolate themselves from other raccoons until their kits are big enough to defend themselves.* [111]
With respect to these three dierent modes of life prevalent among raccoons, Hohmann called their social structure a three class society.* [112] Samuel I. Zevelo,
professor of zoology at Weber State University and author of the book Raccoons: A Natural History, is more
cautious in his interpretation and concludes at least the females are solitary most of the time and, according to Erik
K. Fritzell's study in North Dakota in 1978, males in areas
with low population densities are solitary as well.* [113]
The shape and size of a raccoon's home range varies depending on age, sex, and habitat, with adults claiming areas more than twice as large as juveniles.* [114] While
the size of home ranges in the inhospitable habitat of
North Dakota's prairies lie between 7 and 50 km2 (3
and 20 sq mi) for males and between 2 and 16 km2 (1
and 6 sq mi) for females, the average size in a marsh
at Lake Erie was 0.5 km2 (0.19 sq mi).* [115] Irrespective of whether the home ranges of adjacent groups overlap, they are most likely not actively defended outside
the mating season if food supplies are sucient.* [116]
Odor marks on prominent spots are assumed to establish
home ranges and identify individuals.* [117] Urine and feces left at shared raccoon latrines may provide additional
information about feeding grounds, since raccoons were
observed to meet there later for collective eating, sleeping
and playing.* [118]
Concerning the general behavior patterns of raccoons,
Gehrt points out that typically you'll nd 10 to 15 percent that will do the opposite* [119] of what is expected.
4.2
Diet
Though usually nocturnal, the raccoon is sometimes active in daylight to take advantage of available food sources.* [120] Its diet consists of about
40% invertebrates, 33% plant material and 27%
vertebrates.* [121] Since its diet consists of such a variety
On an apple tree
of dierent foods, Zevelo argues the raccoon may

well be one of the world's most omnivorous animals
.* [122] While its diet in spring and early summer consists
mostly of insects, worms, and other animals already
available early in the year, it prefers fruits and nuts, such
as acorns and walnuts, which emerge in late summer and
autumn, and represent a rich calorie source for building
up fat needed for winter.* [123] Contrary to popular
belief, raccoons eat active or large prey, such as birds and
mammals, only occasionally, since they prefer prey that
is easier to catch, specically sh, amphibians and bird
eggs.* [124] When food is plentiful, raccoons can develop
strong individual preferences for specic foods.* [125]
In the northern parts of their range, raccoons go into
a winter rest, reducing their activity drastically as long
as a permanent snow cover makes searching for food
impossible.* [126]
4.3 Dousing
One aspect of raccoon behavior is so well known that it
gives the animal part of its scientic name, Procyon lotor; lotoris neo-Latin for washer. In the wild,
raccoons often dabble for underwater food near the shoreline. They then often pick up the food item with their
front paws to examine it and rub the item, sometimes
to remove unwanted parts. This gives the appearance
of the raccoon washingthe food. The tactile sensitivity of raccoons' paws is increased if this rubbing action is performed underwater, since the water softens the
hard layer covering the paws.* [127] However, the behavior observed in captive raccoons in which they carry their
food to water to washor douse it before eating has
not been observed in the wild.* [128] Naturalist GeorgesLouis Leclerc, Comte de Buon, believed that raccoons
do not have adequate saliva production to moisten food
thereby necessitating dousing, but this hypothesis is now
considered to be incorrect.* [129] Captive raccoons douse
their food more frequently when a watering hole with a
layout similar to a stream is not farther away than 3 m
(10 ft).* [130] The widely accepted theory is that dous-
4 BEHAVIOR
does not become pregnant or if she loses her kits early,
she will sometimes become fertile again 80 to 140 days
later.* [139]
An Eastern raccoon (P. l. lotor) kit
Captive raccoons often douse their food before eating.
ing in captive raccoons is a xed action pattern from the

dabbling behavior performed when foraging at shores for
aquatic foods.* [131] This is supported by the observation
that aquatic foods are doused more frequently. Cleaning
dirty food does not seem to be a reason for washing
.* [130] Experts have cast doubt on the veracity of observations of wild raccoons dousing food.* [132]
4.4
Reproduction
Raccoons usually mate in a period triggered by increasing daylight between late January and mid-March.* [133]
However, there are large regional dierences which are
not completely explicable by solar conditions. For example, while raccoons in southern states typically mate later
than average, the mating season in Manitoba also peaks
later than usual in March and extends until June.* [134]
During the mating season, males restlessly roam their
home ranges in search of females in an attempt to court
them during the three- to four-day period when conception is possible. These encounters will often occur at
central meeting places.* [135] Copulation, including foreplay, can last over an hour and is repeated over several nights.* [136] The weaker members of a male social
group also are assumed to get the opportunity to mate,
since the stronger ones cannot mate with all available females.* [137] In a study in southern Texas during the mating seasons from 1990 to 1992, about one third of all females mated with more than one male.* [138] If a female
After usually 63 to 65 days of gestation (although anywhere from 54 to 70 days is possible), a litter of typically two to ve young is born.* [140] The average litter size varies widely with habitat, ranging from 2.5 in
Alabama to 4.8 in North Dakota.* [141] Larger litters are
more common in areas with a high mortality rate, due, for
example, to hunting or severe winters.* [142] While male
yearlings usually reach their sexual maturity only after
the main mating season, female yearlings can compensate
for high mortality rates and may be responsible for about
50% of all young born in a year.* [143] Males have no
part in raising young.* [144] The kits (also calledcubs
) are blind and deaf at birth, but their mask is already
visible against their light fur.* [145] The birth weight of
the about 10 cm (4 in)-long kits is between 60 and 75 g
(2.1 and 2.6 oz).* [146] Their ear canals open after around
18 to 23 days, a few days before their eyes open for the
rst time.* [147] Once the kits weigh about 1 kg (2 lb),
they begin to explore outside the den, consuming solid
food for the rst time after six to nine weeks.* [148] After this point, their mother suckles them with decreasing
frequency; they are usually weaned by 16 weeks.* [149] In
the fall, after their mother has shown them dens and feeding grounds, the juvenile group splits up.* [150] While
many females will stay close to the home range of their
mother, males can sometimes move more than 20 km (12
mi) away.* [151] This is considered an instinctive behavior, preventing inbreeding.* [152] However, mother and
ospring may share a den during the rst winter in cold
areas.* [153]
4.5 Life expectancy

