Distance Running
Distance Running
Distance Running
DISTANCE
RUNNING
A SPECIAL REPORT FROM
PEAK
PERFORMANCE
Training for
DISTANCE
RUNNING
Green Star Media Ltd 2014
Published by Green Star Media Ltd, Meadow View,
Tannery Lane, Bramley, Guildford GU5 0AB, UK
Telephone: +44 (0)1483 892894
ISBN: 978-1-905096-29-9
Publisher Jonathan A. Pye
Editor Sam Bordiss
Designer The Flying Fish Studios Ltd
The information contained in this publication is believed to be correct at the time of
going to press. Whilst care has been taken to ensure that the information is accurate,
the publisher can accept no responsibility for the consequences of actions based on
the advice contained herein.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the permission of
the publisher.
CONTENTS
Page 11 Muscle Training Why distance runners cannot afford to
ignore the vital contribution of fast-twitch muscle fibres
John Shepherd
Page 21 Physiology The relationship between the importance
of body fat and distance running is investigated
Ron Maughan
Page 31 Training Methods A former European 5000m champion
discusses the benefits of intensive training for runners
Bruce Tulloh
Page 39 Biomechanics Its back to basics, analysing the fundamental
principles behind successful running technique
Raphael Brandon
Page 51 Running Technique Following the fundamentals, Pose running
is introduced as a potential injury-free running technique
Scott Smith
Page 61 Physiology It isnt an injury but it can certainly jeopardise
a race; the mysterious stitch is analysed
Alison McConnell
Page 71 Nutrition If the previous chapter has you in a stitch,
perhaps it is worth considering the new carbo-drink
Andrew Hamilton
Page 83 What the Papers Say Explosive type strength training
enhances distance-running performance
Page 84 What the Papers Say Creatine serum offers no advantages
for runners
Page 85 What the Papers Say The benefits of training backwards
Page 86 What the Papers Say Why long, slow training runs may be
best after all
Page 87 What the Papers Say No link between hydration and cramps
Page 89 What the Papers Say Runners high: a new explanation
Page 90 What the Papers Say Nature and nurture in Ethiopian
endurance running success
Sam Bordiss
PAGE 9
PAGE 10
MUSCLE TRAINING
67%
Triathlete
60%
(5)
less intense aerobic training. Although it is possible to train fasttwitch fibre to take on more of the slow-twitch blueprint, taken
to extremis especially through the use of slow-twitch steady
state training this may not actually be the best strategy for
endurance athletes.
The marathon runner Alberto Salazar once said that he aimed
to train aerobically hard enough to lose his ability to jump (4). In
other words, he was trying to convert all his fast-twitch fibres into
slow-twitch ones in terms of their energy-producing potential so
that they could contribute all their energy to his marathon running.
However, for a variety of reasons, losing all fast-twitch speed
and power ability may not actually be a good idea. For example,
at the end of a closely-fought marathon there may be a need for
a sprint, requiring fast-twitch fibre input. This becomes yet more
appropriate when considering middle distance running.
Even more specifically, there is the anaerobic/aerobic
component of an endurance activity to consider, and the speed
required to complete it competitively. An 800m race calls for an
anaerobic energy contribution of around 40%, and athletes in
these disciplines must be fast and powerful to succeed.
Fast-twitch fibres have to be trained accordingly; its no good
turning them into plodders with an emphasis on slow-twitch,
steady state work, if they are needed to produce a short or
sustained kick and a sizeable energy contribution.
The recent research into lactate stacker sessions and the vital
role of lactate threshold as the key endurance performance
variable further substantiates the need for the development of
a high-powered endurance contribution from fast-twitch fibres.
Despite virtually undisputed evidence that all muscle fibre
types will adapt to a relevant training stimulus, it is less certain
whether these changes are permanent. One of the few studies
concerned with the long-term effects of endurance training was
conducted by Thayer et al, who looked at muscle-fibre
adaptation over a decade (6). Specifically, they compared skeletal
muscle from the vastus lateralis (front thigh) in seven subjects
who had participated in 10 years or more of high intensity
aerobic training with that of six untrained controls.
PAGE 15
It is possible
that athletes
'learn' how
to tolerate
pain and
consequently
become
better able to
recruit their
muscle fibre
PAGE 16
It has been suggested that the body and, for our purposes,
its muscles will always hold onto some crucial energyproducing materials, just in case it is called upon to react in an
emergency. This is seen as a legacy of the unpredictable past that
confronted our prehistoric ancestors, who never knew if they
would need a bit more energy to flee from a sabre-toothed tiger
after a long days hunting and gathering!
