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The MCAT
Physics Book
Garrett Biehle
Nova Press
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Copyright O 2005 by Nova Press

Previous editions: 2000, 1997
All rights reserved.
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approval from the publisher.
ISBN: 1-889057-33-9
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The MCAT
Physics Book
This page intentionally left blank
Preface
The physics portion of the Medical College Aptitude Test (MCAT) contains questions to test your knowledge of basic physics and your ability to apply that knowledge to
unfamiliac situations.
The goal of this book is to review basic physics with an emphasis on the principles
and ideas, and to help you learn to approach new situations and think about them with a
physics mindset. This book is not primarily concerned with test-taking techniques. It is
designed to help you develop an intuitive understanding of physics, so that you will
understand the MCAT questions and how to answer them.
Each chapter contains a discussion of a major physics topic, followed by problems
to help you apply the concepts. Finally, there are MCAT-style passages and questions to
help you get used to the MCAT format. All the problems have complete solutions in the
back of the book, some with tips to help you approach problems and to solve them faster.
If you work through this book, taking notes with pencil and paper by your side, and
solving the problems, you will improve your understanding of physics. And you will
improve your score on the MCAT.
The author wishes to thank James Aldridge for his comments on the manuscript.
The author wishes to thank Michelle Haller for the many hours she spent editing the
book's prose.
The author especially appreciates Andrew and Judy Cordell for their critical reading
of the book, alerting the author to subtleties in the science, helping the author approach
difficult topics, and pointing out unnecessary detail.
contents
Chapter 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 2
The Language of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3
Chapter 3
Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1
Chapter 4
......................................
Grav~tat~on
Chapter 5
Planes and Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Chapter 6
Friction and A i r Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Chapter 7
Torques and Properties of Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3
Chapter 8
Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
111
Chapter 9
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
121
Interlude
Solving Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
149
Chapter 10
Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
159
Chapter 11
Periodic M o t i o n and Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
185
Chapter 12
Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Chapter 1 3
Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Chapter 14
Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Chapter 15
Electric Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter
45
279
16 Atomic and Nuclear Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0 5
Solutions
Index
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Index-i
CluQter 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A . Rilosophy of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
8 . Reading this Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C.Unib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D.Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter
The Language of M o t i o n
..........................
13
A.lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
B.Forcc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
C.Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
D.Vcctors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
E. Position, Displacement, and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6

F. Velocity, Speed, and All That . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6
G . Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
H.Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I.
J.
18
Uniform Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1
Kinematic Equations for Constant Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Chapter 2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 3
24
Laws of M o t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
A . First Law of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1

8 . Second Law of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3
C . ThirdLawofMotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5
D. Force Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
Chapter 3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
Chapter 4
Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 4 5
A .The Law of Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
8.
Surface of the Earth
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
C.FneFall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
D. Horizontal and Vertical Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 9
Chapter
54
Planes and Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
A . Horizontal and Vettical Motion. Again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1

B. Inclined Pbnes and For Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3
C. C i ~ u b Motion.
r
Oualitative Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 4
D. c i i M o t i i . Ouantitative Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Chapter
5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Chapter 6
A.lntroduction
Friction and Air'Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
....................................................
...................................................
D.SticWslip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Air resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B.Statichction
77
C.wcfrictian
80
Chapter
6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
83
86
Chapter 7
Torques and Properties of Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3
A.lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
93
8 . Lnguage of Rotation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C.Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 4
D.Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 7
E.
Solid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
100
Chapter 7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 3
Chapter 8
Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 11
A . Introduction and Dtfinition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8 . Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. External Forcer and Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
111
112
116
Chapter 9
121
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
114
A . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 1
B.Wo& . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
C.EnergyofMotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 4
D. Potential Energy and Conservative Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 6
E. Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
F. Efficiency of Energy Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 9
G.Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 0
H.Pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 1
Chapter 9 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 4 .
interlude
A.lntroduction
Solving Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

...................................................
149
B. General Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
149
C . Specific Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
153
Chapter 10
Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Some definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
159
159
159
C.Buoyantforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
D. Facta about presswe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6 2
E. Surface tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
G.ViscositymdTurbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6 6
H. Bernoulli's hnciple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6 7
F.
Chapter 10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
170
Chapter 1 1
Periodic Motion and Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
B.Sprinss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 5
C. P e r i i i c Motion: O n e Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 7
D. Periodic Motion: Two Connected Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 9
A.lntroduction
E. Waves, an Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

F. lnterfmme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
G.StandingWava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
197
Chapter 12 Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

A .Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
B . Intensity and Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 8
C. Resonating Cavities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 0
D.8eats
E.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Doppler Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Chapter I2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
Chapter 1 3
Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
225
A.lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
B . General Properties of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 5
C . Reflection and Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 6
D. Optics Using Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3 0
E . Optics Usins Mirrors
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
238
238
239
F. Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Combination of Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Ideal Lenses and Nonideal Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 1 4
240
Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4 9
Alntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4 9
8.ElectricCharse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4 9
C . Charges and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' 2 5 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 .
D.Coulomb'sbw
E. Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Electric Potential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Electromagnetic Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
253
958
263
964
Chapter 14 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Chapter 1 5
Electric Circuits . . . . . . . . .
.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 7 9
A . Introduction
B . Ohm's Law and the Combination of Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
C . Real DC cells and Real Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
D.Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8 6
E. Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
F. Alternating current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9 0
Chapter 15 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
Chapter 16
A.lntroduction
Atomic and Nuclear Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
B . Basic Structure of an Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

D. Radioactivity
305
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
C . Energy Levels a
d Transitions
Chapter 16 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Solutions
Index
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Index-i
Perodic Table of the Elements

2
He
3
4.003
10
Li
Be
Ne
6.94
11
9.01
12
10.81
13
12.011
14
14.01
15
16.00
16
19.00
17
20.18
18
Na
Mg
Al
Si
CI
Ar
22.99
19
24.31
20
21
22
23
27
28
29
30
26.98
31
28.09
32
30.97
33
32.07
34
35.45
35
39.95
36
Ca
Sc
Ti
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
39.10
37
40.08
38
44.96
39
47.90
40
50.94
41
52.00
42
54.94
43
55.85
44
58.93
45
58.69
46
63.55
47
65.39
48
69.72
49
72.61
50
74.92
51
78.96
52
79.90
53
83.80
54
25
'
26
'
Rb
Sr
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
85.47
55
87.62
56
88.91
. 57
91.22
72
92.91
73
95.94
74
[98.91]
75
101.07
76
102.91
77
106.42
78
Ag
107.87
79
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Xe
112.41
80
114.82
81
118.71
82
121.76
83
127.60
84
126.90
85
131.29
86
Po
At
Rn
Cs
Ba
Hf
fa
Re
0 s
Ir
Pt
Au
132.91
87
137.34
88
138.91
89
178.49
104
180.95
105
183.84
106
186.21
107
190.23
108
192.22
109
195.08
110
196.97
111
200.59
112
Fr
Ra
Ac
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
[269]
[272]
[277]
La.
[223.02] [226.03] [227.03] [261.11] [262.11] [263.12] [264.12] [265.13]
Hg
Ti
Pb
Bi
204.38
207.2
114
208.98
1208.981 [208.99] [222.02]

116
118
Mt
[268]
[2891
[2891
[2931
Chapter 1
Introduction
A. Philosophy of the Book

This book is about the concepts of physics, with the goal to prepare you, the
reader, to pass the physics part of the MCAT. The physics and chemistry portions of the
MCAT consist mainly of a series of passages, each with several questions or problems.
Often the passages involve unfamiliar situations and, rather than numbers, explanations,
relationships among various quantities, and extrapolations to new situations. Physics
and chemistry problems are sometimes mixed, and there is no ordering from easy to
difficult. When pre-med students find out about the exam, they are often fearful.
How do you prepare for such a thing?
The short answer is: by thinking and doing physics.
This book actually has several goals. One is to give you a working knowledge of
the basic concepts of physics. Although you will not need a battery of specialized '
equations, you should remember enough equations to understand the ideas. The text
portion of this book covers all the topics listed in the MCAT study guide, but it omits
details included in many freshman physics texts. Instead, it concentrates on the underlying ideas.
Another goal is to teach you how to solve problems in science. But you cannot
learn to solve problems by simply reading about physics. The way to learn is to solve
problems. Then you can solve future problems, for example, on the MCAT, by thinking
in the same way as when you solved problems before. For this reason each chapter
contains problems in the text with full explanations, as well as problems for you to
solve at the end. The solutions at the back of the book tell you how to think about the
problems, which clues to look for, and what methods to apply. The goal is for you to
learn how to approach new problems.
In each chapter the initial problems are simple, in order to help you to practice
your understanding of the concepts in that chapter. These problems may be easy
questions or single problems involving some calculations. Although they are not a close
approximation of MCAT questions, you will have difficulty on the exam unless you
learn to do these first. Gradually, the problems in a chapter become more difficult, and
at the end of every chapter there are MCAT-style passages. In all, there are 5 1 passages
in this book.
B.
Reading his Book
Reading a book about physics is completely different from reading a novel. First
of all, you must be at a desk and have paper and a pen or pencil. You should write down
every equation, making sure you understand all the symbols. You should reproduce
every diagram, working to understand, for example, why certain forces are there and no
others, and so on. You may even try working the examples before reading the solutions
and work the solutions out along side the text.
The M C A T Physics Book

It is especially important that you keep an open mind and visualize what you
read. In biology one can actually see organelles with an electron microscope. Understanding the operation of enzymes requires a little bit more imagination. In physics,
you must rely on imagination even more, but it is not too different from imagining the
working of enzymes. If you view physics as a mere collection of facts and equations to
memorize, you will find it frustrating. Alternatively, if you approach physics looking
for new concepts, themes and a new worldview, then your efforts will be better rewarded.
C. Units
A widely held belief is that unit analysis is the least interesting activity of the
physical sciences. Indeed, carefully carrying units through a difficult formula is
sometimes about as interesting as painting a barn. But there are several good reasons to
pay attention to units.
You can lose valuable points if you;drop units, substitute into a formula, and
forget to convert cm to m or the like. One way to guard against this type of error is to
automatically convert any number to MKS (meters, kilograms, and seconds) as you
read the passage, or at least flag the units which are nonstandard (i.e. not meters,
kilograms, and seconds). Another way is to keep track of the units any time the units in
the problem are nonstandard.
Another reason to pay attention to units is that they can alert you if you have
written an equation the wrong way. For example, you may remember that flow rate f is
the volume (m3) flowing past a point per unit time (s) and that it is related to the
velocity v and cross-sectional area A of the pipe. But how do you relate f [m3/s],
v [mls], and A [mZ]?
The only way to correctly obtain the units is to write something like
f=Av,
that is,
where we may have left out a proportionality constant. In this case the formula is
correct as written. Units may bring back to mind an equation you would have forgotten,
counting fcr valuable points.
A third reason for keeping track of units is that they sometimes guide you to an
answer without your having to use a formula or do much work, as the next example
shows.
Example: How much volume does 0.4 kg of oxygen gas take up at T = 27" C and
P = 12 atm? (Use the gas constant R = 0.0821 L atm/K mol.)
Solution: Well, to the question, "How much oxygen?', we can answer either in
kilograms or in liters. The problem gives kilograms and asks for liters, so this is a
complicated units conversion problem. We will essentially construct the ideal gas
equation using the units of the elements in the problem. We start with 0.4 kg.
(amount of 0,) = 0.4 kg 0,
In order to apply the ideal gas equation we need to convert to moles. We can do this by
including the factors
103g0,
-
(l*go2
ImoleO,
)(
32go2
.Both are equivalent to 1, but the units
cancel, leaving us with moles.

(amount of 0,) = 0
(:"k
2X1rz)
~
Now we include a factor of R because it has liters in the numerator and moles in the
denominator. We obtain
(amount of 0,) = 0
(:"A
1
~
LF@L
32fi
)("-oF2m)
This leaves us with units of atm and K which we want to get rid of. In order to cancel
them, we can just put them in. This may seem strange, but it works. (Recall 27" C =
300 K.) Thus we obtain
300 L.
- 0.4~1000~0.082132.12
For MCAT problems we generally work to one digit of accuracy, so we replace 0.0821
with 0.08, so that we have
(amount of 0,) =
0.4.1000 - 0.08 -300

32.12
It is generally safe to round to one significant digit. If it happens that two choices are
close, then you can always go back and gain more accuracy.
This example involved more arithmetic than most MCAT problems, but its
purpose was to point out that attention to units can speed up the solution to a problem.
If this is the way you normally do such a problem, good. Most readers, however, would
take longer working through this type of problem, using up valuable seconds on the
MCAT. Remember that seconds can add up to points.
Students generally have one of three attitudes toward equations:

1 sheer hatred (enough said),
2. cold pragmatism (plug in numbers and get an answer), and
3. warm fondness.
Try adopting the last attitude. Many students do not realize that equations are merely a
way to contain useful information in a short form. They are sentences in the concise
language of mathematics. You should not have to memorize most equations in the text,
because by the time you learn each chapter, the equations should feel natural to you.
They should feel like natural relationships among familiar quantities.

For example, consider one of the first equations you ever encountered, distance
equals rate times time, that is,
(1)
Ax=vdt.
It makes sense that, in a given time; we can go twice as far if we go twice as fast. Thus
Ax is proportional to v. On the other hand, for a given speed, we can go twice as far if
we navel twice as long a time. Thus Ax is proportional to dt. We would never be
tempted to write
v=AxAf,
because these equations give relationships among the quantities that we know to be
wrong. Note also that the units work out correctly only in equation (1).
Another example is the second law of motion, which we will encounter in
Section 3.B. If an object has a single force on it, then its acceleration is proportional to
the magnitude of the force and inversely proportional to its mass. Instead of words, we
simply write
Now let's think about the equation. What would we do if we forgot it? If we stop
to think about it, we could figure it out. First, we know that force, mass, and acceleration are connected somehow. If we have
two objects of the same mass, and we
apply three times as much force to the
second object as to the first, then we have
a picture like that in Figure 1-1. The
greater force causes the greater acceleration, so we can guess that they are
proportional. We write
Figure 1-1
a - F.
If we apply the same force to two
objects of different masses, then we
expect the smaller object to accelerate
more (Figure 1-2). Thus we can guess that
the acceleration is inversely proportional
to the mass, so we write
a-
-.
m
Combining these two proportions we get
F
a=-
Figure 1-2
m'
as in equation (2).
When you take the MCAT, you really should have the equation F = ma in your
head, but if you train yourself to think this way, it will be easier to keep the formulas in
your head. This will make it possible to recover the formula if you forget it. And you
will understand physics better. Most importantly, you will be better able to apply the
concept behind the equation.
Chapter
1 ............... . . ...... .... Introduction
Some equations are a little more complicated. An example is Newton's law of

gravity, which gives the force of gravity between two objects:
where G is a constant, m, and m2 are masses of objects, and r is the distance between
them. How would you ever remember this equation?
Well, start with the idea that objects with more mass have a greater force of
gravity between them, so write
Fgnv - mim2.
Also, if objects are far apart, the force of gravity between them is less, so write
There is a constant, so write
The only part that needs to be memorized is the "square" in the denominator, so that we
have
That's why we call gravity an inverse-square force.

The MCAT will not ask you to substitute into an equation like equation (3), but it
may ask a question like, "What happens to the gravitational force between two objects
if the distance between the objects is increased by a factor of four?"
We can tell from equation (3) that an increase in distance results in a decrease in
force, because r is in the denominator. Because the r is squared, a factor of 4 in r will
result in a factor of 42 = 16 in F,,. The answer is that the gravitational force decreases
by a factor of 16.
If this last point seems opaque to you, try some numbers on a more familiar
equation, such as that for the area of a circle:
A = zr2.
(4)
What happens to the area when the radius increases by a factor of 3? (Answer: It
increases by a factor of 9.) Try it with r, = 4 m and r2 = 12 m, or with some other
numbers.
Another equation is that for the surface area of a sphere:
What happens to the surface area of a sphere when the radius increases by a factor of 3?
(Answer: It increases by a factor of 9. Surprised? What about the factor of 4? Try it
with r, = 4 m and r2= 12 m.) The surface area of a sphere is an equation that you just
have to memorize. It is difficult to get an intuitive grasp why the 4ashould be there. On
the other hand, the 2 is natural in this equation. Why? (Think about units.)
Another example concerni the volume of a sphere:
What happens to the volume when the radius is doubled?
The MCAT Physics
Book
In this chapter we discussed the importance of units in solving problems. If a

problem involves only simple proportionalities and there are no unitless proportionality
constants, then we can obtain a quick solution simply by keeping track of units. The
example in the text demonstrates all the techniques involved.
We also looked at equations as the language of physics. If you read equations as
sentences containing information for you to understand, then the equations will seem
less foreign than if you look at them as abstract collections of symbols. Each time you
encounter a boxed equation in this book, you should spend some time thinking about
what the equation means.
Chapter
A.
B.
Chapter 1 Problems
C.
D.
5.
In any of the following problems you may want to use one

of the constants
N, = 6.02 x lo2',
R = 0.0821 L atm/K mol.
1.
2.
In a certain assay, a number of microbes is measured by

determining the mass of the sample. It is known that the
average mass of a microbe (of this species) is
6.0 x 10-l6g. How many microbes are in a sample of
mass 1.1 x lo-" g?
A.
1800
B. 5500
C. 6.6 x lo4
D. 6.6 x loZs
..... .... . ....... . . ........ Introduction
2.4 x 10-z seconds.

4.2 x lo3seconds.
1.05 x 10' seconds.
4.2 x 10' seconds.
Two liters of argon gas are at 10 atm of pressure. If the

sample is 16 g, what is the temperature?
A.
16,000 K
B. 610K
C. 6 K
D. 4 K
Use the following information for questions 610:

For a circle we have the formula for the circumference
C = 2xr;
and the area

A = lcr2,
where r is the radius. For a sphere, the surface area is
A,,fi = 4ar 2
and the volume is
A certain substance has a density 8.4 pglmL. What is
the mass of 422.4 mL?

A. 0.020 mg,
B. 3.55 mg.
6. If the diameter of a circle is increased by a factor of 4,

what happens to the circumference?
4.
A.
An electrical resistor is installed in a container of water

to heat it. The resistor dissipates heat at a rate of 2.0 W,
and the container holds 10 kg of water. How long would
it take to raise the temperature of the water 5" C? (Note:
The specific heat of water is 4.2 x lo3J/kg "C, and 1 W
is 1 Jls.)
B.
C.
D.
7.
It increases by a factor of 2.
If the radius of a circle increases by a factor of 4, what

happens to its area?
A.
B. It increases by a factor of 4.
C. It increases by a factor of 16.
D. It increases by a factor of 64.
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE
The
8.
MCAT Physics Book

If the radius of a sphere increases by a factor of 4, what
happens to its volume?
A.
9. If the volume of a sphere decreases by a factor of 27,

what happens to its diameter?
A. It decreases by a factor of 9.
B. It decreases by a factor of 3.
C. It decreases by a factor of 4.5.
D. It decreases by a factor of 1.5.
12. The length of the rod of a certain pendulum is decreased, and the period then decreases by 20%. By how
much was the rod length decreased?
A. 20%
B. 36%
C. 40%
D. 44%
13. If a pendulum is transported to the Moon, where the

acceleration due to gravity is six times less than that
here on Earth, how would the period of the pendulum
change?
A. It would decrease by a factor of 36.
B. It would increase by a factor of 2.4.
C. It would increase by a factor of 6.
D. It would increase by a factor of 36.
10. If the radius of a circle is increased by 30%, how does

the area change?
A.
It increases by 30%.
B.
It increases by 60%.
C. It increases by 69%.
D. It increases by 75%.
Use the following information for questions 14-16:

A spring is characterized by a spring constant k (in
N/m) which gives the stiffness of the spring, or how hard
you have to pull to stretch it. If you connect a mass m on
one end, and connect the other end to a fixed wall or ceiling,
then the resulting system will vibrate. This vibration has
period T given by
Use the following information for questions 11-1 3:

A pendulum is a mass connected to a light string or
rod which is connected to the ceiling. The period is the
amount of time it takes the bob (as the mass is called) to
swing from one side to the other and back. It is given by
The frequency of the vibration is defined as
where T is in s, 1is the length of the string or rod (in m), and
g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2).(See figure.)
'
11. If the length of the suing of a pendulum is increased by
a factor of 4, how does the period change?
14. If a mass of 60 g is connected to a certain spring, the

frequency is 30 Hz. If a mass of 240 g is connected to
the same spring, what is the frequency?
A. 7.5Hz
B.
15Hz
C. 60Hz
D.
120 Hz
GO ONTOTHE NDCTPAGE
Chapter
15. In two trials, two masses are attached to a spring and

. the periods recorded. Mass P resulted in a period 36
times larger than the period of mass Q. What can be
concluded?
A. Mass P is 1296 times larger than mass Q.
B. Mass P is 6 times larger than mass Q.
C. Mass P is 6 times smaller than mass Q.
D. Mass P is 1296 times smaller than mass Q.
16. If the period increases by 50%. how does the frequency
change?
A.
It decreases by 50%.
B. It decreases by 40%.
C. It decreases by 33%.
1 ... ... . . . .. . .. . . ... . . . . . . . . Introduction
19. If every linear dimension of a square pyramid were

increased by a factor of 3, how would the volume
change?
A. It would increase by a factor of 3.
B. It would increase by a factor of 9.
D. It would increase by a factor of 8 1.
passage
1
[You d o not need to have any prior knowledge of e l e c t n c i ~
to deal with this passage.]
In a parallel-plate capacitor, two parallel metal plates

are connected to a voltage source which maintains a
potential V across the plates. Positive charges collect on one
side of the capacitor and negative charges on the other side,
thus creating an electric field ,!?between the plates. The
magnitude of the electric field is related to the potential and
the separation between the plates according to

The volume of a pyramid with a square base is given
by
V = Ed,
where s is the length of a side, and h is the perpendicular
height.
where V is measured in volts, E in J l n and d in m. A

charged particle placed between the plates will experience a
force given in magnitude by
F=qE,
where q is the charge of the particle in Coulombs, and F is

the force in N.
capacitor
17. How does the volume of a square pyramid change if the

base side length is increased by a factor of 9 and the
height is unchanged?
A. It increases by a factor of 3.
C . It increases by a factor of 27.
D. It increases by a factor of 8 1.
&
eleclric
field
--I-
voltage
source
1. If a new battery is installed, so that the voltage between

the plates is increased by a factor of 9, how is the
electric field affected?
18. How does the volume of square pyramid change if the

height is increased by a factor of 12 and the base side
length is unchanged?
2.
If the voltage in a given experiment is held constant, but

the distance between the plates is increased by a factor
of 3, how is the electric field affected?
C. It stays the same.
The MCAT Physics Book

3.
In a given experiment, both a proton and a bare helium

nucleus are between the plates. How does the force on
the helium nucleus compare to the force on the proton?
A. It is the same.
B.
C.
D.
4.
2.
In an experiment, the distance separating the balls is

increased by 25%. How does this affect the force
between the balls?
A. It decreases by 50%.
B.
It decreases by 36%.
C. It decreases by 25%.
3.
If the force between the balls stays the same, but the
charge q2 is multiplied by 4, which is a possibility?
A. The charge q, is also multiplied by 4, and all else
is unchanged.
B. The separation is decreased by a factor of 2, and
all else is unchanged.
C. The separation is increased by a factor of 2, and
D. The separation is increased by a factor of 4, and
4.
In a hypothetical situation, two balls of positive charge

exert a force 12 N on each other. The charge on ball A
is 2 C. If the charge on ball A is increased to 8 C, and
all else unchanged, what would the force be?
A. 8 N
B.
16N
It is twice as great.
It is four times as great.
There is no force on the helium.
In a given experiment, all other things being held

constant, what happens to the force on a proton between
the plates if the separation of the plates is increased by
a factor of 2?
C. It stays the same.
5. Which graph best show the relationship between the

potential V and the electric field E?
C.
D.
5.
18N
48 N
Which graph best shows the relationship between the

force between two balls F and their separation r?
Two charged balls which are near each other will exert
a force on each other: attractive if they are oppositely
charged, and repulsive if they are similarly charged. The .
magnitude of the force is given by
where F is in N, k is a constant 9 x 10' N m2/c2,q , and q2

are the charges on the balls measured in C, and r is the
distance between the balls in m.
1. In a certain experiment, the separation between the balls

is halved, while the charges on the balls are undisturbed. How would this affect the force between them?
A. The force would decrease by a factor of 4.
B. ?he force would decrease by a factor of 2.
C. The force would increase by a factor of 2.
D. The force would increase by a factor of 4.
Chdpter 1 ... .. .. ...... .. . . . . .. . ..... Introduction

3. -Whichpair of experiments indicates that retarding force
does not depend on the density of the object?
A.
1 and 2
B. 2 and 3
C.
1 and 6
D. 4 and 6
6. In a certain experiment two balls are both given a

charge q, they are set a distance r away from each other,
and the force between them is recorded. Which graph
best represents the relationship between F and q?
4.
Let us say m and n are known. What combination of

experiments would be considered a minimum set for
determining p and k?
A.
1 and 2
B.
1,2, and 3
C.
3,4, and 5
D.
3 only
Passage 3
In a certain experiment, we are investigating the

retarding force that a fluid exerts on an object moving
through it. We guess that the size of the object is a factor, so
we include A, the cross-sectional area, in an equation. The
relative velocity between the object and the fluid is a factor
v, as well as the density of the fluid p. So we guess
Passage 4
The amount of energy a car expends against air

resistance is approximately given by
E = 0.2pi,~~v2,
where E is measure in Joules, p,, is the density of air ..

(1.2 kg/m3),A is the cross-sectional area of the car viewed
from the front (in m2),D is the distance traveled (in m), and
v is the speed of the car (in d s ) . Julie wants to drive from
Tucson to Phoenix and get good gas mileage. For the
following questions, assume that the energy loss is due
solely to air resistance, and there is no wind.
where k is a proportionality constant with some appropriate

units. Before we run the experiment, we do not know the
values of the exponents m, n, and p.
The chart gives the data for a certain fluid.
Experiment object A (cm2) v ( d s ) F (N)
1
cork ball
1.5
7.0
0.020
2
cork ball
1.5
3.5
0.005
steel ball
1.5
3.5
0.005
3
steel ball
3.0
3.5 0.010
4
steel ball 4.5
3.5
0.015
5
6
steel ball
3.0
14.0 0.160
1. If Julie increases her speed from 30 mph to 60 mph,

how does the energy required to travel from Tucson to
Phoenix change?
1. Which pair of experiments could be used to

determine n?
2.
A.
2 and 3
B.
3 and 4
C.
4 and 6
D.
5 and6
What is the approximate value of p?

A. -1
B.
C.
0
1
D.
2.
Julie usually drives at a certain speed. How much more

energy will she use if she drives 2046 faster?
A.
B.
20% more energy.
C.
44% more energy.
D.
80% more energy.
40% more energy.
The
MCAT Physics Book
3.
Scott drives a very large 50s style car, and Laura drives
.a small 90s style car, so that every linear dimension of
Scott's car is double that of Laura's car. On the basis of
energy loss due to air resistance alone, how much more
energy would you expect Scott's car to expend gening
from Tucson to Phoenix than Laura's car?
A. Twice as much energy.
B. Four times as much energy.
C. Eight times as much energy.
D. Sixteen times as much energy.
4.
How does Julie's energy usage change if she changes

from driving 50 mph to 55 mph?
A. It increases by 10%.
B. It increases by 20%.
C. It increases by 21%.
5. Julie modifies her car, so that the effective crosssectional area is reduced by 20%. How much further
can she drive and still use the same amount of energy?
A.
10% further.
B.
20% further.
C. 25% further.
D, 44% further.
STOP
1 Chapter 2
Mechanics is about the motion of things. Before we can talk about motion in
depth, we need to be able to describe motion and the things which affect it. Objects
move, and we talk of how fast they go, that is, velocity. Their velocity changes, so we
talk of acceleration. We can think of changes in acceleration, but it turns out (happily)
that we rarely need to. Mechanics is concerned mainly with changes in velocity.
In this chapter we look at the fundamental elements of mechanics: force, mass,
distance, velocity, and acceleration. Comparatively this chapter has a lot of equations
(six that you should memorize) and the least interesting physics. It is an unpleasant way
to begin, but it must be done.
A force is a push or pull, and the units for force are [Newtons = Nl. (Some
countries continue to use an archaic unit called the "pound".) A Newton is approximately the amount of force that you would exert on an apple near the Earth's surface to
keep it from falling.
Examples of forces include the force of-a horse pulling a cart, the force of a
spring pushing the chassis of a car, the force of gravity pdling you down, and the force
on your head due to pressure when you are at the bottom of a pool. . >..
We can think about mass in several ways. First, the nuzss of an object is a
measure of the total amount of material (or stuff) in the object. The amount of stuff in
an object is a fundamental property of the object. It doesn't change if you move the
object to a new place, like a mountain top or to Mars.
There is another way to think of mass. The mass of an object is a measure of how
difficult it is to get it moving at a certain velocity if it starts from rest. For example, if
John wants to set a car, initially at rest, to moving at 1 mls, he has to push hard for a
little while. We are assuming the car's motion has no friction. If John and the car were
on the Moon, his task would be equally difficult. The fundamental concept here is the
u &
mass of the car, not the astronomical body the car is on. (See ~ i ~ 2-1.)
A car has the same mass on the Moon as it has

on Earth. It takes just as much force and time to
get a car moving at a given velocity on the
Earth as on the Moon.
Figure 2-1
Saying this another way, the mass of an object is a measure of how much it hurts
if your stub you toe on it. Stubbing your toe on a bowling ball is a painful proposition,
even on the Moon.
There is a wrong way to think about mass. Many people think the mass of an
object is a measure of how difficult it is to pick it up. But that definition depends on
where you are. It is easy to pick up a bowling ball on the Moon, but nearly impossible
on the surface of Jupiter. The difficulty in picking up an object is a matter of weight,
which is a force. And weight does depend on the astronomical body near by.
D. Vectors
In physics we often need to describe
direction as well as size. For example, two
forces F, and F, may both be 100 N and
be verybut
different
the crocodile's
dependexperience
acting on a will
crocodile,
I O O ~ W N
N'
t~
ing on whether the forces are both

pointing north or one north and one south
(Figure 2-2). In the former case he gets
stretched, and in the latter case he goes
flying. To describe forces we need to
specify size and direction. That is, we
1 0N
need to use vectors. Force is a vector,
We denote vectors in diagrams by
Twoforces on an object may add in
arrows, the length of the arrow showing
dijferentways, depending on the
the size of the vector and the direction of
relative directwm of the forces.
the arrow showing its direction.
Figure 2-2
We can add vectors by the tip-to-tail
method. We leave the first vector fixed,
and move the second vector so its tail is at the first vector's tip. If there are other
vectors, then each vector gets added to the previous tip. The sum is the vector pointing
from the first tail to the last tip.
Chapter
2 ......... .. The
Language of Motion
Example 1: For the crocodiles

mentioned before, if the vectors (both
100 N) both point north, then the sum is a
force of 200 N pointing north (Figure 2-3,
where the sum is shown dashed).
If one vector points north and the
other south, then the first tail coincides
with the last tip and the sum is zero
(Figure 2-3).
Forces are vectors and they add
according to the tip-to-tail method.
Figure 2-3
Example 2: A crocodile has three

forces acting on him: a 100-N force north,
a 100-N force east, and a 100-N force
southwest. What is the direction of the net
force (that is, total force)?
Solution: We DRAW A DIAGRAM

(Figure 2-4). The sum is a vector pointing
northeast, about 40 N.
Note that, when you add vectors,
f
the magnitude of the sum is equal to, at
most, the sum of the individual magniFS",
tudes (and that only if they are pointing in
the same direction). For instance, if three
Figure 2 4
vectors of 100 N are acting on a crocodile, the sum can be anything from 0 N to
300 N, but no greater.
For MCAT problems, vector addition need not get more sophisticated than this. It
is useful to keep in mind the Pythagorean theorem and elementary trigonometry.
Pf
1
2
A
Example 3: A force of 4 N is acting to the north on a rock and a force of 3 N is

acting to the east.
a. What is the magnitude of the total force?
b. What is cos @, if @ is the deviation from north of the direction of the total
force?
Solution: We DRAW A DIAGRAM (Figure 2-5). There is a right triangle, so we
can write
FA= ( 3 ~ ) +' (
4 ~ =)25~N ~ ,
F,, = 5 N .
Also we write
Figure 2-5
If your trigonometry is rusty, now is a good time to relearn the definitions of sine,
cosine, and tangent.
A vector is denoted by a half-arrow on top of a letter, p, for example.
The
MCAT Physics Book
E.
Position, Displacement, and Time
To specify position, we must give three coordinates x, y, and z, generally measured in [meters = m]. The symbol ? stands for the coordinates (x, y, z). If an object
moves from one position to another, the vector giving the change in position is the
displacement vector, = 22 - $1. The magnitude of the displacement vector is called

the displacement.
Time is a fundamental quantity in classical physics, denoted t, measured in
[seconds = s]. Often we will speak of a time interval At = t2 - t,, that is, the time
between a beginning time t, and and ending time t,. An instant is a single moment of
time.
F. Velocity,
Speed, and All That
We can think of the velocity vector in terms of a speedometer reading with units
[meterskecond = m/s] and a direction. The magnitude of the velocity vector (that is.
just the speedometer reading) is called speed. The word "velocity" is sometimes used to
refer to the vector and sometimes to the magnitude. When in doubt, you should assume
it refers to the vector.
If an object is traveling such that its velocity vector is constant, we say it is in
uniform motion. An example is a car going a constant 30 m/s (freeway speed) west. We
can write the following equations for uniform motion in one dimension:
When you see a formula in this text, instead of speeding by it, slow down and
look at it. Ask yourself, "What is this equation telling me?'Quation (la) is just
another form of "distance equals rate times time" for an object in uniform motion.
Since v is constant, this tells you, for instance, that a car will travel twice as far if it
travels for twice the time. This makes sense.
Equation (lb) is like the first, only Ax is replaced by its definition x2- x,. Do you
see why it is this and not x, - x2 or x2 + x,?
But in some problems the velocity does change, and we must pay attention to
several velocities, that is,
v,
initial velocity,
v2 final velocity,
v,, average velocity.
and
The average velocity is defined as
Chapter
2 ...........
The Language of Motion
This is different from equation (1). Equation (2) is the definition of an average
velocity over a time interval when velocity is changing, whereas equation (I) defines a
constant velocity and only holds for time intervals when the motion is uniform.
Example: A car goes west at 10 m/s

for 6 s, then it goes north at 10 m/s for 5
s, and then it goes west again at 4 m/s for
15 s. What are v , , v,, and v,,,?
Solution: Well, we have v, = 10 m/s
and v2 = 4 m/s. For the average velocity
we need to DRAW A DIAGRAM (Figure
2-6). The Pythagorean theorem gives us
As = 130 m. Thus
130m
m
Vavg = -- 5-.
s
26 s
60 m
-.-.--.
-..
60 m
50 m
b
120 m
Figure 2-6
G. Acceleration
When an object's velocity vector is changing, the object is accelerating. Examples include a car speeding up ("accelerating" in common parlance), slowing down
or braking ("decelerating", but physicists prefer to say "negatively accelerating"), and
turning. In three dimensions, we define acceleration by
The numerator for equation (3a) gives the change in the velocity vector, so there is an
acceleration if either the magnitude or the direction of the velocity vector change. We
will talk more about this in Chapter 6. In one dimension the definition of acceleration is
The units for acceleration are [(m/s)/s = m/s 11s = m/s2].
Example la: Take north to be positive. A car is traveling south and speeding up.
What is the sign of the acceleration?
Solution: Since the velocity vector points south and the car is speeding up, the
acceleration vector must point south. With this sign convention, acceleration is negative.
The
MCAT Physics Book

Example lb: Take. north to be positive. A car traveling south speeds up from
10 m/s to 15 m/s in 10 s. What is its acceleration?
Solution: We write
This confirms our thinking in Example la.
Example 2a: Take north to be positive. A car is traveling north and slowing for a
red light. What is the sign of the acceleration?
Solution: The velocity vector points north. Since this vector is shrinking, the
acceleration vector must point south. Thus the acceleration is negative.
Example 2b: What is the acceleration for the car in Example 2a slowing from
1 0 d s to 8 m/s in 1 s?
Solution: We write
Example 3: An Oldsmobile takes a certain amount of time to accelerate from 0 to

60 mph. A Porsche takes less time by a factor of 3 to accelerate from 0 to 60 mph. How
does the Porsche acceleration compare with that of the Oldsmobile?
Solution: We look at equation (4)
Since Av is constant, if At is smaller by a factor of 3, then a is larger by a factor of 3.
Now we have three quantities, position, velocity, and acceleration, all related to
each other algebraically. Often it is helpful to visualize these quantities graphically. The
following principles apply
1. Given a graph of x versus t, the instantaneous slope at time t is the velocity v
at time t.
2.
Given a graph of v versus t, the instantaneous slope at time t is the acceleration a at time t.
3. Given a graph of a versus t, the area under the curve during interval At gives
the change in velocity v during that interval.
4. Given a graph of v versus t, the area under the curve during interval At gives
the change in position x during that interval.
Chapter
Example 1: The graph of a versus t

for a car which undergoes constant
acceleration is shown in Figure 2-7.
Sketch the graph of v versus t . Assume
v=Om/satt=Os.
Solution: The area under the curve
between 0 and dt is shown in a "forwardslash" hatch. This area is Av, that is, the
change in velocity during dt.The reason
for principle 3 above becomes clear if we
recall the formula for the area of the
rectangle representing the hatched region:
area = height x length,
...... ... . . The Language of M o t i o n
Figure 2-7
Av = aAt.
I
This is how we defined acceleration in

0
t
equation (4).During the second interval
At, the area is a At again. Thus the change
in velocity is the same, as shown in
Figure 2-8. For the next intervals of time,
the'quantity Av is constant.
Note that Figures 2-7 and 2-8 give
0
t
(almost) the same information in different
forms. Figure 2-7 has the information that
Figure 2-8
the acceleration is positive and constant,
so the car is speeding up (if it is going
forward). Figure 2-8 has the information that the velocity is increasing at a constant
rate. This is the same thing.
vK
11
Before you read the next example, consider an object thrown straight up. When it
reaches the top of its path, what is the direction of its velocity? What is the direction of
its acceleration?
Example 2: An apple is tossed straight up in the air. The graph of y versus t is

shown in Figure 2-9. Sketch the graphs of v versus t and a versus t.
Solution: To obtain an instantaneous slope, we can use an imaginary electron
micioscope to look at a small portion of the graph. A small section of Figure 2-9 has
been enlarged using such a microscope. This portion looks almost straight, so we could
calculate its slope if we had some
numbers. We can at least read that the
1
slope is positive and very large, hence the
first point in Figure 2-10.
Figure 2-9
Fire 2-10
Figure 2-11
Figure 2-12
The second point on Figure 2-10 still has a positive slope, but smaller. The third
point has a zero slope (see uppermost point in Figure 2-9). The fourth point has
negative slope, and the fifth point has a slope more negative still.
It will not come as a surprise if we draw a straight line through these points, as in
Figure 2- 11. We take the slope at three points, but it is easy to see that the slope is
constant and negative. We graph the acceleration in Figure 2-12.
Does this match your expectation? Particularly at the top of flight, did you know
that the direction of the acceleration would be down?
Example 3: Figure 2- 13 shows v

versus t for a car. Sketch the graphs for x
versus t and for a versus t. (Say x = 0 at
t = 0.)
Solution: Let's graph x versus t
first. From t = 0 to 1 s, there is no area
under the curve, so x stays constant.
From t = 1 to 2 s, the area under the curve
is 0.5 m. (Recall the area of a triangle is
A = 112 base x height.)
From t = 2 to 3 s the area under the
curve is 1.5 rn, so that the x value jumps
to 2 m (see the first graph of Figure 2-14).
Between t = 3 and 4 s, the area is 2 m and
x jumps to 4 m, and so on. Figure 2-14
shows the result.
For the graph of a versus t, the
slope of v versus t for any point between
t = 0 and 1 s is zero. The slope jumps to
1 mls2 for the interval from 1 to 3 s and
drops back down to zero for times after
3 s. (See Figure 2- 15.)
Think about all three graphs for a
while and note how they give the same
information in different forms.
t(s)
Figure 2-13
6
x(m)
x (m)
'c/
31-&-+-
(in progress)
Figure 2-14
Figure 2-15
Chapter
2 ....... .. .. The
Language of Motion
I. Uniform Acceleration
If an object has a constant acceleration vector, we say it undergoes uniform
acceleration. Most MCAT problems involving acceleration will involve uniform
acceleration. For uniform acceleration, we have the following:
that is, the average velocity over a period of time is the average of the beginning and
ending velocities. This may seem like a natural definition of average velocity, but the
definition of v,, is given by equation (2), and equation (5) holds only for uniform
acceleration.
See Figures 2-7 and 2-8 for an example. The velocity v, is small, v, is large, and
v,", is exactly between them.
If we start with the definition of average velocity, we can write
Ax = vavgdfr
This is a useful equation if you do not have and do not need the acceleration (see
equation [7] below). Furthermore, if we substitute v, = v,+ adt (from equation [4]),
then we obtain
1
Ax = -(v, + (v,+ a d t ) ) d r ,
2
This is the first equation which may seem a bit arcane. You should memorize it anyway.
Working through the algebra will help you memorize it.
Example: A car is accelerating uniformly from rest. If it goes a distance din the
first second, how far will it go in the first four seconds?
Solution: We want an equation involving the quantities mentioned in the problem, a, v , = 0,Ax, and Ar,so equation (6) is it. With v, = 0,we obtain
If At increases by a factor of 4, the Ax increases, and it increases by a factor of 4' = 16.
II
J.
Kinematic Equations for Constant Acceleration
For uniform acceleration there are four equations you should know:
The first equation we have seen before, the modified "distance equals rate times
time" when velocity is changing. It should be easy to remember. The second equation is
just the definition of acceleration. The third equation was in the last section. The last
equation is the only one which is new, obtained by eliminating dt from equations (7)
and (8). It is useful for problems in which the time interval is neither specified nor
desired.
Example 1:A cat drops from a ledge 2 m above the ground. If he accelerates
10 m/s2 downward due to gravity, how much time does it take him to drop?
Solution: Let's choose "up" to be positive and DRAW A DIAGRAM (Figure 216). We write the quantities we know:
V0
m
=o-,
S
m
a = -10s2 '
Ay = -2m
a = -10-
A=?
We look for an equation which involves
these quantities and no others. Equation
(9) fits, so that
+
Figure 2-16
m
s2
Chdpter
..... . . .. .. The Ldnguage of M o t i o n
Example 2: A man drops to his death from the sixth floor of a building (20 m).
As he is falling, his acceleration is a constant 10 m/s2 downward. What is his impact
velocity? (He was a bad man, and if he had not died many other nice people would
have.)
Solution: First we DRAW A DIAGRAM (Figure 2-17). The impact velocity is
the man's velocity just before he hits the
ground v,. Thus our information summary
m
is
v. =O-
The formula which contains this infotmation and nothing else is (10). so that
Figure 2-17
His impact velocity is 20 m/s.

In this chapter we looked at the quantities which describe motion, that is,
displacement, velocity, and acceleration, and the quantities which affect motion, that is,
force and mass. Displacement is a change in location. Velocity is a measure of the
change in location per unit time, while acceleration is a measure of the change in
velocity per unit time. Displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force are all vectors,
that is, they have diuection as well as magnitude. We will be dealing with the vector
nature of these quantities in future chapters. Most of the mechanics problems on the
MCAT involve one dimension and uniform acceleration. In this case we can derive four
equations, shown in Section J.
In addition, you should know the equations for the definition of velocity for
uniform motion and of average velocity.
The
MCAT Physics
Chapter
Book
Problems
1. The gravitational field of a planet or spherical asuo-
nomical body depends on its mass and on its radius.

When the Moon is compared to Earth, its smaller mass
makes for a smaller gravitational field, while its smaller
radius favors a larger one. The net effect is that the
gravitational field of the Moon at its surface is one sixth
that of the Earth. A 10,000-kg mobile unit is transported
to the Moon. What is its mass on the Moon?
A.
1/36 (10,000) kg
B.
116 (10,000) kg
C.
10,000 kg
D. 60,000 kg
3.
What is the speed of the fly?

A. 1.7 m/s
B. 2.02 m/s
C. 2.3 m/s
D. 4.09 m/s
4.
The following diagram represents three vectors in a

plane:
Use the following informationfor questions 2 and 3:

A car is driving north at 2 m/s, and a fly in the car is
flying west at 0.3 m/s (relative to the car).
2.
Which of the following best shows the appropriate

diagram for the fly's velocity relative to the ground
(thick arrow)?
What arrow best represents the direction of the sum?

A. -+
B.
+
C.
D-
t
1
5. The following diagram represents three vectors in a

plane:
What arrow best represents the direction of the sum?
24
A.
B.
C.
D.
?he sum is zero.

The diagram is invalid.
Chapter
6.
Use the following infonnation for questions 12-14:

A car accelerates uniformly in one dimension from
5 m/s to 30 m/s in 10 s.
7. If, in question 6, the two men are pulling at right angles

to each other, what is the magnitude of the net force?
A.
1000N
B. 5000N
C. 7000N
D. 8000N
8. What is her initial velocity?

A.
Ods
B. 2.1 m/s
C. 5.6 m/s
D. 22.5 m/s
9.
What is her final velocity?

A.
Ods
B. 2.1 m/s
C. 5.6 m/s
D. 22.5mls
10. What is her average velocity?

A. Om/s
Language of Motion
11. What is her velocity 9 s after 11:00?

A. 0.28 m/s
B. 6m/s
C.
11.25ds
D. 22.5 m/s
Two men pull on ropes connected to a large refrigerator

with forces 3000 N and 4000 N. If there are no other
(unbalanced) faces, which of the following is NOT a
possibility for the magnitude of the net (total) force?
A.
500 N
B.
1OOON
C. 3500N
D. 7000N
Use the following infonnation for questions 8-1 I :

A woman is going to a friend's house to discuss
opening a business. At 11:OO (exactly) she starts from rest
and accelerates at a constant 2.5 m/s2for 9 s to get to her
cruising speed. She then drives for 15 minutes at constant
speed before she hits city traffic. She comes to a stop at her
friend's house, which i s 27 km away (straight-line distance).
at 12:15 (exactly). Consider the interval from 11:OO to
12:15.
2 ........... The
12. What is the car's acceleration?

A.
1.75 m/s2
B. 2.5 m/s2
C. 3.5 m/s2
D.
15 m/s2
I
I
13. What is the car's average velocity for this time interval?
A. 2.5d.s
B. 3.5 m/s
C.
17.5m/s
This
cannot be determined from the information
D.
given.
14. How far does the car travel during this time?
D.
This cannot be determined from the information

given.
15. A car travels a certain distance at a constant velocity v

for a time t. If the car were to travel three times as fast,
covering the same distance, then the time of travel
would be
A. decreased by a factor of 9.
B. decreased by a factor of 3.
C. increased by a factor of 3.
D. increased by a factor of 9.
16. A sparrow cruising at 1.5 m/s begins to accelerate at a

constant 0.3 m/s2 for 3 s. What is its change in velocity?
A. 0.9 m/s
B.
1.5 d s
C. 1.95 m/s
D. 2.4 m/s

Use the following infonnation for questions 17 and 18:
A dropped ball falls from a height of 10 m to the
ground. Its acceleration is a constant 9.8 m/s2 downward.
17. How long does it take to fall?
A.
1.02 s
B.
1.43 s
C.
D.
2.04 s
given.
18. What is its velocity just before hitting the ground?

A.
0.98 m/s
B.
14ds
C. 98 m/s
D. This cannot be determined from the information
given.
19. A car is going 20 mls in traffic. When the traffic breaks,
the driver steps on the accelerator pedal, accelerating at
a constant 1.2 m/s2 for 5 s. How far does he travel
during these 5 s?
A.
B.
C.
D.
22. What is the ball's net displacement after 6 s?