Captive raccoons have been known to live for more than
20 years.* [154] However, the species' life expectancy in
the wild is only 1.8 to 3.1 years, depending on the local conditions in terms of trac volume, hunting, and
weather severity.* [155] It is not unusual for only half of
5.2
Distribution in North America
Young Florida raccoon (P. l. elucus) crossing a road
7
to climb when they feel threatened.* [163] Therefore, they
avoid open terrain and areas with high concentrations of
beech trees, as beech bark is too smooth to climb.* [164]
Tree hollows in old oaks or other trees and rock crevices
are preferred by raccoons as sleeping, winter and litter
dens. If such dens are unavailable or accessing them is inconvenient, raccoons use burrows dug by other mammals,
dense undergrowth or tree crotches.* [165] In a study in
the Solling range of hills in Germany, more than 60% of
all sleeping places were used only once, but those used at
least ten times accounted for about 70% of all uses.* [166]
Since amphibians, crustaceans, and other animals found
around the shore of lakes and rivers are an important part
of the raccoon's diet, lowland deciduous or mixed forests
abundant with water and marshes sustain the highest population densities.* [167] While population densities range
from 0.5 to 3.2 animals per square kilometer (1.3 to 8.3
animals per square mile) in prairies and do not usually
exceed 6 animals per square kilometer (15.5 animals per
square mile) in upland hardwood forests, more than 20
raccoons per square kilometer (51.8 animals per square
mile) can live in lowland forests and marshes.* [168]
the young born in one year to survive a full year.* [156]

After this point, the annual mortality rate drops to between 10% and 30%.* [157] Young raccoons are vulnerable to losing their mother and to starvation, particularly
in long and cold winters.* [158] The most frequent natural
cause of death in the North American raccoon population
is distemper, which can reach epidemic proportions and
kill most of a local raccoon population.* [159] In areas
with heavy vehicular trac and extensive hunting, these
factors can account for up to 90% of all deaths of adult 5.2
raccoons.* [160] The most important natural predators of
the raccoon are bobcats, coyotes, and great horned owls,
the latter mainly preying on young raccoons. In their introduced range in the former Soviet Union, their main
predators are wolves, lynxes and eagle owls.* [161] However, predation is not a signicant cause of death, especially because larger predators have been exterminated in
many areas inhabited by raccoons.* [162]
Distribution in North America
Range
An albino Florida raccoon (P. l. elucus) in Virginia Key, Florida
Mississippi Delta raccoon (P. l. megaloudus) searching for food

on a lake shore
Raccoons are common throughout North America from

Canada to Panama, where the subspecies Procyon lotor
pumilus coexists with the crab-eating Raccoon (Procyon
cancrivorus).* [169] The population on Hispaniola was
exterminated as early as 1513 by Spanish colonists who
hunted them for their meat.* [170] Raccoons were also exterminated in Cuba and Jamaica, where the last sightings
were reported in 1687.* [171] When they were still considered separate species, the Bahamas raccoon, Guadeloupe raccoon and Tres Marias raccoon were classied
as endangered by the IUCN in 1996.* [172]
There is evidence that in pre-Columbian times raccoons

were numerous only along rivers and in the woodlands
of the Southeastern United States.* [173] As raccoons
were not mentioned in earlier reports of pioneers ex5.1 Habitat
ploring the central and north-central parts of the United
Although they have thrived in sparsely wooded areas in States,* [174] their initial spread may have begun a few
the last decades, raccoons depend on vertical structures decades before the 20th century. Since the 1950s, rac-
5 RANGE
coons have expanded their range from Vancouver Island

formerly the northernmost limit of their rangefar into
the northern portions of the four south-central Canadian
provinces.* [175] New habitats which have recently been
occupied by raccoons (aside from urban areas) include
mountain ranges, such as the Western Rocky Mountains,
prairies and coastal marshes.* [176] After a population
explosion starting in the 1940s, the estimated number of
raccoons in North America in the late 1980s was 15 to
20 times higher than in the 1930s, when raccoons were
comparatively rare.* [177] Urbanization, the expansion of
agriculture, deliberate introductions, and the extermination of natural predators of the raccoon have probably
caused this increase in abundance and distribution.* [178]
5.3
Distribution outside North America
As a result of escapes and deliberate introductions in the