References
1 McArdle, Katch and Katch, Exercise Physiology, Williams &
Wilkins, 1994
2 Acta Physiol Scand 1984 Apr: 120(4):505-515
3 J of App Phys, vol 62, 438-444, 1987
4 Salazaar Nike lecture, Nike HQ Oregon October 2002
5 Dick FW, Sports Training Principles, A&C Black 4th edition, 2002
6 J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2000 Dec;40(4):284-9
7 Pflugers Arch 2003 Mar; 445(6): 734-40 E Pub 2003 Jan 14
8 Peak Performance keynote lecture, September 2000
PAGE 18
PAGE 19
PAGE 20
PHYSIOLOGY
120
120
100
100
80
80
60
Muscle
glycogen
Fat
60
40
40
Blood glucose
20
10
12
14
16
18
20
%VO2max
22
20
24
The left-hand vertical axis shows total energy expenditure in kilojoules per minute
(kJ/min); the red shaded area at the bottom represents the contribution of blood
glucose to energy supply level; the pink and black shaded areas show the relative
contributions from fat and muscle glycogen respectively to energy demand.
Importance of fat
To get an idea of the importance of fat, you can try the following
sums. For simplicity, well assume that:
The energy cost of running is about 1 kilocalorie per
kilogram body mass per kilometre;
The energy available from fat oxidation is 9 kilocalories
per gram;
PAGE 23
About half of the energy used in a run will come from fat
(this amount will actually be greater at low speeds and for
fitter runners, and will also be higher if the run is completed
after fasting overnight as opposed to just after a high
carbohydrate meal).
Example 1
If you weigh 50kg, the total amount of energy you will use in a
10km run is 50x10 = 500kcals. If all of the energy were to come
from fat, this would use 500/9 = 56 grams of fat. Half of this is
28 grams fat (almost exactly one ounce in old units).
Example 2
If you weigh 80kg the total energy cost of running a marathon
(42.2km) is 80x42.2 = 3,376kcals. If all of the energy were to
come from fat, this would use 3,376/9 = 375 grams. Half of this
is 188 grams or around 7oz.
Three things emerge from this:
1. The amount of fat you need for even a marathon is small
compared to the amount stored; a 70kg runner with 20%
body fat has 14kg of stored fat. A 60kg runner with 30% fat
has 18kg.
2. Even though the amounts of fat used may seem small,
regular running will nibble away at the fat stores good
news if your aim is to use exercise to control or reduce your
body fat levels. A runner who uses 28 grams three times per
week will lose about 3.5kg of fat over the course of a year.
The results are not immediate but, if you persist, the
cumulative results are impressive.
3. Running speed does not figure in the equation. If you run
for 40 minutes, you might do 5km or you might do 10km.
body fat levels and also got a record of the weight of all food and
drink consumed over a one-week period.
As you can see from the following graphs, the runners
covering the greatest distance in training had the lowest body fat
levels. They also ate more food than those who did less running.
There are, of course, some people who do not fit the line as well
as others, but there are many factors that explain this variability.
We would expect the people who eat more to be fatter, but no!
The subjects who did most running had the lowest levels of body
fat, even though they did eat more. Thus, we can separate food
intake from body fatness if we add exercise to the equation.
Relationship between body fat and weekly running distance
20
15
10
5
0
40
80
120
160
10
15
PAGE 26
20
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
40
80
120
160
a physically active but not highly trained group (5). Since then,
similar measurements have been made on various groups of
runners, and the findings are fairly consistent.
The low body fat content of female distance runners is
particularly striking; values of less than 10-15% are commonly
reported among elite performers, but are seldom seen in healthy
women outside sport. The occasional exceptions to the
generalisation that a low body fat content is a pre-requisite for
success are most likely to occur in womens ultra-distance
running, and some recent world record holders at ultradistances have been reported to have a high (in excess of 30%)
body fat content. However, this probably reflects the underdeveloped state of womens long distance running; as more
women take part, the level of performance can be expected to
rise rapidly, and the elite performers are likely to conform to the
model of their male counterparts and of successful women
competitors at shorter distances.
Although theres an intimate link between body fat levels and
running performance, its important to remember that reducing
fat levels will not automatically guarantee success and may even
be counter-productive. If you reduce fat by a combination of
training and restricting diet, you are walking a fine tightrope.
While a reduction in body fat may well boost running
performance, cut down food intake too drastically and not only
will training quality suffer, but the risk of illness and injury also
increases dramatically.