A.
0.3 m
B. 0.4 m
C. 0.5 m
D.
1.7 m
Use the following information for questions 23 and 24:

A car is going backwards at 5 m/s. After 10 s of
uniform acceleration, the car is going forward at 10 m/s.
23. What is the acceleration?
A.
0.5 m/s2
B. 0.75 m/s2
C.
1.5 m/s2
D.
5 m/s2
24. What is the net distance traveled?
A.
25 m
B.
41.7m
C.
45 m
D.
30m
115m
130m
160m
25. A bicycle traveling at speed v covers a distance Ax

during a time interval At. If a car travels at speed 3v,
how much time does it take the car to go the same
distance?
A.
At+ 3
B. 3dr
C. At13
D.
At- 3
20. A car is going up a slight slope decelerating at 0.1 m/s2.

It comes to a stop after going for 5 s. What was its
initial velocity?
A.
0.02 m/s
B.
0.25 m/s
C. 0.5 m/s
D.
1.0 s
26. A car is traveling 25 m/s when it passes kilometermarker 3000. The car accelerates at 0.02 d s 2 for the
next 500 s. What kilometer marker will the car pass at
that time?
A.
3015 km
B. 3030 km
C. I2000km
D.
18000 km

A ball is initially rolling up a slight incline at 0.2 m/s.
It decelerates uniformly at 0.05 m/s2.
21. At what time does the ball come to a stop?
A.
B.
C.
D.
50m
2s
4s
8s
16s
A squirrel is running along a wire with constant

acceleration. If it has an initial velocity 0.4 d s and
final velocity 1.8 d s after 4 s, how far does it run in
that time?
A.
1.6 m
B. 4.4 m
C. 5.6m
D. 8.8m
26
Chapter
28. If a bicycle starts accelerating uniformly from rest (at

t = O), it attains a certain velocity v after a time t. How
fast would it be going after a time 3t (that is, a time 3t
after the start t = O)?
A. v + 9
B. 3v
C. 6v
D. 9v
2 . ..........
The Language of Motion
For questions 31 and 32, consider the following figure

representing the displacement of an object in one dimension.
31. Which best represents the graph of acceleration versus
For questions 29 and 30,consider the following figure

representing the velocity of a car along a street.
time?
Consider also the following graphs:
32. What can be concluded about the net displacement?

A.
It is zero.
B. It is positive except for one point, where it is zero.
C. It is negative, then zero, then positive.
D. It is always positive?
For questions 33-35, consider the following figure
representing the velocity of an object in one dimension.
29. Which best represents the graph of displacement versus

time?
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Consider also the following graphs:

time?
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
97
The
MCAT Physics Book
33. Which best represents the graph of displacement versus

time?

time?

time?
A.
A
Passage 1
A man is driving out of his driveway by backing up.

He realizes he has forgotten his lunch, so he pulls back into
the driveway. Car experts agree that the best way to do this
is to press on the brake until the car comes to a complete
stop, shift from reverse into first gear, then accelerate
forward.
The driver, however, shifts into first gear while the car
is rolling backward and pushes on the accelerator until he is
going forward. This causes some wear on the transmission.
The following chart shows some data about his progress.
(Negative velocity = backwards.)
35. What can be said about the net velocity change Av?
A.
It is positive.
B. It is zero.
C. It is negative.
D. It is positive, except for one point.
A car backs up at constant velocity, then slows to a
stop. After it is stopped for a while, it accelerates and then
goes forward at constant velocity. Consider also the following graphs:
36. Which best represents the graph of velocity versus

time?
1.
What is the value of his initial velocity?

A.
-1.8 d s
B. 0.0 d s
C. 1.2 d s
2.
What is the value of his average velocity?
GO ON TO THE.NEXTPAGE
Chapter
5.
The Language of M o t i o n
In the following questions, consider a ball dropped

from the fortieth story of a building, and consider "down" to
be in the positive direction. Consider air resistance negligible unless noted otherwise.
3. Which of the following is evidence that the acceleration

is uniform?
A.
The displacement x is always nonnegative.
B. The velocity is always increasing.
C. The velocity becomes zero at t = 1.5 s.
D. Equal intervals of time correspond to equal
intervals of velocity.
4.
2 ...........
What is the magnitude of the acceleration from t = 1.0 s

to 2.0 s?
A. 0.0 m/s2
B. 0.6 m/s2
C. 1.0 m/s2
D. 1.2 m/s2
1.
How far does the object fall in the time interval from
t=Oto4s?
A.
39.2 m
B. 78.4m
C.
156.8m
D. 313.6m
2.
Which expression gives the change in velocity between

t, = 3 s and t2 = 4 s?
3.
Which graph best represenh velocity versus time?
4.
How does the change in velocity from t = 1 to 2 s

compare with the change in velocity from t = 3 to 4 s?
A. It is less.
B. It is the same.
C. It is greater.
D. It depends on the objec't.
5.
How does the change in height from t = 1 to 2 s

compare with the change in height from r = 3 to 4 s?
A. It is less.
B. It is the same.
C. It is greater.
D. It depends on the object.
What is the direction of the acceleration vector?

A. forward
B. backward
C. up
D. down

time?
A.
Passage P
A physics student leans out of the fortieth story of the

physics building and drops two balls of the same size at the
same time. One is 0.8 kg and made of iron, and the other is
1.2 kg and made of lead. Not only do the two balls hit the
ground at the same time, the heights of the two balls match
all the way down.
This somewhat counterintuitive result is an example of
a general principle: If air resistance is negligible, then an
object in free fall at the surface of the Earth has a downward
acceleration of g = 9.8 m/s2.Free fall means that only the
force of gravity is acting on an object.
The
6.
MCAT Physics Book

If an object falls a distance Ax during the first t seconds,
how far does it fall during the first 3t seconds?
A.
Ax+3
B.
3Ax
C.
Ax+9
D.
9Ax
7. A styrofoam ball of the same size as the lead ball takes

a longer time to reach the ground. Which is a good
explanation for this?
A. The force of gravity does not act on the styrofoam
ball.
B. The force of gravity on the styrofoam ball is less
than that on the lead ball.
C. Air resistance is a significant force in this
problem.
D. There is a gravitational force between the ball and
the building.
STOP
Chapter
Laws of Motion
A.
First Law of Motion
The following is not a law of physics:
If an object is moving, there must be a force on it.
Most people think the above statement is a law of nature. Some very intelligent thinkers
thought it was a law of nature, including Aristotle (ancient Greek, no intellectual
lightweight) and more recently Descartes (famous philosopher). Because it is common
sense (right?) that if nothing pushes on an object, it eventually slows to a stop.
But sometimes closer scrutiny conflicts with common sense, and when that
happens we have to change our thinking, to retune our intuition, so that what once
seemed wrong now seems right. That can be difficult, but that's physics.
First Law of Motion

If the forces on an object are balanced, then the ob~ectmoves
with constant velocity (constant speed in a straight line).
Conversely, if an object has constant velocity, then the forces
on it are balanced. Some people use the term inertia to describe
this property of matter.
Galileo discovered this law, although it's generally called Newton's first law of
motion.
What does it mean for the forces to be balanced? Before we answer that question,
let's look at a few cases. In the following figures (Figures 3-la-f) we denote !he motion
of an object by "motion marks", so that
'((0
mea!s
the object is moving to the
right.
Case a. There are no forces. In this
case think of a rock in deep space moving
along. The velocity vector is constant,
meaning the rock continues traveling at.
constant speed to the right indefinitely.
"'0
Figure 3-la
The
MCAT Physics Book

Case b. There are two opposed
forces, equal in magnitude, perpendicular
to the motion. In this case think of a
marble rolling along a smooth level floor
(no friction). Gravity pulls down, but the
floor pushes up. The velocity vector is
constant.
Case c. This scenario is a
nonexarnple, in which the right force is
larger than the left force (hence unbalanced). The object will speed up.
Case d. This scenario is also a
nonexample with the left force larger than
the right force. The object will slow
down.
Case e. Two opposed forces, left
and right, are equal in magnitude. The
case is between cases c and d. The object
has constant velocity, that is, it will keep
its speed indefinitely. Think about this one
for a while. This stumps many people.
Case f. The forces in all three
directions are balanced. The object's
velocity vector is constant.
Figure 3-lb
Figure 3-lc
Figure 3-ld
Figure 3-le
The forces are balanced if the

vector sum of all the forces on the object
is zero. We define
_L
Fnel=F,
Fnelby
a
+ F2 +.--
Figure 3-lf
where F,, F2, ...,are all the forces acting

on an object. The vector Fn,,is the total
force on the object.
Example: A woman kicks a soccer

ball. and it rolls for a while at constant
speed, then another woman stops it. Draw
a diagram showing all the forces on the
ball at the three times: kicking, rolling,
and stopping.
The woman kicks the ball.
Figure 3-2
Solution: Part a: The ball is kicked
(see Figure 3-2). The vector gg, is the
force of gravity, and F,,,is the force of
the foot on the ball. The symbol fi stands
for "normal". a physics word meaning
perpendicular to the ground. It is force the
ground exerts on the ball.
A
The ball rolls withoutfriction.
Figure 3-3
Chdpter
Part b: The ball rolls along. It has

only two forces acting on it (Figure 3-3).
The ball does not remember (or care)
what started it rolling. According to the
first law. the balanced forces guarantee it
will
speed.
keep rolling indefinitely at constant
Part c: The ball is stopped. Now

there is a force of a foot on the ball as
well (Figure 3-4).
...................... Laws of Motion
4
Fstop
Fgrav
a
The woman stops the ball.

Figure 3-4
Over the next several chapters there will be many problems to test your intuition
on the first law.
B. Second Law of Motion

So what happens if the forces on an object are not balanced? If the net force on
an object is nonzero, then the velocity vector changes. There must be acceleration. In
fact the larger the force, the larger the acceleration. (See Figure 3-5.) On the other hand,
if we apply the same push to both a small
car and a large car (Figure 3-6), the small
car will have the larger acceleration.
A
acceleration than a small force.
A force on a small object causes

more acceleration than the same
force On a large object.
Figure 3 5
Figure 3-6
A large force causes more
We can write (in one dimension)
We have not proven this equation, but the discussion in the previous paragraph should
make it seem reasonable to you.
Thz
MCAT Physics Book

In three dimensions, we write what is often called Newton's second law:
Second Law of Motion

If an object has forces
,acting on it, then the total
force on the object is the vector sum
4, G;-.
Fnef
= 4 + 4 +". ,
2
and the acceleration 2 of the object is given by
Eel= m .
2
(2)
Most often, however, we will break up equation (2) into components:
Equation (3a), for example, states that the sum of all the horizontal forces is mass times
the horizontal acceleration. We will discuss breaking vectors into vertical and horizontal components in Section 4.D.
Finally, we are able to make the connection between the units for force
and
[w
for mass [kg], introduced in Chapter 1. The Newton is defined by [ N = 7kg m

1 .
S
Example 1: Bruce pushes a car (500 kg) on level ground starting from rest with a
force 100 N.How long does it take to get the car rolling 1 d s ? (Assume no friction.)
Solution: We have the information m = 500 kg, v, = 0 d s , F = 100 N, and
v, = 1 m/s, and we want At. We can find acceleration from equation (I), so we obtain
a=-
lOON
500 kg
Then we can find At from
Chapter 3
. .. .. .... ........ . . . . . Laws
Example 2: A rocket provides a constant force to wagon A which rolls without

friction. It starts from rest and after time t attains velocity v. A similar rocket providing
the same force is attached to wagon B, which has five times the mass of A (Figure 3-7).
How much time does it take wagon B to go from rest to velocity v? (Assume no
friction.)
Solution: This one looks difficult,
but if we write down the relevant equations, it is not so hard. We need to connect
force and velocity, so we write
.-V2
-Vt
At
V2
At'
We set v, to zero because the wagons start

from rest. Substitution gives
Figure 3-7
Since the problem asks about the change in time, we can solve for At to obtain
Now, F and v2 stay the same, but rn is five times larger for wagon B, so At is five times
larger. The answer is 5t.
The third law of motion is not so much a law about motion as it is a rule of thumb
about pairs of forces. It is usually stated thus:
To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The Third Law of Motio?

If object 1 exerts a force I;;, on object 2.
then object 2 exerts a force
g, on object 1
which is equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, and of the

same type (gravity, friction, etc. ):
A
42=-F21
'
of Motion
FsE
*
Earth
Example 1: The Sun and the Earth

exert a force of gravity on each other.
Draw a force diagram.
Solution: See Figure 3-8.
pEs= gravitational force of the

Earth on the Sun,
Figure 3-8
FsE=
gravitational force of the Sun

on the Earth.
Example 2: Two spacecraft push

off from each other. Draw a force diagram.
p21
-L
F,, = contact force of craft 1 on craft 2,
Figure 3-9
p2,= contact force of craft 2 on craft 1.

Example 3: A basketball player
jumps up. While he is in the air, he
pushes the basketball horizontally. Draw
all the forces while he is pushing the ball.
Ignore the tiny gravitational force
between the player and the ball.
,
Fp,= contact force of player on ball,
pbp= contact force of ball on player,

PEP=gravitational force of Earth on
player,
2
FpE=gravitational force of player on

Earth,
Figure 3-10
FEb=gravitational force of Earth on ball,

PbE= gravitational force of ball on Earth.
Notice that the magnitude of the force of the player on the ball is the same as the that of
the ball on the player. But the player moves hardly at all, while the ball springs toward
another player. Why is the basketball affected more than the player? (Hint: Look at
equation 1.)
D. Force Diagrams
,
I
Already in this chapter we have seen a number of force diagrams. In this section
we discuss some rules for drawing force diagrams. There are two types of force
diagrams:
1. a diagram in which all the objects appear and the forces come in third-law
pairs, and
2. a diagram featuring one object and all its forces (or maybe several objects, but
not all the objects in the situation).
Chapter 3 ... .... .......... ..... Laws of Motion

In most problems we will want the second type, but it is important to know how to
draw both, and knowing diagrams of the first type will help with the second type.
To draw the first type of diagram, we ask four questions:
1. What gravitational forces are important?
2. What things are touching? (These give contact forces.)
3. Does the problem mention any specific forces?
4. Do the net forces in the diagram conform to expectation?
For each force we draw an arrow whose tail lies on the object on which the force acts.
This may seem unnatural at first, but it makes things easier in the end. For some
examples, look at the diagrams we drew in Section C.
Example 1: A girl jumps horizontally from a boat in the water. Draw a11 the
forces on the boat, the girl, and the Earth. Ignore the tiny gravitational force between
the girl and the boat, and ignore the drag force of the water on the boat.
Solution: First we add the gravitational forces in pairs (Figure 3- 11). Then
we add the forces due to the boat and girl
touching ( pbgand Fgb)and the contact
force between the Earth and the boat (
and RE).See Figure 3- 12.
EE,
Figure 3-11
The net forces on the boat indicate

that it accelerates backwards, which
seems right. The net force on the girl
indicates she would accelerate forward
and down, which seems right. It is
difficult to tell what is going on with the
Earth.
Figure 3-12
Example 2: A vase sits on a table,

which sits on the Earth. List all pairs of
forces. Do this example on your own before
you look at the solution.
Solution: See Figure 3- 13.
FEv=gravitational force of Earth on

the vase,
2
FvE=
gravitational force of vase on
the Earth,
FE,=gravitational force of Earth on

the table,
FE= gravitational force of table on

the Earth,
Figure 3-13
The
MCAT Physics Book

A
N,, = contact force of table on vase,
fiv,= contact force of vase on table,

fiE,= contact force of Earth pn table,
fiE= contact force of table on Earth.
Drawing a diagram of the second type is easier, but you have to be careful not to
leave out any forces nor to add any ghost forces.
Example 3: A roller skate is rolling frictionlessly on level ground to the left.
Draw all the forces on the roller skate. STOP! Try doing this problem before looking at
the solution.
Solution: Gravity is pulling down (question 1). And the ground is touching the
skate, pushing up (question 2). There is no friction, nor any other forces, so the force
diagram is Figure 3- 14.
Did your diagram look like Figure 3-15 A or B? If so, you have not yet tuned
your intuition about the first law of motion. Just because the skate is going to the left
does not mean there is a force to the left. Only if the skate were speeding up to the left
would we be forced to conclude that there was a force to the left.
Figure 3-14
A
Figure 3-15
In this chapter we studied Newton's laws of motion. In a sense, the first law of
motion is the most subtle. If an object is moving at a constant velocity, then the forces
on the object add to zero, and if the vector sum of the force vectors for an object is
zero, then the object moves at constant velocity. Constant velocity means constant
speed in a straight path. No force is required to keep an object moving.
The second law of motion concerns objects whose force vectors' sum is not zero:
The acceleration of such an object is in the same direction as the total force, proportional to its magnitude and inversely proportional to the object's mass. That is
a'= $&. Do you see why we use equations?
The third law states that forces come in pairs: If object 1 pushes object 2, then
object 2 pushes object 1 in the opposite direction.
Pay especial attention to Section D on force diagrams. In solving problems; we
are always interested in the forces on an object at a given instant in time. These include
gravity, usually, and forces due to things touching the object at that moment. No other
forces need to be included. In particular, do not include a force in a direction just
because the object in moving in that direction.
Chdpter 3 ... ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Laws-01 Motion
Chapter
C.
Problems
D.
Section
Section A
5.
The two forces have equal magnitudes but point

in opposite directions.
None of the above may be definitely concluded.
In the following diagram, the magnitude of force FAis

is 300 N. What is the magnitude
400 N, and that of
of the net force in the three cases?
FB
1. Consider a paratrooper who has jumped from an

airplane. After an initial accelerating plunge, he begins
to fall at a constant speed in a straight vertical plunge
(at terminal velocity). During the latter portion of his
fall, are the forces on the paratrooper balanced?
A.
No, since a force balance exists only if an object

is not moving.
B.
No, since gravity is not balanced by anything.

No, since gravity is greater than the drag force.
Yes, since he is moving at a constant velocity.
C.
D.
2.
There is one force acting on an object. What can we

definitely conclude from this?
A. The object is speeding up or slowing down.
B. The object is going at a constant speed, not
necessarily in a straight line.
C. The object is going at a constant speed in a
straight line.
D. None of the above may be be definitely concluded.
3. A car's engine has died, and the car is slowing down as

it coasts. What may we conclude about the forces acting
on the car?
A. There are no forces acting on the car.
B. There are forces acting on the car, but the net
force is zero.
C. The net force acting on the car is not zero.
D. None of the above may be be definitely concluded.
4.
An object is moving with uniform motion, that is, at

constant speed in a straight line. There are two forces
acting on the object. What can we definitely conclude
from this?
A.
The net force is in the same direction that the

object is moving.
B.
Both forces are in a direction perpendicular to the

object's motion.
Case 1
A.
B.
C.
D.
Case 2
Case 3
In case 1, the net force is 100 N; case 2,700 N;

and case 3,500 N.
In case 1, the net force is 700 N; case 2, 100 N;
and case 3,500 N.
In case 1, the net force is 350 N; case 2,50 N;
and case 3,450 N.
In case 1, the net force is 350 N; case 2.50 N,
and case 3,550 N.

A man is pulling his son in a toy wagon. The son and
the wagon are 60 kg. For 3 s the man exerts a force which
has the effect of uniformly accelerating the wagon from
1.5 m/s to 3.5 d s .
6. What is the acceleration of the wagon with the son?

A. 0.67 m/s2
B. 0.84 m/sZ
C.
1.66 m/s2
D.
20 m/s2
7. What is the net force on the wagon and son?

A.
B.
C.
D.
40N
50N
120N
1200 N
The
MCAT Physics Book

14. At time t = 0 s, two dung beetles are pushing a small
ball (0.5 g). One pushes east with a force 0.0015 N; the
other pushes west with a force 0.0010 N. At t = 0 s,
what is the acceleration of the ball?
Use the following informationfor questions 8-1 I :

A tiger (100 kg) sees a wildebeest and accelerates
uniformly from rest to 20 m/s in 12 s.
8. What is the acceleration of the tiger?

A.
0.60 m/s2
B. 0.83 m/s2
C.
1.67 m/s2
D.
240 rnls2
15. A rocket ship (500 kg) is firing two jets at once. The
two jets are at right angles, with one firing to yield a
force of 5000 N and the other to yield a force of
12000 N. What is the magnitude of the acceleration of
the rocket ship?
A.
24 m/s2
B.
26m/s2
C.
34 m/s2
9. How much distance does the tiger cover in those 12 s?

A.
120m
B.
240 m
C. 480 m
D. 960 m
10. What is the magnitude of the net force on the tiger?
A.
60 N
B.
83N
C.
167N
D.
24000 N
11. What are all the forces acting on the tiger?

A. Gravity, down.
B.
Gravity, down; and the normal force, up.
C. Gravity, down; the normal force, up, and a
horizontal force of the ground pushing the tiger.
D. None of the above is correct.
12. Three men push on a station wagon with a net force F,

producing an acceleration. (Assume there is no friction.) If they push with the same net force on a ccmpact
car (with half the mass), the acceleration of the compact
car is
A. four times the acceleration of the station wagon.
B. twice the acceleration of the station wagon.
C. half the acceleration of the station wagon.
D. one quarter the acceleration of the station wagon.
I
I
1
16. A girl shoves a 4-kg toy cart across the level floor with
a speed of 15 m/s (so it is going 15 m/s when it leaves
her hand). It slides to a rest in 5 s. Assuming a constant
force slowing the cart, what is the magnitude of the
force?
A.
0.75 N
B.
1.33N
C.
12N
D.
18.75 N
17. A piece of steel of mass 0.8 kg hangs from a suing over

the edge of a table. The string passes over a pulley and
is connected in such a way as to maintain a tension
force of 6 N (see figure).
13. Object A is acted upon by a net force FAto produce an

acceleration. If object B has three times the mass of A
and is acted on by three times the force as A, the
acceleration of B is
A. 9 times that of A.
B. 3 times that of A.
C. the same as that of A.
D. one third that of A.
Chapter
The force due to gravity on the steel is given by F,,=

rng, where g = 10 m/s2is the acceleration due to gravity.
We allow the piece of steel to fall from rest for 5 s.
What is the final acceleration of the piece of steel?
A.
2 m/s2
B. 2.5 m/s2
C.
10 m/s2
D.
12.5 m/s2
18. A woman is riding in an elevator which is going up at

constant speed. The force of the floor against her feet
A. is less than the force of gravity on her.
B.
is the same as the force of gravity on her.
C . is greater than the force of gravity on her.
D. has no relationship with the force of gravity on
her that can be determined by the given information.
C.
D.
Section
3 .. . .. . . . ... .. . . . . . . . . . Laws of
Motion
It is slowing down.
It is speeding up or staying the same speed.
22. A car is accelerating from rest at an intersection after

the light has turned green. What is the force which
accelerates the car?
A. The horizontal force of the wheels on the road.
B. The vertical force of the wheels on the road.
C. The horizontal force of the road on the wheels.
D. The normal force of the road on the car.
Use the following informationfor questions 23-26:
An antique stove is sitting on the ground. (See figure)
Assume for this problem that the Earth is not rotating.
19. On September 12,1966, astronauts conducted an

experiment using the second law of motion. A Gemini
spacecraft (measured to be 3400 kg) connected with an
orbiting rocket case. The thrusters were fired to provide
a force of 890 N for 7.0 s. The change in velocity of the
spacecraft and rocket case was found to be 0.93 m/s.
What was the mass of the rocket case?
A.
B.
C.
D.
120 kg
3300 kg
10,100kg
15,400 kg
20. Car A starts from rest and accelerates uniformly for a

period of time t to travel a distance d. Car B, which has
four times the mass of car A, starts from rest and
accelerates uniformly as well. If the magnitudes of the
forces accelerating A and B are the same, how long
does is take B to travel the same distance d?
A.
16t
B.
C.
D.
4t
2t
tl4
A car trailer is connected to a car, and both are traveling

forward at velocity 3 mls at time t = 5 s. The force the
car exerts on the trailer is 105 N, the force of friction on
the trailer is 30 N, and the force of air resistance on the
trailer is 70 N. The force of gravity on the trailer is
8000 N, and the road exerts an upward force of 8000 N.
What conclusion may be drawn about the trailer?
A. It is speeding up.
B. It is staying the same speed.
23. Which arrow represents the gravitational force of the

Earth on the stove?
A.
A
B. B
C. C
D.
24. Which arrow represents the.force paired with the

gravitational force of the Earth on the stove, according
to the third law of motion?
A. A
B.
B
C. C
D. D
GO ON TO WE NEXT PAGE
The
MCAT Physics Book

Why is the force vector A equal in magnitude to the
force vector B?
A. The first law of motion states that an object which
is motionless has balanced forces.
B. The first law of motion states that an object in
motion will remain in motion only if acted upon
by an unbalanced force.
C. The second law of motion states that force and
acceleration are proportional.
D. The third law of motion states that forces come in
equal and opposite pairs.
Passage
We perform an experiment which involves two masses

m and M connected by a string which we will consider to be
massless. Mass m hangs over the edge of a table. The string

passes over a pulley at the edge of the table and mass M sits
on the table, such that it moves along the table without
friction. (See figure.) The tension in the string is the force
that the string exerts where it is connected to another object
or to more string. It is generally true that the tension
anywhere along the string is the same as the tension
anywhere else in the string.
26. Why is the force vector A equal in magnitude to the
force vector C?
The first law of motion states that objects which
A.
are motionless have balanced forces.
B . The first law of motion states that an object in
motion will remain in motion unless acted upon
by an unbalanced force.
C. The second law of motion states that a force on an
object and acceleration of the object are proportional.
D. The third law of motion states that forces come in
equal and opposite pairs.
27. A car's engine has died, and the car is slowing down as
it coasts. What forces are acting on the car?
A.
Gravity, down.
Gravity, down; and the road's force, up.
B.
C. Gravity, down; the road's force, up; and friction,
backwards.
D. Gravity, down; the road's force, up; friction,
backwards; and a forward force.
28. An arrow is shot into the air. When the arrow is in the
air, what forces are acting on the arrow?
A. There are no forces.
B. There is the force of gravity.
C. There is the force of gravity and an upward
normal force.
D. There is the force of gravity and a forward force.
29. The planet Mars is traveling around the Sun. What

forces are acting on Mars?
A.
There are no forces.
There is the force of gravity.
B.
C. There is the force of gravity and a forward force.
D. There is the force of gravity, a forward force, and
an outward force.
'
In this experiment the mass m is initially at rest and

allowed to drop. Its position x is measured downward from
its initial position. At various times, the position x and
velocity v of mass m are measured and the results are
recorded in the table which follows:
1. Which of the following is evidence that the acceleration
is uniform?
A. The entries for x are nonnegative and increasing.
B. The entries for v are nonnegative and increasing.
C. The entries for v are always greater than x.
D. Any interval Av is proportional to the interval dt.
2.
Assuming that acceleration remains uniform, what is a

likely entry x for t = 0.9s?
A. 0.18m
B.
0.20m
C. 0.22m
D. 0.24 m
Chdpter
3. What are the forces on the mass rn?

A.
The force of gravity.
B. The force of gravity and the tension of the string.
C.
D.
4.
The force of gravity and the force due to mass M.

The force of gravity, the tension of the string, and
the force due to M.
What are the forces on the mass M?

A. The force of gravity and the upward force of the
table.
B. The force of gravity, the upward force of the
table, and the tension in the string.
C. The force of gravity, the upward force of the
table, and the force due to rn.
D. The force of gravity, the upward force of the
table, the force due to m, and the tension in the
string.
3 . . . .... . ..... ......... Ldws of
Motion
As the space shuttle ascends, the rate of fuel burning is

approximately constant, and so the mass of the shuttle
decreases.
The following chart shows hypothetical data for the
liftoff of a shuttle. We are assuming the shuttle moves in one
dimension upward. Use 10 m/s2for the acceleration due to
gravity. The force due to gravity is F,, = Mg,where M is
the mass of the object, and g is the acceleration due to
gravity.
1. What is the initial acceleration of the shuttle just as it
begins leaving the launchpad?
5. What is the average velocity v, for the interval of time

shown in the table?
A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
0.0 m/s
0.1 m/s
0.15ds
0.3 m/s
After the experiment has run a while, the mass m hits

the floor and the string goes slack. But mass M continues going forward until it hits the pulley. After the
string goes slack but before M hits the pulley, what are
the forces on mass M?
A. There are no forces on M.
B.
C. The force of gravity, and the the opward force of
the table.
D. The force of gravity, the the upward force of the
table, and a forward force.
The space shuttle is a spaceship which was designed

for transporting a payload to near-earth orbits and to be used
many times. When it stands on the launching pad, it consists
of the orbiter itself, the external tank, and two booster
rockets. The orbiter is 7.32 X lo4 kg, while the whole
assembly is 2.0 X lo6kg. The thrust at liftoff is
2.86 X 10' N, which is achieved by burning 3400 kg of fuel
each second. The force provided by the engines is given by
the product of the velocity of the exhaust gases relative to
the ship and the rate (massper time) at which fuel is burned.
2.
What is the approximate mass of the shuttle after 300 s?

A.
1.0X106kg
3.
Referring to the chart, what evidence is there that the

acceleration is increasing?
A.
The velocity v is linear with time.
B. The velocity v increases with time.
C. The ratio of Av to At increases with time.
D. The ratio of Ax to Av increases with time.
4.
Which gives the best reason for the increase in acceleration?

A.
The first law of motion states that an unbalanced
force implies a change in velocity.
B. The second law of motion states that acceleration
is proportional to force.
C. The second law of motion states that acceleration
is inversely proportional to mass.
D. The third law of motion states that there must be a
second force, equal in magnitude but of opposite
direction to the force accelerating the shuttle.
'

5. Consider a situation when the shuttle is in space and.
fires its engines, creating a force accelerating the
shuttle. Which of the following BEST describes the
force accelerating the shuttle?
A. The force of the shuttle on the air.
B. The force of the exhaust gases on the shuttle.
C. The force of the shuttle on the exhaust gases.
D. If there is no air, then the shuttle cannot accelerate.
STOP
Chapter 4
Gravitation
When a person does a great deal of work in a scientific field, it often happens that
that person eventually receives credit for almost everything done by anybody (see
Matthew 13:12 in the Christian Bible). For instance, Newton is given credit, at least in
popular accounts, for almost every interesting thing that happened in science during the
Renaissance. In fact, then as now, science is the activity of a community, with many
people contributing to the revolution in thinking. For example, the essentials of
Newton's first law of motion were discovered by Galileo, and Robert Hooke surmised
the essential parts of the law of gravitation.
Newton's genius lay in his ability to see a simple underlying law for very
different phenomena and to synthesize diverse branches of science. An example of this
is his realization that both the motion of the Moon and the motion of a falling apple
could be explained by the same force, the force of gravity. In this chapter we will study
the physics of the gravitational force.
Newton's law of gravity states that any two objects exert an attractive force on
each other given by
Here F,, is the magnitude of the gravitational force between two objects, m, and m2 are
the masses of the objects, d is the distance between the centers of the objects, and G is a
universal constant 6.67 x lo-" m 3 k g s2.
Do not memorize G, but do remember the
equation. We discussed it in Chapter 1.
Example 1:What is the force on a

cow (200 kg) standing on the surface of
the Earth? (Assume M,, = 6.0 x lo2' kg,
R-= 6.4 x lo6m.)
Figure 4-1
Thc M C A T Physics ~ o o k
Solution: Let's assume we have a spherical cow (Figure 4-1). We calculate
Example 2: What is the motion of an apple (0.1 kg) which has let go of its tree?
Solution: First, we DRAW A DIAGRAM (Figure 4-2) showing all the forces on
the apple while it is falling. There is only the force of gravity (nothing else is touching
it), so we write
Since the total force is simply the

gravitational force, we write
*rppka
= Fnet
L
Figure 4-2
So the apple accelerates downward at 9.8 rn/s2.
Equation (1) is easy to use in two types of problems:
1. obtaining the force between two planets (d is much larger than the radii of
the planets), and
2. obtaining the force between a planet and a small object on its surface (d is
essentially the radius of the planet).
The previous examples illustrated this second use.
B. Surface of the Earth

Most of us will spend most of our lives on or near the surface of the Earth. What
is the force of gravity of the Earth on an object of mass m? The force is
where we use a calculation from the previous section. This number 9.8 mls2 comes up
so often in introductory physics that we have given it a name: The acceleration due to
gravity is
In working problems, however, we always approximate this as g = 10 m/s2 (even if the

problem says to use 9.8 mlsl).
Please note: Whenever there is gravity and we are at the surface of the Earth,
which is in most problems, we will use
Fpv = mg.
(3)
C. Free Fall
An object is said to be infree fall when nothing is touching it, so that the only
force on it is gravity. Such an object is called a projectile. The simplest problem in free
fall involves dropping objects near the surface of the Earth. We want to know which
falls faster, a heavy object or a light one? Things become complicated if the object is
too light, like a leaf fluttering to the ground, so at first we will consider two objects for
which air resistance is only a small consideration. (We discuss air resistance in Chapter
6.) Let us start by doing a pair of examples.
Example 1: How long does it take a small rock (0.02 kg) to fall from rest
2 meters to the ground?
Solution: First, we DRAW A DIAGRAM (Figure 4-3). There is only one force
since nothing touches the rock and we are neglecting air resistance. Second, we find the
net force
Figure 4-3
where the negative sign reminds us that gravity points down.
The MCAT Physics
Book
Third, we obtain acceleration by writing
F, = ma,
(This result should look familiar.)

We also have
v1 = 0,
Ay = -2 m,
so that
At = 0.63 s.
I
I
Figure 4-4
Example 2: How long does it take a medium-sized rock (0.2 kg) to fall 2 meters
from rest?
Solution: The rock is larger, and so is the force of gravity (and the force arrow,
see Figure 4-4). We write
F,,, = F,,, = - ~ ~ = - ( 0 . 2 k g )10-
=-2N.
The acceleration is
F,,
-2N
a=-=-=-107.
M 0.2 kg
m
s
The rest of the problem is the same, so At = 0.63 s.

WHAT HAPPENED? The force of gravity was larger in Example 2, BUT the
acceleration is inversely proportional to mass in the second law of motion. The net
effect is that the acceleration is the same 9.8 m/s2 for both rocks. Try this at home with
a pen and a stapler or some such thing. It is difficult to gain an intuitive grasp of this
situation, but think about it until you also
understand why the two rocks have the
same acceleration.
Let us revisit Example 2 in Section
2.H. There we saw an apple tossed
straight up. It rose, came to a stop, and
fell. We claimed that the acceleration was
always negative (that is, down), even at
the top point. We are now at a better
position to understand why. Once the
apple leaves the hand, there is only one
force on the apple, the downward force of
gravity- (See Figwe 4-5.) n e acceleration
A tossed apple at the top of itsflight
m
must be down as well. In fact, we now
is accelerating down at 9.8 -.
know the the acceleration is a constant
s2
9.8 m/s2,down.
Figure 4-5
'Q
Chapter
4 ............................
D. Horizontal and Vertical Motion

This section has no new equations but it does present one new idea, so prepare
your imagination. A pencil and paper may prove handy.
Imagine you are sitting at the shore
of a bay, and you see a boat traveling
o
along at constant speed in a straight line.
A sailor at the top of a vertical mast drops
a grapefruit. (See Figure 4-6.) We will
pretend air resistance plays no role
(mostly true). Where will the grapefruit
land?
A. In frontof the mast.
A boat moves with uniform motion.
B. At the foot of the mast.
Agrapefruit
falls from the mast.
.
C. Behind the mast.
where-doesit land?
Choose your answer before you
Figure 4-6
read any further.
Few people choose A. Not many people choose B. If you are like most people,
you chose C, thinking that somehow the boat moves out from under the grapefruit. If
that was your answer, then you need to do some rethinking. Here is what really
happens. Figure 4-7 shows two ships at four successive times, one ship at rest and the
other in uniform motion. Sailors at the tops of the masts drop grapefruits at the same
time. Both grapefruits drop to the foot of the corresponding mast.
The grapefruit on the moving ship retains its

horizontal motion regardless of vertical motion, and
it drops vertically regardless of its horizontal motion.
Figure 4-7
What is going on in the previous example? Just after the grapefruit is released
from the hand on the second ship, it still has its horizontal motion. If air resistance does
not affect it, then it maintains its same horizontal motion from start to finish. The
vertical motion, on the other hand, proceeds on schedule regardless of the horizontal
motion. At t = 0.2 s, both grapefruits have moved vertically 0.05 m (the second has
moved horizontally as well). As time goes
on, the second grapefruit keeps up with
the ship, and both grapefruits hit the deck
at the same time.
If you do not believe the figure, try
the experiment yourself. While walking at
a constant speed, release an apple.above
your head (and a little forward). It will
fall in front of your face and land at your
Figure 4-8
feet. (See Figure 4-8.)
Gravitation
The
MCAT Physics B m k
Horizontal and vertical motion are independent. That is,

motion in the x- and ydirections can be considered
independently.
..
.
Now let's leave the bay and travel
to the edge of a cliff with a large plain at

the bottom. We have two cannonballs,
and at the same time, we shoot one
horizontally off the cliff and drop the

other. Which will hit the plain first?
Again, most people will say the
dropped ball hits first. As long as air
resistance plays at most a small role, they
will hit at the same time. (See Figure 49.) For the second ball, the vertical
motion of falling is not affected at all by
its horizontal motion. It may help your
intuition to realize that the shot cannon1
ball does have a larger total velocity all
A dropped cannonball falls,at the
the way down. Notice that Figure 4-9
same rate as one shot horizontally.
looks just like Figure 4-7 with the boats
removed. It is the same physical prinFigure 4-9
ciple.
Up until now,we have been using v , ,
v,, and a to denote velocities and acceleration in one dimension. For these problems we
will need to keep track of the vertical and horizontal pieces separately, so we need the
symbols v,,, v,,, a,, v,,, v2,,and a,.
The following box shows how this principle gets translated into equations:
If the net vertical force is (FA,,then we can determine the

vertical motion using
(F,)y
=m
y .
1
dY = -(
2 v,, + v 2 , ) 4
V Z y = v,, + a, A,
1
Ay = vlyAt+-ayAt2,
v,,2 = v:,
+ 2ayAy.
Similarly, we can determine the horizontal motion using

similar equations with y replaced by x.
Chapter
4 ... ................. . . . . . . . . Gravitation
Objects in free fall experience only the force of gravity, so we can say more:
For an object in free fall at the surface of the Earth, we have

m
a , = -9.g7.
(4a)
S
m
a, = O T 2
(4b)
m
where "up" is positive and we use the estimate 10s2 .
Example 1:A cliff stands 80 m above a flat plane. One cannonball is dropped,
and another is fired horizontally at
120 rnls at the same time. How far from
the first ball will the second ball land?
Solution: The first ball falls stnight
down, of course. Let's DRAW A DIAF,,
GRAM for the second ball while it is in
I"
flight (Figure 4-10). Note that the cannon
exerts a force on the cannonball while it is
Figure 4-10
in the cannon, but after the ball leaves the
cannon, the only force is gravity.
We record the information we have. We do not know the mass of the ball, but
from Section B we know we do not need it. The acceleration vector is 10 d s 2 . down.
vertical
VlY
horizontal
m
v,, = 1205
=0
Ax = 480 m
We solved the vertical problem first because we had more vertical information
than horizontal information. The time dt = 4 s was the connection between the horizontal and vertical parts. You should work through this example yourself without looking at
the book.
51
The
MCAT Physics Book
The following example involves a projectile.
Example 2: A cannon is fired on

level ground, so that the ball's initial
velocity is 300 rnls and directed 30' up
from the horizontal. How far from the
cannon will the ball fall? (See figure 411.)
:
30"
A
Vlr
Figure 4-12
VlY
..---a-----.--.
-.
&io: -
-----.
Figure 4-11
Interruption: We need to know the
horizontal and vertical components of the
initial velocity v',. We need to find a
horizontal vector v',, and a vertical vector
v',, so that their sum is the original vector
v', (see Figure 4-12).We can find the
magnitudes of v',, and v',,, using simple
trigonometry. (You may need to review
trigonometry at this point.)
v,, = vI sin 30'
v,, = 150&m
S
Soiution: The force diagram is the same as in Figure 4-10. The cannonball rises
and then falls to the same height from which it started, so we have Ay = 0 m.
vertical
Ay=Om
Ax=?
m
s
v,, = 150-
horizontal
In the last line, we have divided by a factor of At.
Chapter 4 ............................ Gravitation
We have been talking about grapefruits and cannonballs so far. Objects with a
more complicated shape obey the same rules, as long as we use the center of mass to
talk about the position of the object.
Figure 4- 13 shows a baseball bat fired
/\-----/
*
+ /
from
in
a parabola,
a cannon.just
The
like
center
the cannonball
of mass moves
in
the previous example, even though the bat
is rotating. In fact this is a definition of
the center of mass. If an object is set to
fnely rotating, the center of mass is the
point which refuses to rotate. The
gravitational force acts as if it were
exerted only at the center of mass.
Figure 4-13
In this chapter we looked at the law of gravitation, whose grand form is

F,, = ~ m , m , l dFor
~ . most problems near the surface of the Earth we can use simply
F,,, = mg, where g = GM-R,,
m
= 10 T .
S
When any object near the Earth's surface has only gravity acting on it (freefall), it
m
has a downward acceleration vector of magnitude 10-. This curious result comes
s2
from the fact that the force of gravity is proportional to the mass, while the second law
of motion states that the acceleration in inversely proportional to the mass.
We also explored the principle that horizontal and vertical motion are independent. This allows us to solve problems involving projectiles, that is, objects with only
gravity acting on them. We will see more of this principle in the following chapter.
Chapter 4 Problems
4.
What is the mass of the block on the Moon?

A.
2 kg
B.
12kg
C.
D.
24 kg
72 kg
Sections A-C
5.

In a binary star system, two stars revolve about their
combined center of mass. They are held together by the
force of gravity. For a certain system, the force of gravity
between the stars (masses M, and M,) is F,.
1. If the mass of one of the skxs could somehow be

decreased by a factor of 2 at a given moment, how
would this affect the force between them?
A.
It would decrease by a factor of 4.
B. It would decrease by a factor of 2.
C. It would stay the same.
2.
6. What is the weight of the block on the Moon?

A. 2 kg
B.
12kg
C. 19N
D.
118N
If the distance between the stars were doubled, how

would this affect the force between them?
A.

The colonization of Mars is a favorite topic among
science fiction writers. It is a smaller planet than Earth and
further from the Sun. Its radius is 0.5 times that of Earth,
and its mass is 0.1 times that of Earth. It is 1.5 times further
from the Sun than Earth. (Note: On Earth, the acceleration
due to gravity is 10 rn/s2. Also, we have G =
6.67 x lo-" N m2/kg2.)
3. In some binary systems, one star transfers material onto

the other. If star 1 dumps half of its material onto star 2,
which thus increases its mass by a factor of 5, how is
the force affected if the distance between the stars'
centers remains the same?
A. The force increases by a factor of 5.
B.
C
D.
7. If a person were standing on the surface of Mars and

dropped a Martian rock, what is the approximate
acceleration of the rock's fall?
A. 0.3 m/s2
B.
1 m/s2
The force increases by a factor of 2.5.

The force remains the same.
The force decreases by a factor of 2.5.

For a spherical planetary body, the gravitational field
depends on its mass and radius. The strength of the gravitational field determines the acceleration due to gravity of
freely falling objects at the planet's surface. At the surface
of the Earth, for example, the acceleration due to gravity is
g-= 9.8 m/s2. The Moon has a smaller mass and a smaller
radius. The net result is that the acceleration due to gravity
1.6 m/s2. A metal block (12 kg on Earth) is taken
is g,,=
to the Moon.
The block is dropped from a height of 2 m to the

surface of the Moon. How long does it take to drop to
the surface?
A.
1.6 s
B.
2.4 s
C. 6.3s
D. There is not enough information to answer this
question.
C.
D.
2 m/s2
4m/s2
8. HOWdoes the force of attraction between the Sun and

Mars compare with that between the Sun and Earth?
A. 0.04 times weaker.
B.
0.07 times weaker.
C. 0.10 times weaker.
question.
Use the following informutionfor questions 9 and 10:
The Earth and the Moon attract each other with the
force of gravity. The Earth's radius is 3.67 times that of the
Moon, and the Earth's mass is 8 1 times that of the Moon.
The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Moon
is one sixth the acceleration due to gravity on the Earth's
surface.
9.
How would the force of gravity between the Earth and

the Moon be affected if the distance between the Earth
and the Moon were decreased by a factor of 3?
A.
B, It would decrease by a factor of 3.
C. It would stay the same.
10. How does the Earth's gravitational pull on the Moon

differ from the Moon's pull on the Earth?
A.
It is the same.
B. It is 3.67 times larger.
C. It is 6 times larger.
D. It is 8 1 times larger.
Use the following informutionfor questions 11 and 12:
A new planet is discovered whose mass is the same as
that of Earth, although the acceleration of freely falling
objects at the surface of this planet is three times larger than
that corresponding to Earth. (That is, we have g,, =
9.8 m/s2 and g,= 29.4 m/s2.)
An astronaut is in a spaceship traveling at constant

velocity toward the star Rigel and is far away from any other
objects (planets and stars, etc.). There is racqhet ball moving
at 0.5 m/s on the spaceship. An astronaut blows air on the
racquet ball, producing a small force of 0.08 N in the
direction opposite the ball's velocity. The ball slows to a
stop in 4 s.
13. What is the weight of the racquet ball?
A* ON
B. 0.016N
C. 0.4 N
D.
6.4 N
14. What is the magnitude of the acceleration of the racquet

ball?
A.
0 m/s2
B. 0.125 m/s2
C. 0.2 rn/s2
D. 0.4 m/s2
15. What is the mass of the racquet ball?

A. 0 kg
B. 0.64 kg
C.
1.6 kg
D. 2.5 kg
11. What is the radius of this new planet?

A. 9 times smaller than the radius of Earth.
B. 3 times smaller than the radius of Earth.
C. 1.7 times smaller than the radius of Earch.
D. 3 times larger than the radius of Earth.
12. If an object were dropped from a height h on this
planet, how much time would it take to reach the
ground compared to the time it would take on Earth to
drop the same distance h? (Assume no atmospheric
resistance.)
A. It would take the same amount of time.
B. The time would be less by a factor of 1.7.
C. The time would be less by a factor of 3..
D. The time would be less by a factor of 9.
GO ON TOTHENEXTPAGE
The
MCAT Physics Book
Section
Use the following informationfor questions 1 6 2 0 :

In a certain sports event, called the appliance toss,
men and women test their strength by hurling an electric can
opener horizontally over a cliff. (See figure.) The cliff is
very high, standing over a plain, and judges at the bottom
determine where the openers land. When Barbara heaves her
opener at t = 0 s, the opener has horizontal velocity 1.5 m/s
when it leaves her hand. After 2 s, it is still in the air (point
B in the diagram). (Use g = 10 m/s2.)
19. At t = 2 s, what is the opener's vertical velocity?

A. Om/s
20. At t.= 2 s, what is the opener's horizontal velocity?

A. Om/s
B.
1.5 m/s
C. 20 m/s
D. 21.5m/s

A ball (0.2 kg) rolls along a level table at 1.5 rn/s and
then rolls off the edge. The table is 1.25 m off the floor.
Consider the time from the moment just after the ball leaves
the table till the moment just before the ball touches the
floor. See figure. (Use g = 9.8 m/s2,and ignore any air
resistance.)
16. Which of the following best shows a force diagram for

the can opener at point B?
21. What is the ball's initiaI horizontal velocity?

A. 0 m/s
B. 1.5m/s
C. 5.0 m/s
D. 5.2 m/s
17. What vertical distance has the can opener fallen in the
two seconds?
A. 3 m
B. 20m
C. 20.2m
D. 23m
22. What is the ball's initial vertical velocity?