mid-20th century, the raccoon is now distributed in several European and Asian countries. Sightings have occurred in all the countries bordering Germany, which
hosts the largest population outside of North America.* [179] Another stable population exists in northern
France, where several pet raccoons were released by
members of the U.S. Air Force near the Laon-Couvron
Air Base in 1966.* [180] Furthermore, raccoons have
been known to be in the area around Madrid since the
early 1970s. In 2013 the city authorized the capture
and death of any specimenfound.* [181]
About 1,240 animals were released in nine regions of the
former Soviet Union between 1936 and 1958 for the purpose of establishing a population to be hunted for their
fur. Two of these introductions were successful one
in the south of Belarus between 1954 and 1958, and another in Azerbaijan between 1941 and 1957. With a seasonal harvest of between 1,000 and 1,500 animals, in
1974 the estimated size of the population distributed in
the Caucasus region was around 20,000 animals and the
density was four animals per square kilometer (10 animals per square mile).* [182]
5.3.1
Distribution in Japan
In Japan, up to 1,500 raccoons were imported as

pets each year after the success of the anime series
Rascal the Raccoon (1977). In 2004, the descendants
of discarded or escaped animals lived in 42 of 47
prefectures.* [183]* [184]* [185] The population of raccoons in Japan grew from 17 prefectures in 2000 to all
47 prefectures in 2008.* [186]
Distribution in Germany: Raccoons killed or found dead by

hunters in the hunting years 20002001, 20012002 and 2002
2003 in the administrative districts of Germany
were released into the German countryside at the Edersee

reservoir in the north of Hesse in April 1934 by a forester
upon request of their owner, a poultry farmer.* [187] He
released them two weeks before receiving permission
from the Prussian hunting oce to enrich the fauna.
*
[188] Several prior attempts to introduce raccoons in
Germany were not successful.* [189] A second population was established in eastern Germany in 1945 when
25 raccoons escaped from a fur farm at Wolfshagen, east
of Berlin, after an air strike. The two populations are
parasitologically distinguishable: 70% of the raccoons of
the Hessian population are infected with the roundworm
Baylisascaris procyonis, but none of the Brandenburgian
population has the parasite.* [190] The estimated number of raccoons was 285 animals in the Hessian region in
1956, over 20,000 animals in the Hessian region in 1970
and between 200,000 and 400,000 animals in the whole
of Germany in 2008.* [159]* [191] By 2012 it was estimated that Germany now had more than a million raccoons.* [192]
The raccoon was a protected species in Germany, but

has been declared a game animal in 14 states since
1954.* [193] Hunters and environmentalists argue the
raccoon spreads uncontrollably, threatens protected bird
species and supersedes domestic carnivorans.* [78] This
view is opposed by the zoologist Frank-Uwe Michler,
who nds no evidence a high population density of raccoons has negative eects on the biodiversity of an
5.3.2 Distribution in Germany
area.* [78] Hohmann holds that extensive hunting cannot
In Germanywhere the racoon is called the Waschbr be justied by the absence of natural predators, because
(literally,wash-bearorwashing bear) due to its habit predation is not a signicant cause of death in the North
of dousingfood in watertwo pairs of pet raccoons American raccoon population.* [194]
9
5.3.3
Distribution in the former USSR
Experiments in acclimatising raccoons into the USSR began in 1936, and were repeated a further 25 times until
1962. Overall, 1,222 individuals were released, 64 of
which came from zoos and fur farms (38 of them having been imports from western Europe). The remainder originated from a population previously established in
Transcaucasia. The range of Soviet raccoons was never
single or continuous, as they were often introduced to different locations far from each other. All introductions
into the Russian Far East failed; melanistic raccoons were
released on Petrov Island near Vladivostok and some areas of southern Primorsky Krai, but died. In Middle
Asia, raccoons were released in Kyrgyzstan's Jalal-Abad
Province, though they were later recorded aspractically
absentthere in January 1963. A large and stable raccoon
population (yielding 10001500 catches a year) was established in Azerbaijan after an introduction to the area
in 1937. Raccoons apparently survived an introduction
near Terek, along the Sulak River into the Dagestani lowlands. Attempts to settle raccoons on the Kuban River's
left tributary and Kabardino-Balkaria were unsuccessful.
A successful acclimatization occurred in Belarus, where
three introductions (consisting of 52, 37 and 38 individuals in 1954 and 1958) took place. By January 1, 1963,
700 individuals were recorded in the country.* [195]
5.4
Urban raccoons
On the roof of a house in Albertshausen, Germany
Due to its adaptability, the raccoon has been able to

use urban areas as a habitat. The rst sightings were
recorded in a suburb of Cincinnati in the 1920s. Since
the 1950s, raccoons have been present in metropolitan
areas like Washington, DC, Chicago, and Toronto.* [196]
Since the 1960s, Kassel has hosted Europe's rst and
densest population in a large urban area, with about 50
to 150 animals per square kilometer (130 to 390 animals per square mile), a gure comparable to those of urban habitats in North America.* [196]* [197] Home range
sizes of urban raccoons are only 3 to 40 hectares (7.5
to 100 acres) for females and 8 to 80 hectares (20 to

200 acres) for males.* [198] In small towns and suburbs,
many raccoons sleep in a nearby forest after foraging in
the settlement area.* [196]* [199] Fruit and insects in gardens and leftovers in municipal waste are easily available
food sources.* [200] Furthermore, a large number of additional sleeping areas exist in these areas, such as hollows
in old garden trees, cottages, garages, abandoned houses,
and attics. The percentage of urban raccoons sleeping in
abandoned or occupied houses varies from 15% in Washington, DC (1991) to 43% in Kassel (2003).* [201]
6 Health
Raccoon roundworm Baylisascaris procyonis larvae
Raccoons can carry rabies, a lethal disease caused by the