Ron Maughan
References
1. Journal of Sports Science 2004; 22:115-125
2. Journal of Sports Science 2004; 22;1-14
3. Journal of Sports Medicine 1986; 26:258-262
4. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 1990; 49:27A
5. Medicine and Science in Sports 1970; 2:93-95
PAGE 28
PAGE 29
PAGE 30
TRAINING METHODS
Time-efficient running
should you run less to
run faster?
Ever since the marathon boom of the early 1980s, high-mileage
training has been the accepted paradigm among middle and long
distance coaches. However cutting back the miles and concentrating
on quality is not only more time-efficient, it can also produce
superior results for all but very elite runners
In every walk of life there are trends, and in spite of our claims to
open-minded scientific principles, this applies to training theories
as much as to clothes or automobiles. Lets take mileage, for a
start. Back in the 1950s, interval training was perceived to be the
only way to success. Then along came Percy Cerutty, coaching
Herb Elliott. Herb won the Olympic 1,500m title in a world
record time at the age of 21, leading most of the way.
This was evidence enough for many people to switch away
from boring interval training on the track and go running up
sandhills instead. Almost simultaneously came the Lydiard
system, based on running 100 miles a week, which was the basis
of the gold medals and world records of Peter Snell and Murray
Halberg, and this became the key to success.
The American physiologist David Costill established the fact
that at up to about 80km a week there is a straight-line
relationship between mileage per week and improvement in
VO2max, which added scientific credibility to practical
experience (1). From the start of the marathon boom in the
1980s, high mileage has been the theme of all middle and long
distance coaching. Exceptions have been rare, partly because
coaches have not dared to go against the trend, and partly
PAGE 31
Low-mileage
Lets take a couple of examples. Steve Jones broke the world
marathon record in a time of 2.08.05, and later ran a 2.07.13
marathon, on about 80 miles a week. No European runner has
improved much on this time, even though some have gone to
150 miles a week or more.
Looking at the 5,000m and 10,000m distances, when I broke
the European record for three miles, my average mileage for
the previous ten weeks was 28 miles a week, including warm-ups
and races. The training was hard, but it didnt take much time,
with sessions such as 15 x 400m with a 50-second recovery, or
2 x 2,000m fast. An actual week of training during that summer
is shown below:
Mon: warm-up, 2,800m time trial, on grass;
Tues: 6 x 880yd on track, averaging 2mins 10secs;
Wed: 8 x 700m on grass;
Thurs: warm-up, fast strides, 2 x 440yd in 56 and 58 seconds;
Fri: rest;
Sat: warm-up, 2-mile race.
(total miles for the week = 30)
In the following three weeks I ran fewer miles but had 10 races
(mostly club races) where I led all the way. If I could run 13min
PAGE 32
10k programme
When you are preparing a training schedule, the objectives should
always go at the top of the page. For a 10k runner these should be:
Increase aerobic fitness;
Increase speed endurance;
Maintain or increase endurance;
Avoid injury.
A time-efficient programme would look like this:
Week 1 (no race)
Tues: 10 mins warm-up, 10 x 45 secs uphill fast,
10 mins warm-down;
Thurs: 6-mile run, including 3 x 8 mins fast, 2 mins jog
(10k pace);
Sat: 10 mins warm-up, 2 x 15 mins threshold pace
(2 mins recovery);
Sun: 8-10 mile run, starting slow, finishing faster.
Total mileage 24-26
Week 2 (racing week)
Tues: 1-mile jog, 2-3 mins stretching, 12 x 400m at 5k
pace (60 secs recovery), 800m warm-down;
Thurs: 5-mile run, including 8 x 2 mins fast, 1 min slow;
Sat: 15 mins warm-up, 8 x 150m fast stride, 5 mins jog;
Sun: warm-up, race 5-10 miles, warm-down.
Total mileage 21-26
This programme would run for 8-10 weeks, with the idea of
making each two-week block harder than the one before. In the
racing week the focus is on performing well in the important races.
PAGE 34
Marathon programme
For a marathon runner, the priorities would be:
Increase endurance;
Improve aerobic fitness;
Avoid injury.
A time-efficient two-week programme would look like this:
Week 1 (no race)
Tues: warm-up, 8 x 800m on track (90 secs recovery jog)
at 5k pace;
Thurs: 10 mins warm-up, 2 x 20 mins at threshold pace;
Sat: 10 mins warm-up, 6 x 1 mile off road, (3 mins
recovery) at 10k pace;
Sun: long run, 18 miles; 6 miles easy, 6 miles at marathon
pace, 6 miles a bit faster.