A. 0 d s
B.
C.
D.
1.5m/s
5.0m/s
5.2d s
18. What horizontal distance has the can opener traversed

in the two seconds?
A.
3m
B.
20m
GO-ONTO THE NEXT PAGE
Chapter
23. When the ball is in midair (point B), what is the net
force on the ball?
A.
B.
C.
D.
1.96 N
3.92 N
9.8 N
19.6 N
C.
D.
25. How much time does the drop take?
A.
B.
C.
D.
0.26 s
0.51 s
0.83 s
1.01s
It is one fourth as large.

It is the same.
It is four times as large.
It depends on the height at whch the force is
recorded.
29. When the coins are in midair, how does the acceleration
of one of Alice's coins compare with the acceleration of
one of Barbara's?
A.
It is one fourth as large.
B.
C.
D.
It is the same.
It is four times as large.
It depends on the height at which the acceleration
is recorded.
30. How does the time to reach the ground for one of
Alice's coins compare with the time of fall for
Barbara's?
26. What is the horizontal acceleration of the ball at

point B?
A.
0 m/s2
B. 0.2 d s 2
C.
1.96 m/s2
D. 9.8 d s 2
27. What is the horizontal displacement of the ball during
the fall?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Gravitation
28. When the coins are in midair, how does the gravitational force on one of Alice's coins compare with the
force on one of Barbara's?
A.
B.
24. What is the vertical displacement of the ball during the

fall?
A. 0.76 m
B.
1.47 m
C.
1.25 m
D.
2.25 m
4 . ...... ........... . ........ .
0.76 m
1.47 m
1.25 m
2.25 m
Use the following informutionfor questions 28-31:

Two girls are sitting on the edge of a building tossing
coins over the edge. Alice is actually dropping her coins,
each of which is 10 g. Barbarqis tossing her coins horizontally at 0.3 m/s, and her coins are 40 g each. (See figure.)
(Ignore air resistance.)
A.
B.
C.
D.
The time for Alice's coins is less.

The times are the same.
The time for Alice's coins is greater.
It depends on the height of the building.
31. Just before Alice's coin reaches the ground, it has speed
s,. Just before Barbara's coin reaches the ground, it has
speed s,. How does s, compare with s,?
A. The speed s, is less than s,.
B. The speed s, is the same as s,.
C. The speed s, is greater than s,.
D. It depends on the height of the building.
A woman (50 kg) is pulling a wagon behind her. In
the wagon is her daughter by her first marriage; the daughter
and the wagon are 60 kg. (See figure.) The woman pulls the
handle with a tension 200 N, and the handle makes a 30"
angle with the horizontal. There is a horizontal force of
friction, and the wagon moves at a constant 2 m/s. (Use
g = 10 ds2.)
'coin B
The
MCAT Physics B o o k
32. What is the horizontal component of the force of the

wagon handle on the wagon body?
A. ON
B.
(200 N) (sin 30")
C. (200 N) (cos 30")
D. 200N
38. What is the magnitude of the net force on the bale of

hay?
33. What is the vertical component of the force of the

wagon handle on the wagon body?
A. ON
B. (200 N) (sin 30")
C. (200 N) (cos 30")
D. 200N
39. What is the acceleration of the bale of hay?

A.
0 m/s2
B.
2 m/s2
C. 10 mls2
D.
18 m/s2
A.
B.
C.
D.
40. On the Moon there is very little atmosphere (several

centimeters of thin gas). An astronaut drops a hammer
and a feather at the same time from about shoulder
height. What happens?
A.
The hammer lands first.
B. The feather lands first.
C. The hammer and the feather land at the same
time.
D. Neither lands but instead fly off the Moon's
surface.
M. What is the horizontal component of the gravitational

force on the wagon and daughter?
A. ON
B.
(600 N) (sin 30")
C. (600 N) (cos 30")
D. 600N
35. What is the vertical component of the gravitational

force on the wagon and daughter?
A. O N
B. (600 N) (sin 30")
C. (600 N) (cos 30")
D. 600N

A large ball (2 kg) is rolling (at the surface of the
Earth) on a large, flat plain, so large that we will idealize it
as an infinite plain. It is rolling 0.3 m/s to the right at time
t = 0 s. Take the acceleration of gravity to be 10.rn/s2.
Assume there is no friction.
36. What is the magnitude of the net force?

A. ON
B.
173N
C.
D.
ON
1OOON
5000N
9000 N
41. Which of the following represents the best force

diagram at times after t = 0 s?
600N
800 N
Use the following infonnationfor questions 37-39:

A bale of hay (500 kg) is dropped from the second
story of a barn (9 m) with no initial velocity. A rope is tied
to the hay to control its fall. The rope extends up from the
bale and maintains a tension of 4000 N. (Use g = 10 mls2.)
37. What are the forces acting on the bale of hay?
A. The tension in the rope only.
B.
Gravity only.
C. The tension in the rope and gravity.
D. The tension in the rope, gravity, and an additional
downward force once the bale is moving;
I
58
42. How long would it take the ball to come to a stop?

A. 0.3 s.
B.
3.33 s.
C. 30s.
D. There is no answer.
4.
A sport at a nearby educational institute involves

running along the roof of an apartment building. jumping off
the edge, and falling into the pool below. This dangerous
sport involves a combination of strength of spirit, braggadocio, and inebriation.
Let's say a student (50 kg) accelerates uniformly from
rest at one side of the building to the jumping edge, a
distance of 5 rn. Just after his feet leave the building, he is
traveling horizontally at a speed 5 d s . The building is 7.2 m
hgh. and the pool is 4.5 rn from the edge of the building.
Use g = 10 m/s2.
Which diagram best represents the force diagram for

the student while he is in the air?
5. Where does he land?

A.
B.
C.
D.
2.5 meters from the edge of the building, that is,

on the pavement.
on the edge of the pool.
in the pool.
in the pool.
6. What is his horizontal velocity just before he lands?

A.
0 mls
B.
5ds
1. How much time does it take the student to accelerate as

he is running dong the roof?
A.
1.00 s
B. 1.20 s
2.
How much time does it take him to fall?

A.
1.00 s
B.
1.20 s
C. 1.44 s
D. 2.00 s
3. Which diagram best represents the force diagram for

the student while he is on the roof?
D.
13m/s
Passage 2
When a massive star uses up its nuclear fuel, there is

no longer enough heat to hold up its core against gravitational forces, and the core collapses. The result is an
explosion, called a supernova, which leaves behind a very
dense core, called a neutron star.
A neutron star is composed mainly of neutrons. It has
approximately the mass of the Sun, but the radius is about
14 krn,that is, 50,000 times smaller than the Sun's. The
structure inside a neutron star is different from anything
known on Earth,and the gravity on the surface is strong
enough to crush any ordinary material. The only thing which
creates a stronger gravitational field is a black hole.
Away from the surface, the tidal forces near a neutron
star are nevertheless prodigious. A man falling toward a
neutron starwould be stretched out as he fell. He would be
killed when he was about 2000 km away, and as he got
closer he would be drawn as thin as a wire. Finally he would
The
MCAT Physics Book

For these problems you may want to use the follow-
ing:
G = 6.67 x lo-" N m2/kg2
M,,,= 2.0 x
kg
(volume of a sphere)
, = 4n
~ 2~
Acutie = n 4
~ (surface area of a sphere)
(area of a circle)
1.
What is the approximate density of a neutron star?

A.
2 x 10" kg/m3
B. 8 x lo2' kg/m3
C. 1 x loz4kg/m3
D.
1 x 10" kg/m3
2.
How does the acceleration due to gravity at the surface

of a neutron star compare with that near the surface of
the Sun?
A.
Je
times stronger.
B.
C.
D.
50,000 times stronger.

(50,000)' times stronger.
(50,000)' times stronger.
3. The Earth is 1.5 x 10" meters away from the Sun. If

there. were a planet of the same mass which was
1.5 x 10" meters away from a neutron star, how would
the neutron star's gravitational pull on that planet
compare with the Sun's pull on the Earth?
A. It would be the same.
It would be 50,000 times stronger.
B.
C. It would be (50,000)~times stronger.
D. It would be 1.5 x 10"/14 times stronger.
4.
What is the best explanation for the stretching of an

object in free fall as it approaches a neutron star?
A. The density of the neutron star is huge.
B. The parts of an object which are nearer the
neutron star are pulled more strongly than the
parts which farther away from the star.
C. The strong surface gravity is due to the fact that
surface gravity varies inversely as the radius.
D. The strong surface gravity is due to the fact that
surface gravity varies inversely as the square of
the radius.
STOP
Chapter 5
Planes and Circles
A. Horizontal and Vertical Motion,
Again
In the last chapter we solved problems with gravity as the only force. Well,
gravity is a fine force indeed, but we need to understand problems in which other forces
are present. That is the goal of this chapter.
In the last chapter we discussed the independence of venical and horizontal
motion for objects in freefall, but it turns out the principle works when other forces are
acting as well:
Independence of Vertical and Horizontal Motion

An object has forces F,, F2, ..., acting on it. If F,,, F,,, .. ., are
the vertical components of the forces, then we have
A
LLY
= &y + Fty +.--.
(1)
Y
a =-.F
(2)
'
Similarly, if F,,, F,, ..., are the horizontal components of the

forces, then we have
Fmx = &,
a , = -Fx.
m
+ FZx+..-,
(3)
(4)
This is a more useful form of Fm,=

md,the equation that we discussed in Section
3.B. An example will help illustrate how the principle in the above box is used to solve
problems.
In the following example, we find a toy wagon rolling on the ground. In general,
when an object is on the ground or some other surface, that surface exerts one or two
forces on it: always a nonnal force 6 pointing perpendicular to the surface and sometimes a frictional force pfkpointing parallel to the surface. We will postpone discussing
friction until Chapter 6.
Example: A boy pulls a red wagon (10 kg) with a constant force 20 N. The
handle makes an angle 30" with the horizontal. Assume there is no friction.
a. If the wagon starts from rest, how fast is it going after 3 seconds?
b. What is the normal force acting on the wagon?
The
MCAT Physics Book

c
Solution: First we DRAW A
DIAGRAM (Figure 5- 1) showing all the
13
forces on the wagon body. The handle and
the ground are the only two things which
touch it. So in addition to gravity, there are
the tension due to the handle and the
Fcav
normal force. The tension f points along
Figure 5-1
the handle, that is, 30" from the horizontal.
In Figure 5-2 we resolve the tension into components (recall trigonometry), so we
have
k)
1
A
T
T
Ty = (20 N) sin 30"
T, = (20 N) cos 30"
2 = sin 30"
= cos 30"
The normal force and gravity do not have

horizontal components, so the only
horizontal force is TX.Thus we write
( ~ " =3max
~
Tx= ma,,
C Fg,
= mg
Figure 5-2
Using this and v,, = 0 rnls and At = 3 s,
we derive a horizontal velocity
vlx = v,,
+ axAt
which is the answer to part a.

If we consider the vertical components of force, then we can find (F,,,,), just by
looking at the diagram, so we write
(Foec)y
= N + TY- Fgnv'
where we use the positive sign for forces which point up; negative for down. NOWthe
second law of motion connects this with vertical acceleration, so that
< F A y= myBut the cart is not moving vertically, so we know that vyis constant (and zero)
and thus a, is zero. This means (F,,), is zero, so we have
O=N+T,-F,,,
N = Fm- Ty
=mg-Ty
= 90 N.
Notice that the normal force is not the same as the gravitational force, a mistake often
made by students. Why is the normal force not the same as gravity?
Chdpter
5 . .. .................
Pldnes and Circles
Note that in solving part a, we used information about forces to obtain the
horizontal acceleration a, and then the answer. In part b we reasoned the other way,
using information about the vertical acceleration a,= 0 to obtain information about the
normal force. This strategy of reasoning in both directions will be useful in many
problems.
0. Inclined Planes and Force Components

The following method generally works for force problems in two dimensions:
1. DRAW A DIAGRAM.
2. Draw all the forces on the object(s) in question (see Section 3.D).
3. Decide the orientation of the axes ("horizontal" and "vertical").
4. Divide the forces into components if necessary.
5. Solve (F,,),= ma,and (F,,,), = ma,.
For the last step, note that we often have a, = 0, leading to (F,,,), = 0. Also, be on
the lookout for the words "constant velocity" or the equivalent, since that implies a,= 0
and a, = 0,a force balance.
The principle of the independence of the components of the ?=rna'equation is
valid even when the axes are tilted, as the next example will show.
Wizo
Example: A toy car of mass

40 grams is released at the top of an
vefltcal
incline of plastic track, inclined 30" from
the horizontal. The car starts from rest and
travels 4 m to the floor. Assuming there is
no friction, how much time does it take
the car to reach the floor?
F ~ v
DIAGRAM (Figure 5-3). In addition to
gravity, the track touches the car and
Figure 5-3
exerts a normal force. Since the track is
inclined, the normal force points not up
but perpendicular to the surface. There is no frictional force.
We will call "horizontal" the direction along the track and "vertical" the direction
perpendicular to the track (Figure 5-3).
Next, we divide the gravitational
force into components (Figure 5-4). Note
that and Fyare not new forces but pieces
a
of F,. If we add Fxand Fytogether like
vectors (tipto-tail), then we get F,. It
may not be obvious that the two angles
Fy:e
shown in Figure 5-4 should both be 0 =
30". Note that both angles labeled 19are
2
Fx
-.
Fgnv
complementary to the angle between Fx

A
Figure 5-4
and F.,
On the other hand, in physics it
is generally true that two small angles
which look congruent are congruent(!).

Now if we look at the triangle in Figure 5-4, we can write
Y -cos 8
4rsY
~y = <rav cos e
F, = FBmv
sin 8
We care about the horizontal motion, so we write

(F,er)x= max-
The only horizontal force is
ex,so we write
F, = m a x ,
mgsine= ma,.
gsin8=aX,
We have v,, = 0 m/s and Ax = 4 m, so we can find At by writing
C. Circular Motion,
Qualitative Description
Let's think a minute about a toy car

moving along the floor and pretend the
movement is frictionless. Figure 5-5 shows
a top view, with the car moving to the right
(see the motion marks behind the car). If
we were to apply a rightward force SA,by
blowing the car with a portable hair dryer,
for instance, this would clearly speed up
the car. If we were to apply a leftward
this would slow it down. A force
force
pcapplied (for just a moment) perpendicular to the motion would neither speed
it up nor slow it down, but it would cause
the car to veer from its straight path.
FB,
Figure 5-5
Chapter 5
.
....... . . . ... . . . . . . .
Planes and Circles
If we are using a hair dryer to exert
then we can keep adjusting the

direction of the force to keep it perpendicular to the motion of the car. The car
will end up traveling in a circle (Figure 56). Given this discussion, the following
box should seem reasonable.
An object moving in a circle with

constant speed has an acceleration
vector pointed towards the center
of the circle.
Figure 5-6
If an object is moving at constant speed in a circle, then the net

force on the object points toward the center of the circle, and
the acceleration vector points towards the center as well.
In normal English, we do not say that the car is accelerating when it is turning.
But in physics language, an object that is moving at constant speed in a circle is
"accelerating toward the center of the circle", because the velocity vector is changing.
We call this centripetal acceleration, which is Latin for "toward the center". (Parenthetically, "centrifugal" means "away from the center".) The force which-provides the
centripetal acceleration is the centripital force.
Example 1: The Earth moves

around the Sun. What force provides the
centripetal force?
Solution: The gravitational force
provides the centripetal force (Figure 57).
bt-f)
Sun
Earth
Figure 5-7
The car; seen from the rear; is

turning lefr, and thefrictionalforce
provides the centripetal
acceleration
Figure 5-8
Example 2: A car goes around a

curve to the left. What force provides the
centripetal force?
Solution: This example is a bit
mote complicated. The driver turns her
wheels to the left, so the wheels exert a
force on the road to the right. By
Newton's Third Law of Motion, the road
exerts a force to the left on the wheels,
turning the car left In this case friction
provides the centripetal force (Figure 58). (Think what would happen if there
were no friction, for instance, if there
were oil on the road.)

Example 3: A father is driving a car
and turns to the left. There is a sack of
groceries in the front passenger seat
which crashes into the passenger door.
The little brother Samson in the back seat
asks the father why the groceries crashed
into the door. The father says that was due
to centrifugal force. The older sister
Cadenza rolls her eyes at this, thinking
about how much physics her brother will
have to unlearn as he grows up. What is
the correct explanation for the groceries'
~h~ groceries in the passangerls seat
crashing
into the door?
crash into the car door because the
door turns into their path (not
Solution: Figure 5-9 gives the real
because of "centrifugalforce").
story. The groceries are going along a
straight path, as we would expect accordFigure 5-9
ing to the first law of motion. The car
door is pulled into the path of the groceries. The father invents the word "centrifugal force" in order to hide his ignorance.
Whenever you are tempted to explain something by centrifugal force, it is likely that
you can explain it better with the ideas of first law of motion and a turning frame of
reference (like the car).
fl
D. Circular Motion,
Quantitative Description
An object moving in a circle has an acceleration which has, in general, two

components: the centripetal acceleration and the tangential acceleration. The former is
directed toward the center and is responsible for changing the direction of the object.
The latter is responsible for changing the speed. The acceleration is given by
Tangential acceleration
Centripetal acceleration
Aspeed
aUng= -,
At
v2
a,,, = - r
(5)
(6)
Example 1:A bombardier beetle sits on a blade of a windmill which is going

counterclockwise and slowing down. The
blade is at the top of its cycle. Sketch the
acceleration vector.
Solution: In Figure 5-10, if the
beetle is going left and slowing down,
then the tangential acceleration must be to
the right. The centripetal acceleration
vector is down, and the total acceleration
a'is shown.
Figure 5-10
Chapter
....... .. . ....... .. . Pldnes d n d Circles
Example 2: Use the following information to find the mass of the sun:
R = 1.5 x 10" m (distance from the

Sun to the Earth)
Solution: First, we DRAW A
DIAGRAM showing all the forces (Figure
5-1 1). Some students are tempted to draw
two forces on the Earth: a gravitational
and a centripetal force. But the only force
is gravity, and this provides the centripetal
force in this problem. This last sentence
provides the clue for solving the problem.
We know expressions for gravitation and
for centripetal acceleration, so that we
have
F," = Fen,
._.._.'
-....
,
.
I
.
e+ 4
Sun
....
~ & h
...-....-..__.________.~..-.~
Figure 5-11
We use M-on
the right-hand side of the equation, because it is the Earth's acceleration we are concerned about. The Sun's acceleration is much smaller because its mass
is larger. (Recall that the force the Earth exerts on the Sun is the same as that which the
Sun exerts on the Earth.)Note that M,,cancels.
What expression shall we use for v? What is the velocity of the Earth? If the
Earth travels a full circuit in a year, then velocity is simply distance per time, where the
distance is the circumference of the circle. Thus we write
where T is 1 year. Do not simply memorize this, but take a minute to think about why
this equation is true, so it will come immediately to mind in any similar situations.
Substituting this into equation (7) and doing some algebra gives
into which we can substitute the values given in the problem, along with
hOurr)(e)
1hour
3 10' s
T = 365days(24lday
= Y
to yield
M,, = 2 x loMkg.
The importance of this example does not lie in the arithmetic. The important parts
are the method of setting two expressions for the same force equal to each other and the
use of equation (8).

Example 3: A fan spins at a frequency of 50 cycles per second, and its plastic
blades are 0.4 meters long. What is the centripetal acceleration of a piece of plastic at
the tip of one of the blades?
Solution: You should try to work this out before you read the solution.
If the fan spins at 50 cycles per second, it must undergo one cycle in one fiftieth
of a second, so T = 1/50 s = 0.02 s. The velocity is given by
so the acceleration is given by
Example 4: A space warrior must

fly his spacecraft at constant speed around
a spherical space station "Bad Star". Bad
Star is large but not large enough to have
an atmosphere or gravity worth considering. It is important for the wamor to stay
close to the surface and maintain constant
speed. A conventional rocket provides the
thrust to maintain course, so the plume
appears in the opposite direction of the
desired thrust. In which direction (Figure
5-12) would we see the plume?
Figure 5-12
Stop! Think about his question and
answer it before you look at the solution on the next page.
Chapter 5 ... .. . ... ... .... . .. . Planes dnd Circles
Solution: No one chooses B. Few people choose A. In fact, almost everyone

chooses E, because they are thinking about a car driving on the surface of the Earth.
But a car on the Earth's surface encounters the force of drag, both by friction and by air
resistance, whereas the space warrior encounters neither. No force is required to
maintain constant speed. If you chose E, it means you need to study the first law of
motion again.
Okay, what is the correct way to think of this problem? The net force of the
spacecraft is down, toward the center of Bad Star, because the craft is moving at
constant speed in a circle. there is no gravity, no friction, no air drag, so the only force
on the craft is due to the rockets. Therefore the rocket plume points in the direction of
A.
Some students object that a rocket firing in the direction of A would push the
craft into the Bad Star. This is the same as objecting that if the Earth pulls on the Moon,
it ought to fall down. What holds up the
Moon?
The answer in both cases is that
,I
the centripetal force is large enough to
keep the object (spacecraft or Moon) from
2
moving away but not so large as to pull
them into the ground. That is, in Figure 513, path 1 is the path the spacecraft takes
if the warrior does not fire his rockets at
all (no force). Path 2 is the path if he does
not fire the rockets enough; and path 4, if
he fires them too much. Path 3 is just
Figure 5-13
right.
The most important concept in this chapter is the independence of horizontal and
vertical motion. We saw this concept for the first time in Chapter 4. In this chapter we
have used the concept to solve problems involving inclined planes and oblique forces,
that is, forces which are neither horizontal nor vertical.
We also looked at circular motion. If an object is moving in a circle, its velocity
vector is not constant, and the object must be accelerating. If the object is moving at
constant speed, then the direction of the acceleration vector is toward the center, called
, = v2/r.
centripetal acceleration, and its magnitude is a
The
MCAT Phystcs Bcok
Chapter 5 Problems
3,
How much time does it take the orange to reach the top
of its path?
A. 0.25 s
B.
0.4 s
C. 0.5 s
D.
2.5 s
4.
What is the horizontal component of the acceleration of

the orange while it is in the air?
A. 0 mls2
B.
2 m/s2
C.
1om/s2
D.
18 m/s2
5.
What is the horizontal velocity of the orange at the top

of its path?
A.
Om/s
B.
1 mls
C. 5mls
D.
1.25 m/s
Section A
A cannon shoots an orange (3 kg) straight up in the air
with initial velocity 5 m/s (see figure). A horizontal wind
exerts a force of 6 N on the orange while it is in the air. Use
10 m/s2 for the acceleration due to gravity.
1. Which is the best force diagram while the orange is in

the air?
6. A shoe is being dragged to the right at constant velocity

along a level floor by its string. The string is horizontal
and bears a tension Tin magnitude. The magnitude of
the frictional force is F, the magnitude of the gravitational force is G, and the magnitude of the normal force
is N. What can be definitely be concluded?
A.
T<F
B.
T=F
C.
T>F
D.
T+F=G+N

A winch pulls a crate of oranges (300 kg) up an
incline (30" with the horizontal) by maintaining a tension on
a rope over a pulley. The crate is moving at a constant speed
0.2 m/s. There is no friction. (Using g = 10 m/s2.)
2.
What is the vertical component of the net force on the

orange while it is in the air?
A.
B.
C.
D.
ON
2N
30N
32 N
70
ChaDter
7. What is the component of the gravitational force

.
perpendicular fo the surface on which the crate sits?

A.
ON
B.
(3000 N)sin30
C. (3000 N)cos 30'
D. 3000N
8. What is the component of the gravitational force

parallel to the surface on which the crate sits?
A.
ON
B. (3000 N) sin30
C. (3000 N) cos 30"
D. 3000N
9.
What is the normal force on the crate?

A.
0N
B. (3000 N) sin30
C. (3000 N)cos30
D. 3000N
10. What is the net force on the crate?

A.
ON
B.
(3000 N) sin 30"
C. (3000 N) cos 30"
D. 3000 N
11. What is the tension on the rope?

A.
ON
B.
(3000 N) sin 30"
C. (3000 N) cos 30"
D. 3000N
. .... .. .. ........ . . . Planes and Circles
12. Which of the following is the best force diagram for the
sled after t = 0 s?
13. What is the horizontal component of the force due to

the stick?
A.
10N
B.
17N
C. 20 N
D. 5 0 N
14. What is the vertical component of the force due to the

stick?
A.
10N
B.
17N
C. 20 N
D. 5 0 N
15. What is the normal force of the ground on the sled?

A.
17N
B. 33 N
C. 5 0 N
D. 67 N
16. What is the net force on the sled?
Use the following informationfor questions 12-1 7:

A boy (60 kg) is pushing a sled (5 kg) with a stick, so
that the stick makes a 30" angle with the vertical. He applies
a force of 20 N, so that the force acts along the stick (i.e.,
there is no shear or friction force). There is negligible
friction between the sled and the ground. At time t = 0 s, the
sled is at rest.
A.
B.
C.
D.
ON
10N
50N
67 N
17. What is the acceleration of the sled?

A.
0 m/s2
B.
0.5 m/s2
2.0 m/s2
9.8 m/s2
C.
D.
The
MCAT Physics Book
Section
21. Which arrow best shows the direction of the net force?
A.
18. A woman is driving a car along a road when she

realizes, almost too late, that she needs to make a left
hand turn. She quickly turns the wheel, and the books
which were in the passenger seat go crashing against
the passenger door. Consider the following statements:
I. The books were pushed against the door by a centrifugal force.
11. The books were pushed against the door by a
centripetal force.
III. The forces acting on the books while they are
crashing against the door are gravity, the normal force,
and a force toward the right.
Which is (are) true?
A. I and III are true.
B. I1 and III are true.
C. 111only is true.
D. None is true.
B.
C.
D.
A
B
C
D
22. What provides the centripetal force?

A.
Gravity.
B.
C.
D.
Tension.
Friction.
Normal.
23. Which arrow best shows the direction the stopper would
go if the string were to break at the moment shown in
the diagram?
A.
B.
C.
D.
A stopper is swung 0n.a string, one end of which is
fixed at a point P. The diagram shows the stopper and string
from the top, and the stopper is swinging counterclockwise
at constant speed.
A
B
C
D

A '79 Buick Regal (1200 kg) is being driven at a
constant speed 3 m/s and turning to the right on a curve of
road which has effective radius 4 m.
24. Consider the car as viewed from the top. Ignore the
gravitational and normal forces (which are vertical and
add to zero anyway). Which is the best force diagram?
B.
C.
D.
B
C
20. Which arrow best shows the direction of the acceleration vector?
A. A
I
I
25. What is the acceleration of the Buick?
Chapter
....... .. .. ......... Planes and Circles
26. What is the net force on the Buick?
27. What force provides the centripetal force on the Buick?

A. Gravity.
B. Tension.
C. Friction.
D. Normal.
A bicycle wheel (mass 3 kg, radius 0.5 m) is spinning
at a constant angular speed. It is situated horizontally, and a
beetle (5 g) is sitting on the rim. The beetle is traveling at a
speed 2 mls. Use g = 10 m/s2.
All Sections
28. In the following diagrams, the wheel is viewed almost

from the side, so that "down" is toward the bottom of
the page. Which is the best force diagram?

A winch pulls a crate of apples (mass M) up an
incline (making an angle a with the horizontal). (See
figure.) The tension exerted by the winch is T. At the
bottom of the incline the crate begins at rest at t -- 0.'
Assume there is no friction.
29. What is the acceleration of the beetle?

A. 0 m/s2
B. 2 m/s2
C. 8 m/s2
31. What is the normal force of the incline on the crate?

A. Mg
B. Mg cos a
C . Mg sin a
D.
D.
10 rn/s2
30. The figure shows a ball (from the top view) rolling on a
table with a partial hoop. Which arrow best describes
the path of the ball after it leaves the hoop?
32. What is the acceleration of the crate?

A. 0
B* 8
C.
D.
.-
Mgsina-T
73
NIM-gcosa
TIM -gsina
The
MCAT Physics Book

A runner (50 kg) is running around a track (see
figure). The curved portions of the track are arcs of a circle,
and the dimensions of the track are shown. The runner is
running a constant speed 8 m/s. Use 10 m/s2for the acceleration due to gravity.
36. How would the centripetal acceleration of a chair on the

Ferris wheel change if the frequency were doubled?
A. It would stay the same.
37. A person is sitting on a seat at the bottom of a Ferris
wheel which is going counterclockwise and speeding
up. Which arrow best shows the acceleration vector?
33. When the runner is on the curved portions of the track,

what are the forces acting on her?
A.
Gravity, up; the normal force, down; and a force,
inward.
B.
C.
D.
Gravity, up; the normal force, down; a force,

inward; and a force, forward.
Gravity, up; the normal force, down; and a force,
outward.
Gravity, up; the normal force, down; a force,
outward; and a force, forward.
34. What is the net force on the runner on the curved

portion of the track?
A.
ON
B.
l00N
C. 200N
D. 5000 N
A Ferris wheel (radius R) is turning in a counterclockwise direction at a given frequency 0.
35. How would the velocity of a chair on the Fems wheel

change if the frequency were doubled?
A. It would stay the same.
38. In a centrifuge, the bottoms of the centrifuge tubes are

10 cm away from the axis of rotation. The centrifuge
spins with a frequency of 50 rps (revolutions per
second). Which expression gives the velocity of a
sample at the bottom of a spinning tube?
A.
B.
C.
D.
lOlcmls
20lcmls
100lcm/s
200lcmls
Chdpter
.... ......... ....... Pldnes
and Circles
A third effect we have ignored is that the Earth has

local irregularities which make it necessary to measure g in
the local laboratory, if we need an exact value of the
effective acceleration due to gravity.
39. In the following diagram Jupiter is revolving about the

Sun. If the gravity of the Sun were somehow cut off
when Jupiter was at point P, what path would Jupiter
take?
1.
0
Sun
Consider an object sitting on a scale at the surface of

the Earth. The scale reading is the magnitude of the normal
force which the scale exerts on the object. To a first approximation, there is force balance, and the magnitude of the
scale's force is the magnitude of the gravitational force:
For a man standing at the equator of a rotating Earth,

which expression gives the best expression of his
velocity? (Let Tdaybe the time of one rotation, 1 day.)
A'
B.
REarlhlTday
C.
D.
gTday
2xgTda,
21tR-lT,~
2.
If we know the period of the man's motion, and we

want to calculate the centripetal force on him, what is
the minimum number of other data that we need?
A.
1: the radius of the Earth.
B. 2: the radius of the Earth and the velocity of the
man.
C. 2: the radius of the Earth and the mass of the
man.
D. 3: the radius of the Earth, the velocity of the man,
and the mass of the man.
3.
Which is the best force diagram for a man standing at

the equator of a rotating Earth?
gm,points into
the page.
the mass of the

where G is Newton's constant, M-is
Earth, and R,, is the radius of the Earth. Tfie simple result
is that the force of gravity, and the reading of the scale, is
proportional to the mass:
where g has the value G M ~ R -=~9.8 m/s2. We have

made several idealizations, however, and if we want to
calculate the scale reading, we need to be more careful.
For example, we have ignored the rotation of the
E d . Consider a man standing on a scale at the equator.
Because he is moving in a circle, there is a centripetal
acceleration. The result is that the scale will not give a
reading equal to the force of gravity (equation [l]).
4.
We have also assumed that the Earth is a perfect

sphere. Because it is rotating, the distance from the center of
the Earth to the equator is greater than the distance from
center to pole by about 0.1%.
If the man at the equator stood on a scale, how would

the scale read compared to the scale reading for an
identical man standing at the equator of a nonrotating
Earth?
A.
It would read less than on a nonrotating Earth.
B. It would read the same as on a nonrotating Earth.

C. It would read greater than on a nonrotating Earth.
D.
75
It would depend on where the man is.
GO ON TO M E NEXT PAGE

5.
If two identical men stood on scales at the south pole

and at the equator of an Earth identical to this one but
nonrotating, how would the reading of the polar scale
compare to the equatorial one?
A.
It would be less.
B.
C.
D.
It would be the same.

It would be greater.
There is not enough information to answer this
question.
STOP
A.
Introduction
So far in this book, we have ignored friction in order to make problems easier and
to uriderstand the basic principles behind motion. On the other hand, there cannot be
too many practical applications of such a theory without friction, since few of the
surfaces in this world are frictionless, and it is difficult to go anywhere without air
resistance (especially if you go by car).
Friction is a force which opposes the slipping of two surfaces, so it acts parallel
to the boundary between the surfaces. We generally think of friction as the force that
slows things down, but that is not the best way to consider it. When you step on the
accelerator of a car, what force makes the car go faster? None other than the friction
between the tires and the road. What happens when you try to accelerate on ice?
There are-two types of friction: staticfriction, which is relevant when the surfaces
are not slipping, and kinetic friction, which is relevant when the surfaces are slipping.
B. Static friction
Let us consider an example. Muffin the cat is trying to budge a waste-paper
basket in order to see what is under it.
Before she starts, the forces on the basket
are those shown in Figure 6- 1. She begins
to push, but the basket does not budge.
The force of friction has shown up and
exactly balances her pushing force
(Figure 6-2). When she pushes harder. the
frictional force becomes larger, frustrating
her effort (Figure 6-3).
Figure 6-1
Figure 6-2
There is a maximum for friction,

and that is shown in Figure 6-4 as a
dashed vector, labeled Fm,. If she can
manage to push harder than the theoretical maximum, then the basket will move.
At that time we no longer have a problem
in static friction.
16..
Figure 6-3
maximum
Ifthe basket is not moving, we can
surmise that thefriction is the same
magnitude as the push force.
Figure 6-4
There are two principles here:
If there are no slipping surfaces, then the static friction, which

acts parallel to the surface, has whatever magnitude it needs in
order to maintain nonslipping surfaces. This generally involves
solving the whole force equation with a , = 0 and a, = 0.
Also
If the calculated force of friction is greater than the theoretical

maximum, then static friction is not relevant, and the problem
needs to be reconsidered with kinetic friction. The maximum is
given by
F,,,, = PsN*
where &, the coefficient of static friction, depends only on the
materials involved. It has no units and is generally less than 1.
&
Example: Beth (45 kg) has tied a rope around her brother's waist. Vincent (20
kg) is on the slippery slope of a river bank making an angle 30' with the horizontal.
The coefficient of static friction between him and the bank is 0.2.
a. If she does not pull on the rope, will he slide down into the river, which is
infested with crocodiles?
b. If so, what is the smallest force she must exert parallel to the bank in order to
keep him from slipping?
Solution: First, we need to DRAW A DIAGRAM (Figure 6-5). First, there is the
force of gravity. The bank is touching him, so there is a normal force. There is also
friction and possibly the rope. At any rate, these act along the bank, so we label them
pd, that is, the force needed to keep him from sliding.
Cha~ter6 . ....... .. Fr~ctlonand
Figure 6-5
In Figure 6-6 we divide gravity into components.
Figure 6-6
The "vertical" equation becomes
~ - m g c o s 3 0 "=(F,)" = O
because if Vincent does not move, then a,= 0. Thus we have
N = mgcos30 =
= 170 N.
The "horizontal" equation becomes
F,, -mgsin300 =(F,,)= = O .

If Vincent is being held still by friction, or by friction and his sister's rope, then we
must have a, = 0. Then we have
F,, = mg sin 30" =

= 100 N.
Air Resistance

Equation (1) becomes
F,,,
= psN = 0.2(170N) = 34 N,
which is clearly insufficient. Beth must pull with a force
F,, = (100 - 34)N = 66 N .

If Beth pulls with a force 66 N, then static friction provides 34 N, enough to keep
Vincent from slipping down. If she wants to pull Vincent up the slope, then she must
pull hard enough to exceed the static friction maximum in the other direction. That is,
friction would pull down the slope, and she would have to pull up the slope with a force
(100 + 34)N = 134 N.
C. Kinetic friction
Once the static friction maximum is exceeded, the surface involved in a problem
begins to dip, and we have a problem involving kinetic friction.
If there is slipping between surfaces, then the kinetic frictional

force is given by
F,.= P,N,
where is the coefficient of kinetic friction, N is the normal
force, and the direction of the force is parallel to the surface in
opposition to the slipping. In generalp, is less than &, so once
an object is moving, the force of friction is less than the
maximum friction when the object is still.
I
You might have thought that, the faster an object slides, the more friction it
experiences. This is not true. (It is true for
air resistance, but not friction.)
Also, you might have thought that
there
would
be more friction for an object
Fk
Pprrh
2kg
with more surface touching (see the
second picture in Figure 6-7), but again,
this is not true. The friction depends only
Fprw
on the coefficient of friction and the
normal force.
- A
The kineticfriction depends only on the

nonnalfotce and the slipping surfaces.
Figure 6-7
Chapter
6 . ... ... ... Friction and Air
Example 1: Brad pushes a stove (100 kg) in a straight path across the level floor
at constant speed 0.2 mls. The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.3 for the stove and the
Boor. What is the force that Brad must apply?
DIAGRAM (Figure 6-8a). The words
"constant speed and "straight path"
should send bells off in our head. There is
no acceleration, so the vertical equation
becomes
N=mg=(lOOkg)
Figure 6-8a
Equation (2) gives the friction
The horizontal equation becomes
Think about this. Brad's pushing force is

equal in magnitude to the frictional force.
"But wait a minute!" some readers
will cry. "Doesn't Brad have to overcome
the force of friction for the stove to be
moving? Brad's force must be greater
than the frictional force!" But that is
exactly not the case. If the stove is
moving at constant speed, then the forces
must balance. If Brad exceeded the force
of friction, the stove would be accelerating.
Perhaps it would help if we looked
at the whole Bradfstove story. When Brad
approaches the stove, the force diagram
on the stove looks like Figure 6-8b. As
Brad begins to push on the stove, the
friction vector gets larger, as in Figure 68c. The moment Brad exceeds F,,,, the
stove budges, and the force of friction
shrinks from F,,,, to F,. Now there is a
net force on the stove, and it accelerates
from rest (Figure 6-8d). Once the stove is
moving, it gets away (a little) from his
hands, and Brad's force decreases to
become F,. At this point the stove has
attained some constant speed, which it
keeps. See Figure 6-8a, where the two
horizontal vectors are equal in magnitude.
Figure 6-8b
Figure 6-8c
F i r e 6-8d
Resistance

Example 2 A student is pushing a chalk eraser (0.1 kg) across a level desk by
applying a force 0.3 Newtons at an angle directed downward, but 30" from the horizontal. The eraser is moving at constant speed 0.1 m/s across the desk (in a straight line).
What is the coefficient of friction between the eraser and the desk?
Solution: First, we DRAW A DIAGRAM (Figure 6-9). Constant velocity tells us
that ( F , ) and
~ ( F , , , ) ~are zero. The vertical equation becomes
N = (0.3 N) sin 30" + (0. l kg) 10 - ,
N = 1.15 N.
The horizontal equation becomes
Figure 6-9
T, - Fk = ( F , , ) ~= o ,
Thus we can calculate &
Example 3: A car (1000 kg) is traveling downhill at 20 m/s in the rain. The grade
of the road is 20%, which means that for every 100 meters of road, the vertical drop is
20 meters. The driver sees Bambi in the road and slams on the brakes. The coefficient
of kinetic friction between the tires and the road is 0.5. How much time does it take the
car to skid to a halt? (Hint: If 8 is the angle between the horizontal and the road, then
cos 8 = 0.98 and sin 8 = 0.2. Also g = 10 rn/s2.)
Solution: Here we will merely sketch a solution. You should try to work out the
details. Figure 6-10 shows the force diagram. Working out the vertical equation with
(F,)
= 0 gives
N = 9800 N.
Kinetic friction is then

F, = 4900 N.
Working out the horizontal equation
(there is a net force) gives
(F,)~ = 2 W N ,
m
a, = 2.9s2 .
Figure 6-10
Using the acceleration, the initial velocity, and the final velocity v2,= 0, we obtain
At=7s.
(Bambi was unscathed, but only because he jumped off the road in time.)
Chapter
6 .. ..... ... Friction and Air
The fact that &is generally less than &means that, in many situations, the
friction will switch back and forth from kinetic to static. Picture pulling a potato with arubber band, so static friction initially prevails. After the rubber band stretches enough,
the potato moves and kinetic friction takes over. But then the rubber band has contracted again, so the potato stops, and static friction prevails. By this time you are
pulling again. This is called sticWslip, for obvious reasons.
The sticWslip phenomenon is responsible for the squeal of bus brakes. It is also
responsible for the eh-eh-eh-eh-eh sound when you rub your hair after a shower or your
dishes after washing. These are some very practical applications of physics.
E. A i r resistance
We have neglected air resistance thus far mainly for one reason, and that is that
air resistance makes problems more difficult. Air resistance, or drag, depends on the
velocity that an object is going, and not always in a simple way. Thus it is difficult to
work problems without a computer.
There are a few things we can say about drag. Consider an object moving through
a substance, such as air or water. It is reasonable that a larger object would experience
more drag than a smaller one. We might also expect that the drag would be larger for a
faster moving object. Finally it is reasonable to expect that a dense fluid would exert
more drag than a "thin" fluid. It will not be a surprise, then, that the formula for drag is
Fdrilg
= CPAV*,
where C is a constant equal to about 0.2, p is the density of the fluid, A is the crosssectional area of the moving object, and v is its velocity. This equation is reasonably
accurate if the fluid is "roughed up" a bit by the object's passing through. For cars
driving and people walking through air and for fish swimming through water, this is a
reasonable assumption.
You do not have to memorize this equation, but do know how to use it. The force
is placed in the force diagram like all the other forces, except it points necessarily
opposite the direction of motion.
Example 1: A dog Nikki (7 kg) falls five stories (3.3 meters each) down from a
roof with his stomach pointing down. He is 0.2 meters tall, and 0.15 meters wide and
0.4 meters from nose to tail. The density of air is 1.29 kg/m3.
a. If we ignore air resistance,
what is the terminal velocity of
the dog?
b. What is the air resistance by the
time the dog gets to the
bottom?
c. Is air resistance a small or large
effect in this problem?
Solution: a. First, we DRAW A
DIAGRAM (Figure 6- 11). We are hoping
that the force of air resistance is small. We
have
Resistance
We use the kinematic equation that does not involve At, so we have
v; = v:
+ 2ady,
b. The cross-sectional area presented by the dog is (0.4 m)(O. 15 m) = 0.06 m2. It
does not matter how tall Nikki is. Thus
c. Air resistance is about 10% of the dog's weight (70 this implies that the
dog's weight is the dominant force all the way down, and we are justified in ignoring
air resistance. Our answer is good with no more than about 10% error.
Nikki is a stunt dog. He was unharmed.
Example 2: A rubber ball (radius 2 cm, mass 5 grams) is dropped from a height
of 50 meters. What is its velocity when it reaches the ground?
Solution: If we work out the problem as in Example l a above, we run into
trouble. Ignoring air resistance yields v, = 32 m/s. (You should work this out.) The
cross-sectional area is the area of a circle d,
not the total surface area of a sphere. If
we calculate the force due to air resistance at the bottom of flight, we obtain
whereas the weight of the ball is F, = mg = 0.05 N. The calculated force F,,is not
small at all in comparison. In fact, it is much larger than the force of gravity. Any
assumption that air resistance is neglible is not valid. We need a new idea in order to
solve this.
The new idea follows. If the ball has
fallen so far that it has stopped accelerating then the gravity force down and the
air resistance force up are balanced. Then
the force diagram would look like the one
in Figure 6- 12. The force equation
becomes
Figure 6 1 2
Chdpter
6 . ,.. . .... . Friction dnd Air
As the ball falls, its velocity increases until it begins to get close to 12 rnls. The
air resistance increases until it balances the force of gravity. Force balance occurs when
v = 12 mls. This velocity is called terminal velocity.
Example 3: A man (60 kg) falls from a very tall building (200 m). The crosssectional area for his fall is 0.3 m2.
a. What equation governs the fall?
b. What is his velocity when he
reaches the bottom?
DIAGRAM (Figure 6- 13). The force
equation becomes
F~c-mg=ma,
CPAV'- mg = ma.
Fprav
b. An analysis similar to the one in

Example 1 shows that ignoring air
Figure 6-13
resistance yields v2= 63 rnls. If we
calculate F,,, as in Example 1, we obtain
3 10 N, about half of the man's weight. This shows that ignoring air resistance is wrong
since 3 10 N is not small compared to F,, = 600 N . But Fa, is not large compared to
F,, either. Our calculations show that air resistance is too large to be ignored, but not
so large as to assure force balance. This problem is just too hard.
In this chapter we looked at friction and air resistance. Friction is a force which
opposes the slipping of surfaces, and it always acts parallel to the surface. Situations
involving friction fall into two categories: static and kinetic. If the surfaces are not
slipping, then static friction is the force which maintains the status. We solve for the
frictional force using force balance. The static friction cannot be larger than the
maximum, given by F,,, = pJ.
If the surfaces are slipping, then kinetic friction opposes the slipping. Its magnitude is given by F, = pJV.
The MCAT does not have many problems involving air resistance. Generally you
just need to know that air resistance is a retarding force which depends on the surface
area, density of the medium, and velocity of the object.
Resistdnce
The MCAT Physics
Book
Chapter 6 Problems

Sam is pulling a block of ice (mass m) along a smooth
level floor with a rope on which he maintains a tension of
magnitude T. The rope makes an angle a with the horizontal. The block is moving at velocity v for a time At. The
coefficient of friction between the ice and the floor is &.

In a laboratory experiment, a student places a block of
copper (2 kg) on a surface of a flat piece of steel and tilts the
steel. The student determines that for any angle up to 30"
(with respect to the horizontal), friction will prevent the
block from sliding, but larger angles necessarily allow the
block to slide. Consider the situation in which the block is
not moving, and the angle of the tilt is its maximum 30'.
(Use 9.8 m/s2 for the acceleration due to gravity.)
4.
What frictional force prevents the block from sliding?

A.
Air resistance.
B.
Static friction.
C. Kinetic friction.
D.
5.
1. What is the horizontal component of the tension?

A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
0
Tcosa
Tsina
T
What is the magnitude of the normal force?
A.
B.
C.
D.
B.
C.
D.
&mg
Tcosa
What is the magnitude of the normal force on the

copper block?
A. ON
B.
9.8 N
C. 17.0 N
D.
19.6 N
6. What is the net force on the block?

0N
A.
B. 9.8 N
C. 17.0N
D.
19.6 N
7.
What is the magnitude of the force of friction on the

block?
0N
A.
B. 9.8 N
C.
17.0N
D. 19.6 N
8.
What is the value of u the coefficient of friction?

A. 0.58
B.
0.97
mg
mg - Tcosa
mg + Tcosa
mg - Tsina
3. What is the magnitude of the force of friction F,?

A.
0
Rolling friction.
Tsina
Chdptei

A playing card (4grams) is held against a vertical
wall by a pencil (20 grams). The pencil is perpendicular to
the wall and exerts a horizontal force 0.4N.The coefficient
of static friction between the wall and the card is 0.2.
Assume the card is still. (We will investigate this assumption
in question 12.) (Use g = 10 m/s2.)
.... . . .. . Friction dnd A i r Resistdnce
14. What is the force of friction on the washer?
15. How hard would the man have to push to get the washer
moving?
A.
600N
B.
700 N
9. What is the gravitational force on the card?

A.
ON
B. 0.04N
C. 0.08N
D. 0.4N
C.
D.
B.
C.
D.
1000 N
Use the following information for questions 1620:

A car (mass m) is going up a shallow slope (angle 8
with the horizontal) when the driver sees a red light and
suddenly applies the brakes. The car goes into a skid as it
comes to a stop. The static coefficient of friction between
and the kinetic coefficient of
the tires and the road is 4,
friction is &.
10. What is the magnitude of the normal force on the card?
A.
80N
ON
0.04N
0.08N
0.4N
11. What is the magnitude of the force of static friction on
16. Which of the following best represent the force diagram

for the car during the skid?
the card?
A. O N
B. 0.04N
C. 0.08N
D. 0.4N
12. Is the force of friction sufficient to maintain the card

from sliding?
A. Yes, the frictional force is less than & N.
B. Yes, the frictional force is greater than 4 N.
C. Yes, the frictional force is greater than mg.
D. No, the frictional force is insufficient to hold up
the card.
A man is trying to push a washer (100 kg) along a
level floor, but the washer is not moving. He is pushing with
a horizontal force 700 N.The coefficients of friction are
0.6.(Use g = 10 rn/s2.)
4utic=
0.8and
17. What is the magnitude of the component of the force of
gravity parallel to the surface of the road?