neurotropic rabies virus carried in the saliva and transmitted by bites. Its spread began in Florida and Georgia
in the 1950s and was facilitated by the introduction of
infected individuals to Virginia and North Dakota in the
late 1970s.* [202] Of the 6,940 documented rabies cases
reported in the United States in 2006, 2,615 (37.7%)
were in raccoons.* [203] The U.S. Department of Agriculture, as well as local authorities in several U.S. states
and Canadian provinces, has developed oral vaccination
programs to ght the spread of the disease in endangered
populations.* [204]* [205]* [206] Only one human fatality
has been reported after transmission of the rabies virus
strain commonly known as raccoon rabies.* [207]
Among the main symptoms for rabies in raccoons are
a generally sickly appearance, impaired mobility, abnormal vocalization, and aggressiveness.* [208] There may
be no visible signs at all, however, and most individuals do not show the aggressive behavior seen in infected
canids; rabid raccoons will often retire to their dens instead.* [78]* [190]* [208] Organizations like the U.S. Forest Service encourage people to stay away from animals
with unusual behavior or appearance, and to notify the
proper authorities, such as an animal control ocer from
the local health department.* [209]* [210] Since healthy
animals, especially nursing mothers, will occasionally
forage during the day, daylight activity is not a reliable
indicator of illness in raccoons.* [120]
10
7 RACCOONS AND HUMANS
Unlike rabies and at least a dozen other pathogens carried

by raccoons, distemper, an epizootic virus, does not affect humans.* [211] This disease is the most frequent natural cause of death in the North American raccoon population and aects individuals of all age groups.* [159] For
example, 94 of 145 raccoons died during an outbreak in
Clifton, Ohio, in 1968.* [212] It may occur along with a
following inammation of the brain (encephalitis), causing the animal to display rabies-like symptoms.* [202] In
Germany, the rst eight cases of distemper were reported
in 2007.* [159]
fear of humans are a concern to those who attribute this

trait to rabies, but scientists point out this behavior is
much more likely to be a behavioral adjustment to living in habitats with regular contact to humans for many
generations.* [221] Raccoons usually do not prey on domestic cats and dogs, but individual cases of killings have
been reported.* [222]
Some of the most important bacterial diseases which affect raccoons are leptospirosis, listeriosis, tetanus, and
tularemia. Although internal parasites weaken their
immune systems, well-fed individuals can carry a great
many roundworms in their digestive tracts without showing symptoms.* [213] The larvae of the Baylisascaris procyonis roundworm, which can be contained in the feces
and seldom causes a severe illness in humans, can be ingested when cleaning raccoon latrines without wearing
breathing protection.* [214]
While not endemic, the Trichinella worm does infect
racoons,* [215] and undercooked racoon meat has caused A Florida raccoon (P. l. elucus) in the Florida Everglades aptrichinosis in humans.* [216]
proaches a group of humans, hoping to be fed.
7
7.1
Raccoons and humans

Conicts
A skunk and a California raccoon (P. s. psora) share cat food

morsels in a Hollywood, California, back yard
The increasing number of raccoons in urban areas has

resulted in diverse reactions in humans, ranging from
outrage at their presence to deliberate feeding.* [217]
Some wildlife experts and most public authorities caution against feeding wild animals because they might become increasingly obtrusive and dependent on humans
as a food source.* [218] Other experts challenge such arguments and give advice on feeding raccoons and other
wildlife in their books.* [219]* [220] Raccoons without a
While overturned waste containers and raided fruit trees

are just a nuisance to homeowners, it can cost several thousand dollars to repair damage caused by the
use of attic space as dens.* [223] Relocating or killing
raccoons without a permit is forbidden in many urban areas on grounds of animal welfare. These methods usually only solve problems with particularly wild
or aggressive individuals, since adequate dens are either
known to several raccoons or will quickly be rediscovered.* [210]* [224] Loud noises, ashing lights and unpleasant odors have proven particularly eective in driving away a mother and her kits before they would normally leave the nesting place (when the kits are about
eight weeks old).* [210]* [225] Typically, though, only
precautionary measures to restrict access to food waste
and den sites are eective in the long term.* [210]* [226]
Among all fruits and crops cultivated in agricultural areas,
sweet corn in its milk stage is particularly popular among
raccoons.* [227] In a two-year study by Purdue University
researchers, published in 2004, raccoons were responsible for 87% of the damage to corn plants.* [228] Like
other predators, raccoons searching for food can break
into poultry houses to feed on chickens, ducks, their eggs,
or feed.* [210]* [229]
Since raccoons in high mortality areas have a higher rate
of reproduction, extensive hunting may not solve problems with raccoon populations. Older males also claim
larger home ranges than younger ones, resulting in a lower
population density.
7.3
Hunting and fur trade
11
computer-animated lm Over the Hedge, the live action
lm Guardians of the Galaxy and the video game series
Sly Cooper.
Stylized raccoon skin as depicted on the Raccoon Priests Gorget

found at Spiro Mounds
7.2
Mythology, arts, and entertainment
See also: List of ctional raccoons