Total mileage 41 approx.
Week 2 (racing week)
Tues: warm-up, 5 sets of [600m at 5k pace/200m jog/
400m at 5k pace];
Thurs: 8-10 miles run, with 6 x 5 mins fast interspersed
with 2 mins slow;
Sat: 5 miles fartlek, off road;
Sun: warm-up, 10-mile or half-marathon race, warmdown.
Total mileage 38 approx.
This programme would start ten weeks before the race, giving
four turns of the two-week cycle, followed by a two-week taper.
The long progressive runs would be 15, 18, 18 and 20 miles in
those four cycles.
Bruce Tulloh
References:
1.Costill, DL (1986) Inside Running: Basics of Sports Physiology.
Indianapolis: Benchmark Press
2. Noakes, T (1985) The Lore of Running. OUP
3. Furman Univ Human Performance Lab 2004, quoted in
Runners World Feb 2006
PAGE 36
PAGE 37
PAGE 38
BIOMECHANICS
from to
action
Absorption (braking)
Propulsion
MS (midstance)
TO (toe-off)
The role of
the muscles
therefore is to
control the
joint position
PAGE 42
the knee has also flexed to 50-60 degrees. This ankle and knee
flexion is coordinated to absorb the vertical landing forces on
the body, which at distance running speeds are in the order of
two to three times bodyweight.
This is where eccentric strength in the calf and quadriceps
muscles is required to control the knee and ankle joints, otherwise
the knee and ankle would collapse or rotate inwards. In fact the
quadriceps and calf muscles are active prior to IC, and at their
most active between IC and MS to help control the braking forces.
The hip continues to extend through the absorption phase of
stance, reaching around 20 degrees of flexion by MS.
During the propulsion phase the ankle and knee motion is
reversed. By TO the ankle is plantarflexed to around 25 degrees
and the knee has re-extended to 30-40 degrees. The hip
continues to move to 10 degrees of extension by TO.
Thus during the second half of the stance phase the ankle,
knee and hip combine in a triple extension movement to provide
propulsion upwards and forwards. The calf, quadriceps,
hamstring and gluteal activity during the propulsion phase is less
than during the absorption phase, because the propulsion
energy comes mainly from the recoil of elastic energy stored
during the first half of stance.
The role of the muscles therefore is to control the joint
positions, creating stiffness in the leg system that allows the
tendons to lengthen and then recoil.During the swing phase
between TO and IC the knee and hip flex to maximum flexion
angles of 130 degrees and 60 degrees respectively and then reextend prior to IC, with the ankle dorsiflexing throughout swing
to 10 degrees at IC.
Good runners will follow these movement patterns. It is
essential that the ankle and knee can quickly control the braking
forces and create a stable leg system to allow the tendons to
maximise their recoil power. This is where good technique is
vital. Too much upward bounce will increase the landing forces,
putting greater stress on the joints and requiring more muscle
force to control. Runners need to learn to bounce along and not
up, by taking quick, light steps.
Foot mechanics
rotation forces acting on the tibia and knee joints may lead to
problems. Excessive pronators tend to suffer from anterior
knee pain, medial tibial stress syndrome, Achilles and foot softtissue injuries.
The normal
arm action
has more to do
with running
efficiency than
with injury
prevention
directly
PAGE 47
General references:
Cavanagh P (Ed.) (1990), Biomechanics of Distance Running.
Human Kinetics.
Mann et al (1986), Comparative electromyography of the lower
extremity in jogging, running and sprinting. Am J of Sp Med. Vol
14(6): 501-510.
Novacheck T (1998), The biomechanics of running. Gait and
Posture Vol 7, 77-95.
Schade et al (1999), The coordinated movement of lumbo-pelvic
hip complex during running. Gait and Posture Vol 10, 30-47.
PAGE 48
PAGE 49
PAGE 50
RUNNING TECHNIQUE
A beginners guide
to Pose running
If running is natural, why do we keep on injuring ourselves? Here
an Australian physio takes a look at a controversial alternative style
that claims to reduce the risk of damage.
The popularity of running as a leisure pursuit has increased
throughout the past 25 years, reflecting social trends away from
organised team sports and towards less time-consuming, more
flexible and independent ways of keeping fit and active. Over
the same time period there has been an explosion in sports
science and sports injury research and therapeutic practice.
Among other things, this has produced a wealth of advice on
baseline fitness and training for running, and huge advances in
footwear technology.