A.
mg
B. mgcos9
C.
13. What is the normal force on the washer?
A. 600N
B. 700N
C. 800N
D. 1000 N
mgsin9
18. Which expression gives the normal force on the car?

A. mg
B.
mgcos8
C. mgsin8
D. mgtan8
The MCAT Physics
Book
19. Which expression gives the force of friction on the car?
B.
mg
mgsin 13
c.
PkN
A.
D.
25. What is the net force on the car if the turn is successful?
A. 6400 N
B. 7000N
C. 9000N
D. 10,000 N
20. What is the net force on the car during the skid?
A. 0
B.
C.
D.
26. Is the turn successful?

A. Yes, the net force F,,, is less than &N.
B. Yes, the net force F,,,,is greater than &N.
C. No, the net force F,,,is less than &N.
D. No, the net force F,,,is greater than &N.
@
@+mgsinO
@-mgsin6

A car (1000 kg) is driving on level road at a constant
speed 8 rn/s when it attempts to execute a turn about a curve
of effective radius 10 m. For the following questions, we
will assume the turn is successful, that is, the car performs
in the turn as the driver intends. The static coefficient of
friction between the tires and the road is 0.9,the kinetic
coefficient of friction is 0.7,and the acceleration due to
gravity is 10 m/s2.
21. What forces are acting on the car besides the gravitational force (down) and the normal force (up)?
A. A force toward the turn axis.
B. A force away from the turn axis.
C. A force in the direction the car is traveling and a
force toward the turn axis.
D. A force in the direction the car is traveling and a
force away from the turn axis.
Passage 1
The D N of~Discomfort is an amusement park ride

which consists of a large vertical hollow cylinder which
turns on its axis. A person of mass M enters the drum
(inside-radius R) while the drum is still and stands against
the wall. The drum begins to turn, until it achieves uniform
rotation with period T and the rider feels as if some force is
pushing him against the wall (see figure). Then the floor-drops down, so there is nothing touching the bottoms of the
rider's shoes.
22. What force provides the centripetal force?

A. Gravity.
B. The normal force.
C. Static friction.
D. Kinetic friction.
23. What is the acceleration of the car?
Assume the coefficientof friction between the rider's

clothes and the surface of the drum is p.
24. What is the normal force on the car?
A.
B.
6400N
7000 N
C. 9000N
D.
10,000N
--
88
Chapter
1. During uniform rotation, after the floor drops, what are

the forces acting on a rider, besides gravity acting down
and a force acting up?
A.
There is a force pointing inward.
B. There is a force pointing inward and a force
pointing in the same direction the rider is moving.
C. There is a force pointing outward.
D. There is a force pointing outward and a force
pointing in the same direction the rider is moving.
2.
3.
After the floor drops, what force provides the cenuipeta1 force?
A. The normal force.
B. Friction.
C. Gravitation.
D. Tension.
After the floor drops, which direction does the acceleration vector point?
A.
Toward the center of rotation.
B. Away from the center of rotation.
C. In the direction of the rider is moving.
D. The acceleration is zero.
4.
Which gives an expression for the speed v the rider is

going?
A. Rl21rT
B. RIT
C. 2zRlT
D. 21irlR
5.
What is the magnitude of the upward force on the rider?
Mg
B.
C.
D.
w g
&Iv2/r
phlv2/r
6. What values of p assure that the rider will not slide

down when the floor drops?
A. p must be less than v 2 / ~ g .
B. p must be greater than v 2 / ~ g .
C. pmust be less than R ~ ~ v ~ .
D. p must be greater than ~glv'.
6 . . . . . . ... . Friction and Air- Reststdnce
Passage 2
When an object moves through a fluid, there is a drag

force which retards its motion. Its magnitude is given by
F~~~
= CPAV~,
(1)
where C (= 0.2) is a constant, p is the density of the fluid, A
is the cross-sectional area of the object normal to the flow
direction, and'v is its velocity relative to the fluid.
Equation (1) is valid only if the fluid flow develops
whirls and eddies, that is, approaching the onset of turbulence. (If the fluid is essentially undisturbed, then the drag
force is actually greater than the value given in equation
[I].) The extent to which a fluid is disturbed is determined
by a dimensionless constant called the Reynolds number,
defined by
Re = pvllq,
(2)
where I is the linear size of the object and 7 is the viscosity
of the fluid, a measure of its stickiness. A table of densities
and viscosities is shown below.
'substance
air
water
mercury
p (kg/m3)
1.29
1.0 lo3
1.36 x lo4
7 (kglm s)
1.8 x lo-'
1.0 x lo5
1.6 x low3
If Re is greater than about 100, then equation (1) for

F,,, is fairly accurate. The Reynolds number also determines when turbulence begins. If Re is greater than about
2 x loS,then the fluid develops whirls and eddies that break
off from the flow in an essentially unpredictable manner,
i.e., turbulence.
(Note: g = 9.8 m/s2.)
1. For a cube 2 m by 2 m by 2 m moving through the air,

what velocities would make equation (1) valid?
A. Any velocity less than about
ds.
B. Any velocity greater than about
m/s.
C. Any velocity less than about 1 d s .
D. Any velocity greater than about 1 m/s.
2. For a car 1.5 m high, 2 m wide, and 3 m long, what is

the cross-sectional area A appropriate for equation (I)?
A. 3.5 m2
B. 3 m 2
C. 6 m 2
D.
9m2
GO ON TO ME NEXT PAGE

3.
Consider a car (1000 kg) of dimensions in the above

question. What is the drag force on such a car if it is
going 30 d s ?
A. 700N
B. 9800N
C. 20,000 N
D. 40,000 N
4.
How fast would a car have to be going for turbulence to

develop behind it?
Any velocity less than about 10" d s .
A.
B. Any velocity greater than about
m/s.
C. Any velocity less than about 1 mls.
D. Any velocity greater than about 1 mls.
5.
For a fish (0.1 m by 0.1 m by 0.1 m) swimming at

constant velocity in the ocean at 2 d s , what thrust
would it exert?
A. 0.01 N
B. 8 N
C. 80 N
D. 2 x 1 0 ~ ~
6.
On Venus, rain presumably consists of sulfuric acid

droplets in a carbon dioxide atmosphere. Consider a
water raindrop on Earth, and a drop of equal size and
mass of sulfuric acid on Venus. The acceleration due to
gravity on Earth's surface is approximately the same as
the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of Venus.
Consider the following possibilities:
I. The chemical composition of the drop.
11. The temperature of the atmosphere.
In. The pressure of the atmosphere.
Which of the above affect(s) the terminal velocity with
which rain falls?
A.
B.
C.
D.
A simple example of t h s is the analysis of a tennis

ball falling from a height at the surface of the Earth. The
ball consists of many atoms, connected by chemical forces.
In addition to the chemical forces, each atom is pulled by all
the pieces of the Earth. The first idealization we make is that
we can treat the ball as a point mass located at its center and
the Earth as a point mass located at its center. Second, we
ignore the gradient of the gravitational field, so that allows
us to approximate the force of gravitation on the ball as
F,,,= mg,where g = 9.8 m/s2 is a constant.
The third effect we generally ignore is air resistance.
If we ignore air resistance, we can calculate the idealized
maximum velocity.of the falling ball and then calculate the
force of air drag. This is given by
F~~~
= C~AV',
(1)
where C (= 0.2) is a constant, p (= 1.3 kg/m3) is the density
of air, A is the cross-sectional area of the ball, and v is its
velocity relative to the air. If the air resistance is small, then
we were justified in ignoring it.
If air resistance is important, it is possible that we can
still do the problem. If the ball falls far enough for there to
be a force balance F,,= 0, then we can use equation (1) to
solve the problem. (Actually we can only require that F,,, be
small compared to the other forces in the problem.)
For the following problems, consider a'ball of radius
0.03 m and mass 0.05 kg which is tossed upward at initial
velocity 3 m/s.
1. If there were no air, to what idealized height would the
ball travel?
A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
0.46 m
0.92 m
1.84 m
176.4 m
What is the initial drag force on the ball?
A.
3 x 1 0 ~ ~
I only.
B.
~ x ~ o - ~ N
IIandIII.
Iand III.
I, 11, and 111.
C.
0.7 N
D.
50N
3.
Most physical situations are quite complicated,

involving a number of forces or interactions even in the
simplest of cases. Much of the praxis of physics is breaking
a problem into parts, treating some parts exactly and
ignoring other parts. Once we have solved the idealized
problem, we can use the solution to evaluate the appropriateness of the idealizing assumptions.
If we are going to ignore air resistance, the drag force

must be small compared to
A. the normal force.
B.
the centripetal force.
C. the gravitational force.
D. the frictional force.
Chapter
4.
We have idealized the gravitational field as being .

uniform. If we remove that idealization, what happens
to the force of gravity as the ball travels toward the top
of its flight?
A. The force of gravity decreases.
B. The force of gravity increases.
C. The force of gravity decreases, then disappears at
the top.
D. The force of gravity decreases, then increases.
5.
In the idealized problem, the ball attains a certain

maximum height and afterward attains a final velocity
just before it reaches the ground. If air resistance is
included,
A. . the height is less, and the terminal velocity is less.
B. the height is less, but the terminal velocity is
greater.
C. the height is greater, but the terminal velocity is
less.
D. the height is greater, and the terminal velocity is
greater.
. . . .. . . . . . Friction
6. Cats falling from large heights often survive the fall. In

fact, it has been found that a cat falling from a building
at very great height (e-g., ten stories) has a better chance
of surviving than a cat falling from a lesser height (five
stories). Which, if m e , could best explain this?
A. The air is more dense near the ground.
B. The force of gravity on the cat is greater near the
ground.
C. Cats falling for a while tend to stretch out their
legs.
D. Greater velocity leads to a greater force of drag.
STOP
and Air Resistdnce
Chapter 7
Torques and Properties of Solids
A.
Introduction
In the first six chapters, we have talked as if all things were points or boxes which
move by sliding or gliding. In this chapter we will discuss the ability of real objects to
rotate, stretch, and bend. These topics are slightly more complicated than previous
topics, and their study quickly moves beyond the scope of the MCAT. For this reason,
we will cover only the main points and the simpler problems. Even so, you may find
this chapter difficult. So work carefully, and if you do not understand everything the
first time, work through the rest of the book before coming back to it.
B.
Language of Rotation
In Chapter 3 we discussed force,

mass, and motion. A large force on a
small mass will produce a large change in
velocity in a given time.
Now let's consider a 10-kg bicycle
wheel of diameter 1 meter and a 10-kg
pipe of diameter 5 cm, both at rest (Figure
7-1). Now we want to set them spinning
by giving them a twist. Which is more
difficult to set spinning?
Even though they .have the same
mass, the bicycle wheel has a greater
Figure 7-1
moment of inertia than the pipe, and
applying a twist to it will not have as great an effect as applying the same twist to the
pipe. For the simple shape of a ring (or pipe) tuning about a central axis, the moment
of inertia is
where M is the mass of the object and R is the radius. Do not memorize the equation,
but do remember the general rule: If two objects have the same mass, then the object
with greater radius will have a greater moment of inertia and thus will be more difficult
to set spinning from rest.
If an object, like a bicycle wheel, is spinning, then the period T is the time it takes
for one revolution. Thefrequency f is the number of revolutions per unit time, so
which is measured in [lls = Hertz = HzJ.

A torque is a twist, which can
-change the frequency at which an object
is spinning. A large torque on an object
with a small moment of inertia will
produce a large change in its frequency of
rotation. Note the similarity with the
second law of motion.
Notice that the moment of inertia
larger moment
depends also on the axis about which an
of inertia
object is turning. We can twist a barbell
about its central axis, or about a perpenFigure 7-2
dicular axis (see Figure 7-2). The moment
of inertia with respect to the perpendicular axis is greater than that with respect to the central axis, because of the greater
radius.
smaller moment
of inertia
C. Torque
In order to calculate a torque, we
always have a pivot Po(where the axis is)
and a force acting at another point P,. For
example, in Figure 7-3, the pivot is at the
crocodile's belly, and the force F acts at
his snout at P,. The torque is defined by
Theforce produces a
torque about point Po.
Figure 7-3
I
I
(
I
(
where 7is the torque, r is the distance from Poto PI, F is the size of the force, and $ is
the angle between the direction of the force and the line Poand PI.But is 4 the big angle
or the little angle? Well, it turns out it doesn't matter, since we are taking the sine, and
the sines of supplementary angles are the same. Recall that
sin 0" = 0,
(4)
sin 90" = 1,
sin 180" = 0.
Also the convention is that
counterclockwise = positive torque,
clockwise
-=
negative torque.
Up until this chapter, we have drawn force vector arrows anywhere as long as the
tail of the arrow sat on the object the force acted on. In doing torque problems, we must
be more careful to put the arrows in the right place.
Chapter
Example 1: A large tarot card (the

Fool) measuring 0.3 m by 0.4 m lies at the
lower left in the first quadrant of the xyplane, so that one comer is at (0.4 m,
0.3 m). See Figure 7-4. There is a force of
1.5 N in the y-direction located at point
(0.4 m, 0.3 m). The pivot is at the origin.
What is the torque?
Solution: We can see that the force
tends to turn the card counterclockwise,
so the torque is positive. We can find the
radius by the Pythagorean theorem:
. .. Torques a n d Properties
Figure 7-4
The angle $is shown in the two places in the diagram (corresponding angles with
the parallel lines). The sine of @canbe obtained by looking at the portion of the
diagram shown in Figure 7-5:
sin i$ =
opposite - 0.4 m
= 0.8.
hypoteneus 0.5 m
Putting all this together gives us
r= rFsin$
=(0.5 m)(1.5 N)(0.8)
= 0.6 Nm.
Figure 7-5
Example 2: A massless meter stick is supported by a fulcrum at the mark 0.3 m

(point B). A mass A of 10 kg is sitting at the the 0.1-m mark (point A). A mass C of 4
kg is sitting a the the 0.8-m mark (point C). Consider the forces on the ruler (Figure 76).
A
a. What is the torque due to the
B
C
weight of A about point B?
n
I I
I
I I
b. What is the torque due to the
I I
I
I
i
weight of C about point B?
4
w
c. What is the torque due to the
force of the fulcrum about
Figure 7-6
point B?
Solution: a. In this case, we have r = 0.2 m, F = mg = 100 N, sin@= 1, and the
torque is counterclockwise, so
n +
II .
(
r = (0.2 m)(100 N)(I) = 20 Nm.

b. In this case, the torque is clockwise, so we have
r = -(0.5 m)(40 N)(I) = -20 Nm.
c. In thiscase, r = O m , so r=ONm.
01 Solids
The MCAT Physics B&k

Example 3: A massless meter stick
is
hanging
from the ceiling at the mark%
////////////////
0.3
m,
point
B. Mass A (10 kg) is hanging
I
by string A (0.2 m long) connected to
C
point A at the 0.1-m mark on the meter
I A
1
stick. Mass C(4 kg) is hanging by string
;
' B '..
C (0.3 m long) connected to point C at the
rc '0.8-m
mark on the meter stick. (See
..., 4c
Figure 7-7.)
a.
What is the torque due to the
100 N
40 N
weight of A about point B?
4
b.
What is the torque due to the
weight of C about point B?
Figure 7-7
c.
What is the torque due to the force
of the fulcrum about point B?
Solution: This example looks exactly like the previous example; the strings are
only a slight modification. If we apply the strict definition for torque (equation [3]),
however, we will end up making an enormous effort, calculating r,and sin$A, and so
on. Thankfully, there is an easier way.
I
1,
Trick: The torque due to a force is not changed by moving the

force vector to a new point, as long as that point lies on the line
of the vector. That is, the new point must be on a line
containing the old point and running in the same direction as
the vector. We can think of this as sliding the vector along the
direction it is already pointing until we have 4 = 90".
In this example, this trick is the equivalent of sliding the force up the string to the
meter stick. In fact, the example is exactly equivalent to Example 2.
a.
T = 20 Nm.
b.
T = -20 Nm.
c.
.r=ONm.
Example 1, revisited solution: We
can slide the 1-5-N force down the edge of
the card to the x-axis. In this case we have
r = 0.4 m and sine = 1, so we have
7 = (0.4
?.
0.4 m
t
m.
m)(1.5 N)(l) = 0.6 Nm .
Once we move the force to a new point, so

that @ = 90"(and sin 4 = l), the torque is
especially easy to calculate. The line
segment from the pivot to the new
position of the force is called the lever
arm. In Figure 7-8, the lever arm is the
line segment
i, Fold
0.3 m
Fnw
w
Po
Figure 7-8
p1
Chdpter
7 . . . Torques d n d Properties of Solids
In drawing torque diagrams, it is helpful to keep the following principles in mind:

1. Gravity acts at the center of mass.
2. A string or rope exerts only a pulling force at the point of connection.
3. When a stick or pole meets a wall or floor, the force acts at the point of
contact.
a. If the surface is frictionless, then there is only a normal force.
b. If the stick is connected by a hinge, then the force is along the stick
(either pushing or pulling).
c. If the stick is connected to the wall or floor, then there are two forces,
one normil and one parallel to the surface.
We will use these in Section D.
Torques are useful in problems involving rolling and spinning, although most
such problems lie outside the scope of the MCAT. Torques are also useful in solving for
forces in structural problems, even if there is no motion. For these problems we use the
If a system is in static equilibrium, then
( F , , , ) ~= 0,
Pa)
(FKJY
= 0'
(5b)
and
7, = 0,
(5~)
no matter which point you choose as the pivot.
Equations (5a) and (5b) assure translational equilibrium, and equation (5c)
assures mtafional equilibrium. The following examples illustrate methods for calculating forces in static equilibrium.
Figure 7-9
Example 1: Consider the pulley

system shown in Figure 7-9.Mass m, is
2 kg, the radius of pulley A is 0.15 m, the
radii of pulley B are 0.3 rn and 0.1 m, and
the radius of pulley C is 0.05 m. What
mass m,is required for equilibrium?
Solution: A string has one tension
throughout its length, no matter what
pulleys it goes around. Thus the tension
TI= m,g, and T,= w.The radii of
pulleys A and C are irrelevant.

For equilibrium, we can take torques about the pivot of pulley B, keeping in mind
that counterclockwise is positive and clockwise is negative, so that
met= 0,
z,- r2= 0,
m,=6 kg.
For problems involving torque balance, the following methods often work:
1. DRAW A DIAGRAM.
2. Label all forces acting on the system.
3. Choose a pivot.
4. Calculate torques and set T,,=,,,=
0.
5. Use (F,,,), = 0 and (F,,J,= 0, or choose another pivot.
In the following example, it will be
helpful for you to work out the example
as you read along.
Example 2: A pole of mass m, and

length L sticks out perpendicularly from a
wall at point A. A wire connects the end
of the pole to a point B above point A,
making an angle 8 with the pole. A lamp
of mass rn, hangs from a wire at the end of
the pole. (See Figure 7-10.)
Figure 7- 11
I.
Figure 7-10
What is the tension in the wire
a.
from B to C in terns of m , , m,,g, L,
and 8?
What is the vertical force exerted
b.
by the wall on the pole?
DIAGRAM with all the forces on the pole
(Figure 7-1 1). We know m,g and m g but
not T, F,, and F,.Let us make a chart
showing the toques about A and C.
force
torque about A
m1g
--L2 mlg
torque about C
Make sure you understand why these two entries are correct. Then fill in the rest
of the chart on your own. The completed chart is shown on the next page.
Chapter
toraue about A
force
7 .. . Torques and
Properties of Solids
toraue about C
In the second column the entries for the torque due to Fxand Fyabout A are zero,
since r = 0 for these entries. In the third column, the entry for the torque due to Fxabout
C is zero because sin$ = 0.The torque due to T about C is zero because r = 0.
a. In order to find T, we can take torques about point A, since that eliminates F,
and Fy.The net torque must be zero because the system is in equilibrium, so we have
(taking the sum of the first column)
We solve for T and divide through by L to obtain
b. In order to find Fy,we can use one of two methods. Using torques and choosing
point C as a pivot yields
On the other hand, we could add up all the vertical forces and use (F,,), = 0,so
that
Fy+TsinO-m,g-m2g=0,
Fy= m , g + ~ g - T s i n O
=*~g+Qg-
m1g + 2m2g
sin 8
- 1
- -m,g.
2
This was a longer solution, so using torques is clearly the way to go.
The MCAT Physics
Book
Example 3: A pole of length L is

connected to a hinge at point A on a
vertical wall, making an angle a with the
wall. A horizontal string connects to the
wall at point B and the end of the pble at
point C. A box of candy of mass m hangs
from a string at the end of the pole. (See
Figure 7- 12)
a What is the tension in the
horizontal string?
b. What is the magnitude of the
force of the wall on the pole at
point A?
DIAGRAM with all the forces on the pole
(Figure 7- 13). We have the tension Tin
the horizontal string and tension mg in the
vertical string. We are left with a choice
for the force of the wall on the pole F,:
pushing or pulling? No matter, we can
draw it either way, and physics will tell us
later on if we have it right. Let's make the
force tensile, that is, pulling.
a. We choose A for the pivot, since
that choice kills the force F, but keeps T
and mg. Setting the sum of the torq"es
equal to zero gives
Figure 7-12
Figure 7-13
LTsin(90 -a)- Lmg sin a = 0,

LTcosa- Lmgsina = 0 ,
T=mg-
sin a
cos a
b. In order to find F,, we set the sum of vertical forces to zero, so that
(Fnedy
=0,
The negative sign tells us that we drew the F, vector the wrong way. (Perhaps you
knew this already.) The force is compressional.
E. Solid Properties
We have also been pretending that sticks and strings and such things are absolutely rigid, but we know that solid objects do stretch and bend and sometimes break.
Solids bend when you exert different forces on two sides of them. To keep things
simple, we will look at how a solid cylinder reacts to forces placed on it.
Chapter
Figure 7-14 shows two rods, made

of the same material and having the same
cross-sectional area, but the first rod L, is
longer than the second L,. If we apply the
same magnitude tensile force (that is,
pulling) to the four ends, then we expect
the rods to stretch. But the longer rod has
more material to stretch than the shorter
one, so the change in length AL will be
greater. On the other hand, we can even
. .. Torsues and Properties of Solids
A force of tension will stretch a long wire

more than a short wire.
Figure 7-14
AL
things out by taking the ratio -, which

L
is called the strain.
Now let's consider two rods of the
same length with different cross-sectional
areas (Figure 7-15). Again we apply the
same magnitude tensile force to the ends.
The thicker rod stretches less than the
thinner one. This time, to even things out.
we introduce the quantity stress, which is
F
.This should remind you of pressure,
Aforce of tension will stretch a thin wire

more than a thick wire.
since pressure is a kind of stress.

Figure 7-15
As long as the forces involved are
not too large, the resulting strain is proportional to the stress placed on the rod, so that
we can write
F =Ay-. L
-
lr-$A
(6)
where Y is the Young's modulus, having

] . might think that it is
units of [ ~ l m ~You
easier to stretch a rod than to compress it,
to beshortening
so (as longAL
asdue
you
do not
but
it turns
go too
outfar).
not The
1i
to a compressive force (pushing) is the

same as the lengthening AL due to an
,
equal-sized tensile force. The Young's
modulus depends only on the material.
t
A shear force is a force applied
perpendicular to the surface. Figure 7- 16
Figure 7-16
shows an example of four shear forces
applied to a block. Note that the net force
is zero and the net torque is zero. The block bends, a distance AX, and the relationship
between stress (FIA) and strain ( M L ) is
II
F A X
-=s-.
A
(7)
where S is the shear modulus with units [N/m2].
1-01

Shear is a bit more complicated than compression and tension. In Figure 7-17, the
compression force in the trunk is nearly uniform. The shear force in the large branch to
the right is composed of tension at the top of the branch and compression at the bottom
of the branch, as well as pure shear, If you want to weaken the branch, the most
effective place to cut is on top and the least effective place is in the middle, which is
called the neutral layer.
The proportionality in equations (6)
and (7) holds for a large range of forces,
but things will break if you pull them too
hard. Before they break, they may go soft.
The regime in which equations (6) and (7)
holds is called elastic. The point at which
the constituent particles of the material
begin to flow and cause the material to go
soft is the elastic limit. (See Figure 7-18.)
A shearforce involves a layer of

tension and a layer of compression.
Figure 7-17
F
A
plastic region
klastic limit
In this chapter we looked at using
torques in order to solve for forces in
-elastic
region
certain static structures. In problems of
this type we begin by drawing a force
AL.
diagram, as we have always done, but
L
now we need to be careful to locate the
force at the right place. Generally, in a
Figure 7-18
given problem, there will be forces we do
not know and do not need, and it will be
possible to choose a pivot solhat the torques of all such forces are zero. Then if we
write down the torque balance equation ,z, = 0,we will be able to obtain the magnitude
of the desired forces.
We also looked at the static properties of solids. It is helpful to think in terms of a
stress (force per area) being applied to a solid, and this stress causes a strain (displacement per length). For many materials stress and strain are proportional. Just realizing
this proportionality is the key to solving some problems.
Chapter
Chapter 7 Problems
.. . Torsues and Properties oi Solids
at the lower left corner. Force ( l o N) acts down at the

lower right corner. Force ? (30 N) acts to the right at the
upper right comer. (Take counterclockwise to be positive.)
Section A-C
A student nails a meter stick to a board at the meter
stick's 0.0-m mark. A force of 10 N acts at the 0.5-m mark
perpendicular to the meter stick as shown in the figure.
Force of 5 N acts at the end of the meter stick, making a
30' angle, as shown. Force ? of 20 N acts at the same point
providing tension but no shear. (Use counterclockwise to be
positive.)
4.
5. What is the torque of force B' about the pivot?

A.
-5 Nm
B. - 4 N m
C. -3 Nm
D. ONm
1. What is the torque of force A about the fixed point?

A. -5 Nm
B. ONm
C. 5Nm
D.
10Nm
I
2.
What is the torque of force

A. 4 . 3 3 Nm
B.
2.5 Nm
C. 4.33 Nm
What is the torque of force about the pivot?

A.
-8 Nm B. - 4 N m
C. ONm
D. 4 N m
6. What is the torque of force ? about the pivot?

A. -9 Nm
B. ONm
about the fixed point?
Section
3.
What is the torque of force

A. -20 Nm
B. ONm
C. 1ONm
D.
20 Nm
C about the fixed point?

A rectangular piece of metal (0.3 m by 0.4 m)is
hinged (@) as shown in the upper left comer, hanging so
that the long edge is vertical. Force A (20 N) acts to the left
7.
A massless meter stick sits on a fulcrum at its 0.4-m

mark. A 6-kg mass sits on the meter stick at the 0.2-m
mark. What mass is required to sit at the 0.9-m mark in
order to have torque balance?
A. 2.4 kg
B. 4.5 kg
C. 10 kg
D.
1 s kg
The
MCAT Physics 8ook

A book (4 kg) is hanging by a string connected to a
rope at point B. One end of the rope is connected to the wall
at point A, and the other end is pulled by a person at point C
. with a tension T. The rope from A to B is 1.5 m long and
horizontal, while the rope from B to C makes an angle 30"
with the horizontal. (See figure, in which we take counterclockwise to be positive.) (Use g = 10 m/s2)
8. What is the torque due to the weight of the book about

point B?
A.
4 N m
B. -30 Nm
C. ONm
D. 60 Nm
9. What is the torque due to the weight of the book about
point A?
A.
-6ONm
B.
-30 Nm
C. ONm
D. 60 Nm
10. What is the torque due to tension T about point B?

A. 4 N m
B. -30 Nm
C. ONm
D. 60Nm
balance. Assume the seesaw itself is uniform and

balanced. How far from the end should Scott sit in order
to achieve balance?
13. A meter stick of mass 0.6 kg sits on a fulcrum located

at the 0.3-m mark at equilibrium. At the 0.0-m mark
hangs a mass m. What is m?

Pulley B hangs from the ceiling and has a diameter d.
A string twined about the pulley leads around pulley A,
hanging from the ceiling, and to a mass M. A beam of length
L is attached to the pulley B itself and stretches out horizontally. A mass m is connected to the end. The system is in
static equilibrium. (See figure.)
11. What is the torque due to tension T about point A?

A. -60Nm
B. -30 Nm
C. ONm
D. 60Nm
12. Scott and Tina are playing on a seesaw which is 4

meters long with a fulcrum in the middle. lZna is 30 kg
and sits at one end, while Scott, 40 kg, sits so that they
104
Chdpter
14. What is the magnitude of the torque due to the weight

of mass m about the axis of pulley B?
A. mgdl2
B. mgd
C . mgW2
D. mgL
7 . . . Torques and Properties of Solids
18. What is the force exerted by the muscle?

A. 300 N
B. 350N
C. 500 N
D. 700N
One end of a massless rod connects to a vertical wall
at point B, and the other end (point C) is connected to the
wall at point A by a second massless rod, this one horizontal
(see figure). Point A is a distance d above B, and the
horizontal rod has a length I. In addition, a brick of mass rn
hangs from a wire connected to the rod at point C.
15. Which gives an expression for M?

A. mW2d
B. m u d
C . 2mUd
D. md/2L
Use the folbwing information for questions 1618:
The bones of the forearm (radius and ulna) are hinged

to the humerus at the elbow. The biceps muscle connects to
the bones of the forearm about 2 cm beyond the joint,
forming a second-class lever. Assume the forearm is 2 kg in
mass and 0.4 m long. The humerus and biceps are (nearly)
vertical and the forearm is horizontal. The hand holds a
mass A of 1.5 kg. The arm and mass are in static equilibrium. (Use g = 10 m/s2.)
bl
bone
elbow
19. What is the horizontal force of the wall exerted on the

oblique rod at point B?
muscle
bone
A.
-1 mg , to the left
B.
d
mg ,to the left
1
mg, to the right
D.
d
mg, to the right
1
hand
16. What is the magnitude of the torque of the weight of

mass A about the elbow?
A.
B.
C.
D.
3Nm
4Nm
6Nm
8Nm
17. What is the magnitude of the torque of the weight of the
d
1
20. What is the horizontal force of the wall exerted on the

horizontal rod at point A?
forearm about the elbow?
A.
A.
B.
C.
D.
1
mg,to the left
d
B.
d
mg, to the left
1
C.
-d1 nag, to the right
3Nm
4Nm
6Nm
8Nm
105

21. What is the sum oE the vertical forces of the wall
exerted on the rods?
24. What is the vertical force exerted by the wall on the

rod? .
25. What is the horizontal force exerted by the wall on the

rod?
Use the following information for questions 22-25

A rod (mass m, = 1 kg, length 2 m) of uniform cross
section sticks out perpendicularly from a vertical wall at
point A. A mass (m,=2 kg) hangs from a string connected
to the middle of the md. A wire connects the opposite end of
the rod B to a point C, which is 1 m directly above A. (See
figure.) (Useg = 10 mls2.)
22. If the torque due to the tension Tin the wire BC about
point A is 2, what is the ratio 2: T ?
(r,the follo,,,ing
for qucrrionr 2M8r
The femur of a human leg (mass 10 kg, length 0.9 m)

is in traction (see figure). The center of gravity for the leg is
one third of the way from the pelvis to the bottom of the
foot. Two masses are hung via pulleys to provide an upward
support: the mass rn, at the pelvis and the mass n,at the
foot. A third mass of 8 kg is hung to provide tension along
the leg. The body itself provides tension but no shear.
26. What is the mass rn,?
27. What is the ratio of %to m,?
23. What is the tension in the wire?
A.
B.
C.
0.3333
0.5
2
GO -ONTO THE NEXT PAGE
Chapter
28. What is the tension provided by the body?

A.
33N
B. 67 N
C. 80N
D.
100N
Section E
Consider a bone B of given size and shape (length 1,
cross-sectional area A, see figure). A force Facts to compress the bone, causing the bone to shorten by some tiny
length dl.
.. .
Torques and Properties of Solids
31. Bone D is similar to bone B, except that the circumference is 4 times that of bone B. If the same force F is
applied to it, by how much would the bone shorten?
A. 0.062541
B. 0.2541
C. 0.541
D. 4.041
32. How does the stress on bone D (see previous question)
compare with the stress on bone B?
A. It is one sixteenth as large.
B. It is one quarter as large.
C. It is half as large.
D. It is four times as large.
33. Bone E is the same shape as bone B but larger, so that it

has four times the length. If the same force is applied to
it, by how much does the h e shorten?
A. 6114
B. AU2
C. 61
D. 261
29. If the same force were applied to another bone C of 3

times the length and the same cross-sectional area, by
what length would the bone shorten?
A.
All9
B.
C.
D.
6113
dl
341
Use the following infonnationfor questions 34 and 35:

A rod (0.05 m) is attached to an axle (length 2 m,
circular cross section of radius 0.01 m) so that it makes a
right angle (see figure). A force is applied to the free end of
the rod which is perpendicular to both the rod and the axle.
so the rod exerts a torque r,= 4 Nm about the axis of the
axle where the rod connects to the axle. The other end of the.
axle is connected to a plate. Nothing is moving.
30. How does the stress on bone C (see previous question)

compare with the stress on bone B?
A. It is one third as large.
B.
It is the same magnitude.
C. It is three times as large.
D. It is 9 times as large.
The
MCAT Physics
Book
34. What force should be applied to the rod in order to

create the torque r,?
A.
2N
B. 8 0 N
C.
200N
D. 400 N
35. At the end of the axle which is connected to a plate,

there is a torque .r,exerted by the axle on the plate. How
does the torque z2compare with z,?
A. 7, is 40 times greater than z,.
B. z2is the same as 7,.
C. 7, is 40 times less than 7,.
D. The torque z, is less than 7,, but how much less
depends on the material which makes up the axle.
This is the simplest example of the subtlety involved

in model building.
1. The figure below depicts a human biceps, which when

flexed, has a cross-sectional area at its center of
5x
m2 and cross-sectional area at the forearm of
5 x lo-' m2. If the force exerted at the forearm is F,,,
what is the force exerted at the shoulder?
Passage
Engineers often make scale models of structures they

plan to build in order to test function and stability. Sometimes, however, structures fail even when the models
function, so engineers have developed extensive theory in
order to determine how to build proper scale models and
extrapolate reliable results from them.
At first we might assume that a model made of the
.same material as the intended final structure with each
dimension scaled by a single factor will accurately reproduce the behavior of the final structure. That this is not so
was known in antiquity by tragic observation, and it was
first explained by Galileo around AD 1600. We will not
present his detailed argument but will sketch some of the
conclusions.
To summarize Galileo's conclusion on this point,
when the linear dimensions of a structure are all increased
by a factor, the load across any surface increases by the cube
of that factor, whereas the strength, or the maximum force
the structure can hold across any surface increases by the
square of that factor. Therefore, as a structure gets larger, it
tends to become unstable, more susceptible to failure.
To illustrate the point, let's consider a block of metal
connected to a cylinder, which has much greater length than
its diameter and is connected to the ceiling (part A in
figure). The stress in the cylinder is the force per area across
a cross section. Each material has a threshold stress, such
that stress larger than the threshold causes the material to
fail. If all the linear dimensions are increased by a factor
(part B in figure), then the volume of the block increases by
the cube of the factor, as well as the mass and weight of the
block. The cross-sectional area of the cylinder increases by
the square of the factor, so the stress increases as the factor
itself.
2.
Referring to the previous question, if the stress at the

center of the biceps is 10' Pa, what is the stress at the
forearm?
A. 1 d ) ~ a
B.
10' Pa
C. 107pa
D. 10' Pa
Chapter 7
... Torques
3. The figure below shows two elephant statues which are

the same shape, both made of plaster of paris. Statue B
has twice the linear dimension of statue A. If statue A
weighs 40 N, how much does statue B weigh?
4.
In the previous question, how does the pressure (stress)

exerted by the right front foot of statue B compare with
the pressure exerted by the corresponding foot of statue
A?
B. It would be twice as large.
C. It would be four times as large.
D. It would be eight times as large.
5.
A lantern is hanging from a cable of negligible mass.

The cable breaks when the weight of the lantern
,. What would be the breaking weight for a
exceeds W
similar cable (same material, same cross section) which
was 10 times longer?
A.
B.
W'J100
Wm,/10
c. wm,
STOP
and Properties of Solids
Momentum
A.
Introduction and Definition
The 1970s saw the popularity of a certain physics toy, a toy in which five steel
balls hang in a line from threads (Figure 8-1, called Newton's Cradle). If you swing the
left ball to the left and let go, it swings down and hits the other four balls. Then the
right ball swings up and rises to almost the height of the initial release.
Now if you think about it, this is
totally amazing. There are five balls
undergoing collisions, and each collision
involves a rapidly changing force between
two balls (Figure 8-2). You might think we
would need a supercomputer to deal with
Desk toy or physics machine?
the problem. The very simple outcome
(one ball swinging to the right) hints that
Figure 8-1
there is some very simple underlying
physics as well.
before:
The idea that emerged from
experiments like this one was that moving
click click
objects contained a certain amount of
during:
"motion quality" (or "movage"), which is
dick c lck
a constant in any situation. In Figure 8-2
the movage begins in the left ball,
after:
CXXX)
transfers through the three balls, and ends
up in the right ball.
Figure 8-2
Can we write a formula for this
"movage"? Well, it is clear that a moving
Mack truck has more movage than a Tonka truck, so mass must be involved. And a
sprinter has more of it than a walker, so velocity must be involved. But is it
movage = mv
0
'
,
no
II
or
movage = mv2
'
or what? It turns out there are two kinds of movage, and we will study them in this
chapter and in Chapter 9.
iii
--
One kind of movage is momentum.

*
The momentum of a single object of mass m and velocity c i s

the vector
p'=
(1)
mc.
The total momentum of several objects taken as a system is the

vector sum
+p', +--.,
where p",,
..., are the momenta of the objects.
$tot=$,
(2)
z,,
'T
B.
Conservation of Momentum
Conservation is one of those words in physics which has a special meaning.

When a physicist says that momentum is conserved, she means that momentum
("movage") has a kind of permanence, that it cannot be created from nothing nor
destroyed. The formal statement is in the box:
If a system of objects is isolated (external forces are balanced).

then the total momentum of the system stays constant over
time, that is, the total momentum is constant. In particular,
A
Ptefore = Prtcer.
An external force is a force on one

of the objects in the system by an outside
agent, while an internal force is a force
between two objects in the system.
Example 1: A Mack truck
(9000 kg) going north at 10 rn/s encounters a Porsche (1000 kg) going south at
20 m/s. What is the velocity (speed and
direction) of the resulting fused mass of
metal?
(Figure 8-3). Let's discuss the collision
itself, shown in the middle part of Figure
8-3. There are two normal forces and two
gravitational forces which are all external.
These, however, are balanced. The force
of the truck on the car and that of the car
on the truck are internal forces.
(3)
10-m
before:
r [ G
20-m
S
FMP
dU"ng:
after:
Momentum is conserved in collisions.
F i r e 8-3
Chapter 8
.... ....... . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . Momentum
Momentum is conserved, and we write (in one dimension)
(.okgl(
") +
10S
(1000 kg) -20
= (10,000 kg)v, ,
Notice we used v,= -20 .ds, with the negative sign since it was going south and we
chose north to be positive. We have to pay attention to signs because momentum is a
vector quantity.
. Example 2: During the collision in Section A, the external forces are the tensions
in the threads and gravity, and these are balanced. The internal forces are all the
complicated forces among the balls. So momentum is conserved. We do not yet know
enough to show why exactly one ball jumps off the right end. Momentum would be
conserved, for example, if all five balls headed to the right at one fifth the impact
velocity of the left ball.
Example 3: Is momentum conserved while the left ball is swinging from

its initial height on its way to collision?
(See Figure 8-4.)
Figure 8-4
Solution: It certainly does not seem

so, since the ball starts with zero momentum and achieves a maximum momentum
just before impact. Figure 8-5 shows why
momentum is not conserved. The external
forces on the ball are unbalanced.
Figure 8-5
Example 4: Is momentum conserved for a crocodile dropped from a

ladder? If not, what is the external force?
Try doing this one yourself. (See Figure
8-6.)
Figure 8-6

Here is a major hint:
Whenever a problem involves a collision, especially one with
crunching, crashing, or sticking, you will probably want to use
conservation of momentum.
Example 5: A car (1000 kg) going

north (10 m/s) collides with a truck (1500
kg) going east (20 mls). Assume there is
negligible friction at the time of the
collision. What is the final speed and
direction of the combined cadtruck?
(Figure 8-7).
The total momentum before the
collision can be read from Figure 8-8.
1x10'"
*
,
.,---- -PIO?
S
C
3 x 10'
k
e
S
Figure 8-8
C.
before:
after:
Figure 8-7
From the Pythagorean theorem we

find the magnitude of the total momentum
p, = 3.2 x 10' kg ~ I SThe
. magnitude of
the velocity is
v = (3.2 x 10' kg mIs)/(2500 kg) = 13 d s .
The direction we obtain from
tan+ = (1 x 10' kg mIs)/(3x lo4kg mls).
Thus 4 = 18" north of east.
External Forces and Impulse
So what happens if there is an unbalanced external force? There must be a change

a
of momentumdp = &-p',. If the external forces on an object add up to F.,,, then we
can write
A
FM =mi;
(second law)
(definition of acceleration)
=-&
At'
Chapter
.... . .... . . ..... .. . . . ... . .. . Momentum
The change in momentum.& is called the impulse. So the impulse and the net force on
a system are related by
Ap = F",,At,
&
or in one dimension
T
Ap = F,,,,At
(5)
Whenever you see a problem involving force and time, you should think about momentum and write this equation.
Example: Why is bouncing on a trampoline less painful than bouncing off a

cement sidewalk?
A. The force is less because the mass of the sidewalk is greater.
B. The force is less because the area of the sidewalk is greater.
C. The force is less because the time of impact is less.
D. The force is less because the time of impact is greater.
Solution: Choice A reminds us of the equation F,,= ma, so let's see if that makes
any sense. If the mass of the sidewalk is large, then the sidewalk's acceleration will be
small, for a given force. Or else the force the sidewalk must experience fbr a
acceleration is large. It's hard to see how this makes a difference.
Choice B reminds us of the definition of pressure, so let's write the equation P =
F1'4. There is no way to reconcile choice B with this equation, however, since greater
area implies a greater force, for a given pressure.
Choices C and D remind us of equation ( 5 ) above, so we write 4 = F,At. The
force would be less for greater At, if the impulse is constant. Can we make sense of this
choice? The impulse, or change in momentum, is the same in either case, since the
body goes from moving downward to moving upward, and 4 = d v . Also, because of
the elasticity of the trampoline, a body is in contact with it for a longer time. So choice
D makes sense.
This question is reminiscent of many problems on the MCAT, so it is helpful to
learn how to think about them.
In this chapter we looked at momentum, which is a way of quantifying motion.
The momentum of a system is defined by p^,, = m , v', + mm,<+ .-..Momentum has a
kind of permanence, so an isolated system has a constant momentum in time, and we
can change the momentum of a system only by applying an unbalanced external force.
This is called conservation of momentum.
In any problem involving a collision, especially if there is crunching or sticking,
momentum is likely to be a key concept. In these problems the external forces are
negligible if the collision is brief, and the internal forces are very complicated. The
equation for conservation of momentum can quickly lead to answers.
The
MCAT Physics Book

4.
Chapter 8 Problems
In a certain physics experiment, carts run along a

frictionless, level, one-dimensional track. Cart A is 1 kg and
cart B is 2 kg. Initially cart A is moving to the right at
0.2 m / s , and cart B is moving to the left at 0.7 m/s. After
they collide, they stick together. (See figure.)
5.
What is the magnitude of the final velocity of the two

carts?
A. 0.4 m/s
B. 0.5 m/s
C. 0.9 m/s
D. 1 . 6 d s

In a certain physics experiment, carts run along a
level, frictionless, one-dimensional track. Furthest to the left
is cart A (1 kg) moving at 0.5 mls to the right. In the middle
is cart B (2 kg) moving at 0.2 m/s to the left. Furthest right
is cart C (3 kg) moving at 0.4 m/s to the left. (See figure.)
They all collide and stick together. Consider the three carts
as a system. Take "right" to be positive.
Two carts sit on a level, frictionless track and are

connected by a compressed spring and a string. At a certain
time, the string is cut and the carts fly apart. Cart A is 3 kg,
and cart B is 2 kg. After the carts separate, cart A has
velocity 0.2 m/s to the left. Take the system to mean carts A
and B, and let "right" to be positive.
7.
3. What is the total momentum of the system before the

collision?
A. -2.1 kg m / ~
B. - 1 . l k g d s
C. -0.6 kg mls
D. 2.1 kg m/s
What is the final velocity of the three carts?

A.
-0.35 m/s
B. -0.183ds
C. -0.1 m/s
D.
0.35 m/s
6. How would the analysis be complicated if the track

were not level?
Physics applies only to situations which are
A.
frictionless.
Gravity
would no longer be an internal force in
B.
the system.
C. Gravity would then be an unbalanced external
force.
Conservation of momentum does not apply to
D.
situations in which objects are speeding up or
slowing down.
1. What is the magnitude of the total momentum of the

system before the collision?
A.
1.2 kg m/s
B.
l.Skgm/s
C. 1.6 kg m/s
D. 2.7 kg m/s
2.
Assuming A and B collide first and C is still independent, what is the total momentum of the system just
after A and B collide?
A. -l.lkgm/s
B. 0.1 kg m/s
C. 0.9 kg m/s
question.
What is the magnitude of the total momentum of the

system after the string is cut?
A.
0.0 kg m/s
B. 0.6 kg mls
C.
1.0 kg m/s
D.
1.5 kg m/s
G O ON TO THE NEXT PAGE
ChaDter
8. What is the velocity of cart B after the string is cut?
8 .. . .. . . .. .. . . . ... . . . . . . ... . . Momentum
I
12. What is the recoil velocity of the rifle, that is, the
velocity of the rifle just after firing?
A. 0.75 m/s
B.
1.5mls
C.
120 mls

l b o ballet dancers collide in midair. Michael is 60 kg
and was going horizontally north at 0.5 m/s just before the
collision. Carol is 40 kg and was going horizontally west at
1.0 m/s just before the collision. Just after the collision and
well before they land on the ground, they stick together.
Assume they have no vertical velocity.

Carts A and B ride on a level, frictionless surface in
one dimension. Cart A is 5 kg and cart B is 10 kg, and they
are initially at rest. A force of 3 N to the right acts on Cart A
for 2 s. Subsequently it hits Cart B and sticks.
9. What is the magnitude of the total momentum just after

the collision?
10 kg m/s
B.
50 kg m/s
C. 51kgm/s
D. 70 kg m/s
13. What is the momentum of cart A just before the

collision?
A.
1.5 kg m/s
B.
3.333 kg mls
C. 6 kg m/s
D.
7.5 kg m/s
10. What is the magnitude of their velocity just after the

collision?
A.
0.1 mls
B.
0.5 mls
C. 0.7 mls
D.
1.1 mls
14. What is the final velocity of the two carts?