In the mythology of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, the raccoon was the subject of folk tales.* [230] Stories such as How raccoons catch so many craysh"
from the Tuscarora centered on its skills at foraging.* [231] In other tales, the raccoon played the role of
the trickster which outsmarts other animals, like coyotes
and wolves.* [232] Among others, the Dakota Sioux believe the raccoon has natural spirit powers, since its mask
resembled the facial paintings, two-ngered swashes of
black and white, used during rituals to connect to spirit
beings.* [233] The Aztecs linked supernatural abilities especially to females, whose commitment to their young
was associated with the role of wise women in their society.* [234]
The raccoon also appears in Native American art across
a wide geographic range. Petroglyphs with engraved raccoon tracks were found in Lewis Canyon, Texas;* [235]
at the Crow Hollow petroglyph site in Grayson County,
Kentucky;* [236] and in river drainages near Tularosa,
New Mexico and San Francisco, California.* [237] A
true-to-detail gurine made of quartz, the Ohio Mound
Builders' Stone Pipe, was found near the Scioto River.
The meaning and signicance of the Raccoon Priests Gorget, which features a stylized carving of a raccoon and
was found at the Spiro Mounds, Oklahoma, remains unknown.* [238]* [239]
In Western culture, several autobiographical novels about
living with a raccoon have been written, mostly for
children. The best-known is Sterling North's Rascal,
which recounts how he raised a kit during World War I.
In recent years, anthropomorphic raccoons played main
roles in the animated television series The Raccoons, the
Coonskin cap
7.3 Hunting and fur trade

The fur of raccoons is used for clothing, especially for
coats and coonskin caps. At present, it is the material
used for the inaccurately namedsealskincap worn by
the Royal Fusiliers of Great Britain.* [240] Historically,
Native American tribes not only used the fur for winter
clothing, but also used the tails for ornament.* [241] The
famous Sioux leader Spotted Tail took his name from a
raccoon skin hat with the tail attached he acquired from
a fur trader. Since the late 18th century, various types of
scent hounds, called "coonhounds", which are able to tree
animals have been bred in the United States.* [242] In the
19th century, when coonskins occasionally even served
as means of payment, several thousand raccoons were
killed each year in the United States.* [243] This number rose quickly when automobile coats became popular
after the turn of the 20th century. In the 1920s, wearing a raccoon coat was regarded as status symbol among
college students.* [244] Attempts to breed raccoons in fur
farms in the 1920s and 1930s in North America and Europe turned out not to be protable, and farming was
abandoned after prices for long-haired pelts dropped in
the 1940s.* [245]* [246] Although raccoons had become
12
7 RACCOONS AND HUMANS
rare in the 1930s, at least 388,000 were killed during the ican settlers.* [253] According to Ernest Thompson Sehunting season of 1934/35.* [247]
ton, young specimens killed without a ght are palatable,
whereas old raccoons caught after a lengthy battle are
inedible.* [254] Raccoon meat was extensively eaten during the early years of California, where it was sold in the
San Francisco market for $13 apiece.* [255] American
slaves occasionally ate raccoon at Christmas, but it was
not necessarily a dish of the poor or rural. The rst
edition of The Joy of Cooking, released in 1931, contained a recipe for preparing raccoon, and US President Calvin Coolidge's pet raccoon Rebecca was originally sent to be served at the White House Thanksgiving
Dinner.* [256]* [257]* [258] Although the idea of eating
raccoons seems repulsive to most mainstream consumers
since they see them as endearing, cute, and/or varmints,
several thousand raccoons are still eaten each year in the
United States.* [259]* [260]* [261]* [262]
Pen with climbing facilities, hiding places and a watering hole

(on the lower left side)
7.4 Pet raccoons

Automobile coat made out of raccoon fur (1906, U.S.)
After persistent population increases began in the 1940s,

the seasonal hunt reached about one million animals in
1946/47 and two million in 1962/63.* [248] The broadcast of three television episodes about the frontiersman
Davy Crockett and the lm Davy Crockett, King of the
Wild Frontier in 1954 and 1955 led to a high demand for
coonskin caps in the United States, although it is unlikely
either Crockett or the actor who played him, Fess Parker,
actually wore a cap made from raccoon fur.* [249] The
seasonal hunt reached an all-time high with 5.2 million
animals in 1976/77 and ranged between 3.2 and 4.7 million for most of the 1980s. In 1982, the average pelt price
was $20.* [250] As of 1987, the raccoon was identied as
the most important wild furbearer in North America in
terms of revenue.* [251] In the rst half of the 1990s, the
seasonal hunt dropped to 0.9 from 1.9 million due to decreasing pelt prices.* [252]
Raccoons are sometimes kept as pets, which is discouraged by many experts because the raccoon is not a
domesticated species. Raccoons may act unpredictably
and aggressively and it is usually impossible to teach them
to obey commands.* [263] In places where keeping raccoons as pets is not forbidden, such as in Wisconsin
and other U.S. states, an exotic pet permit may be required.* [264]* [265]
Their propensity for unruly behavior exceeds that of

captive skunks, and are even less trustworthy when allowed to roam freely. Because of their intelligence and
nimble forelimbs, even inexperienced raccoons are easily
capable of unscrewing jars, uncorking bottles and opening door latches, with more experienced specimens having been recorded to open door knobs.* [103] Sexually
mature raccoons often show aggressive natural behaviors
such as biting during the mating season.* [266] Neutering
them at around ve or six months of age decreases the
chances of aggressive behavior developing.* [267] RacWhile primarily hunted for their fur, raccoons were also coons can become obese and suer from other disorders
a source of food for Native Americans and early Amer- due to poor diet and lack of exercise.* [268] When fed
13
with cat food over a long time period, raccoons can develop gout.* [269] With respect to the research results regarding their social behavior, it is now required by law
in Austria and Germany to keep at least two individuals
to prevent loneliness.* [270]* [271] Raccoons are usually
kept in a pen (indoor or outdoor), also a legal requirement in Austria and Germany, rather than in the apartment where their natural curiosity may result in damage
to property.* [270]* [271]* [272]
[11] Holmgren, Virginia C. (1990). Raccoons: In Folklore,