Yet runners keep on injuring themselves. They continue to
seek treatment, typically, for Achilles tendinosis, patellofemoral
pain, repetitive calf muscle strains, big toe pain and low back
pain and it seems to those of us who have been around the
sports therapy world for a while that the incidence of running
injuries has not reduced significantly. Is it time to return to the
fundamentals of running to find out why so many people are
still hurting themselves?
Coaches, trainers, therapists and athletes have no difficulty
agreeing that technique has an important role to play in leisure
pursuits such as rowing, golf, swimming and ballet, but when I
ask my running patients about their technique whether, for
instance, they heel-strike or land with their knees straight I
receive blank expressions. In most sports, enthusiasts will
expect to devote months and even years to working on
movement technique, whereas with running we tend only ever
PAGE 51
to focus on how to run faster and/or further, and how much fitter
we can get as a result.
In other words, running is practised rather than taught. This
leads to the question: is there an optimal running technique that
enables athletes to train without fear of injury, with a real
reduction in their injury risk and with the prospect of still being
able to improve their performance?
One recently developed technique, called pose running, lays
claim to be able to do all three things. Pose running was invented
by Nicholas Romanov, a Russian scientist now based in Miami
and consultant to the British, US and Mexican triathlon
associations. During the 1970s and early 80s, Romanov was
heavily involved with athlete training in Russia, where he
observed that as his athletes turned up the workload, so they
would start to break down physically. At that time there was
little strength and conditioning training. With a heavy emphasis
on improving mileage and speed, the athletes focused on
increasing their cardiovascular and respiratory systems, and
paid little heed to their underlying running technique.
Principles
Running should be easy, effortless, smooth and flowing. We
have all seen and heard the heavy runner who pounds away on
a gym treadmill. Romanov says the runner is only as good as his
change of support and that the runner should have a very high
cadence not a long, extended stride length. In pose running,
the key is to maximise your effort in removing your support foot
from the ground; good training is essential to ensure that you
dont over-stride or create excessive vertical oscillation. The
runner should fall forwards, changing support from one leg to
the other by pulling the foot from the ground, allowing
minimum effort and producing minimum braking to this body
movement. The idea is to maximise the use of gravity to pull the
runner forward.
The pose method is centred on the idea that a runner
maintains a single pose or position, moving continually forwards
in this position. Romanov uses two models to explain the
rationale behind pose:
the mechanical model the centre of gravity, which is
around the hip position, should move in a horizontal line,
without vertical up and down displacement;
the biological model the rear leg maintains an S-like
PAGE 53
Drill 2:
Change of support without moving
Shift centre of gravity sideways from one leg to the other,
maintaining support on the midfoot
You must feel the weight shift from one leg to the other
before pulling up
It is important to feel the weight shift and then the acceleration
of this movement by the pulling-up of the hamstring
Pull the ankle up vertically under the hip using the
hamstring only, not hip flexors or quadriceps
Allow the leg to drop to the ground do not drive it down
Mental focus is on the pulling-up action, not the leg drop.
Drill 3 (Fig 5):
Pony
This practises changing support using minimum effort and
minimal range of movement
Simultaneously lift the ankle of the support leg while
allowing your body weight to shift to the other leg
Use only the hamstring. Keep in mind your support point
on the midfoot (toes will also be in contact).
Drill 4 (Fig 6):
Forward change of support
This puts the pony into action; practise slowly at first
Fig 5: Pony
PAGE 56
Fig 8: Hopping
PAGE 57
PAGE 58
Further reading
Pose Method of Running by Nicholas Romanov (2002), PoseTech
Press ISBN: 0-9725537-6-2
Reduced Eccentric Loading of the Knee with the Pose Running
Method, Arendse, Regan E; Noakes, Timothy D; Azevedo, Liane
B; Romanov, Nicholas; Schwellnus, Martin P; Fletcher, Graham in
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise: Volume 36(2) February
2004 pp272-277.
POSE PRINCIPLES IN SUMMARY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Raise your ankle straight up under your hip, using the hamstrings;
Keep your support time short;
Your support is always on the balls of your feet;
Do not touch the ground with your heels;
Avoid shifting weight over your toes: raise your ankle when
the weight is on the ball of your foot;
Keep your ankle fixed at the same angle;
Keep knees bent at all times;
Feet remain behind the vertical line going through your knees;
Keep stride length short;
Keep knees and thighs down, close together, and relaxed;
Always focus on pulling the foot from the ground, not on landing;
Do not point or land on the toes (see Fig 3: Toe running);
Gravity, not muscle action, controls the landing of the legs;
Keep shoulder, hip and ankle in vertical alignment;
Arm movement is for balance, not for force production.