A.
0.222 m/s
B.
0.4 m/s
C. 0.5 mls
D.
1.2m/s
Use the following information for questions 11 and 12

A ripe is a long-barreled firearm which imparts a high
velocity to a small ballistic, called'a bullet, by exploding a
charge behind the bullet. (See figure.) A rifle is typically
4 kg, and the bullet is 10 grams..The velocity of the bullet
upon leaving the barrel is 300 m/s. Take the system to mean
the combination of rifle and bullet. Normally the rifle is fired
with the butt of the gun pressed against the shooter's
shoulder. Ignore the force of the shoulder on the rifle.
15. A car is traveling along the freeway at 30 m/s. The

driver brakes suddenly, and the books on the front seat
slide to the floorboard. It is obvious that gravity pulls
the books vertically to the floorboard, but what force
pulls them horizontally forward?
A.
Gravity, as well.
B.
The force of the car braking.
C. Momentum.
D, No force pulls the books forward.
butt
11. What is the momentum of the system just after the

bullet leaves the barrel?
A. 0.0 kg m/s
B.
3.0 kg m/s
C. 6.0 k g d s
D. 12.0 kg d s

Two asteroids collide in space and stick together. One
(1.25 kg) is traveling toward Sirius at a speed 4 mls just
before the collision. The other (4 kg) is traveling at a speed
3 1x11s just before the collision in a perpendicular direction.
16. What is the magnitude of the change in momentum

from the time before the collision to the time after the
collision?
A.
0 kg m/s
B.
12kgds
C. 25 kg d s
D. 35 kg d s
17. What is the final velocity of the two asteroids?
A. 2.5 d s
B. 5m/s
C.
12ds
D.
13ds
18. Carts A and B are on a level, frictionless, one-dimensional track. Cart A (1 kg) is initially going right at
7 mls, and Cart B (3 kg) is initially going left at 3 mls.
Cart A rebounds with a speed 3 m/s. What is the
velocity of Cart B after the collision?
A. 2.67 d s , to the left
B. 0.33 mls, to the right
C . 5.33 mls, to the right
D. 7.33 d s , to the right
19. A ball (0.3 kg) hits a wall and rebounds. Initially the
ball is going 7 mls, but after the rebound it is going
5 mls. What is the impulse imparted to the ball by the
wall?
A. 0.6 kg mls
B.
1.8 kg mls
C. 2 . 1 k g d s
D. 3.6 kg m/s
20. An object is initially at rest. A constant force of

magnitude 5 N acts on the object for 10 s. What
additional information would be sufficient to determine
the final momentum of the object?
A. None, the information is already sufficient.
B. The direction of the force only.
C. The direction of the force and the mass of the
object.
D. The mass of the object only.
21. Consider two tennis balls. Ball 1 is a good tennis ball.

When it is dropped from shoulder height, it hits the
floor and rebounds to 80% of its original drop height.
Ball 2 has gone flat. When it is dropped from shoulder
height, it hits the floor and stops. In the collision with
the floor, which ball receives the greater impulse?
A.
Ball 1, because the impulse is about double that
received by ball 2.
B. Ball 1, because the impulse received by ball 2 is
about zero.
C . Ball 2, because the impulse received by ball 1 is
about zero.
D. Ball 2, because the time of interaction at the floor
is very small.
22. A pendulum consists of a bob hanging by a rod from

the ceiling (see figure). The pendulum is pulled to the
left and released, so it swings back to its equilibrium
position. At the moment the rod is vertical and the bob
is moving, how many forces are acting on the bob?
A.
B.
C.
D.
One: gravity.
Two: gravity and tension.
Three: gravity, tension, and a normal force.
Three: gravity, tension, and a force to the right.
23. When a boxer is hit, he or she is often advised to "ride

the punch", that is, to move his or her head backward
during contact with the opponent's fist. Which would be
a reasonable explanation for this advice?
A. The impulse received by the head will be less
during the collision.
B. The impulse received by the head will be greater
. during the collision.
C. Increasing the time of collision will decrease the
force of contact.
D. Riding the punch may throw off the opponent's
timing.
Chapter 8
24. An apple drops from a tree. Which statement is true
dilring the fall?
The momentum of the apple is conserved.
A.
B. The momentum of the apple and the Earth is
conserved.
C. Momentum is not conserved whenever gravity is
not balanced by another force.
D. The impulse received by the apple is zero.
C.
D.
1. When a rocket ship expels gas in order to produce a

thrust, this is an example of
A. the first law of motion.
B.
C.
D.
2.
the second law of motion.

the third law of motion.
the law of universal gravitation.
Momentum
Yes, but the engine would not be as efficient

because of exhaust velocity.
Yes, it would work approximately as well.
3. What, according to the passage, is a disadvantage of

nuclear engines compared to conventional engines?
A. The molecular mass of the exhaust is too low.
B. The molecular mass of the exhaust is too high.
C. Some of the energy is lost as heat.
D. The mass expulsion rate is too low.
4.
A rocket ship is going forward at 2000 d s and fires its

engines in order to speed up but not turn. If the absolute
velocity of the exhaust gases is 3000 d s going backwards, what is the exhaust velocity u relative to the
ship?
A.
1000ds
B. 2 0 0 0 d s
C. 3000m/s
D. 5 0 0 0 d s
5.
We can model a rocket and its exhaust with two carts

sitting on a level, frictionless one-dimensional track.
The large cart (rocket) has a mass 10 kg, and the small
cart (exhaust gas), 0.1 kg. There is a small explosive
between them. At a certain time the explosive goes off
and the two carts go flying apart. The less massive cart
recoils with velocity 20 d s . The explosion is over in
about 0.2 s. What is the final velocity of the larger
mass?
A. 0.2 d s
B.
1.0 mls
C. 20 d s
D. 2000m/s
A rocket engine operates on the principle that hot gas

is expelled backwards through a nozzle in order to produce a
thrust on the ship in the opposite direction. Since momentum is conserved in this operation, we can derive the result
that the effective force on the ship is
where M is the mass expulsion rate, and u is the exhaust

velocity relative to the ship. Thus it is important for both M
and u to be high. The exhaust velocity varies as the square
root of the ratio of the temperature of the combustion
chamber and the molecular mass of the exhaust.
In conventional rocket engine design, large fuel tanks
carry liquid hydrogen and oxygen, and these react by
chemical combustion to yield water vapor. The water vapor,
due to its high temperature, shoots out of the nozzle, and the
ship is thrust forward.
In an experimental engine design, nuclear fission of
uranium is used to heat a supply of hydrogen to high
temperatures (around 2200 K). The hydrogen is then
expelled through a nozzle at 1.0 x lo4mls, about twice the
exhaust velocity as that for conventional rockets. One major
engineering problem involves the heat exchange between
the hydrogen gas and the site where the nuclear reaction
takes place. Engineers are improving the design so that the
hydrogen is heated at a faster rate than it is in current
designs.
. ............ ...............
6. In the previous question, what is a reasonable estimate

for the force which is exerted on the ship during the
explosion?
A. 0.4 N
B.
10N
C. 4 0 N
D. IOOON
Could neon gas work instead of hydrogen in the design

of the nuclear engine?
A.
No, since neon is not a product of uranium
fission.
B. No, since neon is an inert gas.
STOP
A. Introduction
To understand politics, it is said, you need to follow the money. To understand
physics, it is said, you need to follow the energy. If we understand where energy is
coming from, how it flows, and where it ends up in any physical situation, then we
understand a lot about the physics of the situation.
"What is energy?'you may ask. Actually energy is harder to explain than you
may think. In the history of physics, the concept of energy did not suddenly arrive as a
mature concept out of Newtonian theory, like Athena emerging from Zeus's head.
Rather, it began as a hazy idea which grew in richness and clarity during the 1800s. In
this chapter we can do no better, so we will introduce the concept slowly.
In standard English, energy is defined as the capacity for performing something
useful. We can obtain energy from various places and then we can use it usefully or
squander it, and once it is gone, it is gone.
In physics also, energy is the capacity for doing useful things. On the other hand,
energy is a thing which cannot be created from nothing or destroyed, only transformed
from one form to another. Following energy through its forms is what much of physics
is all about.
As you can see, the physics understanding is distinct from the popular understanding, and we will want to pay attention to the differences between the two.
it. When a force (which can be due to a pair of hands, a rope, gravity, or anything) acts
on an object which moves a distance &, the work done by the force on the object is
where is the angle between the direction of the force and the direction of the
displacement &.The units for work are [ kg m2/s2= Nm = Joule = Jl.
?he total work done on an object is
where F, is the magnitude of the net force and # is the angle between pwand
z.
The
MCAT Physics Book

Keep in mind that if the force is in the same direction as the motion, then
cos4 = 1. If the force exactly opposes the motion, then cos4 = -1. If the force acts
perpendicular to the motion, then cos 4 = 0.You should know these angles without
pausing to think about them.
Hint: Whenever a problem on the MCAT mentions a force and a distance, you
should think "WORK!" and write down the equation for work. Even if work and energy
are not mentioned, it is probably a key idea for understanding at least one of the
problems.
Example 1: A woman is pushing a cart of mass m slowly at constant speed up an

incline which makes an angle 8 with the horizontal. The cart goes from the floor level
to a height h.
a. How much work does the woman do on the cart in terms of m, g, h, and 8!
b. What is the total work done on the cart?
Solution: a. First, we DRAW A DIAGRAM (Figure 9-1). We need to find F,and
AK. We choose a "horizontal" and
"verticai" and resolve the gravity vector
into components (Figure 9-2).
First we look at the "horizontai"
components. The words "constant speed"
and "straight path" imply that the cart's
acceleration is zero, and the net force on it
is zero, so we write
(F,), = 0.
From Figure 9-2 we obtain
(F,,,), = F,- mg sin 8.

Combining these equations gives us
F,-mgsin8= 0,
F, = mg sin 8.
We can find AK by trigonometry. If we
look at the large triangle in Figure 9-2,
then we have
Figure 9-1
TN'
h
sin8 = --,
&
&sin 8 = h,
&=- h
sin 0 '
The vectors Fwand 2 point in the
same direction, so cos @ = 1. Thus the
work done by the woman on the cart is
h
sin 0 '
W, = (mg sin 8)W, = mgh.
Figure 9-2
This is the answer to question a.

But what is this? The quantity 8 dropped out of the equation (!). It takes the same
energy to go a long way up a shallow incline as it does to go a short way up a steep
incline. In fact:
The work done depends only on the height climb h from the
begnning to end and not at all on the path between the two.
The energy a woman requires to push a cart from one point to a point which is
height h higher is mgh, even if the path is complicated. See Figure 9-3.
Work done by' woman

is zero for this or ti on
Work done by woman is

negative for this portion
Total work done by woman is the

same as in Figure 9-1
Figure 9-3
b. What is the total work done? Well, since the speed and direction are constant,
the acceleration is zero, and F,,, = 0,so that
w,, = 0.
What? The poor woman works from dawn till dusk, and the total work done is
zero? Where did the energy go? Well, if we were to figure out the work done by gravity,
we would find that it comes to -mgh, so the work done by gravity cancels the work
done by the woman. It seems like a sad story, perhaps, but this will not be the final
word on gravity (see Section D).
- - __------__---.-.
Example 2: How much work is

done by the gravity of the Sun on the
Earth in one day?
(G = 6.67 x lo-'' m3/kg s2,
My=2~1~wkg,~-=~~l~24kg,
a&
r' ,:
,
,
distance from Earth to Sun =

1.5 x 10" m).
Solution: F i t , we DRAW A
DIAGRAM (Figure 9-4). Once we draw
the diagram, the answer is clear. The
vector FIn,is perpendicular to the
Figure 9-4
displacement 2,so we have cos t j = 0 and

w,,=0.
The
MCAT Physics Book
C. Energy of Motion
So how much energy do we put into an object if we push it for a while? Let's try
another simple example, this time in one dimension.
Example: Consider an orange, which we have smeared with a special grease so

there is no friction. It is initially at rest, so v,= 0. We push it in one direction with a
force F over a distance Ax. What is the work done by the force, in terms of the mass m
and final velocity v2 of the orange?
Solution: We have an expression for the force given by the second law of motion:
F=ma
(definition of acceleration)
(since the orange starts from rest, v, = 0)

Also we have
(Erom Chapter 2)
1
=-v,At.
2
Since cos 4 = 1, we have
W=FAx
Notice that the factor At drops out.

If we push on an orange initially at rest until it is going at velocity v,, then the
1
amount of work we have done on it is - m v t . This indicates that we can define the
2
kinetic energy, the energy of an object due solely to its motion, as
Wow! This is just the kind of expression we saw near the beginning of the
Chapter 8. We have completed the circle. But now we have to find out how to use this
expression.
Work and change in kinetic energy are related by the following expression.
Worksnergy theorem, simple version

If the total work done on an object is W,,,,
then its change in
kinetic energy is given by
W,
=A&
(4)
---1 mvz2 - -mv,

1
2.
2
2
A
Some examples should clarify this.
Example 1: What is the change in kinetic energy for the woman's cart in the
previous section?
Solution: We calculated W,= 0, which tells us that the change in kinetic energy
is zero. The cart is going the same speed at the end of the problem as at the beginning.
Thus we have dE, = 0. So this result is consistent with the above equation.
Example 2: What is the change in kinetic energy of the Earth in one day?
Solution: According to the previous section, W,o,=0, and indeed the Earth's
speed is constant from one day to the next. The kinetic energy change is zero. Here we
are assuming a circular orbit, which is almost correct.
Example 3: A bullet of mass 20 grams is fired from a gun, so that its speed is
700 mis in air. The bullet enters a tree stump and embeds 2 meters inside. What is the
average force exerted by the stump on the bullet? (Ignore gravity.)
Solution: First, we DRAW A DIAGRAM (Figure 9-5). At first this problem
looks like a momentum conservation problem, because of the collision and crunching
of wood. If we try to apply conservation of momentum, however, we just do not get
anywhere.
The key is to notice that force and
distance are both mentioned in the
problem. Immediately we think of energy.
We know the change in kinetic energy of
the bullet
AEK= Em - EKL
):
= 0J - i(.020
2
kg)(700
= -4.9 x lo3J.
This is also W,,,and we can set W, to
Fdxcos#, where cos# is -1. Thus
4 . 9 x lo3J = F(2 m)(- l),
When a bullet embeds in a stump,

kinetic energy is converted to heat.
Figure 9-5
The
MCAT Physics Book

Sometimes, as an object moves along a path, the net force on it changes, or else
the displacement changes direction. We can still consider calculating the total work on
the object.
Work-energy theorem, complicated version

If an object moves along a path, we can calculate the total work
done on the object by dividing the path into tiny pieces and
calculating the work done for each piece. The total work W,,,,is
the sum of the work for these pieces. The change in kinetic
energy is given by
Y o , = *E,
(the same formula as before).
i
We will see examples of this in future chapters.
D. Potential Energy and Conservative Forces

Potential energy is the energy of an object due to position alone. Gravitational
potential energy is the energy associated with the position of an object in a gravitational
field. How does this work?
Remember the woman in Section B? She pushed a cart to a new height h, doing
work W = mgh. It would make sense to define gravitational potential energy as
E, = mgh ,
(5)
where m is the mass of the object in question, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h
is the height. The height is measured relative to some standard, such as sea level or
street level. It does not matter what the standard is, because we are always interested in
changes in height or changes in potential energy. This formula works for all situations
near the surface of the Earth.
Any force with an associated potential energy is called a potential force or a
conservativeforce. Examples include the forces due to springs and the electrostatic
force (see Chapter 14). The force the woman exerts on the cart and magnetic forces are
not conservative forces.
Example: We are now in a position to FOLLOW THE ENERGY for the woman
and the cart. It is clear that the energy ends up as potential energy, How does the energy
start? Kinetic? No, because the cart is hardly moving both before and after its trip. The
energy starts in her muscles, where it was stored as chemical energy. Thus the flow of
energy is chemical to gravitational potential energy. -
E. Conservation of Energy
Sometimes physicists use strange words to mean normal things (They say
"scalar" when they mean "number", for example.) Sometimes they use normal words to
mean normal things, but they mean it a little differently; for example, force and energy.
Sometimes they use normal words to mean something completely different from the
standard meaning, and this leads to much confusion.
In common parlance, "conservation of energy" means frugal use of energy, a
responsibility of good citizens.
In physics, "conservation of energy" means that energy, by decree of Nature,
cannot be created from nothlng nor destroyed, but it can flow from one form to another
or from one place to another. If we calculate the total energy in a closed system at one
time, the total energy some time later will be the same. Energy is conserved.
Energy Conservation
The energy in a closed system is conserved, that is,
constant in time.
In the table are listed some of the energy forms which may appear on the MCAT.
type of energy
kinetic
potential
gravitational potential
mechanical
chemical
electrical
nuclear
sound
light
heat
description
bulk motion
object's position
object's position in gravity
MCAT word for kinetic + potential
batteries, muscles, etc.
moving electrons
energy in the nucleus, radioactivity, fission reactor
pressure waves
electric, magnetic field waves
random motion of particles
The principle of energy conservation in the previolis box is the Grand Statement,
almost too grand to be useful in most problems. For doing problems it is better if the
number of kinds of energy considered are few, like two: kinetic and potential.
Energy Conservation, Simple Statement

If there is no friction, or crunching, or nonpotential forces
(except forces perpendicular to the motion), then
EKl+ EPl = EKZ+ EP2.
(6)
Use this principle in problems in which gravity does all the work.
127
The
MCAT Physics Book

Example 1: The woman of Section B lets go of the cart at the top of the inciine.
The cart roils to the bottom.
a. What is the final velocity?
b. Describe the energy flow from start to finish.
Solution: a. First, we DRAW A DIAGRAM (Figure 9-6). We need to check all
the forces. Although the normal force is nonpotential, it is perpendicular to the motion,
so it does no work. The gravitational force is a potential force. We conclude that the
simple version of energy conservation applies. Thus we write
EK1 + E~~= EK2 + E ~ 2 '
1
O + r n g h = - m ~ , +0.
~
2
Solving for v, yields
Vz
=&K.
Note that the mass has dropped out.

This should remind you of the siktion in
When the cart rolls down,
which a massive object and a light object
gravitational potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy.
are dropped at the same time. They fall at
the same rate with the same acceieration
Figure 9-6
and same velocity as each other, all the
way down.
b. The energy flow is chemical (woman's muscies) to potential to kinetic.
Example 2: A pendulum of length 0.7 meters is pulled so that its bob (0.2 kg) is
0.1 meters higher than its resting position. From that position it is let go.
a. What is its kinetic energy at the bottom of the swing?
b. What is its velocity at the bottom of the swing?
c. What is the work done by the string tension during the swing from start to
the bottom?
Solution: a. First, we DRAW A DIAGRAM (Figure 9-7). We check the forces.
The tension is perpendicular to the direction the bob is moving at every moment. This
is true even though the bob is moving in an arc and the tension is changing direction
during the swing. Thus tension does no work. Gravity is a potential force, so
equation (6) applies and we can write
EKI+ EpI = EK2 + Epz*
0 + mgh, = EK2+ 0 ,
E, = mgh,
.-.
Sm)
=(0.2kg) loT (O.lm)=0.2J.
--iL
0.1 m
b. Now, we obtain the final velocity
Figure 9-7
from
1
2
-mvz2= mgh, ,
v2
=a
m
=1 . 4 ~ .
c. We have already decided that the tension does no work.
128
F.
Efficiency of Energy Conversion
Often we have energy in one form and we want to convert it into another form,
for example, from chemical energy in gasoline to kinetic energy of a car. It may be the
case that energy cannot be destroyed, but it can end up in an inconvenient.form such as
heat. In this case we define the efficiency of energy conversion as follows:
Efficiency =
energy in desired fonn

x 100%
energy in original form
(7)
i
Example 1: A car (800 kg) goes slowly up a hill from the base to a height of
300 meters. It uses 245 grams of fuel in the form of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane. The
following overall reaction occurs in the car:
kcal
mol
AHRac~o"
= -1 3 10-.
What is the efficiency of the engine? Assume no energy loss due to air resistance. Use
1 kcal = 4184 J.
Solution: First we calculate the energy in desired form, which is the potential
energy:
Ed, = mgh
Next we calculate the energy used:
The efficiency is 2'4 lo' x 100% = 20%. (See Figure 9-8.)

1 . 2 ~ 1 0 ~ ~
We can speak of efficiency in a
collision as well. In a collision, kinetic
energy is often converted to heat and
chemical energy. If this is not the case,
that is, if kinetic energy before the
collision is the same as after, then the
collision is called elastic. Otherwise it is
called inelastic. If everything is stuck
together in the end, the collision is called
completely inelastic.
Gasoline chemical energy is

converted to gravitational potential
.
energy and heat.
Figure 9-8
The PICAT Physics Book

Example 2: Two cars collide in one dimension in a completely inelastic collision.
One car is 1000kg, initially going east at 1 0 d s . The other car is 1500 kg, initially
going west at 15 m/s.
a. What is the velocity of the twisted metal afterward?
b. What is the efficiency of the collision?
Solution: a. Did you remember that crunching or smashing generally means we
must use the conservation of momentum? Let us take east to be positive (see Figure 99) and we write
P I =P 2 9
b. Now we need to know the kinetic energy both before and after the collision.
before:
1
EK2= -(2500 kg)
2
= 3.1 x lo4J.
Thus the efficiency is
after:
During the collisi~n,some kinetic

energy is converted to heat.
Figure 9-9
G. Power
Power is the rate at which energy is produced, consumed, or transformed, that is,
Example 1: A car (1000 kg) traveling 55 mph has a forward cross-sectional area
of about 4 m2. What is the power dissipated by air resistance? (Use 1 mph = 0.45 mls.
Recall that the formula for air resistance is F,,= C ~ A Vwhere
~ , p, the density of air, is
1.29 kg/m3and C = 0.2.)
Solution: First, we DRAW A DIAGRAM (Figure 9-10). We have only one

formula to work with (P = AElAt), but we have neither an energy nor a time. But we
have several formulas for energy, so let's try to connect it with the force given in the
problem. We have
p =AE = F,,Axcos$ ---<,Ax

At
At
At '
since cos $ = -1. We can substitute for F,.

Ax
And the expression - reminds us of
At
velocity, so we have
Fengin=
t
Figure 9-10
P = -F,,v = - ( c P ~ v 2 ) v
= -1.6
x lo4W.
The minus sign indicates that the energy is dissipated by the force.
Example 2: The same car is traveling 65 mph. What is the power dissipated by
air resistance?
Solution: P = -2.6 x lo4W.
Why is there such a large difference?
Pulleys are somewhat tricky, but with some practice, problems including pulleys
become simpler. There are two underlying principles:
1. The tension in a single rope is the same all along the rope,
even if it goes over and under pulleys.
2. If a rope is pulled at a constant rate by a hand, the work done
by the hand on the rope is the same as the work done by the
rope on some load.
Example 1: A person is hanging in air by grabbing the two ends of a rope which
is draped atound a pulley. If the person is 60 kg, what is the tension in the rope?
The
MCAT Physics Book

DIAGRAM (F~gure9-11) showing the
forces on the man. The tension on the
two sides of the rope is the same, so we
can call it T. The person is not accelerating, so the forces add to zero, giving
T+T-mg=0,
Figure 9-11
Example 2: A rope, one end of

which is connected to the ceiling, passes
through a pulley and then goes up, so that
an upward tension is maintained. A mass
30 kg is hung on the pulley. What is the
tension in the rope? (See Figure 9-12.)
Solution: There are two ways to do
this problem. One is to realize that this is
essentially the same as Example 1, so that
1
T = - mg = 150 N.(See Figure 9-13.)
2
The other way is to imagine pulling
up on the rope 1 meter. A bit of study of
the diagram will show that the mass will
rise 0.5 meters. since 0.5meters of rope
will be pulled from each side of the
pulley. The work done by T must be the
same as the work done on the mass. The
work done by the rope is W,= FAxcos q5 =
T ( 1 m). The work done on the mass is the
change in potential energy W,= mgdh =
mg(0.5 m).Thus
w,= w2,
T(1 m) = mg(0.5 m),
Figure 9-12
Figure 9-13
Example 3: A rope has one end

connected to the ceiling. It loops through a
pulley with a downward weight of 500 N,
goes up to the ceiling where it loops over a
second pulley and connects to a mass m. If
everything is in equilibrium, what is m?
(See Figure 9- 14.)
Solution: This looks different from
the previous problem, but in fact it is
essentially the same. The tension T which
pulls up on mass m is numerically the
same as the tension T pulling up on both
sides of the first pulley. So we have
la
Figure 9-14
T = mg.
So m = 25 kg.
Another way to obtain the above
equation is to DRAW A DIAGRAM
showing the forces on both masses (Figure
9-15).
Figure 9-15
In this chapter we explored the concept of energy. Whenever you read about a
force and a distance through which the force acts, you should think immediately of
work W = Fdrcos 4. This will be the key to answering some of the questions, even if no
numbers are involved.
If a net force acts on an object, the kinetic energy E, = -mv2 of the object is
2
changed according to W,,,,
= 4.
The total work gives the size of the energy flow into
an object. Another form of energy is gravitational potential energy given by E, = mgh.
It is important to keep track of the energy flow because energy is conserved. That is,
energy cannot be created from nothing or destroyed, but it can be transferred from one
form to another.
The rate at which energy is transformed is called power P = MAt.
The MCAT Physics
Book
Use the following informationfor questions 6 and 7.

A man is carrying a heavy box (mass 30 kg) at
constant velocity 1.5 m/s across a room. It takes 10 seconds.
(Use g = 10 m/s2.)
Chapter 9 Problems
Section
6.
What are the forces acting on the box?

A.
The force of gravity, down.
B. The force of gravity, down; and the man's force,
UP.
C. The force of gravity, down; normal force, up; and
man's force, forward.
D. The force of gravity, down; man's force, up; and
man's force, forward.
7.
What is the work done by the man on the box during

this time?
A. 0 Joules
B. 2250 Joules
C. 3000 Joules
D. 4500 Joules
Use the following infonnationfor questions 1-5:

A woman pulls her daughter on a sled by a rope on
level, packed snow. The woman is 70 kg with red hair,
earnest looking. The daughter is 20 kg with brown hair and
wild curls. The sled is a Firestone-200 of mass 10 kg which
slides along the snow with a coefficient of friction 0.09. The
tension in the rope is 30 N, making an angle of 30" with the
ground. They are going a constant 2.5 m/s for 4 s. (Use g =
10 m/s2.)
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is the work done by the rope on the sled?

A.
0 Joules
B.
150 Joules
C. 260 Joules
D. 3000 Joules
What is the work done by the normal force on the sled?

A.
0 Joules
B.
150 Joules
C.
1500 Joules
D. 3000 Joules
8.
What is the work done by the force of gravity on the

sled?
A.
-3000 Joules
B. 0 Joules
C.
1500 Joules
D.
3000 Joules
What is the magnitude of the cart's momentum at this

time?
A.
12kgds
B.
8kgm/s
C. 32 Joules
D.
64 Joules
9.
What is the cart's kinetic energy at this time?

A.
12kgm/s
B. 8kgm/s
C.
18 Joules
D.
32 Joules
Use the following information to answer questions 8 and 9:

A toy cart (4 kg) is rolling along level ground. At a
given time it is traveling 3 m/s and accelerating at 4 m/s2.
What is the total work done on the sled?

A. 0 Joules
B.
C.
D.
5.
Section
150 Joules
260 Joules
3000 Joules
What is the work done by friction on the sled?
A.
B.
C.
D.
-3000 Joules
-260 Joules
0 Joules
3000 Joules
14. What is the change in kinetic energy during the

braking?
A.
-2 x 10' Joules
B. 0 Joules
C. 2 x 10' Joules
D. 4 x 10' Joules

A horse pulls with a horizontal force F on a wagon
full of belongings (mass M). The horse and wagon are
traveling at a constant speed v on level ground. (Use g =
10 m/s2.)
10. How much work is done by the horse on the wagon in
time At?
A. -FvAt
B. 0 Joules
C. FvAt
question.
15. What is the work done by the road on the car?

A.
-2 x 10' Joules
B. 0 Joules
C. 2 x lo5 Joules
D. 4 x 10' Joules
11. How much work is done by gravity on the wagon in

time At?
A. -MgvAt
B. 0 Joules
C. MgvAt
question.
16. If the force of the road on the car during the stop is
constant, what is that force?
A.
500 Newtons
B.
3000 Newtons
C. 5000Newtons
D. 8000 Newtons
12 A toy cart is initially at rest. A constant force of 10 N is

applied horizontally for 20 seconds, so the cart begins
to move along the level frictionless floor. What is the
kinetic energy of the cart just after the 20 seconds?
Section
A.
B.
C.
D.
Use the following information to answer questions 17-18:

A cat (4-kg) drops from the roof to the ground, a
distance of 3 meters. (Use g = 10 m/s2.)
100 Joules
200 Joules
2 x lo4Joules
question.
17. What is its kinetic energy just before it reaches the

ground?
A.
0 Joules
B.
18 Joules
C.
120 Joules
question.

A car (1000 kg) is going 20 rnls on a level road and
slams on the brakes. The skid marks are 25 meters long.
13. What forces are acting on the car while it is coming to

a stop?
A. Gravity, down; and normal force, up.
B. Gravity, down; normal force, up; and a force
backwards.
C. Gravity, down; normal force, up; and a force
forwards.
D. Gravity, down; normal force, up; the engine force
forwards; and a brake force, backwards.
D and E
18. What is its velocity just before it reaches the ground?

A.
3.9 m/s
B.
5.5 m/s
C.
7.7 m/s
D.

question.

Use the following informution to answer questions 19-20:
A hammer of mass m is dropped from the roof, so that
it falls a distance h to the ground.
19. If the height h were doubled, how would the terminal

kinetic energy of the hammer be changed? (The
terminal kinetic energy is the kinetic energy just before
it hits the ground.)
A. The kinetic energy would be the same.
B. The kinetic energy would increase by 41%.
C. The kinetic energy would double.
question.
20. If the height h were doubled, how would the terminal

velocity of the hammer be changed? (The terminal
velocity is the velocity just before it hits the ground.)
A. The terminal velocity would increase by 41%.
B. The terminal velocity would increase by 59%.
C. The terminal velocity would double.
question.
Use the following information to answer questions24-26:

A cart runs along a swaight level road by burning
propane. For the cart, we can define efficiency as the ratio of
energy expended to overcome air resistance to the energy
available in the propane. The enthalpy for the combustion of
propane
is given by
AH,
J
mole
= - 2 . 2 2 ~lo6
In a given experiment, the cart (of mass m) wavels a

distance D at constant velocity v on a level road. It consumes n moles of propane during that time. The force due to
the air resistance is F,, which is proportional to the square
of the velocity.
24. Which expression gives the efficiency of the cart?
Section F
Cart A (1 kg) and Cart B (2 kg) run along a frictionless level one-dimensional track. Cart B is initially at rest,
and Cart A is traveling 0.5 rnls toward the right when it
encounters Cart B.After the collision, Cart A is at rest.
21. Which of the following is true concerning the collision?
A.
Momentum is conserved.
B. The collision is an elastic collision.
C. The collision is a completely inelastic collision.
D. Kinetic energy is conserved.
22. What is the final velocity of Cart B?
A. 0.25 m/s
B. 0.35 mls
C. 0.5 m/s
D. 1.0 mls
23. What is the efficiency of the collision (for kinetic

energy)?
A. 0.2
B. 0.25
25. If the cart travels the same distance D at a larger

velocity, what is a necessary consequence?
A. The efficiency must decrease.
The efficiency must stay the same.
B.
C. The efficiency must increase.
D. The energy expended to overcome air resistance
is increased.
26. Where does the energy go which is not used to overcome air resistance?
A. kinetic energy
B. potential energy
C. heat and sound
D. chemical energy
136
Section

A winch pulls a box on wheels (1000 kg) at a very
slow speed up an incline which makes an angle 8 = 30" with
the horizontal. The mass starts at ground level, and the
winch exerts a power 2000 Watts, working for 200 seconds.
(Useg = 10 m/s2.)
27. Assuming no friction and 100% efficiency, to what
height above the ground does the winch pull the box?
A.
10 meters
B.
20 meters
C.
35 meters
D. 40 meters
28. Which is the best description of the energy flow?

A. Electric to potential.
B. Electric to kinetic.
C. Kinetic to potential.
D. Electric to potential to kinetic.
A motor is connected to a power supply which
supplies 6 amperes of current with a 20-volt potential
difference. The motor is used to lift a mass which is 40 kg.
The motor has a 10% efficiency rating.
The power provided by a power supply is given by
P = IAV,
where P is power in Watts, I is current in amperes, and AV is
the potential difference in volts. (Use g = 10 m/s2.)
C.
D.
18 meters
180 meters
30. How long would it take to bring the mass to the same
height if the current and the potential difference were
both doubled? (Assume constant efficiency.)
A.
15 seconds
B.
30 seconds
C. 60 seconds
D.
120 seconds
Section H
31. In the pulley system shown, the angle a is the angle the
rope makes with the horizontal.
The hanging mass has mass m. If the rope is

slowly pulled at a constant rate with tension T, what is
that tension?
A.
mgcos a
B.
mgsina
C.
mg
29. If the motor is run for 60 seconds, how high does the
mass rise?
A.
1.8 meters
B. 5.4 meters

34. In the figure shown, a tension T is exerted in order to
lift the mass m.
32. A painter hangs by connecting two ends of a rope to a

harness, so that the rope wraps over a pulley. There is a
tension TIin the rope.
Which expression gives the tension?

A second painter of the same mass connects one
end of the rope to his harness, and the other end wraps
over a pulley and connects to a flagpole. The tension in
his rope is T,.
Which is true?
A.
amg
1
B. -mg
3
T, = 2T,
T, = T,
A.
B.
All sections
D.
Use the following information to answer questions 35 and

36:
Bob the runner (50 kg, runner's build) takes about 3
strides, which is 12 meters all together, to sccelerate from
rest at the starting block to the speed at which he plans to
run. At that speed, his kinetic energy is 1600 Joules.
There is not enough information to determine a

relationship between TI and T,.
33. In the figure shown, what is the force reading on the

force meter?
35. What is his final running velocity?

A. 4.0 mls
B. 8.0 m/s
C.
16.0 m/s
D. 32.0 m/s
force meter
36. What is the average force accelerating him during the
1
(Take 10 m/s2 for the acceleration due to gravity.)
A.
B.
C.
D.
0 Newtons
30 Newtons
150 Newtons
300 Newtons
first 3 strides?
A. 2.7 Newtons
B. 32 Newtons
C.
130 Newtons
D.

question.
GO ON TO THE NDCT PAGE
Use the following infonnation to answer questions 41-43:
A cannon fires a cannonball (20 kg) at an angle, so

that its initial speed upon leaving the cannon is 100 d s . The
cannonball reaches a height of 180 meters. Use 10 m/s2for
the acceleration due to gravity, and assume there is no air
resistance.
Consider a ball tossed into the air. Point A shows the

ball just after the release, and point D show it at the top of
its flight.
37. What forces are acting on the cannonball after it leaves

the cannon?
A. Gravity.
B. Gravity, and a forward force.
C. Gravity, and the normal force.
D. Gravity, the normal force, and a forward force.
38. What is the initial kinetic energy?

A. 3.6 x lo4Joules
B. 6.4 x lo4Joules
C. 1.0 x lo5Joules
question.
39. What is the gravitational potential energy at the top of
flight?
A. 3.6 x lo4Joules
B. 6.4 x lo4Joules
C. 1.0 x lo5Joules
question.
40. What is the velocity at the top of flight?

A.
10ds
B. 2 0 d s
C. 80 m/s
question.
41. Consider the following statements:

I. From points A to D, the .kineticenergy is conserved.
11. From points A to D, the potential energy is conserved.
III. From points A to D, the sum of the kinetic energy
and potential energy is conserved.
Which is true?
A.
Only I is true.
B. Only I1 is true.
C.
D.
Only III is true.

I, 11, and III are true.
42. From A to D, is the momentum of the ball conserved?

A.
Yes, the ball is isolated from other objects.
B.
Yes, gravity and the force due to the hand are
balanced.
C. No, gravity is an unbalanced external force.
D. No, there are no internal forces.
43. Which is true?

A. The total work done on the ball from A to D is
zero.
B. As the ball travels from A to D, the kinetic energy
is converted to potential energy.
C. As the ball travels from A to D, the potential
energy is converted to kinetic energy.
D. . The work done on the ball from A to D is due to
the force by the hand.
GO ON TO THE N M PAGE
The
MCAT Physics Book

A bullet (5 grams) is fired horizontally into a block of
wood (2 kg) suspended from the ceiling by strings of length
1.5 meters.
46. How high does the block (and bullet) swing on the
strings before it comes to rest?
A.
B.
C.
D.
6cm
11 cm
22.5 cm
225 cm
47. Which best describes the energy flow during part l ?

A. kinetic to potential
B. potential-to kinetic
C. kinetic to heat and kinetic
D. potential and kinetic to heat
1
1
(
The bullet embeds itself in the block of wood.
Immediately after the bullet embeds in the wood, the wood
and bullet are moving 1.5 mls.
The event can be divided into two parts:
1) In a very little time the bullet embeds itself into the
wood. Gravity can be ignored in this part.
2) The wood block with the bullet, which is suspended
by the strings, swings upward by height h.
48. Which best describes the energy flow during part 2?

A.
kinetic to potential
B. potential to kinetic
C. kinetic to heat
D. potential and kinetic to heat
Consider a winch which is operating to pull a cart
slowly at constant speed up an incline, as shown in the
figure. Point A is at the bottom of the incline and point B is
at the top.
44. Immediately after the bullet embeds itself in the wood,

which is the best approximation of the kinetic energy of
the block and bullet?
A. 2.25 Joules
B. 4.5 Joules
C.
D.
9 Joules
18 Joules
45. What is the velocity of the bullet just before it enters

the block?
49. Consider the following statements:

I. From points A to B, the kinetic energy of the cart is
conserved.
11. From points A to B, the potential energy of the cart
is conserved.
ID. From points A to B, the sum of the kinetic energy
and potential energy of the cart is conserved.
Which is true?
A. Only I is true.
B. Only I1 is true.
C. Only III is true.
D. I, 11, and 111 are true.
50. Is the momentum of the cart conserved?
A.
B.
C.
D.
52. What is the relationship between v, and v,?
Yes, the cart is isolated from other objects.

Yes, gravity, the normal force, and the force due
to the winch are balanced.
No, gravity is an unbalanced external force.
No, there are internal forces.
51. Which is true?

A. The total work done on the cart from A to B is
zero.
B. Kinetic energy is converted to potential energy.
C. Potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.
D. The total work done on the cart from A to B is
due to the force of the winch alone.
A.
B.
C.
D.
The velocity v, is less than v,.

The velocity v, is the same as v,.
The velocity v, is greater than v,.
problem.
53. What is the relationship between v, and v,?
A.
B.
C.
D.
The velocity v, is less than v,.

The velocity v,is the same as v,.
The velocity v, is greater than v,.
problem.
54. What is the relationship between t, and t,?
Use the following information to m w e r questions 52-55:

A rock of mass M slides without friction from a height
h above some ground level along a slope making angle a
with the horizontal. It takes time t, to reach the bottom, at
which time it is traveling a velocity v,.
A.
B.
C.
D.
The time t, is less than t,.

The time t, is the same as t,.
The time t, is greater than t,.
problem.
55. What is the relationship between t,and t3?

A.
B.
C.
D.
A rock of mass m, less than M, slides without friction
from the same height h along a slope of the same angle a. It
takes time t, to reach the bottom, at which time it is traveling
a velocity v,.
The time t, is less than t3.

The time t, is the same as t,.
The time t, is greater than t,.
problem.
-'

A car (mass M) has a cross-sectional area A in the
direction of motion. If it is moving at constant speed v, then
the force due to air resistance is
F"r = C~AV',
where C = 0.2 and p is the density of air, 1.3 kg/m3.The
power dissipated by a car moving at constant velocity is P =
Fv,where F is the force required to overcome drag. Consider only the drag due to air resistance, and consider a car
driving at speed v from city A to clty B. For these problems
consider C to be constant.
A rock of mass m slides without friction fromthe

same height h along a slope making angle B (greater than a)
with the horizontal. It takes time t, to reach the bottom, at
which time it is traveling a velocity v,.
56. How does the energy required to get fiom A to B

change if the velocity were doubled?
A.
The energy required would stay the same.
B. 'The energy required would increase by a factor of 2.
C. The energy requind would increase by a factor of 4.
D. The energy required would increase by a factor of 8.
141

57. How does the energy required to get from A to B
1.
change if the velocity were increased from 50 rnph to

55 rnph?
A.
The energy required would stay the same.
B. The energy required would increase by 10%.
C. The energy required would increase by 2 1%.
The energy required would increase by 33%.
D.
After the combustion occurs, why does the pressure go

up?
A. There are more gas particles on the left side of the
reaction.
B.
C.
D.
58. How would power dissipated change if the velocity

increased from 35 to 70 mph?
The power would stay the same.
A.
B.
The power would double.
C. The power would increase by a factor of 4.
D. The power would increase by a factor of 8.
2.
The temperature rises considerably.

The reaction is spontaneous.
The heat of reaction is negative.
Which expression expresses the efficiency of the

engine?
Passage 1
In a certain experiment, a piston chamber is used as

part of a primitive engine. The apparatus consists of a pipe
closed at one end with a piston at the other end. A valve in
the cylinder allows fuel gases to be introduced or waste
gases to be expelled.
3. The second paragraph refers to what kind of ratio?

A.
mass
B. volume
C. neutron
D. temperature
valve
4.
What would happen if the ratio in the second paragraph

were not 2:l?
The heat of reaction would be less than
A.
4.8 x 10~~/mol.
B. The combustion would not ignite.
C. Some of the waste gas would be intermediate
products of incomplete combustion.
D. Some of the waste gas would be oxygen or
hydrogen.
5.
If the reaction shown were performed in a closed

chamber isothermally at 500C ,what would happen to
the pressure?
In the operation of this engine, hydrogen and oxygen

are introduced in a 2: 1 ratio (in order to ensure complete
combustion) at ambient temperature Tmbandatmospheric
pressure P-. The following reaction is ignited
2H2(B)
%(g)
-)
2HzO(g)
with a heat of reaction
AHH, = -4.8 x lo5J
mol
'
The pressure rises to P,,.

Next the piston slowly moves back a distance I, from
which the engine derives useful work. The distance I is short
enough that the pressure and temperature inside the chamber
remain roughly constant
The waste gases are then expelled, and the piston is
restored to its original position.
The radius of the cylinder is r, and the cross-sectional
area is A. The length of the cylinder before the piston moves
back is L, which is much larger than 1. The number of moles
of oxygen introduced is n.
A.
B.
The pressure would decrease.

neDressure would the same.
C.
D.
The pressure would increase.

There is not enough information to solve this
problem.
GO ON TO M E ND(T PAGE
6.
Which is an expression giving the number of moles of

oxygen introduced in the chamber?
m, is the electron mass,

c is the speed of light,
1nB = 10 (approximately constant).
Use this equation to answer the questions. If you have

, look forward to Chapter 16
forgotten notation like 4 ~ ethen
and review it.
1.
7.
What would be the consequence of making 1 larger?

During the piston movement,
A.
pressure in the chamber would decrease, and
temperature would decrease.
B. pressure in the chamber would decrease, and
temperature would increase.
C. pressure in the chamber would increase, and
temperature would decrease.
D. pressure in the chamber would increase, and
temperature would increase.
In an isolated collision between a fast charged particle

and an electron, if the collision is elastic, then what can be
definitely concluded?
A.
I only
B.
C.
D.
111 only
I and III only
I, I1 and I n
2.
What sort of quantity is on the left hand side of

equation (I)?
A.
mass
B. acceleration
C. force
D. energy
3.
A hydrogen nucleus ('H) and a helium nucleus ( 4 ~ e )

have the same initial kinetic energy, with near light
speed. They travel through the air. Which tends to lose
more energy in a given distance?
I
A.
H, by a factor of 4
B. They lose approximately the same amount of
energy per distance.
C.
He, by a factor of 2
D. 4 ~ eby, a factor of 4
4.
A hydrogen nucleus (I H) and a tritium nucleus (3 H)

have the same initial kinetic energy, with near light
speed. They are traveling through water. Which tends to
lose more energy in a given distance?
A.
H, by a factor of 3
B. They lose approximately the same amount of
energy per distance.
C. 3 ~by ,a factor of 3
Passage 2
A swiftly moving charged particle, called an incident

particle, moving through a material composed of neutral
atoms and molecules, such as gas or biological tissue, loses
kinetic energy to the material. For instance, a massive
positive particle, such as a bare nucleus, moving at a speed
near that of light will ionize the atoms or molecules of the
medium it is moving through. In the process, there is a drag
force on the incident particle and hence a loss of energy.
The energy loss depends not on the mass of the
incident particle, interestingly enough, but it does depend on
its charge z, as well as on the average number of electrons Z
per atom or molecule in the material. The following
equation gives energy loss per distance traveled:
Consider the following statements:

I. Momentum is conserved.
11. Kinetic energy is conserved.
111. Total energy is conserved.
where N is the number of atoms per unit volume of material,

Z is the average number of electrons per atom or molecule
in the material,
z is the charge (number of elementary charges) of the

incident particle,
e is the electron charge (in Coulombs),
D.
143
3 ~by ,a factor of 9
G O ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

A.
5.
A relativistic proton beam is incident upon helium gas

at STP. A second relativistic proton beam is incident
upon neon gas at STP. Which beam loses more energy
in a given distance?
A. The beam in helium, by a factor of 5.
B. They lose approximately the same in a given
distance.
C. The beam in neon, by a factor of 5.
D. The beam in neon, by a factor of 25.
B.
C.
D.
Since the car is slowing, there is an unbalanced

-external force.
Since the brake pads are growing hotter, entropy
is increasing.
Since the brake pads are growing hotter, some
heat is transferred to the air.
Since the situation is not spontaneous, the free
energy change is greater than zero.
2.
If the mass of the brake pads is m,,,, and the heat

capacity is Cv (in J k g K), which expression gives an
approximate temperature change in the brake pads if a
car going velocity v slows to a stop?
3.
The efficiency of conversion of forward kinetic energy

to rotational energy is a.Assume the flywheel is
initially nonrotating and the car is maving at velocity v.
Then what is an expression giving the angular velocity
w after the car comes to a stop?
4.
Consider a small portion of the flywheel Am. Which

expression gives the centripetal force experienced by
that piece?
Passage 3
A large amount of energy is lost each time a car is

brought to a stop by applying the brakes. The kinetic energy
is converted into heat energy, which is useless in getting the
car going again. For this reason, some engineers have
experimented with the idea of storing energy in a flywheel
when a car comes to a stop.
A flywheel is a massive ring which is free to spin
about its center, like a bicycle wheel. The kinetic energy of a
flywheel is given by
where I is the moment of inertia and w is the angular

frequency in radians per unit time. Thus the frequency f (in
0
cycles per unit time) is f =-.
27C
The moment of inertia is
given by
I= MR~,
where M is the mass of the flywheel and R is the radius.
Ideally the kinetic energy of the car would be transferred to the flywheel as the car comes to a stop. When the
driver wants to go again, the energy would be transferred
back to forward kinetic motion. Unfortunately, the efficiency of the two transfers will be less than 10096, so energy
will be lost to heat. This energy can, of course, be made up
by conventionaI means, such as burning gasoline.
For the following questions, use the notation:
M, is mass of the car
M is mass of the flywheel
R is radius of the flywheel
w = 2zf = angular frequency of the flywheel
1. Consider the whole car as a physical system in the

situation in which it is braking on level ground using
conventional brakes. If we consider the system as
closed with respect to energy, then we would say the
energy of the system is conserved. Which of the
following statements tends to contradict the idea of the
car as a closed system? .
(
144
0.
dR
5.
.
instance, if the rider (mass m) experiences a force 2mg, then

he is said to experience 2g's.
Consider the figure below, a very simple roller coaster,
in answering the following questions. A motor brings the car
from point A to B, where it is has very little veiocity at a
height H, above the ground. The slope of the first hill is an
angle 8 from the horizontal. The loop is a circle of whose
highest point is H,above the ground. The mass of the car is
M. The velocity of the car at point F is v,.
The efficiency for converting forward lunetic energy to

rotational energy is a, and the efficiency for converting
rotational energy to kinetic energy is b. The car is
initially going velocity v and the flywheel is still. The
car slows to a stop by convening energy to the flywheel,
and then it gains velocity again until the flywheel is
still. What is the resulting speed of the car?
B.
abv
6. A conventional car (500 kg) rolls down a hill, such that

the efficiency of conversion of potential energy to
kinetic energy is 40%. If the car starts from rest at a
point 600 meters above sea level and coasts to a point
550 meters above sea level, what is the resulting speed
of the car? (Use g = 10 m/s2.)
A.
12.6ds
B. 2 0 d s
C. 3 1 . 6 d s
D. 4 0 d s
People began to make roller coasters around the early

1900s. These early roller coasters were made of wood, and
people learned how to construct them using the principles of
physics and by a certain amount of experimentation.
Beginning in the 1980s, constructers of roller coasters
began to use computers to design them. In this way they
were able to create a great many designs and simulate them,
thus finding a roller coaster's weakest points and determining the cost of making them fail-safe. This, and the practice
of making them of steel, made the new roller coasters larger,
safer, and more fun.
Nevertheless. a fair amount of knowledge about a
roller coaster can be learned by applying simple physics
without the aid of a comp'uter. For the most part, the two
forces acting on the car are gravity and the normal force, for
we will ignore the force of friction during the ride. A force
due to a motor carries the car to the top of the first hill.
Finally there is a frictional force due to rubber bumpers
pressing against the car which serve to stop it at the end of
the ride so that other riders can get on.
The feeling a rider experiences in the car is related to
the force exerted by the car's seat on his body perpendicular
(normal) to the car's motion. This is expressed as a number
of g's, where g is the acceleration due to gravity. For
1.
What is the kinetic energy of the car at point E?