History & Today's Backyards. Capra Pres. p. 157.
[12] Holmgren, p. 52
[13] Holmgren, pp. 7576; Zevelo, p. 2
[14] Sotiroupoulos, Karen, Staging Race: Black Performers in
Turn of the century America, Harvard University Press,
2006, pg. 91
When orphaned, it is possible for kits to be rehabilitated [15] Radio Talk Show Host Fired for Racial Slur Against
Condoleezza Rice Politics | Republican Party | Demoand reintroduced to the wild. However, it is uncertain
cratic Party | Political Spectrum. FOXNews.com.
*
whether they readapt well to life in the wild. [273] FeedMarch 22, 2006. Retrieved March 19, 2010.
ing unweaned kits with cow's milk rather than a kitten
replacement milk or a similar product can be dangerous [16] Seton 1909, pp. 1010
to their health.* [274]
See also
Cozumel raccoon
Crab-eating raccoon
Rascal the Raccoon
[17] Reid, F. A. (2009). A Field Guide to the Mammals of

Central America and Southeast Mexico. Oxford University
Press. P. 263. ISBN 0-19-534322-0
[18] Crawford, J. M. (1989). Cocopa Dictionary. p. 497. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-09749-1
[19] Martin, J. P. & Mauldin, M. M. (2004). A Dictionary of
Creek/Muskogee. p. 150. University of Nebraska Press.
ISBN 0-8032-8302-4
[20] nahnm. Lenape Talking Dictionary.
Notes
[1] Raccoon Fossil Procyon The Virtual Fossil Museum

accessed June 2015
[21] Neundorf, A. (1983). A Navajo/English Bilingual Dictionary: chn Bi Naaltsoostsoh. p. 615. UNM Press.
ISBN 0-8263-3825-9
[22] Aoki, Haruo (1994). Nez Perc dictionary. p.268. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-09763-7
[2] Timm, R., Cuarn, A.D., Reid, F. & Helgen, K. (2008).

Procyon lotor. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved March 22, 2009. Database entry
includes a brief justication of why this species is of least
concern
[23] Parks, R. P.; Pratt, L. N. (2008). A Dictionary of Skiri

Pawnee. p. 252. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN
0-8032-1926-1
[3] Seidl, Jennifer; McMordie, W. (1982). Fowler, F. G.;

Fowler, H. W.; Sykes, John Bradbury, ed. The Concise
Oxford Dictionary of Current English. Oxford: Clarendon
Press. p. 851. ISBN 978-0-19-195872-4.
[25] Holmgren, pp. 4767
[24] Pitkin, H. (1985). Wintu Dictionary. University of California Press. pp. 890. ISBN 0-520-09613-4
[26] Holmgren, pp. 6467; Zevelo, pp. 46
[4] Zevelo, p. 42
[27] Holmgren, pp. 6869; Zevelo, p. 6
[5] Zevelo, p. 1
[28] Hohmann, p. 44; Holmgren, p. 68
[6] Larivire, Serge (2004). Range expansion of raccoons in the Canadian prairies: review of hypotheses. Wildlife Society Bulletin (Lawrence, Kansas:
Allen Press) 32 (3): 955963. doi:10.2193/00917648(2004)032[0955:REORIT]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 00917648.
[29] Zevelo, p. 19
[7] Zevelo, p. 2
[33] Koepi, Klaus-Peter; Gompper, Matthew E.; Eizirik,

Eduardo; Ho, Cheuk-Chung; Linden, Leif; Maldonado, Jesus E.; Wayne, Robert K. (June 2007). Phylogeny of the Procyonidae (Mammalia: Carnivora):
Molecules, morphology and the Great American Interchange (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution (Amsterdam: Elsevier) 43 (3): 10761095.
doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.10.003. ISSN 1055-7903.
PMID 17174109. Retrieved December 7, 2008.
[8] Hohmann, pp. 7172

[9] MacClintock, p. 5
[10] Other attested colonial spellings of the Powhatan word include: racone, arrathcune, arathcoon, aroucoun, and rahaughcun. Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society,
Vol 55, p. 400.
[30] Zevelo, pp. 1618, 26

[31] Zevelo, pp. 20, 23
[32] Zevelo, p. 24
14
9 NOTES
[34] Hohmann, p. 46; Zevelo, p. 24
[61] Goldman & Jackson 1950, pp. 5456
[35] Kurtn, Bjrn (1980). Pleistocene Mammals of North

America. pp. 175-6. Columbia University Press. ISBN
0-231-03733-3
[36] Wozencraft, W.C. (2005). Order Carnivora. In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M. Mammal Species of the World:
A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns
Hopkins University Press. pp. 627628. ISBN 978-08018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
[64] Gidley, J. W. (1906). A fossil raccoon from a California

Pleistocene cave deposit. U, S. Natl. Mus. Proc. 19:
553-554
[37] Zevelo, pp. 4246

[38] Helgen, Kristofer M.; Wilson, Don E. (January 2003).