PAGE 59
PAGE 60
PHYSIOLOGY
What is a stitch?
One theory is that a stitch is caused by the movements of the
stomach and liver, which places strain on the diaphragm
ligaments and/or the ligaments supporting the abdominal organs.
Another theory is that a stitch is just plain old diaphragm
ischaemia (insufficient blood flow for the metabolic demand),
and/or a diaphragm spasm (cramp) (1). A more recent theory is that
stitch is a symptom of an irritation of the lining of the abdominal
cavity (peritoneum) caused by friction between the abdominal wall
and the abdominal organs (1). However, the jury is still out and
there is, as yet, no unequivocal scientific evidence to implicate
any one of these potential mechanisms.
This tells us that a stitch arises frequently, but what are the
common denominators in terms of its occurrence?
Diaphragm discomfort
As a scientist, I must resist the temptation to apply my personal
experience of a phenomenon to its interpretation. However, I
have observed a consistent response across a large number of
people, and over many years. These observations (combined
with the circumstantial evidence that exists within the literature)
suggests, to me at least, that a stitch is almost certainly
diaphragm discomfort arising because of an inability to cope
with the demands that are being placed upon it.
Most people are inherently poor and inefficient breathers;
they just let it happen automatically, and pay no attention to the
muscles that are used to do it. Of the many muscles involved in
breathing, the diaphragm is by far the largest, strongest and
most resistant to fatigue. Accordingly, the diaphragm is the
muscle that should be employed to undertake the lions share
of the work of breathing, not the rib cage muscles.
Sadly, in my experience, few people use their diaphragm as
effectively as they could. In order to do so, they have to re-educate
themselves into a way of breathing that was second nature to them
as infants. This re-education is possible through a conscious
PAGE 66
PAGE 68
References
1. Br J Sports Med 2003; 37:287-8
2. J Sci Med Sport 2005; 8:152-62
3. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34:745-9
4. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32:432-8
5. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31:1169-75
6. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2004; 14:197-208
7. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89:967-76
8. J Biomech 2005; 38:1873-80
9. J Physiol 2001; 537:999-1008
PAGE 69
PAGE 70
NUTRITION
Carbohydrate drinks
can fructose enhance
endurance for runners?
Despite the numerous claims to the contrary by the sports nutrition
industry, real advances in sports nutrition are comparatively rare.
But recent research into carbohydrate absorption and utilisation
could herald a new breed of carbohydrate drink, which promises
genuinely enhanced endurance performance.
Before we go on to discuss carbohydrate formulations, its
worth recapping just why carbohydrate nutrition is so vital for
middle distance runners. Although the human body can use fat
and carbohydrate as the principle fuels to provide energy, its
carbohydrate that is the preferred or premium grade fuel for
sporting activity.
There are two main reasons for this. Firstly, carbohydrate is
more oxygen-efficient than fat; each molecule of oxygen yields
six molecules of ATP (adenosine triphosphate the energy
liberating molecule used in muscle contraction) compared with
only 5.7 ATPs per oxygen molecule when fat is oxidised. Thats
important because the amount of oxygen available to working
muscles isnt unlimited its determined by your maximum
oxygen uptake (VO2max).
Secondly and more importantly, unlike fat (and protein),
carbohydrate can be broken down very rapidly without oxygen
to provide large amounts of extra ATP via a process known as
glycolysis during intense (anaerobic) exercise. And since all but
ultra-endurance athletes tend to work at or near their anaerobic
threshold, this additional energy route provided by
carbohydrate is vital for maximal performance. This explains
PAGE 71
Carbohydrate storage
Endurance training coupled with the right carbohydrate loading
strategy can maximise glycogen concentrations, which can
extend the duration of exercise by up to 20% before fatigue sets
in1. Studies have shown that the onset of fatigue coincides
closely with the depletion of glycogen in exercising muscles (2,3).
However, valuable as these glycogen stores are, and even
though some extra carbohydrate (in the form of circulating
blood glucose) can be made available to working muscles
courtesy of glycogen stored in the liver, they are often
insufficient to supply the energy needs during longer events.
For example, a trained marathon runner can oxidise
carbohydrate at around 200-250g per hour at racing pace; even
if he or she begins the race with fully loaded stores, muscle
glycogen stores would become depleted long before the end of
the race. Premature depletion can be an even bigger problem in
longer events such as triathlon or endurance cycling and can even
be a problem for athletes whose events last 90 minutes or less and
who have not been able to fully load glycogen stores beforehand.