A. MgH,cos8
B. MgHlsin 8
C.
D.
MgH,
2MgH,
2.
What is the velocity of the car at point E?
3.
What is the velocity of the car at point F, v,?
4.
What is the work done by the normal force from point

C to point D?
A. 0
145
The
MCAT Physics Book
5.
How many forces are acting on the car at point F?

One, the force of gravity down.
B. Three, the force of gravity down, the normal force
down, and a centripetal force toward the center of
the circle.
C. Three, the force of gravity down, the normal force
down, and a force forward.
D. None of the above.
Passage 5
A.
6.
7.
What force pulls the blood to the rider's feet when the
car is at point F?
A.
The centripetal force.
B.
C. The normal force.
A cannon is a device for imparting a large velocity to

a mass of iron, generally for the purpose of warfare. Over
the centuries, the manufacture of cannons has taken many
forms, but the basic construction has remained the same.
A cylinder (or barrer) is closed at one end (the breech)
and open at the other (the muzzle).An explosive (or charge)
is placed in the cylinder at the breech, and a ball is placed in
the cylinder on top of the charge. The explosive is ignited
and the reaction produces hot gases which increase the
pressure. Thus the gases push the ball along the cylinder and
out the muzzle at great velocity.
muzzle ,
What expression best gives the normal force on the car

at point F?
explosive /
8.
9.
When it rains, the park operators run the ride with

fewer people in the cars. Which of the following is a
good explanation of why this is?
A. The rain reduces the friction on the tracks and
makes the cars go faster.
B. The rain reduces the coefficient of static friction
between the bumpers and the car.
C. The rain reduces the coefficient of kinetic friction
between the bumpers and the car.
D. The rain decreases the efficiency of the motor.
Which of the following best describes the energy flow
in this ride?
A. electrical to potential and kinetic to heat
B. electrical to kinetic to electrical, in a circuit
C. electrical.to kinetic to potential
Beginning in the 1500s, gunners began using largegrained explosive in order to decrease the rate of burning.
Faster burning charge creates a large pressure very quickly,
thus creating stress on the cannon and creating a risk of
failure. The slower burning charge ensures that the pressure
behind the ball stays more nearly constant as the ball travels
the length of the barrel.
For the following questions, consider a cannon which
is 2.3 meters long with a bore (hole) of radius 5 centimeters.
Assume the pressure inside the cannon after the explosive
has been set off is constant. While the ball is in the cannon,
the forces due to the gases are so much greater than the
force of gravity that the force of gravity can be ignored.
1.
What additional piece of information would be

sufficient to allow the calculation of the kinetic energy
of the ball upon leaving the cannon?
A. The mass of the cannonball.
B. The final velocity of the cannonball.
C. The force the cannonball experiences in the
barrel.
D. electrical to heat to potential
What additional piece of information would be

sufficient to allow the calculation of the pressure in the
barrel while the cannonball is still inside?
A. The temperature of the gas in the barrel.
B. The final velocity of the cannonball.
barrel.
3.
Which of the following would best explain why a

large-grained charge would bum more slowly than a
small-grained charge?
A. The rate of reaction depends on the surface area.
B. The rate of reaction depends on the concentration
of reactants.
The
rate of reaction depends on the temperature
C.
of reactants.
D. The activation energy is reduced for smallergrained charge.
4.
Which of the following is necessarily true?

A. The entropy change during burning is zero.
B. The free energy change during burning is
negative.
C. The free energy change during burning is zero.
D. The free energy change during burning is
positive.
5.
Which of the following best describes the energy flow

in the passage?
A. chemical to kinetic to heat
B. chemical to heat to kinetic
C. chemical to potential to heat
D. chemical to potential to kinetic
6.
For this question, assume the cannon points straight up,

and assume we know the velocity of the cannonball
when it leaves the muzzle of the cannon. What additional piece of information would be sufficient to allow
the calculation of the height to which the cannonball
would travel?
A. The mass of the cannonball.
B. The kinetic energy of the ball upon just leaving
the barrel.
barrel.
D. No more information is needed.
STOP
I Interlude
A. Introduction
"Yes, yes," I hear the gentle reader saying, "this physics is all very nice, but I
want to know how to pass the MCAT." That is what this chapter is about.
In this chapter we will discuss the general strategy for studying for the MCAT,
for reading passages, and for approaching unfamiliar questions. In general, however,
the more physics you understand, the better you will do on the MCAT. The more
physics problems you solve beforehand, the more questions you will answer correctly
on the exam. If you concentrate on accuracy and understanding first, you will gain
speed later on.
When I began to write this minichapter, I worked through a number of published
MCAT practice problems, making notes of the skills and methods which proved useful.
You should do the same thing. As you work through practice problems, ask yourself,
how should I have approached this problem? What clues indicate that I should have
used a given method? What other types of problems can be solved with this method?
How should I approach similar problems?
Some questions on the MCAT are simply a matter of comprehending the material
in the passage. You must find your own trouble spots regarding comprehension. Do you
have trouble finding the main ideas? Practice this skill. Do you miss important details?
Learn to slow down. Do you misread questions? Learn to read them more slowly. Do
you spend too much time reading unnecessary information in the passage? Practice
scanning the passages more quickly. No book can diagnose these problems better than
yoursel'f.
Again, the best way to study is to begin studying. The more passages you have
seen, the more likely it is that you will recognize and understand the information in an
MCAT passage.
B. General Strategy
When you approach an MCAT passage, scan it quickly to note the main ideas.
Underline any sentences or phrases that seem to state a main idea or further an argument. Underline any numbers that are embedded in the passage. When you read the
question section you can always go back and read a portion of the passage more
carefully.
When you read a question which seems puzzling,
Don't panic.
Ask yourself, does this remind me of a problem I have done
The
MCAT Physics Boob

You may find yourself saying, "This reminds me of the problem I saw with the
crocodile and the toaster. In that problem energy was conserved. I wonder if energy is
conserved in this problem as well." You will be surprised how often you reach the
solution to a problem which initially seemed daunting.
Example 1: Police in Arizona found a piece of wreckage embedded in a mountain rock near a freeway. Study of the site indicated that the wreckage was not that of an
airplane but of a car.
Apparently a man had connected a Jet Assisted Take Off unit (JATO) to his car. A
JATO unit is a solid fuel rocket normally used for assisting in the take off of heavy
planes on short runways. The man and his Chevy (2000 kg) started accelerating
approximately from rest 5000 m from the crash site, quickly reaching terminal speed of
170 m/s. The car traveled in a straight path more or less, except that it became airborne
for the last 2000 m and hit the cliff face 40 m above the ground, creating a crater 1 m
deep in the rock.
1. What is the approximate force the cliff exerted on the car during the final crash?
(Assume that force of collision is approximately constant.)
A. 3 x 1 0 ~ ~
B. 3 x 1 0 ~ ~
C. 2 x 1 0 6 N
D. 3 x 1 0 ~ ~
2.
If the car traveling 170 m/s had crashed into a stationary 6000-kg truck and stuck,
how fast would the combined vehicles be going just after the collision?
A.
170 m/s
B.
85m/s
C. 57 m/s
D. 42 m/s
Solution: Does question 1 remind us of a probIem we have done before? In

Example 3 of Section 9.C we saw a bullet embedding in a tree stump. In that problem
the mention of force and distance was the clue to write
W,ol=F,,drcos4.
We can draw a force diagram for the car
once it encounters the cliff (Figure 1-1).
Here cos 4 = -1, since the car's displacement is in the opposite direction from the
net force on it. The total work is the same
as the change in kinetic energy, so that we
have
:
I
cliff
w,1=
= 0 - 1/2 mv2
=-3 x 1 0 7 ~ .
The displacement of the car during the
crash is 1 m, so the approximate force is
3 x 1 0 7 ~ / 1 m =x3 1o7N.
Figure 1-1
Question 2 reminds.us of problems involving collisions and hence consemation

of momentum. In those problems, we drew "before and after" pictures (Figure 1-2).
Chdpter
Conservation of momentum gives us
I... .. . ....... ...... . . . . .. . . . . . . .: Interlude
before:
Pbeforc= Pa~tcr*
after:
Figure 1-2
In these two examples, we used a second important principle. That is,

Draw a diagram.
Include forces.
Keep in mind that this is the starting point of many problems.

Example 2: In the mechanical flight of an airplane, lift is created by the differential air flow over the wings. For air flow along a streamline, Bernoulli's principle
applies (approximately), that is,
1
P + - pv2 = const.
2
The wing is constructed so that the air flowing over the top flows faster than the
air flowing under the bottom of the wing. The implication is that the air flowing over
the top has a smaller pressure than the air at the bottom of the wing. The force on a
piece of surface area of the wing is given by
F = PA,
so the cumulative effect is an upward force on the wing, or lift.
As the wings of the airplane slice through the air, some energy is lost to the air in
the form of turbulence and heat. This energy comes from the motion of the airplane, so
that the net effect is a drag due to air resistance. The drag is given (very approximately)
by
Fdng=
CPAV',
where C (= 0.2) is a constant, p (= 1.3 kg/m3) is the density of air, A is the crosssectional area of the airplane as viewed from the front, and v is its velocity relative to
the air.

1. When an airplane is in steady horizontal flight, the thrust of the engines is equal to
which of the following?
A.
The weight of the airplane.
B. The drag force.
C. The sum of the magnitudes of the drag force and the weight.
D. The magnitude of the vector sum of the drag and the weight.
Solution: Does this remind us of a
problem we have done before? Yes. Since
there are forces mentioned, we can draw a
force diagram (Figure 1-3). Steady horizontal
flight implies that F,,,,= 0,so the horizontal
forces balance. Thus the magnitude of the
thrust is equal to the drag. The MCAT
passages often include extraneous
information, as in this passage.
,I:&
Fdng
,A
I
A
F,,, = 0
Figure 1-3
Even in questions which do not involve numbers, the answer often becomes clear
only when you
Write an equation.
As you read a passage, you should be thinking of the connections among the
quantities mentioned. For instance, we have noted that whenever you read about a force
and a time interval, you should immediately think "momentum" and write the momentum equation Ap = F A .
Example 3: One of the new safety features included in cars is the inflatable
airbag. In the event of a head-on collision, the airbag inflates in milliseconds. The
airbag de8ates.a~the driver or passenger presses against it.
1. Which of the following gives an explanation for the safety provided by an airbag?
A.
B.
C.
The airbag decreases the time of collision, thus decreasing the force.
The kinetic energy of the driver is converted to potential energy of the airbag.
The increased distance of the collision of the driver decreases the force he
experiences.
D.
The decreased distance of the collision of the driver decreases the force he
experiences. .
Solution: Considering choice A, we write the equation Ap = F A , where F is the

force on the driver. But the equation implies that a decrease in force corresponds to an
increase in time interval, so A is wrong. Concerning choice B, the energy turns into the
heat of the escaping gases. If the airbag were compressed like a spring, then choice B
would be a possibility. Choices C and D remind us (because of force and distance) of
the equation
W = Fdrcos 4,
where W would be the work of stopping the driver, F the required force, and Ax the
distance over wbich the force is applied. Decreased force implies increased distance, so
D is incorrect. Indeed the airbag does increase the distance of collision.
Chapter
I . ..
. .. . . .
. ... . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . Interlude
C. Specific Strategies
In this section we look at a few other hints that work on certain classes of
problems.
Some problems involve a large number of quantities related to each other in
various ways, sometimes specified in the passage and sometimes not. For such passages
it is often valuable to
Draw a variable map.
To draw a variable map, connect related quantities by lines that meet at a vertex.
This strategy is especially good for questions which ask, ''What additional information
is necessary to determine . . . ?" An example will help make this clear.
Example 1:A piston is fit into a

long cylinder, so that the gas inside the
cylinder exerts a pressure on the piston
and pushes it out (Figure 1-4). We can
derive energy from this process. The net
force on the piston is the difference
between the force of the gas pushing the
Figure 1-4
piston out and the force of the outside
atmosphere pushing the piston in. The
force is given by the product of pressure and surface area. As long as the piston moves
a short distance Ax compared with the length of the cylinder, we can consider the
pressure inside the cylinder to be constant.
In the following, the distance the piston moves is Ax = 0.01 m. The pressure
inside the chamber is 20 atm, while the ambient pressure is 1 atm.
1. Assuming the piston moves slowly, what additional information is necessary to
determine the work done on the piston by the pressure in the cylinder?
A.
The mass of the piston.
B.
C.
D.
The volume of the cylinder.

The area of the piston.
The length of the cylinder.
Solution: Pressure, force, area,

work, and displacement are related by the
equations W = FAx and F = PA. We make
a variable map connecting these quantities
W
k F p f - l
JAX
JP
nx T v
F i r e 1-6
k
Ax
Figure 1-5
(Figure 1-5). We can extend the variable
map to include the volume and length of
the cylinder, using the ideal gas equation
PV = nRT (Figure 1-6). We can place a
check by Ax and P to indicate that we
know these quantities. According to the
variable map, we also need to know force
in order to determine work.

Concerning choices A, B, and D, these quantities do not lead to a knowledge of
force. But if we know the area of the piston, then we can place a check by area. Now,
according to the variable map, area and pressure will give us force, and we have the
information to find work.
Problems which involve charts can be confusing until you get used to them, and
you can waste time figuring out something which can be derived fairly quickly. Often
problems involving charts can be solved by one of the three methods below.
Some charts have data which fit an equation, and one of the questions requires an
element of the equation. In this case, you should
Pick one point, add a column perhaps, and make a substitution.
I
Example 2: A steel thread is hung

from the ceiling. The free end has a hook
on it, such that when various weights are
hung from the hook, the thread stretches
(Figure 1-7). According to elasticity
theory, the amount of strain is proportional to the amount of stress, for small
values of the stress, so that
Figure 1-7
where dl, is the amount of stretching, F is the force applied to both ends, L is the length
of the wire, A is its cross-sectional area, and Y is Young's modulus, a constant for a
given material. The following data were obtained for a wire 1 m long of cross-sectional
area lo4 m2.
Experiment
1
2
m (kg)
0
0.5
fi (mm)
0
0.025
1. What is the,value of Y for steel?
Solution: If we draw a force

diagram (Figure 1-8) for the weight
hanging from the wire, we see that the
force exerted by the weight on the wire is
equal to its weight mg. We can add a
Figure 1-8
I . .. . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .... . . Interlude
Chapter
column to the table F = mg. Actually we only need to choose one experiment, so let's
choose Experiment 4. The table looks like the following.
Experiment
(kg)
dL (mm)
0.5
0.025
3
4
0.1
10
0.5
F(N)
100
Now we can substitute into the formula using F = 100 N to obtain

&=-
FL
AY'
For questions which ask for an extrapolation from a chart, it is often helpful to
Pick a convenient point, and exmpolate using the given formula.
Example 3: Consider a horizontal

bar of circular cross section (radius r) and
length 1 hung between two walls. A mass
m is hung from the center of the bar
(Figure 1-9). The distance that the bar will
sag Ax is given by
where Y is Young's modulus, a property of

the material making up the bar and g is
the acceleration due to gravity. The
following data were obtained for a nickel bar:
Figure 1-9
Experiment
m (kg)
1 (m)
2
. r (m)
dr (m)
1x
I X lo-'
1 x ~ o - 2~
~ lo-'
1 x 1 0 - ~ 3x10-'
1x10-~ 4x10-~
2x
lo-'
6.3 x
lo-'
The
MCAT Physics Book

1.
What would the sag be for a 2-rn horizontal circular rod (radius loA2
m) if a 12-kg
.
mass were hung in the middle of it?
A.
1.3x10-~m
8. 8 x 1 0 " m
C.
1.2 x
m
D.
1.6x10-~rn
2.
What would the sag be for a 6-m horizontal circular rod (radius lo-' m) if a 3-kg
mass were hung in the middle of it?
A.
9x104m
B. 2.7 x
rn
C.
1.8x10-~m
D.
8.1x10-~m
Solution: The mistake some students make is calculating Y as an intermediate

step. That is not wrong, but it wastes time. For question -1, compare the set up with
Experiment 4. The only difference is that the mass is three times as great. According to
the equation, if the mass increases by a factor of 3, then the sag increases by a factor of
3. Thus the sag is 1.2 x lo-' m.
For question 2, compare it to Experiment 3. The length increases by a factor of 3,
but everything else remains the same. According to the equation, the sag increases by a
m) = 8.1 x 10-2m.
factor of 33= 27. Thus the new sag is 27 (3 x
For some questions involving charts, the key is to

Add columns to the chart, and think about the physics.
Example 4: In a certain experiment a small cannon shoots a balI (mass m)

vertically into the air. Its initial velocity (v,) is recorded, as well as its velocity after it
has traveled 0.5 m verticalIy (Figure 1-10). This is done for several masses and initial
velocities (see chart).
Experiment
rn (kg)
v, (rnls)
2
4
ti
II
1,
8 ,
0I
1. For which experiment does the ball have

the greatest potential energy at the top of
its path?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Experiment 4
cannon
Chapter
2.
I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
For which experiment does the ball have the greatest kinetic energy at the height of
0.5 m?
A.
Experiment 1
B. Experiment 2
C. Experiment 3
D.
Experiment 4
Solution: We ask, does this remind us of a problem we have done before? In a

number of problems we have seen objects in free fall, and the guiding principle is the
conservation of energy. For question 1, a ball will have a large potential energy at the
top of its path if it has a large initial kinetic energy. So let's add a column to the chart
containing initial kinetic energy.
Experiment
1
2
3
4
m (kg)
1
1
2
4
v, (mls)
4
8
6
4
E,, (J)
8
32
36
32
The answer to question 1 is C.

When the ball is at height 0.5 m, some of the initial energy has been converted to
potential energy. This potential energy is Em= mghowhere ho= 0.5 m. We can add two
columns to the chart: the potential energy at ho= 0.5 m and the left over kinetic energy
(recall that the total energy is converved). For instance, for Experiment 1, we have Em=
(1 kg)(lO mlsZ)(0.5m) = 5 J and E, = (8 - 5) J = 3 J.
Experiment
1
2
3
4
m (kg)
I
1
2
4
vo(m/s)
4
8
6
4
EK,(J)
8
32
36
32
E,(J)
5
5
10
20
EK2(J)
3
27
26
12
The answer to question 2 is B.

These methods are not exhaustive, so you should feel free to add to them as you
work through problems yourself. But nothing can substitute for gaining a solid understanding of physics.
Interlude
Chapter 1 O
Fluids
A.
Introduction
In studying mechanics, we have generally looked at one object and the forces on
it. For most people, the difficult part of mechanics is unlearning the misconception that
a moving object needs a force to maintain its motion. (Recall Example 4 in Section
5.D.)
In this chapter we study fluids. A fluid is a large number of interacting particles,
so it is somewhat more complicated. The key concept here is pressure. In any given
problem you should be thinking, "Do I know the pressure everywhere? Can I figure out
the pressure where the crocodile is?'and that sort of thing. Even if pressure is not
mentioned in the problem, often it is the concept which leads you to the answer. For
instance, when a teenager sips a soft drink through a straw, does he pull the'refreshing
liquid into his mouth? As you will soon discover, the answer is no.
For the MCAT, you need to know only a few basic principles of elementary fluid
mechanics. The tricky part is learning how to apply them in diverse situations. One way
to do this is to look at so many examples that any new situation reminds you of
something you have seen or worked before. Hence you should pay close attention to the
problems and solutions at the end of the chapter.
B.
Some definitions
Density is a measure of how packed a substance is. Its symbol is the Greek letter
rho, p, and it is defined by
where m is the mass of a piece of fluid and V is its volume. Specific gravity is the ratio
of the density of something to the density of water:
P
specific gravity = PH~O
'
(This is a misnomer, by the way, since "specific gravity" has nothing to do with
gravity.) The density of almost all biological tissue is approximately the same as the
density of water (remember this):
Pressure is like a push (that is, force), except we also consider the area over
which the push is extended. If you are barefoot and step on the sidewalk, the sidewalk
pushes up on you with about 1000 N. If you step on an upright tack, it pushes up on
you with the same 1000 N. Why then does your face look so different when it's a tack that
you stepped on? In this case, pressure is the important concept. Pressure is defined as
The
MCAT Physics Book
where F is a force, and A is the area over which it acts. Consider this definition carefully, so that you do not confuse force and pressure. The point of a tack has a much
smaller area than the bottom of your foot, so the pressure on that point is quite large.
The units for pressure are N/m2, and these have a name:
Pressure can also be measured in pounds per square inch, or psi. The pressure of the
atmosphere at sea level varies, but its average is given by
1 atm= 1.01 x 1 o 5 P a = 14.7 psi.
(6)
C.
Buoyant force
When an object is floating on or immersed in a fluid, such as an iceberg in water

or a whale in the ocean, the fluid pushes on the object from many directions. This
situation might seem too complicated to analyze mathematically, but it turns out that it
is not. We can summarize the effect of the fluid in one force, the buoyant force. The
following principle is called Archimedes' principle, after its discoverer:
If an object is floating on or immersed in a fluid, then the fluid

exerts an upward buoyant force given by
FB = pVgr
(7)
where FB is the buoyant force, p is the density of the fluid, and

V is volume of the displaced fluid.
The method for solving problems involving Archimedes' principle follows:

1. DRAW A DIAGRAM,including the buoyant force.
2. Write a force equation.
3. Get rid of m and F. (Use m = pV, -F = PA, and of course F, = pVg.)
4. Solve.
Example 1:A bathtub duck floats

in water with one third of its volume
above the water line. What is its specific
gravity?
DIAGRAM. (See Figure 10- 1.)
Second, we write a force equation,
which is a force balance equation, since
the duck is not accelerating:
O=F,-mg.
1
Next we replace FBwith p,,V,
g,
Figure 10-1
Chdpter 1 O . .. . ..... . . .... ...... . . . . . . . .
and we replace m with pV, where p is the density of the duck, and V is its volume:
0 = P H ~ o V , , ,-~ PVg .
L
Since one third of the duck is shown above the water, the displaced volume is - V , and
3
we write
Here we canceled the factors V and g. The answer is 213 .
Example 2: A crown, apparently made of gold, is weighed in air, and the weight
is 50 N. The crown is weighed again by hanging it from a string and submerging it in
water. (See Figure 10-2.) What reading will the force meter give if the crown is true
gold? (Use for the density of gold
19.3 glcm3; and for water, 1.0 &m3.
Also, use g = 10 m/s2.)
DIAGRAM with all the forces on the
crown. (See Figure 10-3.) We draw the
force of gravity first. Next, what is
touching the crown? The fluid and the
string are, so we know to draw the
buoyant force and the force of tension. It
is the force of tension that the meter
reads. (That is what a force meter does: it
provides a force and then tells you what
Figure 10-2
that force is.)
We have force balance because there is no acceleration:
O = F,+ F , - m g .
In this equation m is the mass of the crown, and mg is 50 N. Let's first solve for F,
(which we want), then replace F, and m. We obtain
F,=mg
-F,
=P A ~ V P~H , O V ~
Figure 10-3
...
Fluids
The
MCAT Physics Book
D. Facts about pressure

We want to answer the question: Given the pressure at one point in a fluid, what
is the pressure at any other point? In fact, the key intuition on many problems is
understanding what the pressure is
everywhere.
Let us start with the simple situation shown in Figure 10-4. Point 1 is
directly above point 2 in a fluid. The
pressure at point 1 is P I .What is the
pressure at.point 2? .
Consider a vertical pipe filled with
fluid and consider the body of fluid
between points 1 and 2 as an object. The
pipe's height is h and its cross-sectional
Figure 10-4
area is A.
There are three vertical forces: the
force of gravity, the force of the pressure pushing up from below, and the force of the
pressure pushing down from above. The fluid is not accelerating, so the net force is
zero, and we have
O= F2- F,-mg
We can cancel the factor A:

O=P2-PI-phg,
P,= P I + phg
This equation applies not only to this situation but to any situation involving two
vertically separated points in a fluid. The pressure is greater at point 2 because more
fluid is pressing down on top of point 2 than on top of point 1.
We can obtain pressures at other points in the fluid using a principle, discovered
by Blaise Pascal: "Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted to every portion
of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel in all directions." The language is a
bit obscure, but it translates into principles 2 and 3 below.
Law of Hydrostatic Equilibrium

In a body of fluid,
1. the pressures at two points separated vertically by height h
are related by
(8)
P2 = P , + pgh,
2. the pressures at two points separated only horizontally are
the same,
3. and the pressure at a given point is the same in all
directions.
Example 1: We are standing on the fifty-first story of a hotel, where each story is
4 meters high. How much less is the pressure on the fifty-first story than the pressure at
Chdptcr
1 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .r.. . . . Fluids
g/cm3for the density of air.)

the ground floor? (Use 1.2 x
Solution: This is a straightforward application of the formula:
P,=P,+pgh,
g
lkg IOOcm
1.2x10- 7.-
= 2400 Pa.
This pressure is fairly small compared to Pa,, but it is enough to make your
ears pop. Notice what is going on here. The people on the ground floor have to deal
with not only the air column on top of us at the fifty-first floor, but also they have the
air column between us and the ground floor sitting on their head.
Example 2: An underground cave is almost filled with water as shown in

Figure 10-5. The air pressure above point S is 1 atm. The point Q is 20 m directly
below point S , and T is at the same height as Q. R is 5 m vertically below S.
a. What is the pressure at point Q?
b. What is the pressure at point T against the floor?
c. What is the pressure at point T against the walls?
d. What is the pressure in the air chamber above R?
Solution: a. The pressure at Q is given by the formula:
P = 1 atm
= 1.01 x lo5Pa+2.0x loSPa
= 3.01 x I@ pa.
b and c.
P,.= 3.01 x lo5Pa.
d.
P, = P, + (10' 3 ) ( 1 0 ~ ) ( 5m)
Figure 10-5
= 1.5 x 10' pa.

The pressure inside the air chamber varies slightly with height but it is approximately
equal to the pressure at R.
Example 3: A pan contains a pool of mercury, with an inverted tube, as shown

in Figure 10-6.
Point A is 38 cm above the surface of the mercury in the pan. Point B is 75 cm above
the surface of the mercury in the pan. Point C is 76 cm above the surface of the
mercury in'the pan. The pressure of the air on the mercury in the pan is
1.01325 x 10' Pa, the density of mercury is 1.36 x lo4kg/m3, and the acceleration
due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2.
a. What is the pressure at point A?
b. What is the pressure at point B?

c. What is the pressure at point C?
The
MCAT Physics Book

Solution: a. When we apply the equation to point A, we obtain
Pm=PA+pgh,
PA = Pam,- pgh
= 1.01325 x lo5Pa (1.36 x 104)(9.8)(0.38) Pa
= 5.1 x lo4pa.
b. At point B, we obtain
P, = Pa, - pgh
I
I
= 1.01325 x lo5Pa(1.36 x 104)(9.8)(0.75) Pa

= lo3 pa.
Figure 10-6
c. At point C, we obtain
PC = Pa, - pgh.
= 1.01325 x lo5Pa (1.36 x 104)(9.8)(0.76) Pa
=OPa.
Thus the pressure vanishes at the top of the column.
This is a simple barometer. Above the mercury column is a vacuum, or, more
accurately, mercury vapor. The last calculation shows that the height of the mercury
column is proportional to the outside pressure. For this reason, the height of a hypothetical mercury column is often given as units of pressure:
1 ton = 1 mm of mercury = pressure sufficient to lift Hg 1 mm ,
(9)
760 tom = 1 atm.
These are the units used in a sphygmomanometer. But the numbers reported in
blood pressure measurements are the pressures in excess of atmospheric pressure,
called the gauge pressure. For instance, the systolic pressure of a woman with blood
pressure 110160 is actually (760 +110) torr = 870 tom (assuming 760 torr atmospheric
pressure). Thus:
E. Surface tension
The molecules in the middle of a fluid exert an attractive force on each other,
called cohesion. This is what holds the fluid together. The molecules at the surface of
the fluid, however, experience a cohesive force directed into the fluid. If the surface
becomes bent for some reason, there is a restoring force making the surface smooth or
flat. The larger the distortion, the larger the force, up to a maximum:
(1 1)
f',,
= YL,
where y is the surface tension (a function of the fluid) and L is the length of the edge of
the object in contact with the fluid. This will become c l e a r with some examples.
Chdpter 10
Example 1: Water has a surface

tension of 7.2 x lo-*Nlm at 25" C. A
six-legged water bug stands on the
surface of the water. The radius of each
foot is 2 x 104m. What is the maximum
force on the bug due to the water? That
is, what is the maximum weight the water
surface tension can support?
Solution: In this case, L is the
circumference of a foot. (See Figure
10-7.) Applying the formula yields
. ...
... ...... .. .. .. ...... . . . . . . . .
Figure 10-7
where 6 is the number of legs on the bug.
7
--.-..
G,---.---.-..--:.y
Example 2 A needle floats on the

surface of h e water as shown in Figure
10-8. Its length is 1 = 3 cm, and its width
exerted
is very small.
on theWhat
needle
is by
thethe
maximum
surface force
,:-...
.... .-.-
tension of the water?

Solution: In this case, L is the
circumference of the dimple, that is, the
Figure 10-8
length of distorted surface around the
needle or the length of the dashed Iirie in
Figure 10-8. Notice the similarity between Figures 10-7 and 10-8. We use the formula
for the perimeter of a rectangle:
since the width w is very small. Thus we have
Example 3: A straight piece of wire

has loops at both ends, and the two hoops
fit on the arms of a U-shaped frame. A
water film fills the interior of the U-shape.
(See Figure 10-9.) In this case the surface
tension exerts its maximum force.
If the length of the wire is 1 and the
width of the film is w, what is the force of
- 1
1
surface tension?
Solution: The circumference is the
Figure 10-9
distance around the wire, as in the
previous example. In Figure 10-9 we
measure the length of the wire along the front of the page and then along the back of
the page:
Fluids
The
MCAT Physics Book
F. Continuity
The dynamics of flowing fluids is more difficult than statics, but this is good
news. It means the MCAT will test ~ n l ysome of the basic principles.
The first principle is continuity. Figure 10-10 shows a river, in which point 1 is in
a slow, lazy flow, while point 2 is in the
rapids. Why does the water flow faster at
point 2? During one second the number
of gallons flowing past point 1 is the same
as the number flowing past point 2.
(Think about it. If the water level between
1 and 2 is constant, then the inflow must
equal the outflow.) The difference is that
point 2 has a smaller cross-sectional area.
The rate at which a fluid passes by a
point, measured in volume per time, is
called theflow rate$ In a steady state, the
flow rate is the same at each point along
Figure 10-10
the flow:
Now we can relate the flow rate to the actual speed of the fluid. Think of water
going through a garden hose. If we turn up the faucet, then the flow rate and the flow
velocity both increase. We can also obtain a greater flow rate by increasing the crosssectional area. We would guess (correctly) that we could write
f = Av.
(13)
The discussion in this section refers to any incompressible fluid, that is, liquids. It
also applies to compressible fluids, like air, if the fluids are not, in fact, compressed.
Viscosity is a measure of the stickiness of a fluid. Molasses is stickier, for

instance, than water, and water is stickier than air. A precise definition of viscosity
looks like this: Say we have a floor covered with a fluid to a depth d. A hockey puck of
area A is traveling along at velocity v. The drag force on the hockey puck due to the
stickiness of the fluid is given by
where q is the viscosity in kglm s (that is, kilograms per meter per second, not kilograms per millisecond). You should understand this equation but need not memorize it.
Just remember that viscosity is stickiness.
Viscosity often calms down a flow. Consider a stream of water flowing past a
rock or the flow of air past a weather vane. The flow can break off into wild swirls and
chaotic patterns, called turbulence. Smooth flow is called streamline or laminar. If we
pull a spoon through a bowl of molasses, the molasses is mostly undisturbed (laminar
flow around the spoon), whereas if we pull the spoon through a cup of tea with cream at
the bottom, the tea and cream undergo turbulent motion. What's the difference? The
more viscosity, the less turbulence.
An important parameter for determining the type of flow is the Reynolds number:
where 1 is the size (in m) of the obstacle in the flow (spoon or whatever), p is the
density of the fluid (in kg/m3), v is the velocity of the flow (in mls), and q is viscosity
(in kg/m s).
The flow starts getting rough when Re is around 40, and-it is usually turbulent if
Re is greater than 20.000. Do not memorize this equation. but do realize that the
presence of r7 in the denominator means that higher viscosity reduces turbulence. It
should also make sense to you that v is in the numerator.
Example: What is the Reynolds number for a spoon moving through tea with
kg/m s and estimate other values.)
cream in it? (Use q = 1.0 x
Solution: We can use information corresponding to water, so the density is
kg/m s. A good rate to stir tea is 0.1 m/s, and a
lo3 kg/m3, and the viscosity is 1.0 x
typical spoon has size 0.03 m. Thus
H. Bernoulli's Principle
For laminar flow there is an
equation which relates conditions at one
point in the flow with points downstream.
Consider two points, 1 and 2, along a
streamline. Point 1 is at some height h,
above a standard height, and point 2 is at
height h,. (SeeFigure 10-11.)
Figure 10-11
For incompressible, laminar, inviscid (no viscosity) flow, if

points 1 and 2 are on the same streamline, we have
1
1 2
~ + P ~ ~ , + ~ P Y ~ ~ = ~ + P P ~ + (16)
~ P Y ~
1
Let's see if we can make sense of this equation, which can also be written
1
P + pgh + --.pv2 = const.

2
(17)

The expression pgh reminds us of mgh, the difference being only a factor of AV,
that is, volume. If we multiply the above expression by AV, then we obtain
1
PAV + mgh + - mv2 = const.
2
Wait! This looks like an energy conservation equation, the second and third terms
being potential and kinetic energy. But what is the first term? This is a bit more
difficult, but we can make this look like an expression for work. For a moving fluid, AV
can be replaced with AAx so that PAV = PAAx = FAx. Thus, PAV is the work that one
portion of the fluid does on another portion of the fluid as it moves along.
Bernoulli's principle is an expression of energy conservation, and that is why
there are so many caveats in the statement of the principle: we are trying to make sure
energy does not leak out into heat and ruin the equation.
Example: A large barrel of water has a hole near the bottom. The barrel is filled
to a height of 4.5 meters above'the bottom of the barrel, and the hole is a circle of
radius 1 centimeter in the side of the barrel at a height 0.5 meters above the bottom.
a. What is the flow velocity v just outsidz the hole?
b. What is the flow rate f out of the hole?
Solution: a. First, we DRAW A DIAGRAM with a streamline. (See Figure
10-12). Bernoulli's principle applies, so we have
We are looking for v,. At point 1, the pressure is atmospheric pressure Pa,, and at point
3, we have P, = Pa, as well. Also, h, = 4.5 m and h, = 0.5 m.
The tricky part is realizing that v, is very, very small. This is because continuity
guarantees that Alvl = A,v,, where A, is the cross-sectional area of the barrel and A, is
the area of the hole. Thus we can set v, to zero in the above equation:
Figure 10-12
(10?)(4.~rn) = (10~)(0.5m)+-v,',
2
m2
s2
vj2 =80-,
vj =9-.
Another way to get the same result is to realize that the pressure at point 2 must
be (from Section D)
P, = P, + pgh = P, + (10'
3 1 1 0 :)(4
m)
Chapter
10 . ..... . .... .......... . . . . . . . . . . .. Fluids
Then we can use Bernoulli's principle between points 2 and 3 and use h2 = h3 to obtain
Again, we set the very small velocity v, to zero to obtain
b. The answer to part b we get through the definition of flow rate, so we have
f3
= A3v3
In this chapter we studied fluids in static equilibrium and fluids in motion.

Pressure is a unifying concept for fluids in equilibrium. Pressure is related to force by
the equation P = FIA (where the units of pressure are often Pa = ~ / m ~Pressure
).
at one
point in a body of fluid can be related to pressure at another point using P, = P, + pgh
(for vertical separation) and Pascal's law (for horizontal separation). If we know the
pressure everywhere in a situation, we can often understand the physics and answer
questions about it.
The important concepts for fluids in motion are continuity and Bernoulli's
principle. Continuity expresses the conservation of mass as the fluid flows, so we have
the product Av being a constant along a streamline. Bernoulli's principle expresses the
1
conservation of energy along the fluid flow, so we have the sum P + -pv2 + pgh being
2
a constant along a streamline, as long as energy is not lost to heat or other energy sinks.
These two principles allow you to solve most simple problems involving flowing fluids.
Chapter 10 Problems
Section
5.
1. A typical human head has the approximate shape of a

cylinder of diameter of 0.2 meters and height
0.3 meters. If the pressure of the atmosphere is
1.01 x 10' ~ / mlet
~ Fa,
, be the force acting down on a
human head due to the atmosphere. How many kilograms taken together would weigh Fa,?
A.
12
B.
94
C. 320
D.
1300
A 70-kg man would weigh mg = (70 kg)(9.8 rn/s2)=

686 N if there were no air. How much weight does the
buoyancy due to air take off the man's weight? (The
density of the man is about 1 g/cm3, and the density of
air is about 1.2 x 1CJ3 g/cm3.)
A.
B.
C.
D.
0.08 N
0.12N
0.8 N
8N
Use the following information in questions 6 and 7:

Sarah is in a basket hanging from a balloon filled with
helium.
Section C
2. A cork floats with three quarters of its volume in and

one quarter of its volume out of the water. What is the
specific gravity of the cork?
A.
B.
C.
D.
0.25
0.5
0.75
2.0
3. An object floats with one tenth of its volume out of the

water. What is its specific gravity?
A. 0.1
B. 0.9
C.
1.0
D.
1.11
4. Iron has a density of p,, = 7.9 glcm3, and mercury has a

density of p,, = 13.6 g/cm3.A piece of iron is placed in
a pool of mercury. Which expression gives the ratio of
volume of iron above the surface to volume below the
surface of the liquid?
M = mass of basket, Sarah, and empty balloon

p, = density of helium gas at 27' C and 1 a m
p,, = density of air at 27O C and 1 atm
6. Which expression is an approximation for the density of

helium in &m3?
**
(0.0821)(27)(1WO)

170
Chdpter
7.
To what volume should the balloon be filled to achieve

neutral buoyancy? (Ignore the volume of Sarah, but
include the weight of the helium.)
A.
10 . . . .. . ... .. .. . . . . .. . . ... . . . . . .. .. Fluids
Use the following information:
P H ~ Pair
10. Why is it difficult for the man to breathe?
A.
His lungs are expanding against a net
lo4Pa of pressure.
B. His lungs are expanding against a net
1.01 x 1 6 Pa of pressure.
C. His lungs are expanding against a net
1.1 x lo5Pa of pressure.
His
lungs are expanding against a net
D.
2.02 x 10' Pa of pressure.
Section D
8. Wh-at is the pressure 5 meters below the surface of the

ocean? (pwa, = 10' kg/m3, P, = 1.O1 x 10' Pa)
A.
5x104pa
B. 7.5 x lo4Pa
C.
l.Ox16~a
D.
1.5 x 10' Pa
9. What is the gauge pressure 5 meters below the surface
of the ocean? @, = lo3kg/m3, Pa, = 1.01 x lo5Pa)
A. 5 x lo4Pa
B. 7.5x104Pa
11. Which expression most nearly gives the force his

muscles must exert to push out his chest?
A.
(gauge pressure of the water)x(area of his chest)
B. (gauge pressure of the water)x(area of snorkel hole)
C. (pressure of the atmosphere)x(area of his chest)
D. (pressure of the atmosphere)x(area of snorkel hole)
12. The figure shows a simple barometer which consists of

a U-tube with one end closed (1) and the other end open
to the atmosphere (2).

A man is swimming in the ocean and breathing
through a snorkel.
The liquid in the barometer is mercury, with a density

of pH,= 13.6 &m3. The height of mercury in column 1
is h,, and the cross-sectional area is A,. The height of
mercury in column 2 is &, and the cross-sectional area
is A,. Volume 1 is filled with an unknown gas.
When his chest is about 1 meter under water, he has a

difficult time breathing. .
171

What is the best expression for the pressure in
volume I?

A hydraulic press is used to lift heavy objects, such as
cars. It consists of a U-tube, one end having large crosssectional area A,; and the other, small cross-sectional area
A,. The tube is filled with an incompressible fluid, and the
load is placed on a platform fitted to area A,. (See figure.)
14. If the force exerted by the piston is F,, what load can be
lifted?
15. If the work done by the piston on the fluid is W,, and
the work done by the fluid on the load is W,, which is
correct?
A.
W, is less than W,.
B.
W, is equal to W,.
C . W, is greater than W,.
D. There is not enough information to determine a
relationship between Wl and W,.
16. The two flasks shown in the figure haveno ambient

atmosphere, that is, they exist in a chamber in which the
atmosphere has been removed.
The object is lifted by applying a force to a piston fitted to

area A,. If the piston moves down a distance Ax,, then the
load moves up a distance Ax,. These distances are small
compared to the other dimensions of the device. We assume
losses due to friction are negligible.
Both flasks contain mercury to a height h. The volume
of mercury in the second flask is three times the volume
of mercury in the first flask. The area at the bottom of
the second flask is twice that of the first flask. Pressure
P, is the pressure at the bottom of the first flask, and P2
is the pressure at the bottom of the second flask. Which
equation holds?
13. If the piston and the load are at the same height, and the
pressure of the fluid near the piston is P,, what is the
pressure of the fluid near the load?
A.
P2

172.
17. The figure shows a simple barometer, which is essentially a U-tube with one end leading to a reservoir
whose pressure is desired and the other end open to the
atmosphere.
The liquid in the tube is water, with a density of
p = 1.0 g/cm3.The height of water in the reservoir

column is h,. The height of water in the open column is
h,. What would happen to the height difference h, -h, if
the water were replaced by salt water with a density
1.2 g/cm3?
A. It would decrease.
B. It would stay the same.
C. It would increase,
question.
Section
18. A thread (diameter 6)in the shape of a rectangle

(length 1, width w) is lying on the surface of the water.
If yis the surface tension of water (y= 7.2 x
Nlm),
then what is the maximum weight that the thread can
have without sinking?
19. A wire circle is sitting on the surface of the water, and a

solid circle of the same diameter is also sitting on the
water. Which one can have the larger maximum mass
without sinking?
A.
B.
C.
D.
The wire circle, by a factor of 2.

They have.the same maximum mass.
The solid circle, by a factor of 2.
The solid circle, by a factor of 4.
Section F

A pipe with a circular cross section has water flowing
in it from A to B. The radius of the pipe at A is 6 cm, while
the radius at B is 3 cm. At end A the flow rate is 0.06 m3/s.
20. What is the flow rate at end B?
A. 0.03 m3/s
B. 0.06 m3/s
c. 0.12 m3/s
D. 0.24 m3/s
21. A tiny propeller is inserted at point A in order to
measure the velocity of the water. What does it read?

A. 2 1 d s
B. 67 m/s
C. 8 5 d s
D. 9 6 d s

22. A pipe has a circular cross section, such that the radius
of the pipe at point A is r,, while the radius at B is r,.
- An incompressible fluid is flowing through the pipe at
flow ratef. The velocity of the fluid particles at point A
is v,. Which expression gives the velocity of the fluid
particles at point B?
24. Which expression gives the magnitude of the work done

by the pressure outside the chamber on the piston
during the time At?
A.
P,, r2v&
B.
P,, z r Z v A t
C.
Pm,2nrzvAt
D.
P,, nrlvAt

A hockey puck of area A and mass m rides on an air
hockey table, so that the puck sits on a cushion of air (which
has a thickness d and viscosity q).The puck is connected to
a thread whose other end is attached to a vertical small rod,
so the puck travels a large circle of radius R (R is much
larger than the radius of the puck, as shown in the figure).
The rod exerts a small torque to maintain the circular motion
over time, since otherwise the puck would gradually slow
down and stop. The puck turns with frequency f (revolutions
per unit time). The force due to viscosity is F,., = qAv/d.
Section G

A piston fits into a sleeve, so that the pressure from
combustion in the reaction chamber is used to push the
piston back at a constant rate and do useful work. The
movement of the piston is lubricated by oil which has a
viscosity q. Recall: The force due to viscosity is given by
F,, = qAv/d, where A, v, and d are the relevant surface area,
relative velocity, and separation.
The piston has a radius rand a length I, and it moves
with velocity v. The sleeve has a radius slightly larger than
the piston r + Ar, such that Ar is very small compared to r .
The pressure in the chamber is P,,, and the pressure
outside the chamber is P,,.
25. If v is the velocity of the puck, which gives the best

expression for v?
A.
Rf
B. zcRf
c. 2 M f
D. &f
26. Which expression gives the torque which the rod must
exert?
23. Which expression gives the force due to viscosity?

A.
2zrlqvlAr

174
Chapter 10
Reynold's number is given by Re = lpvlq, where 1 is the

length scale of the pipe or of obstacles, p is the density
of the fluid, v is the velocity of the fluid, and 7 is the
viscosity. The greater Reynold's number for a given
flow, the more likely it is that turbulence will develop.
Consider water flowing in a pipe. Which of the following would tend to reduce the likelihood of turbulent
flow?
A. Increase the flow rate.
B. Make the joints in the pipe smooth.
C. Raise the temperature.
D. Increase the radius of the pipe.
... . . ...... . . . . . . .......... . . .. . .
Fluids
29. Which gives the best expression for the height h?
Section H

Water in a certain sprinkler system Bows through a
level hose connected to a nozzle which is directed upward.
The water leaves the nozzle and shoots to a height h before
falling back down again into a pool. (See figure.)
I
I
Pressure
D.
L-P,""
A,,
Pg
4,e2
30. Does Bernoulli's principle apply for the water which

falls into the pool?
No, because the water develops viscosity.
A.
B. No, because the water develops turbulence.
C. No, because the water returns to the level of the
nozzle.
D. No, because the pool is not part of the flow.
+L
Pool
The hose is connected to a reservoir which maintains the

water there at a pressure P,. Assume the flow has no
viscosity from the reservoir until it gets out of the nozzle.
Use the following notation:
A,,, = cross-sectional area of the nozzle
& = length of the hose
P,, = pressure of the outside atomosphere
p = density of water.