Taxonomic status and conservation relevance of the raccoons (Procyon spp.) of the West Indies. Journal of Zoology (Oxford: The Zoological Society of London) 259
(1): 6976. doi:10.1017/S0952836902002972. ISSN
0952-8369.
[67] Hohmann, p. 77; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 15; Zevelo, p. 58
[39] Helgen, Kristofer M.; Wilson, Don E. (2005). A Systematic and Zoogeographic Overview of the Raccoons of
Mexico and Central America. In Snchez-Cordero, Vctor; Medelln, Rodrigo A. Contribuciones mastozoolgicas
en homenaje a Bernardo Villa. Mexico City: Instituto de
Ecologa of the Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico. p. 230. ISBN 978-970-32-2603-0. Retrieved December 7, 2008.
[71] Hohmann, p.4748; MacClintock, p. 44; Zevelo, p. 108
[40] Zevelo, pp. 59, 8283
[41] MacClintock, p. 9; Zevelo, pp. 7989
[76] MacClintock, pp. 56; Zevelo, p. 63
[42] Zevelo, pp. 7981, 84
[77] Zevelo, p. 60
[43] Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 1383
[78] Michler, Frank-Uwe; Khnemann, Berit A. (May

2008). "kologische und konomische Bedeutung des
Waschbren in Mitteleuropa Eine Stellungnahme.
Projekt Waschbr (in German). Retrieved December
7, 2008.

[68] Lagoni-Hansen, p. 16
[69] Zevelo, pp. 5859
[70] Lagoni-Hansen, p. 18
[72] MacClintock, p. 8; Zevelo, p. 59

[73] Boitani, Luigi, Simon & Schuster's Guide to Mammals. Simon & Schuster/Touchstone Books (1984), ISBN 978-0671-42805-1
[74] Bartussek, p.6; Zevelo, p. 61

[82] Saunders, Andrew D. (March 1989). Raccoon.
Adirondack Mammals. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse
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[87] Zevelo, p. 64
[88] Hohmann, p. 27; MacClintock, p. 84

[89] Charles Walsh Schwartz; Elizabeth Reeder Schwartz

(2001). The Wild Mammals of Missouri. University of
Missouri Press. ISBN 978-0-8262-1359-4.
[90] Hohmann, p. 66; MacClintock, p. 92; Zevelo, p. 73
15
[91] Bartussek, p. 13; Hohmann, p. 55; Zevelo, p. 70
[120] Bartussek, p. 10; Zevelo, p. 99
[92] Hohmann, p. 55
[121] Hohmann, p. 82
[93] Hohmann, pp. 5659; MacClintock, p. 15
[122] Zevelo, p. 102
[94] Zevelo, p. 69
[123] Hohmann, pp. 8588; MacClintock, pp. 4445
[95] Hohmann, p. 56
[126] MacClintock, pp. 108113
[99] Hohmann, p. 63; MacClintock, p. 18; Zevelo, p. 66
[128] Lagoni-Hansen, p. 41; MacClintock, pp. 5657
[100] Hohmann, pp. 6365; MacClintock, pp. 1821; Zevel- [129] Holmgren, p. 70; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 41; MacClintock, p.
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57; Zevelo, p. 7
[101] Hohmann, pp. 6770; MacClintock, p. 17; Zevelo, pp. [130] MacClintock, p. 57
6869
[131] Hohmann, pp. 4445; Lagoni-Hansen, pp. 4142; Mac[102] Hohmann, pp. 66, 72; Zevelo, p. 68
Clintock, p. 57; Zevelo, p. 7
[103] Merriam, C. H. (1884), The mammals of the Adirondack [132] Holmgren, p. 22 (pro); Lagoni-Hansen, p. 41 (contra);
region, northeastern New York : with an introductory chapMacClintock, p. 57 (contra)
ter treating of the location and boundaries of the region, its
geological history, topography, climate, general features, [133] Hohmann, p. 150; MacClintock, p. 81; Zevelo, p. 122
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[134] Zevelo, p. 122
author, pp. 91-95
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Animal Intelligence. The American Journal of Psychology (Champaign, Illinois: University of Illinois Press) 18
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[138] Gehrt, Stanley; Fritzell, Erik K. (March 1999). Behavioural aspects of the raccoon mating system: de[106] Gehrt, Stanley D. (1994).Raccoon social organization in
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[108] Bartussek, pp. 1012; Hohmann, pp. 141142
[109] Hohmann, pp. 152154
[139] Hohmann, p. 125; Lagoni-Hansen, p. 45; Zevelo, p.

125
[140] Hohmann, p. 131; Zevelo, pp. 121, 126
[110] Bartussek, p. 12; Hohmann, p. 140

[141] Lagoni-Hansen, p. 50; Zevelo, p. 126
[111] Hohmann, pp. 124126, 155
[142] Bartussek, p. 32; Zevelo, p. 126
[112] Hohmann, p. 133
[113] Zevelo, pp. 137139
[143] Hohmann, p. 163; MacClintock, p. 82; Zevelo, pp.

123127
[144] Bartussek, p. 12; Hohmann, p. 111; MacClintock, p. 83
[115] MacClintock, pp. 6061
[145] Hohmann, pp. 114, 117; Zevelo, p. 127
[116] Zevelo, pp. 137138
[146] Zevelo, p. 127
[117] Zevelo, pp. 6869
[147] Hohmann, p. 117
[118] Hohmann, pp. 142147
[148] Hohmann, p. 119; MacClintock, pp. 9495
[119] Riddell, Jill (2002). The City Raccoon and the Coun- [149] Zevelo, p. 129
try Raccoon. Chicago Wilderness Magazine. Chicago
Wilderness Magazine. Retrieved December 7, 2008.
[150] Hohmann, pp. 126127. Zevelo, p. 130
16
[151] Hohmann, p. 130; Zevelo, pp. 132133

[153] Zevelo, p. 130
[154] Bartussek, p. 6
[155] Zevelo, pp. 118119
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9 NOTES
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External links
Raccoon Tracks general information about raccoons

Raccoons Living with Wildlife information
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20
12
12
12.1
TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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12.2
Images
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Anonymous: 777
12.2
Images
File:Albino_raccoon.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Albino_raccoon.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0