Given that stores of precious muscle glycogen are limited, can
ingesting carbohydrate drinks during exercise help offset the
effects of glycogen depletion by providing working muscles with
another source of glucose? Back in the early 1980s, the prevailing
consensus was that it made little positive contribution. This was
because of the concern that carbohydrate drinks could impair
fluid uptake, which might increase the risk of dehydration. It
was also mistakenly believed that ingested carbohydrate in such
drinks actually contributed little to energy production in the
working muscles (4).
Later that decade, however, it became clear that
carbohydrate ingested during exercise can indeed be oxidised
at a rate of roughly 1g per minute (5-7) (supplying approximately
PAGE 72
Drink formulation
The research findings above have helped to shape the
formulation of most of todays popular carbohydrate drinks. Most
of these supply energy in the form of glucose or glucose polymers
(see box for explanation) at a concentration of around 6%, to be
One of the
consumed at the rate of around 1,000mls per hour, so that around
goals of sports
60g per hour of carbohydrate is ingested. Higher concentrations
nutrition
or volumes than this are not recommended because not only
has been to
does gastric distress become a problem, but also the extra
see whether
carbohydrate ingested is simply not absorbed or utilised.
it's possible
But as weve already mentioned, 60g per hour actually
to increase
amounts to around 250kcals per hour, which provides only a
the rate of
modest replenishment of energy compared to that being
carbohydrate
expended during training or competition. Elite endurance
replenishment
athletes can burn over 1,200kcals per hour, of which perhaps
1,000kcals or more will be derived from carbohydrate, leaving
a shortfall of at least 750kcals per hour. Its hardly surprising,
therefore, that one of the goals of sports nutrition has been to
see whether its possible to increase the rate of carbohydrate
replenishment. And now a series of studies carried out by
scientists at the University of Birmingham in the UK indicates
that this may indeed be possible.
The results showed that while the pure glucose and glucose/
maltose drinks produced an oxidation rate of 1.06g of
carbohydrate per minute, the glucose/sucrose combination
drink produced a significantly higher rate of 1.25g per minute.
This was an important finding because while both maltose and
sucrose are disaccharides (see box, below), maltose is composed
of just two chemically bonded glucose molecules, whereas
sucrose combines a glucose with a fructose molecule. This
suggested that it was the glucose/fructose combination that was
being absorbed more rapidly and therefore producing higher
rates of carbohydrate oxidation.
CH2OH
O
HO
CH2OH
O
5
1
2
OH
GLUCOSE
CH2OH
1
3
CH2OH
Glucose
SUCROSE (TABLE SUGAR)
= GLUCOSE + FRUSTOSE
5
1
Fructose
CH2OH
O
2
3
Glucose
1
2
Glucose
PAGE 75
Fructose connection
The same team had also performed another carbohydrate
ingestion study on eight cyclists pedalling at 63% of VO2max
for two hours(16). In this study the cyclists performed four
exercise trials in random order while drinking a radio-labelled
solution supplying of one of the following:
1.2g per min of glucose (medium glucose);
1.8g per min of glucose (high glucose);
1.2g of glucose + 0.6g of fructose per minute
(glucose/fructose blend);
Water (control).
There were two key findings; firstly, the carbohydrate oxidation
rate when drinking high glucose drink was no higher than when
medium glucose was consumed; secondly, the peak and average
PAGE 76
100%
Fat
Exogenous
carbohydrate
Endogenous
carbohydrate
75%
50%
25%
0%
GLU
WAT
GLU+FRUC
125
Water
Glucose
+fructose
Glucose
100
75
Relative amount of
water absorbed
from the gut into
the bloodstream
during the last hour
of exercise
50
25
0
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
Time (min)
References
1. Sports Med 1997; 24:73-81
2. Acta Physiol Scand 1967; 71:129-139
3. Williams C, Harries M, Standish WD, Micheli LL (eds) (1998)
Oxford Textbook of Sports Medicine, 2nd edn. New York:
Oxford University Press
4. Int J Sports Med 1980; 1:2-14
5. Sports Med 1992; 14: 27-42
6. Metabolism 1996; 45:915-921
7. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 1999; 276: E672-E683
8. Med Sci Sports Ex 1993; 25:42-51
9. Int J Sports Med 1994; 15:122-125
10. Med Sci Sports Ex 1996; 28: i-vii
11. J Athletic Training 2000; 35:212-214
12. Int J Sports Nutr 1997; 7:26-38
13. Nutrition Reviews 1996; 54:S136-S139
14. J Appl Physiol 1994; ss76(3):1014-9
PAGE 80
PAGE 81
PAGE 82
followed by a VO2max test on the treadmill the same day. The runners
were then split into two groups; 13 took the manufacturers
recommended dose of 5mls of serum (2.5g of creatine), while the
control group took an inert placebo.