A tank of water has a hose coming out of the top. The
hose is filled with water and the other end is below the tank,
so that the system acts as a syphon. The end of the hose
outside the tank is at height h = 0 meters. The bottom of the
tank is at height h,, the end of the hose inside the tank is at
height h,, and the top of the water is at height h,. Assume
the flow is without viscosity.
28. Which gives the best expression for the velocity of the
water just after it leaves the nozzle?
The
MCAT Physics Book
31. Which is the best expression for the velocity of the

flow coming out of the hose?
33. Which gives the best expression for v,?
34. Which gives the best expression for v,?
35. Which gives the best expression for P,, the pressure in
the narrow tube?
32. Which is the best expression for the pressure at the

bottom of the tank?
A.
P,, - pg(h - h,)
D.
P,,
+ pg(h + h,)

In a chemistry laboratory it is often useful to create
a partial vacuum. A simple way to do this involves
connecting a wide pipe to a narrow pipe which is connected to a reservoir of water (just the water line). The
reservoir has pressure greater than the ambient atmospheric pressure, but once flow is established, the pressure
in the narrow tube is less than atmospheric pressure. A
valve can be placed in the narrow tube to take advantage
of the partial vacuum. Assume that there is no viscosity
and that gravity plays no role. Use the following notation:
p = density of water
p,r = density of air

P , = pressure of the reservoir
Pa, = atmospheric pressure
A , = cross-sectional area of the narrow tube
A, = cross-sectional area of the wide tube
v, = velocity of water in the narrow tube
v, = velocity of water in the wide tube
Pressure
valve
Chdptsr
All
C.
sections
36. A silver necklace has a mass of 50 grams and a volume

4.82cm3. It is tied to a string and lowered into a glass
of water. The other end of the string is connected to a
force meter. What is the reading on the force meter?
(Take the density of water to be 1 g/cm3, and use
9.8m/s2 for the acceleration due to gravity.)
A.
B.
C.
D.
0.44N
0.49N
0.54N
There is not enough information to answer the
question.
37. A coffee cup sits fully submerged at the bottom of the

sink filled with water. The coffee cup is 120 grams and
is able to hold 0.1liters of coffee. If the density of
water is lo3kg/mg, what is the force that the sink exerts
on the coffee cup? (Use 9.8 m/s2 for the acceleration
due to gravity.)
A. 0.20N
B. 1.18 N
C. 2.16N
D. There is not enough information to answer the
question.
The restaurant Bistro-an-Maine-Street is located on
the fourth floor of a certain building. Part of the restaurant's
"character" is that the beverages are served on the first floor
with a straw leading up to the fourth-floor customers
12 meters up. The joke is that customers cannot manage to
drink their beverages. One night a chemist brings along a
vacuum pump from her laboratory. Assume the pump can
draw a perfect vacuum.
Assume also that surface tension of the beverage plays
no role, and we have
P,, = 10' Pa,
p= 1d kg/m3,
D.
10 ..... . . . . . . . . . ..... ..
. . . ... . . ..
The beverage will not rise past a certain point, no

matter how good the pump is.
question.
39. Consider the following possibilities:

I. Use a straw of smaller radius.
11. Drink a beverage which has a smaller density.
Which option will help a customer to draw the beverage
up the straw?
A.
I only.
B.
I1 only.
C. Either I or I1 would work.
D. Neither I nor I1 would work.
40. A metal box in the shape of a cube which is 0.1 m on a
side floats in space, where there is a vacuum. The box
has 8 grams of oxygen gas in it at 2 ahn. Use R =
0.0821 L atm / K mol, and 1 atm = 1.01 x 10' Pa. What
is the best estimate of the force the gas exerts on one
face of the cube?
A.
B.
C.
D.
210N
420N
2100N
2.1~10~~
Use the following information to answer:questions 41-43:
When the dike sprang a leak, the little Dutch boy

placed his finger in the hole to stop the flow. We can model
the dike as a dam 20 rn high and 100 km long on top of an
ocean which is another 980 m deep, 100 km wide, and 100
km long. Let's say the hole is a square 0.01 m by 0.01m
located 1 m below the surface of the water.
Assume that viscosity is negligible. We have
P,, = 10' Pa, p, = lo3kg/m3, and g = 10 m/s2.
dike,
g = 10 rn/s2,
plir= 1.2kg/m3,
R = 0.0821 L atm/K mol,

and the radius of the straw r,,, = 3 x
Fluids
m.
38. What happens when the chemist connects her pump to

the straw?
A. The pump is able to draw the liquid to the fourth
floor and quench her thirst.
B. The pump is theoretically able to draw the liquid
to the fourth floor, but it requires an infinite
amount of time.

41. What would be the velocity of the stream if the little
Dutch boy removed his finger from the hole?
A.
4.5 mls
B. 45 m/s
C. 140 m/s
question.
44. What does the force meter read?

A.
6.9 N
B. 7.9N
C. 8.9N
D.

question.
45. What does ;he scale holding the water read?
42. What would be the flow through the hole if the little
Dutch boy removed his finger?
A.
4.5 x lo4 m3/s
B. 4.5 x lo2m3/s
C. 4.5 x lo4m3/s
question.
43. What force does the little Dutch boy have to exert in
order to keep his finger in the dike?
A.
1N
B.
102N
C. 1 0 4 ~
question.
A.
B.
C.
D.
49 N
50N
51N
question.
Passage 1
When we place a straw (a hollow cylindrical tube) in

water, the water inside the straw rises above the surface
level outside and a rniniscus (curvature of the surface)
forms. Consider the column of water in the straw from the
height of the water outside the straw to the top of the
column. (See figure, where the column is shown shaded.)
Let P, be a point in the straw at the bottom of the column
and let P, be a point inside the water column at the top.
A steel hammer (m, = 790 grams) is tied to a string

which is hung from a force meter. A container of water
(m, = 5 kg) sits on a scale. The hammer is lowered completely into the water but it does not touch the bottom.
Assume the density of steel is 7.9 g/cm3and the

density of water is 1.0 g/cm3. The acceleration due to gravity
is 10 mls2.
The force due to surface tension for a maximally

stretched surface is given by F,, = yL, where y is the
coefficient of surface tension (which depends only on the
substance) and L is the length of the line of contact between
an object and the fluid. For this problem use the following:
p = density of water
y = surface tension of water
r = radius of the straw
h = height of the column
P,, = atmospheric pressure
g = acceleration due to gravity
Chdpter
You should understand the last passage before going

on to the next one.
1. Which pressure is greater, the pressure at P, or at P,?

A. Pressure at P , is greater than at P, by the term
pgh.
Pressure at P , and at P2 are both Pa,.
Pressure at P , and at P, are the same but not Pa,.
Pressure at P2 is greater than at P , by the term
pgh-
B.
C.
D.
2.
What are the forces acting on the column?

A.
Gravity, down.
B.
Gravity, down; force due to pressure on top
surface; force due to pressure on bottom surface.
C. Gravity, down; force due to pressure on top
surface; force due to pressure on bottom surface;
and surface tension, up.
D. Gravity, down; force due to pressure on top
surface; force due to pressure on bottom surface;
and surface tension, down.
Passage 2
Vascular plants transport water by a passive transport

system using xylem, a cell tissue which forms thin, long
cylinders along branches of plants. In particular, trees use
this tissue to transport water against the force of gravity to
great heights.
In one model (Model 1, shown in first figure below),
xylem is a tube or pipe, and water is "pulled" up by reducing the pressure at the top of the column of water in the
xylem. The figure shows a tube whose bottom end is in a
reservoir of water. The top end is closed and has a cavity
whose pressure is less than atmospheric pressure. It turns
out not to be a good model for Nature.
3. What expression gives the magnitude of the force due

to pressure on the top of the column?
A.
F = lcr2(p,, - pgh)
B.
F = 2 z r 2 ( p a , - pgh)
C.
F = zr2p,,
F = 2 z r 2 Pa,
D.
4.
5.
Model 1
pressure less
than atmoshpere
What expression gives the force due to gravity on the

column?
A.
Fgrav= r2hg
B.
FBrrv= 2r2hg
C.
F,, = lcr2hpg
D.
F,,, = 21crzhpg
What expression approximates the force due to surface

tension?
A.
6.
10 ......... . . . . . . . ............ . .... Fluids
In another model (Model 2 , shown in figure below),

xylem is a narrow tube which exerts a force on water by
surface tension, the same force that causes water to rise in a
thin straw when it is sitting in water. In this case the forces
on the column of water have to be balanced, so the downward force of gravity is equal to the upward force of surface
tension. The force of surface tension is the product of the
coefficient of surface tension y(0.072 N/m for water) and
the circumference of the cylinder.
2ry
'v
BC.
2my
D.
2zr2y/h
What happens if r decreases by a factor of 2?
A.
B.
C
D.
The height h would stay the same.

The height h would increase by a factor of 2.
The height h would increase by a factor of 4.
question.

179

In both models the height of the column is h and the
radius of the tube is r, which is about 2 x
m. Use the
estimate P,, = 10' ~ / m for
' atmospheric pressure. Use
lo3kg/m3 for the density of water and 10 m/s2 for the
acceleration of gravity.
adhered to the walls. The beetle squeezes the hydrogen

peroxide and hydroquinone into the outer chamber where the
following reaction takes place to form quinone (also called
1,4-benzoquinone):
1. What is maximum height of a column of water in xylem

in Model l ?
A.
1 meter
B.
10 meters
C. 20 meters
D. 200 meters
2.
How could the maximum height be increased in Model I?

A.
Decrease the radius of the cylinder.
B. Increase the radius of the cylinder.
C. Increase the density of xylem.
D. None of the above will increase the maximum
height.
3. What is maximum height of a column of water in xylem

in Model 2?
A. 3.6 meters
B. 36 meters
C. 72 meters
D. 144 meters
4.
inner
chamber
< hydroquinone
hydrogen peroxide
The heats of formation of the various compounds are

shown in the table.
species
hydrogen peroxide
hydroquinone
quinone
water
How could the maximum height be increased in Model 2?

Decrease the radius of the cylinder.
A.
B. Increase the radius of the cylinder.
C. Increase the density of xylem.
D. None of the above will increase the maximum
height.
- 45.68
- 44.65
- 44184
- 68.32
This reaction in the outer chamber creates a solution of

the products of reaction (1) in water. This solution has enough
heat and pressure to create a hot stream to shoot out of an
opening (radius 0.1 rnm) in the tip of the abdomen at a speed
v = 12 m/s.
We can model this outer chamber as a volume (reaction
is
flask) with a nozzle. The pressure in the chamber ,P
greater than the outside pressure P,m, and this provides the
force on the fluid in the nozzle. The nozzle has radius r and
cross-sectional area A, and the entire chamber has volume
V,.
The temperature of the fluid in the chamber is Tcb.
Note: The tallest trees are the redwoods, which can be

as high as 100 meters.
Passage 3
When the bombardier beetle is attacked or provoked,

it sprays a jet of hot liquid toward its attacker. The jet comes
out of an opening at the tip of its abdomen, which it can
move in order to direct the stream.
The physical mechanism for creating the hot spray
consists of two chambers in the abdomen: an inner chamber
which stores hydrogen peroxide and hydroquinone in water
solution, connected by a valve to an outer chamber which
contains oxidative enzymes (peroxidase and catalase)
outer
chamber
chamber

180
1.
2.
6. In reference to the model in the last paragraph, which

gives the best expression for the total force on the part
of the fluid in the nozzle?
What is the primary reason that the reaction rate of the

reaction (1) increases when the reactants go from the
inner chamber to the outer chamber?
A. The temperature is increased.
B. The concentration of the reactants is increased.
C. The surface area of reaction is increased.
D. The activation energy is decreased.
3. What is the approximate height to which the spray

would travel if it were directed straight up? (Ignore air
resistance.)
A.
0.6 meters
B.
1.2 meters
C. 7.2 meters
D. 14.4 meters
How does the catalyst affect the heat of reaction for
reaction (I)?
A. The catalyst decreases the heat of reaction.
B. The catalyst does not affect the heat of reaction.
C. The catalyst increases the heat of reaction.
D. The catalyst may decrease or increase the heat of

reaction depending on the temperature.
5.
A.
(pchm - Pam )A
B.
(PC,,
+ Pam )A
What is the flow rate out of the beetle's abdomen?

A. 4 x lo-' cm3/s
B. 4 x
cm3/s
7.
4.
Chdptcr 10 .. . . .. . .. . . .. .... . . .......... . ... Fluids
Which of the following expressions gives the best

approximation of the pressure inside the chamber?
1
+ -pv2,
where p is the density of the fluid.
2
A.
P,
B.
,v ,where n, is the number of moles of
n, RT
Once reaction (1) takes place in the outer chamber, a

scientist wants to determine whether there is enough
heat to raise the temperature to the boiling point of the
solution. In addition to the information given in the
passage and the boiling point of the product solution,
what information does she need to do the calculation?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Heat capacity of the solution.

Heat capacity of the solution and the concentration of quinone.
Heat capacity of the solution, the concentration of
quinone, and the heat of reaction (1).
Heat capacity of the solution, the concentration of
quinone, and volume of the outer chamber.
I
A recent innovation in automobile safety is the airbag.
In the event of a collision, an airbag in front of the driver
inflates in about 0.02 seconds. As the driver's body comes to
a rapid stop, the airbag provides a soft cushion, softer than
the steering wheel in any case.
The essential mechanism of the airbag consists of a
sealed combustion chamber containing iron(II1) oxide and
sodium azide, which react to form the nitrogen gas which
fills the airbag:
quinone in the chamber.
C.
D.
nRT
-,where n is the number of moles of
In the same chamber is an ignitor, consisting of an electric

coil, zirconium and potassium hyperchlorate, which react
somewhat as follows:
v,m
molecules in the chamber.
nRT
<tm
+-
v*,
4Zr(s,+ KCIO,(s, + 421O(~,+KC&)
,where n is the number of moles of
(2)
The main active ingredient in the airbag is the sodium azide.

This ingredient is prepared using the reaction of sodium
amide and nitrous oxide:
molecules in the chamber.

181
The
MCAT Physics Book
During a collision, an electric coil starts reaction (2).

This provides the heat which ignites reaction (I). After
1-5 ms, the seal of the combustion chamber bursts and
releases the products (see figure). A filter screen removes the
solid products of reaction (I) and other trace reaction
products (some possibly noxious) while passing the nitrogen
gas-
gas chamber
igniter
Lb
r
chamber
I\
3.
Assume that the final gas has temperature 27" C at 1

atmosphere of pressure. If 1000 liters of gas are desired,
which expression gives the grams of sodium azide
required?
4.
What is the best possible purpose for having the bag

deflate as the driver presses into it?
A. As the bag deflates, the temperature of the gas
decreases to safe levels.
B. Allowing the gas to flow out of the bag ensures
that the bag does not burst.
C. The bag's deflation decreases the energy of the
collision.
D. Increasing the distance over which the deceleration occurs decreases the required force.
5.
What is the advantage of having an airbag with larger

area (as one views it from the driver seat)?
rupture
'.Db--#Y
filter
screen
The nitrogen gas fills the bag in about 20 ms, and the
whole reaction (I) continues for about 50 ms. The bag is
porous, so as the driver presses against it, the bag deflates.
Thus, it is almostly completely deflated by the time the
accident is over. After that, it is hoped that the driver can
walk away from the collision with no injuries worse than
abrasions from the inflating bag.
1. What is a possible purpose for keeping the combustion

chamber sealed during the first 1-5 ms of reaction?
A.
This ensures that poisonous byproducts are
prevented from entering the bag.
B. The concentration of reactants is kept high to
speed the reaction.
C. The reactants are protected from water vapor,
which could contaminate the reaction.
D. This keeps the reactants near the catalyst.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Increasing the area increases the gas-flow rate.

Increasing the area decreases the gas flow rate.
Increasing the area decreases the pressure on any
given body part.
Increasing the area decreases the density of the
gas inside the bag.
6. Which of the following is the best description of the

2.
Of reactions (I), (2), and (3), which has the greatest

entropy increase?
energy flow for the airbag inflation?

A.
chemical to heat
A.
(1)
B.
(2)
c.
(3)
All three have zero entropy increase.
B.
C.
D.
D.
chemical to gravitational potential.

chemical to kinetic to heat.
chemical to heat to work against the atmosphere.
7. Which of the following is the least likely byproduct for

reaction (1) referred to in Paragraph 3?
A.
NaO,
B.
Na
C. FeO
D. N$N
GO ON TO THE NUCT PAGE

182
A barometer, that is, a device that measures pressure,

can be constructed from a tube which is open at both ends
and shaped like a U. A fluid, like mercury, is placed inside,
filling the bottom portion of the U. If the height of the
mercury column at one end is greater than at the other end,
then the pressure above the liquid on that end is less.
reservoir
at pressure pmS
For the following prob!ems, let p be the density of mercury.

1. In the first figure, the heights of the left and right
columns of mercury are h, and h,, respectively. Which
expression gives the reservoir pressure P,?
h2
2.
If the pressure measured by Barometer 1 in the second

figure is P,and that measured by Barometer 2 is P,,
then what is the upstream velocity of the flow?
A modification of a barometer can be used to measure

Bow speed. Consider a pipe which carries an inviscid,
incompressible fluid moving a speed v and pressure P,far
upstream. Barometer 1 does not intempt the flow, so it
measures P,.If Barometer 2 is placed in the flow as shown
in the figure below, then the tip of the barometer forms an
obstruction in the flow.
- -
s&&=---
Barometer 1
Barometer 2
The flow just in front of the tip comes to stop at what is

called a stagnation point. Nevertheless, we can consider the
line shown in the figure, which comes to an end at the
stagnation point, to be a streamline.
'Ihe figure below shows a flow with a constriction.
The flow far upstream has a speed v,, pressure P,, and a
cross-sectional area A,. In the consmction the flow has a
velocity v,,pressure P,,and a cross-sectional area A,.
3. How does the speed v, compare with the speed v,?

A. The speed v, is less than v3.
B. The speed v, is the same as v,.
C . The speed v, is greater than v,.
given.
4.
How does the pressure P, compare with the pressure
P,?
A.
B.
C.
D.
The pressure P, is less than P,.

The pressure P, is the same as P,.
The pressure P, is greater than P,.
given.
The
MCAT Physics Book
5. Suppose the fluid were replaced with an incompressible

fluid that had viscosity, but v,, P,,A,, and A, remained
the same. How would the velocity,,,,v
in the constriction be changed from v,?
A. The speed would be less than v,.
B. . The speed would be the same as v,.
C. The speed would be greater than v,.
given.
6.
Again, suppose the fluid were replaced with a fluid that

had viscosity, but v,, P,, A,,and A, remained the same.
How would the new pressure in the constriction be
changed from P,?
A. The new pressure would be less than P,.
B. The new pressure would be the same as P,.
C. The new pressure would be greater than P,.
given.
STOP
I Chapter 1 1
A. Introduction
This chapter begins the study of waves. Waves govern many of the phenomena
we experience every day, such as sound and light. In this chapter we look at what these
various wave phenomena have in common, their so-called "wavelike" nature. In the
following two chapters we will look at sound and light separately.
For these chapters it will be important to have pen and paper ready to recopy
diagrams and rework problems. But it is especially important to have ready a mental
pad of paper. You need to visualize the to-and-fro motion of the medium, the shape of
waves, and the bending and reflecting of waves. Only in this way will the few formulas
and ideas become intuitive.
If you stretch a spring, the spring exerts a pull on you. The more you stretch it,
the more it pulls. If you compress a spring capable of being compiessed, then it exerts a
push. Hooke's law states that the force is proportional to the extension or compression.
t
Hooke's Law
If a spring has resting length 4, and it is stretched (or
compressed) to a length 1, + x, then it exerts a force
Fvring
= kl:
(1)
where k is the spring constant in [Nlm], and the force of the

spring is opposite the direction of the pull (or push). (See
Figure 11-1.)
Let's be clear about the forces involved here. Figure 11-2 shows a spring attached
to a wall stretched by a hand. Figure 11-3 shows all the forces involved. The force p, is
the force the spring ejrerts on the wall, and is the force the wall exerts on the spring.
These forces are equal in magnitude because of the third law of motion. The force F3is
the force the hand exerts on the spring, and is the force the spring exerts on the hand.
The forces F3and p4are equal in magnitude because of the third law of motion as well.
The forces p2and F3 add to zero because of the second law of motion, because the
spring is not accelerating, giving force balance. All these forces are equal in magnitude
(for various reasons), but there are four forces.
F2
F4
Figure 11-2
Theforce exerted by a spring is

proportional to the displacement
of one end.
Figure 11-1
Figure 11-3
In spring problems, as in many types of physics problems, it is important to

follow the energy. The potential energy of a stretched or compressed spring is as
follows:
This energy is the second type of potential energy we have encountered. In many
problems, we can treat this potential energy like gravitational potential energy.
Conservation of Energy, Again

If there is no friction, no crashing, no heat generation, and if
each force is a potential force or does no work, then the sum of
kinetic and potential energies is constant, so we have
EK + Ep = constant.
(3)
The expression Ep includes both gravitational and spring

energies, although in most problems it represents just one or
the other.
Example: One end.of a horizontal spring (k = 20 Nlm) is connected to a wall,

and the other end is connected to a mass m (0.2 kg). The spring is compressed 0.1 m
from equilibrium. After it is released, how much work does the spring do in order to
push the mass to the equilibrium position?
Solution: Our first idea is to write the work equation: W = F-&COS$J =
Fswn,Ax= (20 Nlm x 0.1 m) (0.1 m) = 0.2 1. But this would be WRONG.The force of
the spring begins at (20 Nlm) (0.1 m) = 2 N, but then it decreases as the spring moves
the mass. (See Figure 11-4, showing the system at three different times.) In the work
equation we assume the force is constant. What shall we do?
Chqter
Let's think about the flow of energy

after the release. The work done by the
spring on the mass is the same as the
change in kinetic energy of the mass (by
energy conservation), that is,
But the kinetic energy of the mass comes

from the potential energy of the spring, so
we have
11
. . . . . . Periodic
Motion and Wdves
L;d
w,, = AE, = -4
=4
-4
The spring's force changes as the mass moves,

so the equation W = FAX does not apply.
Figure 11-4
This is one of those problems in which blind plugging into the formulas is to no
avail, but thinking about the energy flow is the key to success.
C.
Periodic Motion: One Oscillator
Let's think about a mass rn connected to a horizontal spring (resting length I,,
spring constant k ) which is connected to a wall. The mass is sitting on a frictionless
floor (so we can ignore vertical forces). We stretch the spring to length 1, + A and let go.
What happens?
At first the spring pulls the mass back towards equilibrium. As the mass goes
faster, the displacement x and force F,,,, decrease. When the spring is length b, the
Because the length is I, (and thus x = O), the restoring
mass is moving velocity -v,.
force and acceleration are zero. 'lhe maximum displacement occurs when v = 0 and the
magnitude of the spring force is very large. Figure 11-5 shows the movement at five
times. Spend some time making sure you understand every entry on the table. In the
first line the negative sign of the acceleration indicates the acceleration vector points
left, the same as the force of the spring. This motion is called simple harmonic motion.
Figure 11-5
E, = E,
+ E,
=-&
(= constant)
+_my2.
The maximum displacement of the mass from equilibrium is the amplitude A.

The period T is the time it takes for the system to go through one cycle, and it has units
[s]. Thefrequency f is the number of cycles a system goes through in a unit of time, and
it has units [lls = Hertz = Hz]. We have
The frequency is related to the spring constant and the mass as follows:
Let's see if this equation makes sense. We would guess that a system with a ~tiff~spring
would have a high frequency (think about it), so it makes sense that k should be in the
numerator. As k increases, f increases. Also a larger mass will decrease the frequency,
so it makes sense that rn is in the denominator. The square root is needed to make the
units agree.
Let's consider a similar set up. In a
pendulum we have a bob connected to a
string or a light rod, which is connected
to a ceiling of some sort. In this case, the
restoring force is provided not by a spring
but by a component of gravity. In Figure
. -A mgsine
11-6, the solid mows are the two forces
mgcose
on the bob, and the dashed arrows show
mg
the gravitational force divided into
components, along the supporting rod and
A pendulum operates by a principle
perpendicular to it. The restoring force is
similar to t h t of a spring with a mass.
the latter
:"
Figure 11-6
where sin0 is approximately equal to 0
(measured in radians) for small angles. Note the similarity of this equation to equation
(1). In both, the force is proportional to the displacement, so the motion is similar.
The frequency of a pendulum is given by
Note that the mass of the bob m does not appear in this equation, so a 10-kg mass
swings on a 3-m string with the same period as a 0.1-kg mass swinging on a 3-m string.
You need not memorize this equation, but you should be familiar with the fact that m
does not appear in it.
Chdpter
1 1 . . . .. . Periodic Motion dr~dWdWS
D. Periodic Motion: Two Connected Oscillators

In the last section we looked at a
single oscillator moving in one dimension. Figure 11-7 shows a slightly more
complicated system with two similar
pendulums connected by a weak spring.
Let's look at some general characteristics
of this system.
Two pendulums connected by a
If one of the pendulums is set to
weak coupling (spring).
swinging, the other pendulum hardly
moves at first because the coupling is
Figure 11-7
weak. Gradually, the second pendulum
swings higher and higher, while the first
pendulum swings less and less. Then the first pendulum comes almost to a stop while
the second one swings with the original amplitude of the first. The energy of swinging
has transferred from the first pendulum to the second. (See Figure 11-8.)
Now the situation is reversed from the original set up. The second pendulum now
transfers energy to the first pendulum. This continues until the second one is at rest and
the first is swinging.
This is an example of a general principle.
If two weakly connected oscillators have similar frequencies,

and if the energy starts in one oscillator, then the energy tends
to be slowly transfer back and forth between the oscillators.
This is called resonance.
I
I
Figure 11-8 shows two pendulums with a very weak spring connecting them.
still
still
still
These are two pendula weakly connected by a spring. The energy in the
first pendulum is slowly transferred to the second then slowly back again.
Figure 11-8
Another example of resonance involves a soprano, a wine glass, and the air
between them. The soprano can tap the glass to hear its natural frequency. If she sings
that note very loudly, then the energy starts in one oscillator, her vocal cords, and
transfers to the other oscillator, the wine glass, by the weak coupling, the air. In this
case, enough energy enters the wine glass to cause it to go into a nonlinear regime, and
it bursts. (See Section 7.E.)
E. Waves,
an Introduction
rn
rn
When you throw a rock into an

otherwise calm lake, the circular ripples
carry energy and momentum away from
the original disturbance. These ripples are
waves (Figure 1 1 -9). When you see a
ripple across a field of grain, that is not a
wave, because it is the wind pushing the
grain, and the grain itself does not cany
any energy or momentum.
Figure 11-9
A wave is a disturbance (small movement or change) in a

medium such that, although the medium moves hardly at all,
the disturbance travels a long distance, transporting energy.
Figure 11-10 shows water waves

frozen at several moments in time. The
waves are moving to the right. A water
skater sitting at point P goes up and down
and up with period T, measured in [s]. Of
course, his frequency is f = 1/T.The
wavelength A is the length from peak to
peak (or trough to trough or ascending
zero ooint to ascending. zero mint).
- The
wavelength is measured in [m]. The
amplitude A is a measure of the size of the
disturbance, measured from the equilibrium point to the high point. The units
depend on the kind of wave it is and on
how we measure it.
The velocity of a wave is given by
A water wave moves to the

right but keeps its shape.
Figure 11-10
In many cases the velocity is constant,

and this formula simply relates frequency
and wavelength. watch for this on the
-+ t
--+ t
The arrows show the

displacement in this longitudinal
wave. The large arrow shows the
direction of wave travel.
Figure 11-11
,CAT
In a wave, if the disturbance of the

medium is in the same direction as the
direction of wave travel, then the wave is
called longitudinal. Figure 11-1 1 shows a
longitudinal wave on a spring. The small
arrows show the direction of the displacement, and the large arrow shows the
direction of travel.
Chapter
If the disturbance of the medium is

perpendicular to the direction of wave
travel, then the wave is called transverse.
Figure 11-12 shows two examples of
transverse waves. Transverse waves are
capable of being polarized, that is, they
can be confined to moving in one of two
dimensions. Unpolarized transverse
waves are a random mixture of the two
polarizations. Longitudinal waves cannot
be polarized.
II
. .. . . . Periodic M o t i o n and Waves
up and down
in and out of page
The table below shows most of the

examples of waves that you need to know
for the MCAT.
The arrows show the displacement

in these polarized transverse
waves. The large arrow shows the
direction of wave travel.
Figure 11-12
wave
longitudinaVtransverse
medium
water wave
both
water
T
string
wave on plucked string
sound
L
air
earthquake
both
earth
light
T
electric, magnetic fields
F.
Interference
When two particles come together, like two balls or two cars, they generally
collide in some manner. When two waves come together, they do not collide but jumble
together in a process called interference. It is not as complicated as it sounds. For
example, consider a wave on a lake (amplitude 7 cm, wavelength 4 m) aniving from the
north, such that at point A at time 12:30 (exactly) its height would be +5 crn if it were
the only wave around (Figure 11-13).
Now another wave (amplitude 10 cm,
wavelength 6 m) arrives from the east,
1such that at time 12:30 its height would
be -2 cm if it were the only wave around.
The resulting height of the water at 12:30
at point A is (+5 + -2) cm = +3 cm.
(These heights are measured relative to
A
the equilibrium height of the water.)
2
Three seconds later, let's say, wave 1
When two waves come
would have height +7 cm and wave 2,
together; they interfere.
-1 cm. Then the new height, with both
waves, would be (+2 + -1) cm = +1 cm.
Figure 11-13
!-I
II
h he MCAT Physics Book
Principle of Superposition
When two waves come together, the resulting displacement of
the medium is the sum of the individual displacements.
Figure 11-14 shows another example of this, in which two wave pulses come
together, one from the right and one from the left.
Figure 11-15 shows a third example
of interference on water. In this example a
wave train from the left encounters a
wave train from the right with the same
wavelength. Water skaters are sitting on
A
the water at points A, B, and C.
---
Two wave trains are

about to interfere.
Figure 11-15
Transverse pukes interfere.
The skater at point A experiences

the up-down-updown-up from the wave
on the left and the up-down-updown-up
from the wave on the right. Superposition tells us that the resulting motion is added, so
A experiences increased amplitude UP-DOWN-UP-DOWN-UP.
This is called
constructive interference, when two wave forms add in such a way as to create maximal
displacement of the medium. The two waves are said to be in phase, and point A is
called an antinode. Their relative phase is said to be 0". The resulting amplitude is the
sum of the individual amplitudes.
For the water skater at C, the left wave is up-down-updown-up, and the right
wave is down-up-down-up-down. By superposition we see that the resulting motion is
no displacement at all. This is called destructive interference, when the wave forms
tend to cancel and give minimal displacement. The two waves are said to be out of
phase, and point C is called a node. Their relative phase is said to be 180". The resulting amplitude is the difference of the
2
individual amplitudes.
1
For the water skater at B, the
relative phase is between 0"and 180, and
the interference is neither in phase nor out
of phase but somewhere in between. The
resulting amplitude is somewhere
inbetween as well.
Figure 11- 16 shows a fourth
Alice
Bob
example of interference, this time with
sound waves. Stereo speakers are at points
Sound waves arriving from
1 and 2, both producing a pure tone (sine
speakers I and 2 interfere where
wave) of wavelength A.in phase. Alice and
Alice sits (and where Bob sits).
Bob are listening to the speakers.
Figure 11-16
Figure 11-14
6h
192
Chapter
11
. . . . . . Periodic
M o t i o n and Waves
Alice is an equal distance from both

speakers. Figure 11-17 shows the waves
traveling from speakers to Alice. Since the
waves begin in phase and travel equal
distances, they arrive in phase. If only
speaker 1 were making sound, the wave
arriving at her ear would look like that
shown in Figure 1 1-18. If only speaker 2
Alice
Sound from
speaker 1
A f
V r
Sound from
speaker 2
Alice hears sound from
speakers 1 and 2.
Figure 11-18
Bob
Figure 11-17
were making a sound, the wave arriving at
her ear would look like that shown in the
same figure. Note that these figures show
displacement of air particles versus time.
Figure 11- 19 shows what Alice hears with
Sound wave
heard by
Alice
both speakers. She experiences construcFor Alice the sound waves

tive interference, so she hears a sound of
add constructively.
greater intensity than that from one
speaker.
Figure 11-19
Bob, however, is further away from
speaker 1 than from speaker 2 by half a
wavelength. What difference does half a wavelength make? The wave arriving from
speaker 1 has further to go, so when a peak is coming from speaker 2, a trough is just
arriving from speaker 1. (See Figure 11-20.) Figure 11-21 shows the sound waves from
Sound from
speaker 1
Alice
Bob
Bob hears soundfrom speakers 1

and 2. The sound from speaker 1 is
delayed by halfa wavelength.
Figure 11-20
Figure 11-21
the two speakers. Figure 11-22 shows
what Bob hears, nothing.
Sound wave
heard by
Bob.
For Bob the sound waves
add destructively.
Figure 11-22
Note: In real life it is difficult to

hear this phenomenon fully, since the
amplitudes of the two speakers are rarely
exactly the same. However, architects of
orchestra halls often must guard against
the possibility of "dead spots", where
certain notes made by the concert
master's violin, for example, cannot be
heard well.

Calculations of this type get complicated fairly quickly, beyond the scope of the
MCAT. But you should recognize constructive and destructive interference when you
see it (or hear it). In any wave phenomenon, when there are bands of strong and weak
amplitude, you should suspect that constructive and destructive interference is the'
cause. And you should recognize this:
Constructive interference occurs when two waves differ by no

wavelengths, or one, or two, or cetera. Destructive interference
occurs when two waves differ by half a wavelength, or 312, or
512, or cetera.
So far we have been talking of

0.65 m
waves which are unconstrained by
boundaries, or traveling waves. Standing
waves are waves constrained inside a
cavity. The main difference is that
traveling waves may have any frequency
Lowestfrequency mode for
at all, whereas standing waves have only
a string held at both ends.
certain allowed frequencies, and there is a
lowest frequency.
Figure 11-23
Think about a wave on an infinite
string. There is nothing to constrain your
imagination to think of waves of any wavelength. Now think about a wave on a guitar
string. The fixed ends now constrain your imagination, so that the longest wavelength
you can imagine would look something like that shown in Figure 11-23. How could it
any longer, with the ends forced to be at equilibrium points?
I.
be
Waves trapped in a cavity may have only certain allowed

frequencies. Generally there are an infinite number of allowed
frequencies, but there is a lowest possible frequency, a next
lowesf and so on. These are standing waves.
A mode of motion in which every part of the medium moves back and forth at the
same frequency is called a normal mode. The example of the guitar string will help
make this clear.
Example 1: A guitar string has a wave velocity 285 mls, and it is 0.65 m long.
What is the lowest frequency which can be played on it? (The lowest frequency
corresponds to the normal mode with no nodes except at the ends.)
Chapter
1 1 . . . . . . Periodic Motion and Waves
Solution: Figure 11-23 shows the normal mode for the lowest frequency. A full
wavelength looks like,-
so Figure 11-23 is half a wavelength. We
write
This frequency is called thefundamental.
Example 2: What is the second lowest frequency that can be excited on the same
guitar string?
Solution: Figure 11-24 shows the
normal mode with one node between the
ends. That is, the midpoint of this string
-------- ------- experiences destructive interference and
thus no motion at all. For this mode the
wavelength is A = 0.65 m. We write
Next lowest frequency mode
v
for a string held a t both ends.
f=-
= 440Hz.
rn
Figure 11-24
This frequency is called the second hannonic (the first harmonic being the fundarnental, but that is always called thefundamenraf).
Example 3: What is the third lowest frequency that can be excited on the guitar
string?
Solution: Figure 11-25 shows the normal mode with two nodes between the
ends. The wavelength is given by
F i r e 11-25
= 660Hz.
This is the third hannonic.
The
MCAT Physics Book

When you pluck a guitar string, you hear all these frequencies with varying
amplitudes, so the guitar string is not in a normal mode but in a mixed state.
These normal modes are all sine waves on a string. Here are some general rules
for drawing normal modes:
1. It is important to get the ends correct (for example, the ends of a guitar string
are nodes).
2. For the fundamental there are as few nodes as possible, usually none,
excluding the end points.
3. Each following hannonic adds one node (only rarely more).
In this chapter we explored springs and waves. To solve problems involving
stationary springs, it is important to draw accurate force diagrams and remember the
spring equation F,,,, = kr. To solve problems involving moving springs, it is often
more important to follow the energy flow. The potential energy of a spring stretched (or
1
compressed) by a distance x is Ep= -kr2. You should practice doing this sort of
2
problem.
Waves involve a small movement of a medium which propagates to great
distances, transporting energy. Often waves have a characteristic frequency f and a
When
$I
waves
..come .
wavelength A, and these are connected by the wave velocity v =
together they exhibit interference. If they interfere constructively, they create a wave
with large amplitude. If they interfere destructively, they create a wave with small
amplitude. Whenever you encounter bands of light and dark (light waves) or loud and
soft (sound waves), it is likely that interference is part of the explanation as to Why the
bands formed.
Standing waves are waves trapped in a cavity. They have the distinguishing
characteristic that only certain frequencies are allowed: a lowest, and a next lowest, and
SO on.
Chapter
Chapter 1 1 Problems
Section
. ... .
Periodic Motion dnd W ~ V ~ S
3.
How long does it take for the mass to go around P

once?
A.
1.00 s
B. 3.14s
C. 4.00 s
D. 6.28 s
4.
What is the resting length of the spring?

A.
0.2 m
B.
1.8 m
C. 2.0 m
D. 2.2m
5.
What is the amount of potential energy stored in the

spring?
A.
1J
B. 2 J
C.
l00J
D. 200J
Use the following informationfor questions I and 2:

An ideal, massless spring (spring constant 2.5 Nlm
and resting length 0.15 m) is hanging from the ceiling. (Use
acceleration due to gravity g = 10 mls2.)
1. A mass of 0.8 kg is added to the bottom end of the

spring, and the system is allowed to reach a static
equilibrium. What is the length of the spring?
A.
0.47 m
B.
3.05 m
C.
3.20 m
D.
3.35 m
2.
11
If the 0.8 kg mass in the previous question were pulled

down an additional 10 cm (that is, below its equilibrium
length) and released, what is the magnitude of the net
force on the mass just after the release?
A.
0.25 N
B.
7.75 N
C.
8.00 N
D.
8.25 N

One end of a spring (spring constant 50 N/m) is fixed
at point P,while the other end is connected to a mass m
(which is 5 kg). The fixed end and the mass sit on a horizontal frictionless surface, so that the mass and the spring are
able to rotate about P. The mass moves in a circle of radius
R = 2 m, and the force on the mass is 10 N.
Thefigure shows a pendulum at the bottom of its swing. Use

-thisfigure for questions 6 and 7.
6. What is the direction of the acceleration vector for the
bob?
A.
B-
7.
t
1
c.
D.
There is no acceleration at this point.
What is the direction of the net force on the pendulum

bob?
A.
B.
C.
D.
The net force is zero.
1
\
The
MCAT Physics Book
Refer to the figure below for questions 8 and 9.
10. Which describes the flow of energy referred to in the

problem?
A.
potential to kinetic
B. kinetic to potential
C. potential to kinetic to potential
D. kinetic to potential to kinetic
8. A massless spring with spring constant k is connected

on one end to a wall and on the other end to a massless
plate. A mass rn is sitting on a frictionless floor. The
mass m is slid against the plate and pushed back a
distance x. After its release, it reaches a maximum
speed v,. In a second experiment, the same mass is
pushed back a distance 4x. After its release, it reaches a
maximum speed v,. How does v, compare with v,?
A. V2 = v 1
B. v2=2v,
C. v, = 4v1
D. v, = 16v1
11. Which expression is an expression for x?
9. A massless spring with spring constant k is connected

on one end to a wall and on the other end to a massless
plate. A mass rn is sitting on a frictionless floor. The
mass m is slid against the plate and pushed back a
distance x. After its release, it reaches a maximum
speed v,.In a second experiment, a larger mass 9rn is
pushed back the same distance x. After its release, it
reaches a maximum speed v,. How does the final kinetic
energy E, of the first mass compare with the final
kinetic energy E2of the second mass?
A. E,= E2/3
B. E,= E2
C. E,= 3E,
D. El= 9E2
A ball of mass m falls from rest from a height and
encounters a spring, thus compressing it (see figure). When
the ball comes to a momentary stop, it has moved a distance
L, compressing the spring a distance x.
Section
A massless ideal spring projects horizontally from a

wall and connects to a mass (0.1kg). The mass is oscillating
in one dimension, such that it moves 0.3 m from one end of
its oscillation to the other. It undergoes 20 complete
oscillations in 60.0 s. ( The frequency is related to the spring
--F
1
constant by f = 2n
m .)
12. What is the period of the oscillation?

A.
0.333 s
B. 2.09 s
C. 3.00s
D.
18.8 s
13. What is the frequency of the oscillation?
A. 0.333 Hz
B. 2.09 Hz
C. 3.00 Hz
D.
18.8 Hz
198
Chdpter
11
. . . . . Periodic M o t i o n and Wdves
14. What is the spring constant k?
Immediately after the hit, the two blocks are going 0.2 mls.
They then oscillate. Consider the following three statements in questions 19 and 20.
I
15. What is the amplitude of the oscillation?
A. 0.15m
B. 0.3 m
C. 0.6 m
D. 3 m
19. Which of the statements is true during the collision?

A.
I only
B.
I1 only
C. II and III
D. I. 11, and IIE
16. How would the frequency change if the spring constant

were increased by a factor of 2?
B. It would increase by 41%.
17. How would the amplitude change if the spring constant
were increased by a factor of 2?
D. None of the above is true.
18. What is the energy flow in such a system?

A. potential to kinetic to heat
B. back and forth from spring potential to kinetic
C. back and forth from gravitational potential to
spring potential
D. back and forth from potential to kinetic to heat
I. Momentum is conserved.
11. Kinetic energy is conserved.
In. The sum of kinetic and spring potential energy is
conserved.
20. Which of the statements is true during the oscillation?

A.
I only
B.
111only
C. I1 and III
D. I. 11, and III
21. What is the velocity of Block A before the collision?
A. 0.45 d s
D.
5.0n-h
22. How far does the spring get compressed from its
resting position?
A. 0.02 m
B. 0.04 m
C. 0.08 m
D. 0.16m
'
23. During the oscillation, when is the magnitude of the

Blocks A (0.1 kg) and B (0.4 kg) ride on a frictionless
level surface in one dimension and have velcro on their
sides, so that they stick when they touch. Block B is also
connected to a massless, ideal spring (k = 50 Nlm) which
extends horizontally and is connected to a wall. Initially
Block B is at rest, and block A approaches from the left (see
figure).
199
acceleration the greatest and the direction of the

acceleration directed to the right?
A. When the spring is extended.
B. When the spring is at its resting length.
C. When the spring is compressed.
The MCAT Physics
Book
24. Which best describes the flow of energy during the

collision?
A. kinetic to potential
B.
kinetic to chemical
C. kinetic to potential and chemical
D. kinetic to kinetic and heat
27. What is the frequency of this wave?

A.
0.5 Hz
B.
1 Hz
Section D
25. A research and development lab has just built a prototype for a potato peeler. It has many moving parts, but
one particular part, the blade patroler, is not supposed to
move. When the researchers turn on the machine, they .
notice that this piece vibrates a little at first, then more,
until it is flopping around uselessly. If resonance is
responsible for this phenomenon, what can you
conclude? Consider the following statements.
I. There is a weak connection between this vibration
and another vibration.
11. There is a strong connection between this vibration
and another vibration.
111. The two vibrations have similar or equal frequencies.
A.
B.
C.
D.
26. What is the wavelength for this wave?

A.
1m
B.
2m
C. 4 m
D. 8 m
I1 only.
I and 111.
IIand III.
I or I1 is true, and 111 is true.
Section E

A water wave is traveling down a narrow channel in a
rundown district in Manhattan. A styrofoam cup is floating
on the surface of the water, tossed there by some careless
passerby rushing to work. The city, in its rush, ignores this
assault to civility, but you are waiting for a taxi, and you
'
notice that it bobs from up to down to up in every two
seconds. You decide to take a photograph in order to use up
a roll of film. The data for the figure is taken from the photo.
28. What is the velocity of the wave?
A.
B.
C.
D.
2ds
3.14m/s
4ds
6.28 m/s
29. What is the amplitude of the wave?

A. O.lm
B. 0.2 m
C. 2 m
D. 4 m
Use the following'infonnationfor questions 30-33.- The velocity of a wave on a wire or string is not
dependent (to a close approximation) on frequency or
amplitude and is given by v2 = T/U where T is the tension in
the wire and p i s the linear mass density. The linear mass
density is the mass per unit length of wire, so that the linear
mass density 1is the product of the mass density and the
cross-sectional area.
A certain wire A (see figure) has tension 2000 N and a
circular cross section of diameter 0.4 mm. A sine wave is
traveling to the right with frequency 200 Hz.
2000 N
2000 N
diameter 0.4 rnm

Wire A
Wire B is made of the same material as wire A with
half the diameter.
--
200
Chapter
1 1 . . .. .
Periodic M o t i o n and Waves
30. How would the cross-sectional area change if the

diameter were increased by a factor of 4?
A.
It would increase by a factor of 2.
B.
31. What is the linear density of wire B?
One quarter that of wire A.
A.
B. One half that of wire A.
C. The same as that of wire A.
D. Double that of wire A.
35. There are two water waves (velocity 16 d s ) which
arrive at point P,where a duck is sitting. The first wave

comes from the north with amplitude 3 m and wavelength 60 m. The second wave comes from the west
with amplitude 4 m and wavelength 60 m. What is the
amplitude of the duck's oscillation?
A.
1m
B.
3.5m
C. 7 m
question.
32. If we want to increase thewave velocity on a wire by

3076, by how much should we increase the tension?
A.
30%
B. 60%
C. 69%
D. 81%
33. One long, straight wire has a diameter of 0.4 mm made

of steel (density 8.0 g/cm3). Another wire has the same
tension, made of a synthetic material (density 2.0 gl
cm3).What must the diameter of the second wire be in
order to have the same wave velocity?
A. 0.1 mm
B. 0.8 rnrn
C. 1.6 mm
D. 6.4 mm
Use the following infonnutionfor questions 36-38:

Tivo speakers are located L = 2 m from each other,
and both are producing a sound wave (in phase) with
wavelength 0.8 m (see figure). A microphone is placed
between the speakers to determine the intensity of the sound
at various points. Use v = 343 m/s for the speed of sound.
speaker 1
speaker 2
Section F
34. The wave shown is traveling to the right. Which ofthe

waves below, traveling to the left, will momentarily
cancel this wave?
Lo
detector
36. What kind of point exists exactly midway between the
two speakers?
A. An antinode.
B. A node.
C. Neither an antinode nor a node.
D. Both an antinode and a node.
eoi
GO ON TO THE NEXTPAGE

37. What kind of point exists exatly 1.3 m to the right of the
left-hand speaker?
A. An antinode.
B. A node.
42. What is the wavelength corresponding to the third

harmonic?
A. 213 m
B.
1m
C. 413 m
38. What kind of point exists exactly 0.4 m to the left of the
right-hand speaker?
A. An antinode.
B. A node.
43. What is the wavelength corresponding to the fourth

harmonic?
A. 213 m
B. 1 m
C. 4/3m
D. 2m
39. Two sounds waves of the same frequency arrive at point

P, one with amplitude 0.3 Pa, and the other with
amlitude 0.5 Pa. Which of the following gives the range
of possible amplitudes for sound at point P?
A. 0-0.5 Pa
B. 0.2 -0.5 Pa
C. 0.2 - 0.8 Pa
D. 0.3 -0.8 Pa
-
44. A finger is placed at point B (see figure; B is midway

between the ends), and the string is lightly plucked, so
that a waveform exists on the whole string. (Thus a
node exists at B.) What is the lowest frequency that may
be heard in this case?
A. 7.5 x l d Hz
B.
1.5x104Hz
C. 2.25 x lo4Hz
D. 3 x 1 0 ~ ~ ~
D.