Contributors:
Ringe.jpg Original artist: Ringe.jpg: Magdben
File:Baylisascaris_larvae.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Baylisascaris_larvae.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:BgforhuntingCrop.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/BgforhuntingCrop.JPG License: Public
domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Wachholder0 at en.wikipedia
File:Common_Raccoon_(Procyon_lotor)_in_Northwest_Indiana.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/
cd/Common_Raccoon_%28Procyon_lotor%29_in_Northwest_Indiana.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist:
Dmytro S.
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Coonskeleton.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/04/Coonskeleton.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
The new natural history (c1901), by Lydekker, Richard, 1849-1915 Volume: 1
Original artist: ?
File:Coonskin_cap.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Coonskin_cap.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.5
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Curious_Raccoon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Curious_Raccoon.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Paxson Woelber
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%281906%29_P._l._simus.png License: Public domain Contributors: A fossil raccoon from a California Pleistocene cave deposit.
U, S. Natl. Mus. Proc. 19: 553-554 Original artist: J. W. Gidley
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Minn. Season 1906-7. 72 pages, page 71 Original artist: unknown/--Kuerschner 20:07, 2 February 2008 (UTC)
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File:Raccoons_of_North_&_Middle_America_(1950)_P._l._elucus.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
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OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA Original artist: Edward A. Goldman and Hartley H. T. Jackson
File:Raccoons_of_North_&_Middle_America_(1950)_P._l._excelsus.png
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RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA Original artist: Edward A. Goldman and Hartley H. T. Jackson
File:Raccoons_of_North_&_Middle_America_(1950)_P._l._hernandezii.png Source:
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File:Raccoons_of_North_&_Middle_America_(1950)_P._l._hirtus.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
6/6d/Raccoons_of_North_%26_Middle_America_%281950%29_P._l._hirtus.png License: Public domain Contributors: RACCOONS
File:Raccoons_of_North_&_Middle_America_(1950)_P._l._incautus.png Source:
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22
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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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File:Raccoons_of_North_&_Middle_America_(1950)_P._l._litoreus.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
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File:Raccoons_of_North_&_Middle_America_(1950)_P._l._lotor.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/
76/Raccoons_of_North_%26_Middle_America_%281950%29_P._l._lotor.png License: Public domain Contributors: RACCOONS OF
NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA Original artist: Edward A. Goldman and Hartley H. T. Jackson
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NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA Original artist: Edward A. Goldman and Hartley H. T. Jackson
File:Raccoons_of_North_&_Middle_America_(1950)_P._l._pumilus.png
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License:
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T. Jackson
File:Raccoons_of_North_&_Middle_America_(1950)_Skins_of_subgenera_procyon_&_euprocyon.png
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https:
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procyon_%26_euprocyon.png License: Public domain Contributors: RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA Original
artist: Edward A. Goldman and Hartley H. T. Jackson
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Raccoon

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Raccoon

For other species called raccoon in the genus Procyon,

The raccoon ( * i/rkun/, Procyon lotor), sometimes

Though previously thought to be solitary, there is now

The colloquial abbreviation coon is used in words like

Americans. Soon after that it became an ethnic slur,* [14]

Local and indigenous names

In the rst decades after its discovery by the members

Based on fossil evidence from France and Germany, the

A Torch Key raccoon (P. l. incautus) in Cudjoe Key, Florida.

The most characteristic physical feature of the raccoon

Head to hindquarters, raccoons measure between 40 and

Baculum or penis bone

Raccoons are thought to be color blind or at least poorly

Zoologist Clinton Hart Merriam described raccoons as

The most important sense for the raccoon is its sense

Eastern raccoons (P. l. lotor) in a tree: The raccoon's social

of dierent foods, Zevelo argues the raccoon may

An Eastern raccoon (P. l. lotor) kit

Captive raccoons often douse their food before eating.

ing in captive raccoons is a xed action pattern from the

4.5 Life expectancy

Distribution in North America

Young Florida raccoon (P. l. elucus) crossing a road

the young born in one year to survive a full year.* [156]

Distribution in North America

Mississippi Delta raccoon (P. l. megaloudus) searching for food

Raccoons are common throughout North America from

There is evidence that in pre-Columbian times raccoons

coons have expanded their range from Vancouver Island

Distribution outside North America

As a result of escapes and deliberate introductions in the

In Japan, up to 1,500 raccoons were imported as

Distribution in Germany: Raccoons killed or found dead by

were released into the German countryside at the Edersee

The raccoon was a protected species in Germany, but

Distribution in the former USSR

On the roof of a house in Albertshausen, Germany

Due to its adaptability, the raccoon has been able to

to 100 acres) for females and 8 to 80 hectares (20 to

Raccoon roundworm Baylisascaris procyonis larvae

Raccoons can carry rabies, a lethal disease caused by the

7 RACCOONS AND HUMANS

Unlike rabies and at least a dozen other pathogens carried

fear of humans are a concern to those who attribute this

Raccoons and humans

A skunk and a California raccoon (P. s. psora) share cat food

The increasing number of raccoons in urban areas has

While overturned waste containers and raided fruit trees

Hunting and fur trade

Stylized raccoon skin as depicted on the Raccoon Priests Gorget

Mythology, arts, and entertainment

See also: List of ctional raccoons

7.3 Hunting and fur trade

7 RACCOONS AND HUMANS

Pen with climbing facilities, hiding places and a watering hole

7.4 Pet raccoons

After persistent population increases began in the 1940s,

Their propensity for unruly behavior exceeds that of