As well as VO2max, heart rates, run times and perceived rates of
exertion were recorded. The results showed that runners taking the
serum had a significantly lower perceived rate of exertion and also
managed longer durations on the incremental VO2max test. However,
the actual VO2max figures were not significantly different between
serum and placebo groups, and there was also no improvement in
5,000m run time in the serum group.
The scientists went on to conclude that their data did not support
the ergogenic claims of creatine serum in its current form and dose.
J Strength Cond Res 2005; 19(4):730-4
VO2max) and zone 3 (high intensity above 85% VO2max) and then
related these to final race performance. Their two key findings were:
That these regional/national class endurance runners spent most
(71%) of their training time in zone 1 and a mere 8% in zone 3;
That total training time spent in zone 1 was linked with improved
performance time during both races, particularly the long one.
Our findings suggest, the researchers conclude, that total training
time spent at low intensities might be associated with improved
performance during highly intense endurance events, at least if the
event duration is [around] 35 minutes. Interventional studies are
needed to corroborate our findings.
They cannot easily explain these unexpected results but suggest that
athletes might engage in a form of pacing that occurs over a very long
period of time. Just as athletes must distribute their energetic resources
within a competition it appears that they must also perform a certain
level of pacing over long periods of time, so that the balance of the
training stress and training adaptations remains favourable.
Med Sci Sports Exerc, vol 37, no 3, 496-504
All subjects were weighed before and immediately after the race to
assess changes in hydration status. Blood samples were taken before,
immediately after and 60 minutes after the race and analysed for
glucose, protein, sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium
concentrations, as well as various markers of hydration status.
Of the 72 runners in the study, 45 had a history of EAMC, while 27
had no previous experience of muscle cramping. In the event, 21 of
the 45 runners with a history of cramping suffered acute EAMC either
during the race or within 60 minutes of completing it, while 22 of the
27 runners with no history of cramping formed a control group for
comparison purposes.
Key findings were as follows:
All episodes of cramping occurred in the latter half of the race
or immediately afterwards, with most affected runners reporting
three or more episodes. Most commonly affected muscles were
hamstrings (48%) and quadriceps (38%). Most cramps were
moderate-to-severe in intensity and best relieved by slowing the
pace or passive stretching;
There were no significant differences between the groups for pre- or
post-race body weight, per cent change in body weight, blood
volume, plasma volume, or red cell volume, indicating no difference
in hydration status;
Immediate post-race serum sodium concentration was significantly
lower in the cramp group, while serum magnesium concentration
was significantly higher. However, these differences were considered
to be too small to be of clinical significance.
Furthermore, report the researchers, the decrease in serum sodium
concentration following the race in the cramp group is probably related
to an increased fluid intake during the race in this group. Although
drinking patterns were not measured directly, increased drinking in the
cramp group is likely because of the well publicised belief that cramping
is caused by dehydration.
This supposition was supported by the finding that runners with
EAMC were less dehydrated than non-cramping runners immediately
after the race, with per cent decreases in body weight (pre- to postrace) of 2.9% and 3.6% respectively.
PAGE 88
PAGE 92
Contributors
Raphael Brandon MSc is a sports conditioning and fitness specialist.
He is also London region strength and conditioning coach for the English
Institute of Sport.
Alison McConnell BSc, MSC, PhD is currently professor of applied
physiology at Brunel University, a Fellow of the American College of
Sports Medicine and a British Association of Sport and Exercise
Sciences accredited sport scientist; her research interests are in
respiratory limitations to exercise performance.
Andrew Hamilton BSc, MRSC trained as a chemist and is now a
consultant to the fitness industry and an experienced science writer
Ron Maughan is professor of sport and exercise sciences at
Loughborough University
John Shepherd MA is a specialist health, sport and fitness writer and
a former international long jumper
Scott Smith is an Australian physiotherapist. He works at Albany Creek
Sports Injury Clinic in Brisbane, specialising in running and golf injuries
Bruce Tulloh was European 5,000m champion in 1962 in a time of
14:00.6. The championship record is now 13:10, but the 2002 title
was claimed in 13:38.
PAGE 93