A taut string (2 m) is fixed at both ends and plucked.
The speed of waves on this string is 3 x lo4m/s. (See
figure.)
45. A finger is placed at point A (point A is one third way

from one end to the other), and the string is lightly
plucked, so that a waveform exists on the whole string.
What is the lowest frequency that may be heard in this
case?
A. 7 . 5 x 1 0 3 ~ ~
B.
I.SX~O~HZ
C. 2.25 x lo4Hz
D. 3 x 1 0 ~ ~ ~
40. If the fundamental has wavelength A,, and the second

harmonic has wavelength 4, what is the ratio A,/& ?
A. 0.5
B.
C.
D.
2m
Passage 1
I
2
4
41. If the fundamental has a frequency off,, and the first

harmonic has frequency off,, what is the ratiof,lf,?
A. 0.5
B.
1
C. 2
D. 4
When a guitar string is plucked, there are many

frequencies of sound which are emitted. The lowest frequency is the note we associate with the string, while the
mix of other frequencies gives the sound its timbre, or sound
quality. The lowest frequency is the fundamental, while the
higher frequencies make up the harmonic series. The next
lowest frequency is the second harmonic; the next to lowest,
the third harmonic, and so on. The timbre depends on the
material of the string (steel or plastic or catgut), on the way
it is pIucked (middle or at the end), and on the sounding
I
Chdpter
Sometimes some of the frequencies may be sup- .

pressed, for example, by lightly holding a finger at a point
along the string to force a node there. This is not the same as
fretting the string, which involves holding the string all the
way down to the neck in order to effectively change the
length of the string.
m,
where T is
The wave velocity is given by v =
the tension in the string, and p is the linear mass density,
which is the product of material density and cross-sectional
area.
For the following questions, consider an E string
(frequency 660 Hz) which is made of steel. It has a mass of
0.66grams for each meter of wire and has a circular cross
section of diameter 0.33 mm. The string length when strung
on a guitar is 0.65 m.
Also note that the D string has a wave velocity of
382 m/s.
5.
11
.. . . .
Periodic Motion dnd Waves
What is the wavelength of the sixth harmonic of the E

string?
A.
0.22 m
B. 0.325 m
C. 3.25 m
D. 20.8 m
6. If we want to increase the frequency of the fundamental of a string by 3%. by how much do we want to
change the tension in the string?
A.
increase it by 1.5%
B.
increase it by 3%
C. increase it by 4.5%
D. increase it by 6%
-."
1.
2.
What is the velocity of a wave on the E string mentioned in paragraph 4?

A. 214.5 m/s
B. 429 m/s
C. 858 m/s
D. 1716 m/s
Sometimes we are concerned with what happens

when a wave in one medium encounters a sharp boundary
with a second medium. If the properties of the second
medium are similar to those of the first medium, the wave
passes from the first medium to the second; or is trammitted (see figure).
What is the frequency of the fundamental of the D

string?
A. 294 Hz
B. 588Hz
C. 882 Hz
D. 1175 Hz
3. What is the frequency of the fourth harmonic of the D

string?
A. 588Hz
4.
Passage 2
If the properties of the second medium are markedly

different from the first, there is said to be an impedance
mismatch, and much of the wave energy is reflected (see
figure), while some is transmitted.
If the guitarist places her left finger lightly on the D

string one fourth way from the neck end to the base,
what is the lowest frequency that will be heard? .
The situation is slightly more complicated if the
boundary between the two media is gradual. In this case
most of the energy of a wave may be transmitted to the
second medium even if there is an impedance mismatch.
This occurs if the length of the transition region is large
compared with the wavelength of the wave (seefigure). If
not, then the wave "sees" the boundary as being sharp.
The MCAT Physics
Book
3.
Waves are approaching the ocean shore from the left in

the following figure. According to the passage, which is
true?
waves
water
In addition to being reflected and transmitted, sometimes wave energy is absorbed. Certain media convert wave
energy into heat energy. This can happen, for instance, for a
wave traveling along a rope. The rope fibers rub against
each other and the energy dissipates as heat (see figure).
A.
B.
C.
D.
For the following questions, refer to the following

chart, which shows the typical wavelengths of various
waves.
wave
ocean wave
swimming pool wave
sound wave
visible light
4.
typical wavelength
10-100 m
0.1 m
1m
lo-' m
Waves with a long wavelength have the best

chance of arriving at the shore.
Waves with a short wavelength have the best
chance of arriving at the shore.
Waves of a large amplitude have the best chance
of arriving at the shore.
Waves of a small amplitude have the best chance
of arriving at the shore.
A photographer's lens often has a thin plastic coating

on the surface of a glass lens. What is a likely purpose
for that coating?
A. The coating increases the efficiency of converting
light to heat.
B. The coating prevents absorption of light.
C. The coating increases the reflectivity of the lens.
D. The coating decreases the reflectivity of the lens.
One morning you go outside and find a blanket of
newly fallen snow several centimeters thick. The
outdoors seems very quiet. What is the best explanation
for this?
A. The snow tends to reflect sound.
B. The snow tends to transmit sound energy to the
ground.
C. The snow tends to absorb sound energy.
D. The cold temperature makes the air unable to
carry sound.
1. Water waves which strike the edge of a swimming pool

are reflected, while ocean waves approaching the shore
are generally not reflected back to sea. Which is a good
explanation for this?
A. Ocean waves have a longer wavelength than
waves in pools.
B. There is a gradual slope to shallower water at a
shore.
C. Ocean waves are generally parallel to the shore.
D. Ocean waves are waves in a denser medium (salt
water) than pool waves (fresh water).
6. When sound waves encounter a closed door, what is

most likely to happen?
A. The sound energy is likely to be transmitted into
the wood.
B. The sound energy is likely to be reflected.
C. The sound energy is likely to be absorbed.
D. The frequency of the sound is likely to be
changed as it enters the door.
2. What happens to the energy of ocean waves as they

approach and break on the shore?
A. The energy is converted from kinetic to potential.
B. The energy is converted from potential to kinetic.
C. The energy is converted from mechanical to
chemical.
D. The energy is converted from mechanical to heat.
204
Chapter I 1
Passage
The human ear can hear sounds with frequencies from

20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Frequencies of sound higher than this
are called ultrasound. Although they cannot be heard, they
are used in the technique of ultrasound imaging, for example, to take the image of a fetus in the womb. The sound
waves are reflected off the interface between the fetus and
the surrounding fluid. In order for this to provide information, the wavelength of the sound has to be smaller than the
object being observed. Otherwise the wave passes right
around the object.
At the other end of the sound spectrum there are very
low frequency sounds. These can be highly injurious to
humans if they have sufficient intensity. The sounds can
cause internal organs to vibrate and eventually rupture,
tearing the connective tissue holding the organ in place. For
this reason, there are limits in the workplace as to how
intense low frequency sounds can be.
For the following, use 1500 1x11s for the speed of sound
in biological tissue. Use 343 mls for the speed of sound in
air. A mass m on a spring (constant k) has a frequency given
1. For a sound wave of frequency 10' Hz in air, what is its

wavelength?
A. 0.29m
B. 0.56 m
C. 1.7 m
D. 3.4 m
2. If a doctor wanted to take the image of a fetus and
wanted to resolve features of size on the order of one
millimeter, what frequency sound could she use?
A. Any Wuency less than about 3 x l o 5 . ~ z .
B. Any frequency greater than about 3 x lo5 Hz.
C. Any frequency less than about 1.5 x lo6Hz.
D. Any frequency greater than about 1.5 x lo6Hz.
. . . ..
. Periodic Motion and Wdves
4.
Which best describes the flow of energy in paragraph 2?

A.
sound to potential
B.
sound to heat
C. sound to gravitational
D. sound to chemical and heat
5.
In paragraph 2, which of the following would result in

an increase in intensity?
A. An increase in frequency.
B.
A decrease in frequency.
C. An increase in the mass of the internal organ.
D.
None of the above.
-.
6. Which of the following would be part of an explanation

of why low frequency sounds are injurious?
A. The wavelength of the sound is smaller than the
size of the organ.
B. The wavelength of the sound is larger than the
size of the organ.
C . The sound is reflected by the organ.
D. The frequency of the natural oscillation of-the
organ is similar to that of the sound.
7.
A scientist wants to model an internal organ with

connective tissue as a mass on a spring. The mass of the
organ is 0.5 kg, and its natural period of oscillation is
0.2 s. What would be the spring constant for the spring
in the scientist's model?
A. 0.1Nlm
B. 0.8 Nlrn
C. 2.5 Nlrn
D. 490 Nlrn
3. What period corresponds to the lowest frequency a

human ear can hear?
A. 0.05 seconds
B. 0.05 meters
C. 17 seconds
D. 17 meters
STOP
Chapter IP
Sound
A. Introduction
Sound is a longitudinal wave in some material medium, usually in air. Alternatively, we can say that sound is a wave of pressure variation, as Figure 12-1 shows.
air in
.-.*..**.
*
..
.ye.
2: .
;
,. *..:.,..
4-
airwitha
:**sound wave
:*,.t*:*:.
4-
ZWS..
- 0
**.:*.
* * .
+ +-
*..-#ye
*.*s*<S,*
.. .
.-.,ye ...
**:
.=
*.*.
**.
+
*.
*.?
-*-s:
.***'*
F i r e 121
Notice several things about the above graphs. The variations of pressure are much
smaller than the barometric pressure itself, that is, the equilibrium pressure P,. In fact,
the pressure variations are much exaggerated in the figure. The quantity Ax gives the
displacement of an air particle from its equilibrium position to its position with the
sound wave, so that a positive Ax corresponds to displacement to the right. Where Ax =
0, the pressure is a maximum or minimum, and where P = P,, we have Ax a maximum
or minimum. We denote the variation of the pressure from the equilibrium pressure as
AP=P-P,.
There are many ways in which energy can be converted into the energy of sound;
for example, an underground nuclear explosion creates pressure waves in the solid
Earth.The vibrating column of air in the plaintive oboe creates pressure waves in air.
The
MCAT Physics
Book
In general, sound waves travel faster in a stiff material than in a material which is
not as stiff. Thus waves travel a littIe faster in solids than in liquids, and a lot faster in
solids and liquids than in a gas. (See table.)
material
air
water
steel
speed of sound
340 d s
1600 d s
16000 mls
8. Intensity and Pitch

alarm
sound
waves
The intensiv is the power (energy

per unit time) going through the hoop
divided bv the area o f the hoop.
Figure 12-2
The intensiv of a wave is a measure

of the amountof energy a wave transports. If there is a stereo speaker producing music on one side of the room, then
sound waves transport energy across the
room. On the other side of the room we
hear the sound with a certain intensity, so
that a certain amount of energy per time
on an ear-A person with bigger ears
would have a proportionally greater
energy per time falling on them, so a
sensible definition of intensity is energy
per time per area:
I = - AE
.
AAt
(1)
The units are [w/m2]. (See Figure 12-2.)

The human ear can hear sounds from the barely perceptible rush of air at intensity
10-l2w/m2 to the painful roar at intensity 1 w/m2. In order to make these numbers
correspond more closely to our perception of sound, we often convert intensity into
decibels:
where I,, is the intensity 10-12wlm2.
Note that an increase by a factor of 10 in intensity I

corresponds to adding 10 to P, which is in decibels.
Chdpter 1 2 . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
The chart shows some sample calculations.

I
log -
Description
I0
rush of air
wind
conversation
water fall
pain
1
1o - ~
lo4
lo-'
1
1 o3
lo6
1 0'
10'~
0
3
6
9
12
0
30
60
90
120
Example 1: A loud argument takes place in the next room, and you hear 70 dB.
How much energy lands on one ear in one second? (An ear is about 0.05 m by 0.03 m.)
Solution: The intensity is given by
log,,
I
= 7,
I0
1=
W
-
m2 '
.
I
'-B
Figure 12-3
Thus,
AE = IAdt
As you go further from a source of sound, the intensity of the sound decreases. In
order to figure out how much it decreases, think of an alarm clock in the center of two
concentric spheres (Figure 12-3). The alarm clock produces a certain amount of energy
each second. That same amount of energy flows out of sphere A each second, and the
same amount flows out of sphere B each second. Thus we have
[power going through surface A] = [power going through surface B],
If there is a woman listening at radius A, the intensity she experiences is
because the surface area of the sphere is 41rr-i.Similarly, a man at radius r, experiences
intensity
...
Sound
Putting this all together yields

4 n r - I , = 4nr;IB,
"
1
In words, the intensity decreases as the square of the radius
(inverse square law).
Memorize the formula, but also understand the reasoning that led to the formula.
Example 2: Jack and Jill are in a field, and Jill is playing a violin. If the intensity
of the sound Jack hears is Po (in decibels) when he is 63.2 m away, how much louder
does she sound when he is 2 m away?
Solution: If Jack moves from 63.2 m to 2 m, then the radius decreases by a factor
of 63.212 = 31.6. Then equation (3) indicates that I increases by a factor of (31..6)' =
1000. Three factors of 10 is equivalent to adding 10 to P three times, so P = Po + 30.
The violin sounds 30 decibels louder.
The pitch you hear depends on the frequency of the sound wave; the lower the
frequency, the lower the note. For instance, the wave in Figure 12-4, with period T =
0.8 ms, corresponds to D#,. The wave in
12-5, with period double the first one,
corresponds to D#,, the same note one octave higher.
Figure 12-5
Figure 12-4
C. Resonating Cavities
In the last chapter we looked at the sound produced by a plucked guitar string or
a struck piano string. Now we will look at resonating pipes, like organ pipes. While the
resonating cavity of a soft drink bottle or of an oboe are more complicated than the
pipes in this section, the principle behind all these pipes is the same. Standing waves
are set up in the cavities, and these produce sound of a particular pitch and timbre.
A closed pipe is a pipe closed at one end and open at the other. If we excite the
air column, the air in the pipe vibrates longitudinally. The variable x gives the location
along the length of the pipe, and Ax gives the tiny displacement an air particle can have.
(See Figure 12-6.) The double arrow shows the air particle moving back and forth.
Since its equilibrium point is in the middle, the distance from one side to the other side
of the displacement is 2A.r.
210
A closed pipe has a

displacement node on one end
and an antinode on the other:
Figure 12-6
At the closed end, the air cannot

move back and forth, while it is completely free to do so at the open end. Thus
the closed end is a displacement node,
and the open end is an antinode. Compare
this with the vibrations in Section 11.G,
which had nodes at both ends. Any graph
we draw for a closed pipe must have a
node on one end and an antinode on the
other. The fundamental has no nodes in
the middle of the pipe away from the ends
(Figure 12-7). What is shown ends up
being one.fourth of a wave. A full wave
looks like this:. -
Figure 12-7
The
graph shows the first fourth: from zero

point to maximum. Thus the full wave is
four times the length of the pipe.
Example 1: A boy blows across the top of a bullet casing (a cylinder closed at
one end, open at the other) which is 0.03 m long. What is the frequency of the note he
hears (the fundamental)? (The speed of sound is 343 mls.)
Sdution: The fundamental mode is shown in Figure 12-7, and the wavelength is
d = 4 (0.03 m) = 0.12 m. Thus f = vld = 2860 Hz. (At a different temperature the sound
speed will be different.)
Some hints for drawing these diagrams appear at the end of Section ll.G. For
closed pipes, each successive harmonic has one additional node.
Now try drawing the second harmonic without looking at Figure 12-8.
For the second harmonic we have drawn three fourths of a wave, so L = 314 A,
and d = 413 L. The next harmonic is shown in Figure 12-9, but try to draw it also
without looking. What is A? (Did you get 415 L?)
Let's go back and look at the fundamental. Note this peculiar fact: If we are
thinking in terms of displacement of air particles, then the node is at the closed end and
the antinode is at the open end. If we are thinking in terms of pressure variation (see the
beginning of the chapter), then the closed end is the antinode and the open end is the
node. Figure 12-10 shows the fundamental in both cases. The frequency we calculate
comes to the same, of course. You should check this point.
Figure 12-8
Figure 12-9
Thc MCAT Physics Book
An open pipe has a displacement

antinode at both ends.
Figure 12-11
AP
A sound wave has a pressure

antinode when there is a
displacement node, and vice versa.
An open pipe is open at both ends,

like an organ pipe (Figure 12-11). If we
consider displacement of air particles,
then both ends are antinodes. We find that
we cannot draw a mode with no nodes in
the middle of the pipe, since such a mode
would make no sound. Thus the fundamental has one node (Figure 12-12).
Figure 12-10
fundamental
second harmonic
.third harmonic
Figure 12-12
If we consider pressure variation, then both ends are nodes, and we can draw a
mode with no nodes in the middle. Try drawing these graphs yourself without looking.
They represent the fundamental and the second and third harmonics. Draw also the
graphs for the fourth harmonic.
0. Beats
If you play the lowest two notes of a piano you may hear the notes separately, but
you may also hear a beating pattern, like aaaaaaaah-oooooooo-aaaad~ooooooooooaaaaaaaah about twice a second. Try this if a piano is available.
If you have a guitar, you can hear this effect by playing an A on the fifth fret of
the sixth string and an A on the fifth string open. If the two strings are slightly out of
tune, you will hear a single note that gets louder and quieter, louder and quieter. This is
called beats.
What is happening? The first two

graphs of Figure 12-13 show the two notes
which have similar frequency. At t = 0,
they are in phase, and the amplitude of the
combination is large. This is shown in
third graph, where their sum is shown. A
little while later, however, the two waves
are out of phase, and the amplitude of the
sum is a minimum. So this is the origin of
the loud-soft-loud sound of the two notes.
The beat period is shown in the third
graph, and beatfrequency is given by
Two waves of nearly the same

frequency interfere to give
&s,
a turning on and off:
Figure 12-13
Example: Jessica is tuning a guitar by comparing notes to a piano which she

knows is in tune. She plays an A on the piano (220 Hz) and loudly plucks the A-string.
She hears a loud-soft ringing whose maxima are separated by 3 seconds. .
a. What is the guitar string's current fundamental frequency?
b. Jessica tightens the string (increases the tension) of the guitar slightly, and
the beat gets faster. Should she continue to tighten the string?
Solution: a. The beat period is 3 s, so the beat frequency is 0.33 Hz. The string
may be producing 220.33 Hz or 119.67 Hz, that is, too sharp or too flat.
b. By tightening the string, Jessica increases its frequency. If the resulting
frequency were closer to 220 Hz, the beat period would get longer. She should reduce
the tension in the string.
E. Doppler Shift
If you have ever been standing
around where a train or car goes by, you
are familiar with the eeeeeeeeeee
aaaaaaaaaah sound it makes as it passes.
Why does this happen?
Figure 12-14-Figure 12-16 show
this phenomenon. Figure 12-14 shows a
train whistle making sound waves when it
is still. The man h&s these pressure
waves, so that his ear records a certain
frequency of pressure-maxima arrival
A person hears a notefrom a whistle.
Fire 1214
The
MCAT Physics Book
A person hears a higher note from

an approaching whistle.
times. In Figure 12-15, the train whistle

is approaching, so the man perceives the
pressure maxima coming more frequently. He perceives a higher frequency
note. In Figure 12-16 the train is
receding, each successive pressure
maximum has a longer way to travel, and
the man perceives pressure maxima less
frequent1y.
When the emitter of a wave and
the detector are moving relative to each
other, the detector detects a different
Figure 12-15
frequency from the one emitted-a

Doppler ship. The frequency is higher if
they are coming together and lower if they
are going apart.
There is one special case which
deserves note. If a wave strikes a moving
object and bounces back, then there are
two Doppler shifts. For example, when a
police officer uses a radar device to detect
the speed of an oncoming vehicle, there is
one shift when the radar is intercepted by
the car and another shift when the
reflected signal is intercepted by the
police device.
A person hears a lower note from a

receding whistle.
Figure 12-16
Example: A police officer uses sonar to determine the speed of an approaching

car. (Actually police use electromagnetic waves, but that is in the next chapter.) It emits
a frequency of 60 kHz. The car is approaching at 38 d s . The Doppler shift is
where f,is the detected frequency, vsis the speed of the wave in the medium, v, is the
speed of the detector,,v is the speed of the emitter, and f, is the emitted frequency.
The speed of sound is 343 m/s.
a. What frequency would the car detect if it could detect the sonar?
b. What frequency would the officer detect from the reflection?
Solution: a. The frequency that the car would pick up if it could intercept the
police sonar is
38 d s . We know to choose the positive sign because we

where f, = 60 kHz and v,=
know the result must be a higher frequency. Thus
Chapter
f,, = (60kHz)
1 P ..... .... ............... . . ...... Sound
' s
m
343 -
= 66.7 Hz.
b. The frequency that the police intercepts is given by
We choose the negative sign because, again, we know the result must be a higher
frequency. Thus
= 75 Hz.
In this chapter we looked at sound as an example of waves. We especially noted
resonating cavities of air which exhibit standing waves just like the waves on the guitar
string in the previous chapter. The key to doing problems involving these cavities is
drawing the pictures correctly.
The most important thing to remember about the Doppler shift is that the detected
frequency is greater than the emitted frequency if the emitter and the detector are
approaching each other, and less if they are receding.
Chapter I 2 Problems

In a quiet room just before she drops off to sleep,
Betsy hears the barely perceptible buzz of a mosquito one
meter away from her ear. (Hint: A barely perceptible noise is
10-12w/m2.)
5.
In the following use
How much energy does a mosquito produce in 100 s?

A.
lo-'' JB. 3 . 1 ~ 1 0 - ~ ~ ~
C. 1 . 3 x 1 0 - ~ J
where I, is a barely perceptible noise lo-'' w/m2.

Section
6. If you could harness the sound energy of mosquitos,

how many would it take to power a 10-W bulb?

A copier machine is making a rattling sound whose
intensity is lod w/m2 where you are sitting 2 m away horn it.
1. What is the sound level in decibels for this noise?

A.
10 decibels
B. 30 decibels
C. 60 decibels
D.
120 decibels
7.
If a swann of mosquitos were 10 m away, how many

mosquitos would there have to be in order for you to
just be able to hear it?
A.
10
B.
100
2. If you move to a point 6 m away, what would be the

intensity?
3. A speaker is producing 40 W of sound and you are

standing 6 m away. (Assume the sound goes out equally
in all directions.) What would be the intensity of sound
energy at your ear?
8. You hear a 20-decibel.noise which comes from a cricket

30 m away. How loud would it sound if you were 3 m
away?
A. 30 decibels
B. 40 decibels
C. 120 decibels
D. 2000 decibels
Section C
Use the following informationfor questions 9-1 3:
4.
A speaker is producing a total of 5 W of sound, and you

hear 10 dB. Someone turns up the power to 50 W. What
level of sound do you hear?
A. 15 dB
Richard is preparing a mailing tube. Before he inserts

his papers, he accidentally lets the mailing tube drop to the
floor, and it produces a note. 'Ihe mailing tube is 1.5 m long
with a cylindrical cross section of 4-cm diameter. It is sealed
at one end and open at the other. The speed of sound in air is
343 mls at 20" C.
216
Chdpter
1 2 ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... Sound
9. What is the wavtlength of the fundamental?

A. 0.04 m
B.
O.08m
C. 3 m
D.
6m
10. What is the frequency of the note that Richard heard?
A.
60 Hz
B.
100 Hz
C. 4000 Hz
D. 9000 Hz
air
11. What is the wavelength of the second harmonic?

A.
1.5m
B.
2m
C. 3 m
D. 6 m
14. What is the wavelength of the fundamental?

A. 0.05 m
B. 0.1 m
C. 0.13 m
D. 0.2 m
12. What is the wavelength of the fifth harmonic?

A. 0.7 m
B. 3.8m
C. 6 m
D. 7.5m
15. What is the frequency of the fundamental?

A. 200Hz
B. 400Hz
C. 1700Hz
D. 3400Hz
13. If the tube were filled with helium, which has a sound
speed of 965 mls, what would be the frequency of the
fundamental?
A.
160Hz
B. 320 Hz
C. 430Hz
D. 970 Hz
16. What is the wavelength of the fourth harmonic?

A.
0.025 m
B.
0.05 m
C. 0.067 m
D. 0.1 m

An organ pipe is a cylindrical tube which is open at
both ends. The air column is set to vibrating by air flowing
through the lower portion of the pipe. The shape of the hole
where the air exits affects the timbre of the pipe.
In the diagram hlength of the pipe is 0.1 m and the
diameter is 0.02 m. The velocity of sound at 20 C is 343 mis.
17. On a cold day (10" C) the speed of sound is 2% slower

than on a warm day (20" C). How would that affect the
frequency?
A. It would be 4% lower.
B. It would be 2% lower.
C It would be the same.
D. It would be 2% higher.
GO ON TO ME NEXT PAGE

Section
C.
D.
18. The two lowest notes on the piano are A, (27.5 Hz) and
A#, (29.1 Hz). If you play the notes simultaneously, the
resulting sound seems to turn off and on and off and on.
How much time exists between the successive "on"s?
A.
0.6 s
B.
1.6 s
C. 28.3 s
D. 56.6 s
Sarah has correctly tuned the B string of a guitar. She
frets the string to play an E (660 Hz). The E string is not yet
in tune. When she plucks the true E (on the B string) and the
E string together, she hears a note that changes from loud to
soft to loud twice a second.
22. What is the frequency of the beat between the notes?

A.
0.88 Hz
B.
1.1Hz
C. 784.43 Hz
D.
1569 Hz
23. What is the frequency of the C, fundamental?
A.
0.88 Hz
B.
262 Hz
C. 392 Hz
D. 785 Hz
Section
19. What is the fundamental frequency on the untuned E

string?
A.
0.5 Hz.
B.
2 Hz.
C. 660 Hz.
D. Either 658 Hz or 662 Hz.
where f,, is the detected frequency, v, is the speed of the

wave in the medium, v,,is the speed of the detector, v, is
the speed of the emitter, and f, is the emitted frequency.
Choose the sign in the numerator to reflect the direction the
detector is going (negative if approaching), and choose the
sign in the denominator to reflect the direction the emitter is
going (positive if approaching).
A fast train (50 mls) is moving directly toward
Samue1,'who is standing near the tracks. The train is
emitting a whistling sound at 420 Hz. The speed of sound is
350 mls at the outdoor temperature of 31" C.

On a piano tuned to the American equal-tempered
scale, the frequency of the third harmonic of C, string is
784.87 Hz. I h e fundamental ftequency of G, string is
783.99 Hz. Beats between these frequencies can be heard in
the following way:
21. What phenomenon is demonstrated when the G, string is

used to excite the vibration of the C, string?
A.
beats
B. interference

When the source of waves and a detector are moving
with respect to each other, the frequency of the detected
wave is shifted from the frequency of the emitted wave
(Doppler shift). The effect of this is to increase the detected
frequency when the source and detector are approaching
each other and to decrease the detected frequency when they
are receding from each other. In two or three dimensions this is complicated, but in
one dimension the formula is relatively simple:
20. What best describes the energy flow in this problem?

A.
Sound to mechanical.
B. Sound to heat.
C. Sound to mechanical to heat.
D. Kinetic and potential in one medium to kinetic
and potential in another medium.
Hold the key for C, down, so that the string can

vibrate. Strike the G,key loudly, so that the third harmonic
of the C, string will be excited. Before that note dies down,
let the G,key go
- (this quiets the G string).
- Then strike the G
string again more softly, so that the volume of the two
strings are matched.
resonance
dispersion
24. What frequency does Samuel hear?
I
21 8
B.
C.
D.
367.5 Hz
480 Hz
490 Hz
25. In the above question, Samuel whistles at 420 Hz. If a

passenger on the train could hear him, what frequency
would she hear?
's
fdet
Passage 1
Bats are mammals which have acquired the ability of
flight and of echolocation. Echolocation involves using
vibrating membranes to direct a high frequency sound, with
frequencies ranging from 12 kHz to 150 kHz. If the sound
encounters a flying insect or obstacle which is larger than the
wavelength of the sound, then a portion of the sound wave is
reflected, and the bat detects it.
Beyond this basic framework, different species of bats
use different strategies in echolocation. Some species emit a
series of pulses, determining the distance to an object by the
delay in return of the signal. Some emit a constant frequency, using the frequency of the returned sound to
detennine information about the velocity of the insect.
Others use a sweep of frequencies, presumably to detennine
size information or directional information. Some emit a
sound with a high harmonic content. Many use some
combination of these strategies.
Several adaptations provide for better processing of
the returned signal, including isolation of the detection
apparatus from the emitting apparatus and specializations in
the middle ear.
For the questions, use the following: The speed of
sound is 343 m/s, and the Doppler-shifted frequency for a
.detector and emitter moving relative to each other is
12 . ..... . .. . . .... . ........... .. ... Sound
'det
=fa,
vs +- Ye,
1.
What frequency would a bat use to locate an insect 1 cm

wide which is 10 m away?
A.
Any frequency less than 34 kHz.
B. Any frequency greater than 34 kHz.
C. Any frequency less than 34 Hz.
D. Any frequency greater than 34 Hz.
2.
If an insect is 3 m away, and a bat emits a pulse signal,

how long is the delay in the return signal?
A.
0.009 s
B. 0.017s
C. 0.09 s
D. 0.17s
26. After the train passes Samuel, what frequency does he

hear from the whistle?
A.
360Hz
27. A police sonar detector operates by emitting a sound at

42 kHz. This sound bounces off an approaching vehicle
going 50 m/s. What is the frequency of the signal
received back at the detector? (v, = 350 m/s)
A.
36 kHz
B.
48 kHz
C. 49 kHz
D. 56 kHz
Chapter
3. A bat is in pursuit of an insect. The bat is flying 10 d s

to the east, and the insect is flying 10 m/s to the east. If
the bat emits a constant frequency sound of 30 kHz,
what frequency will he detect?
A.
29 kHz
B.
30 kHz
C. 31 kHz
D.
32 KHz
4.
What is a possible reason for using a sound with high

hannonic content?
A.
The harmonic frequency can determine the
distance to an insect.
B. The harmonic frequency can stun the insect.
C. The harmonic frequency might be reflected even if
the fundamental is not.
D. The harmonic frequency might be Doppler shifted
even if the fundamental is not.
5.
A bat is traveling west at 15 m/s, emitting a constantfrequency sound of 50 kHz. If it encounters an obstacle,
such as a tree, what frequency sound does it detect?
A.
2.2 kHz
B. 48 kHz
C. . 50 kHz
D. 55 kHz
The
MCAT Physics Book
6. Which is an adaptation which might aid an insect?

An ability to emit a sound with frequency much
A.
lower than that of a bat.
B. An ability to emit a sound with frequency about
the same as that of a bat.
C. An ability to emit a sound with frequency much
higher than that of a bat.
D. A secretion of an obnoxious tasting chemical.
2.
What is the beat frequency referred to in this passage?

A.
5kHz
B.
10kHz
C. 75 kHz
D.
150kHz
3.
In the top figure above, what is 7?

A.
1.25~10-~s
4.
At time t = to (in the top figure above), the incoming and

outgoing waves are
A.
in phase.
B. out of phase.
C. coherent.
D. resonant.
Passage 2
It is possible to construct a device for determining the
speed of moving objects using sonar. The device consists of
a sound emitter and a detector. The emitter creates a sound
of a single frequency. The outgoing sound reflects from a
moving target and is Doppler shifted. When the incoming
signal arrives at the detector, the incoming signal and
outgoing signal are combined, so that the detector actually
detects the beat between them. The detector is a squareamplitude detector, which is thus able to pick up the beat
(see figures below).
Power
5. Which can be concluded from the passage?

A. The vehicle is approaching the detector directly.
B. The vehicle is approaching the detector, but not
necessarily directly.
C. The vehicle is receding from the detector directly.
D. The vehicle is receding from the detector, but not
necessarily directly.
Passage 3
In one experiment with the device, the emitter created

an outgoing signal of 80 kHz, which was reflected from a
vehicle. The received signal was 70 kHz. The two graphs
above were obtained. The top figure shows the output of the
detector in terms of power versus time. The bottom figure
shows power as a function of frequency (Fourier analyzed
function of the top figure above).
For these questions, use 343 m/s for the speed of
sound.
A certain wind chime is a hollow pipe 0.8 m long and

0.025 m in diameter, and it is suspended by a string about
0.2 m from the top, about one-fourth way down (see figure).
A hammer hits the chime about one-half way down. The
note that the chime plays is a D at 262 Hz.
1. What is the wavelength corresponding to a 80 kHz

wave?
A. 4.3 mm
B. 8.6 mrn
C.
27 mrn
D.
54mm
GO ON TO THE ND(T PAGE
Chdpter
The ends are free to vibrate, so they are antinodes. The

place where the hammer strikes also vibrates, but the place
where the string connects is not free to vibrate.
For the following use 343 m/s for the speed of sound
in air.
1. What is the wavelength of the wave in the pipe which
produces the 262 Hz tone?

A. 0.27 m
B. 0.4 m
C. 0.8m
D.
1.31m
2.
How would the frequency change if the length of the

pipe were doubled, and the velocity of sound in the pipe
stayed the same?
A. It would be halved.
B.. It would stay the same.
C. It would be doubled.
3. Which is true?
A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
The waves in the pipe and the sound waves in air

are longitudinal.
The waves in the pipe are longitudinal, whereas
the waves in air are transverse.
The waves in the pipe are transverse, whereas the
waves in air are longitudinal.
The waves in the pipe and the sound waves in air
are transverse.
What is the wavelength in the pipe corresponding to the

second harmonic?
A. 0.2 m
B. 0.27 m
C. 0.4 m
D. 0.8 m
Passage 4
12
. .......... .... .. .... . . .... .....
Sound
A physical ear is more complicated than this model,

however, and these differences from ideal can be observed
by simple experiment. For instance, if a sound wave of two
very similar frequencies enters the ear, the brain hears not
two frequencies but one average frequency which slowly
turns on and off. The turning on and off is called beats, and
the beat frequency is the difference between the two frequencies: f,, =f,-f,.
Another similar example involves a sound wave of two
frequencies, which are not similar but have some harmonic
relationship. In this case the brain sometimes hears a third
tone, a diference tone, corresponding to the difference of the
frequencies of the input: f, =f,-f,.
This seemingly unfortunate phenomenon was a boon
to the listeners of early phonographs. The phonographs were
not really able to reproduce the lowest frequencies in the
music, corresponding to the fundamental of the notes being
played, although they would reproduce the harmonics. Often
the ear would reconstruct the difference tone which would
be the missing fundamental, making it seem as if the
phonograph reproduced sound better than it in fact did.
1. When waves of two frequencies combine to make one

wave, this phenomenon is called
A. diffraction.
B. interference.
C. beats.
D. difference tones.
2.
On a piano. someone plays the notes B, (30.87 Hz) and

C, (32.70 Hz)simultaneously. A single note is heard
beating. What is the frequency of the note which is
heard to beat?
3. In the question above, how many times per second does

the beat turn on and off?
A. 0.55
B.
1.83
C.
31.79
The ear converts a series of pressure variations, that is,

a sound wave, into a Fourier-analyzed signal traveling on
nerves to the hearing center of the brain. In a highly idealized model of the ear, each frequency of sound wave
corresponds to one neuron leading from the ear to the brain.
For example, if a sound wave were to enter the ear consisting of two frequenciesf,andf,, then two neurons would be
excited, one corresponding tof, and the other tof,.

4.
If a phonograph fails to reproduce the fundamental tone

110 Hz, which of the following sets of harmonics might
cause the ear to reproduce it?
A. 27.5 Hz and 137.5 Hz
B. 55 Hz and 165 Hz
C. 220 and 330 Hz
D. 220 and 440 Hz
'
D.
Power
5. If the equilibrium pressure in the room is 10' Pa, which

best represents pressure as a function of time for a
sound wave of one frequency?
Alice places two stereo speakers a distance d apart.

She sends a signal which is a sine wave of frequencyf, so
that the speakers are producing the same pure tone in phase.
The sound wave in air has a wavelength A.
She enlists her friend Bob to do an experiment. Alice
sits directly in front of the speakers on the line which bisects
the line segment connecting the speakers (see figure).but
relatively far away from the speakers. Bob starts at the same
place, but he slowly moves to the right. For him the sound
gets quieter as he moves right, until he can barely hear it.
Then it begins to get louder again. The figure shows Bob's
position: where he first can barely hear the sound. This is
the set up.
speakers
d,
Alice Bob
In Experiment 1, Alice and Bob keep their positions,

and Alice changes the frequency of the signal sent to both
speakers, so that both speakers are still producing a sound in
phase at the same frequency (a different frequency from the
set up).
6. Which best represents a power spectrum of the sound

entering the ear in paragraph 3 of the passage?
A.
B.
In Experiment 2, Alice changes the frequency of the

second speaker slightly, but the first speaker remains at the
original frequency.
Power
Power
fi -f1
I
222
The distanced is large compared to the wavelength,

and it is small compared to the distance Alice and Bob sit
from the speakers. The distance from Bob to the left speaker
is d,, and his distance to the right speaker is 4.
Chdpter
1. Which is true concerning the set up?

A. Alice and Bob are both at antinodes.
B. Alice is at an antinode, and Bob is at a node.
C. Alice is at a node, and Bob is at an antinode.
D. Alice and Bob are both at nodes.
2.
Which is the best explanation that Bob hears little

sound where he sits in the set up?
A. The sound is blocked by the speakers.
B.
Alice's body is absorbing the sound.
C. Waves from the two speakers are out of phase and
add to zero.
D. Waves from the two speakers are in phase and
add to zero.
6.
1 2 . ...... ......... ......... ....... Sound
In Experiment 2, what is the best prediction for what

Alice and Bob will observe?
Alice will continue to hear sound, and Bob will
A.
continue to hear little.
B. Alice will continue to hear sound, and Bob's
hearing of sound depends on the chosen fiequency.
C. Alice and Bob will hear a sound which grows and
fades and grows.
D. Neither Alice nor Bob will hear very much sound.
3. Which of the following is the best expression for d, + d,?
D.
There is not enough information in the passage to

answer this question.
4.
Which of the following is the best expression for d , - d2?
5.
In Experiment 1, what is the best prediction for what

Alice and Bob will observe?
A.
Alice wiIl hear very little sound, and Bob wiIl
hear sound clearly.
B. Alice wiI1 continue to hear sound, and Bob will
continue to hear Iittle.
C. Alice will continue to hear sound, and Bob's
hearing of sound depends on the chosen frequency.
D. Nothing can be predicted, in that Alice and Bob's
hearing of sound depends on the chosen fiequency.
STOP
A. Introduction
Light is pretty mysterious: sometimes it acts just like a wave, interfering with
itself and undergoing Doppler shifts and so on, and sometimes it acts like a particle,
such as when it interacts with an electron. In this chapter we will explore the wavelike
properties of light and leave the particle-like behavior to Chapter 16.
So light is a wave, like sound and water ripples. But sound involves the motion of
air, and water ripples involve the motion of water, but what motion happens in a light
wave? Well, it turns out to be a hard question. The answer is not "this molecule" or
"that substance" but rather a combination of electric and magnetic fields. When all the
material is removed from a piece of space, we call that piece of space a vacuum, but
electric and magnetic fields are still there, and light disturbs these fields. That is why
light can travel in a vacuum.
Here is another strange property of light, or perhaps it is a property of the space
and time in which light travels. Its speed is the same c = 3.00 x 10' d s to every
observer. Think of how strange this is. If you are driving 60 mph down the freeway, a
car may pass you going 75 mph, and a car on the other side of the yellow stripe may be
going 60 mph in the other direction. From the point of view of your car, the first car is
going 15 mph and the second is going -120 mph. This makes sense.
,
In the superfast space freeway, your spacecraft may be going 1.00 x 10' d s and
another spacecraft passes you going in the same direction going 2.00 x lo8 d s . A light
beam passes both of you in the same direction going 3.00 x 10' d s . From the point of
view of your spacecrafi, it is going (not 2.00 x 10' d s but) 3.00 x 10' mls, and from
the point of view of the other spacecraft it is going 3.00 x 10' mls. Go figure.
The speed of light is this mysterious c = 3.00 x 10' m/s only in a vacuum. In
other materials the speed is a little slower.
B. General Properties of Light

Since light acts like a wave, it has a wavelength. Light of different wavelengths
goes by different names. (See Figure 13-1.)
Light waves of a very long wavelength (greater than one centimeter) are used for
broadcast, so the information about television images is encoded on the light waves and
broadcast to your television set, if you have one. These are called radio waves or
microwaves.
Much of the heat from an electric heater is transported by infrared radiation, with
m.
wavelength on the order of lo-' m to
If light of a wavelength between 400 nm and 700 nm enters the pupil of your eye,
it is likely to interact with the electrons of certain cells in the retina, producing a
chemical change in the photoreceptor cells, leading to an action potential in one (or
The
MCAT Physics Book

wavelength
(m)
frequency
microwaves
lo8 TV, FM radio
106 AM radio
1010
lo4 radiowaves
102
Figure 13-1
fact, the light from the sky is polarized in
most places, as well as light which is
reflected from the hot layer of air on a
desert road. You can detect the polarization using polaroid glasses. Look through
the glasses at the shimmering surface of a
hot road and rotate the glasses. You can
see the light become dimmer and brighter.
To see what is happening, look at
Figure 13-2. Beth is waving her hands up
and down sending waves to Sam.The
waves easily pass through the picket fence
as it stands, but if the slats were horizontal, the waves would not be transmitted to
Sam.Polaroid glasses allow the vertically
polarized portion of light to go through
but absorb the horizontally polarized
portion.
C.
several) neurons. For this reason, light in

this range is called visible light.
Light with shorter wavelength is
ultraviolet light, responsible for sun tans
and melanoma.
X-rays have shorter wavelength still
(less than
m) and can pass through
much biological tissue, but not so easily
the calcium in bones. They are used in
imaging. Nuclear decay produces gamma
rays (see Chapter 16). which have even
shorter wavelengths, and this is the most
penetrating electromagnetic radiation.
Gamma rays are able to pass through the
Earth like visible light passes through
glass.
Light waves can be polarized. In
n,
waves
+-
Transverse waves can be polarized,

so that the displacements lie along
one direction (defined here by the
picket fence).
Figure 13-2
Reflection and Refraction
We mentioned in Section A that light traveling in a medium other than the

vacuum has a speed slower than c. In fact it is given by
where n is the index of refraction. The

chart at right gives some values of indices
of refraction (do not memorize this chart.
but note that n is always greater than 1).
substance
vacuum
air
water
glass
1
= 1.3
= 1.5
+q
When light traveling in one medium

encounters a boundary to another medium, some of the light is rejected and
some is transmitted into the second
medium. If the incident light comes in at
an angle, then the transmitted light is
refracted, or bent, from its original
direction. Figure 13-3 shows the wave
fronts of light waves incident on glass
from air.
Light waves in air encounter glass.
When working with diagrams of
Figure 13-3
light waves, it is customary (and convenient) to use light rays rather than wave
fronts. Rays point perpendicular to the front, and in the direction the light is going.
Figure 13-4 is equivalent to Figure 13-3,
using rays instead. Also, the normal to the
surface (remember that "normal" means
perpendicular) is shown as a dashed line.
This is the most important figure of
the chapter, so take a moment to study it.
glass
Notice the following:
1. The angles are measured from
the normal.
2. The reflected angle 6,is the
Incident light beam is both
same as the incident angle OP
reflected and refracted.
3. The refracted angle 6,(in glass)
is smaller than the incident
Figure 13-4
angle (in air). That is, the
slower medium has the ray
closer to the normal.
&
I
4-
<
Example 1: A light beam encounters a piece of glass as shown (Figure 13-5).

Sketch the refracted path of the beam.
Solution: In Figure 13-6 the normal
is shown as a dashed line. The dotted line
shows the path the beam would take if
there were no glass. The ray bends,
however, toward the normal. Now when it
hits the other side of the glass, the beam
bends away from the normal. The answer.
then, is the solid line.
air
glass
Figure 13-5
air
The
MCAT Physics Book

Snell's law gives the refracted angle exactly:
Snell's Law
If a beam of light encounters a boundary, and if the beam is
transmitted, the transmitted beam is refracted, or bent,
according to
ni sin 8, = n, sin Or,
(2)
where ni and n, are the indices of refraction of the media

housing the incident and refracted beams, and Bi and 6, are the
angles of the beams, measured from the normal.
You will want to memorize it since it is in the MCAT study guide, but it is more
important that you know how to use it.
Example 2: A beam of light in air strikes the surface of pure hydrogen peroxide
(n = 1.414) making an angle 30" with the normal to the surface.
a. What angle does the reflected beam make with the normal?
b. What angle does the transmitted beam make with the normal?
Solution: a. The diagram for this problem is similar to Figure 13-4, with glass
replaced by hydrogen peroxide. The reflected angle is the same as the incident angle,
30".
b. The refracted angle is given by

npcrsine, = n,, sin Bi ,
I
I
I
1.414 sin 8, = 1.0 sin 30,
sin 8, = 0.354,
8, = sin-' 0.354
= 20.7",
where that last equation must be solved on a calculator.
Example 3: A beam of light in a
piece of diamond encounters an interface
with air. The beam makes a 30' angle
with the normal. What is the angle of
refraction? (The index of refraction for
diamond is 2.42.)
diagram for this problem. Snell's law
becomes
Figure 13-7
nPirsin 8, = n,, sin Oi,

1.0 sin 8, = 2.42 sin 30,
sine, = 1.21.
'
Now we need to find an angle whose sine is 1.21. But wait a minute! There is no such
The refracted ray bends away

from the nonnal.
With a large angle of

incidence, the refracted ray
bends all the way to 90"
Figure 13-8
Figure 13-9
thing as a sine which is greater than one.

This equation has no solution. What is
going on?
Figure 13-8 shows a beam of light
in diamond with an angle of incidence of
20". The refracted ray bends away from
the normal. Figure 13-9 shows a beam of
light in diamond making a 24.4" angle
with the normal. Once the beam gets into
the air, it has bent so far from the normal
that it is parallel with the surface. This
angle, 24.4', is called the critical angle
for a diamond-air interface. It is the
incident angle for which the refracted
angle is 90".
Figure 13-10 shows our situation
with 30, but the refracted beam cannot
bend any further away from the normal
than it did for 24". In fact, there is no
refracted ray in this case. This phenomenon is called total internal refiction,
because all of the light stays in the
diamond and none goes into the air.
light beam without losing energy.
Figure 13-11
With a larger angle of incidence,

there is only refiction (total
internal reflection).
Figure 13-10
Example 4: In a fiber optic cable,

light travels down a light pipe with very
little energy loss. You may have seen
these cables in toys which were popular in
the 1970s where the tips of clear thin
fibers light up with different colors. The
cables have a high index of refraction, so
that light gets totally intoemally reflected
off the surface and thus does not leak out
the sides. When it anives at the tip, the
light is transmitted into the air (Figure
13-11).

Although we have discussed
deep
reflection and refraction only in the
context of light waves, all waves in fact
get reflected and refracted at boundaries.
Figure 13-12 shows ocean waves cdming
toward the shore, as seen from above. As
they approach, they encounter more and
more shallow water, with smaller wave
waterspeed. Thus we would guess that they
land
would bend toward the-normal, so that the
Ocean waves are refracted
wave fronts would arrive roughly parallel
toward the nonnal as they
to the shore. Compare Figure 13-12 to
approach the shore.
Figure 13-3. The difference here is that
the air-glass boundary is sharp, whereas
Figure 13-12
the boundary from deep to shallow water
is gradual. Notice how the waves come in
to the shore the next time you are at the
beach.
Also note (Figure 13-3 and Figure 13-12) that when a wave travels from one
medium to another, the frequency stays the same, whereas the wavelength changes if
the wave speed changes. This is easier to see with ocean waves than with waves of
light. Imagine ocean waves in the deep portion of the ocean going up-down-up-down
once every five seconds. If this goes on for a long time, it must be that the ocean waves
arriving at shallow water go up-down-up-down once every five seconds as well. Think
about it.
0.Optics
Using Lenses
Figure 13-13 shows a converging

lens. A light ray incident on the lens
bends twice, once when entering the lens
(usually glass) and once when leaving it,
both times bending toward the axis. You
should work this out by tracing the rays in
an exaggerated diagram. The lens is designed so that parallel light rays on the
left converge to a point on the right. The
distance from the lens to the point of
convergence is the focal lengthf Light
rays from the right will also focus to a
point after a distancef
&:-------
--------
A diverging lens causes parallel

b e a m to diverge, as iffrom a point.
Figure 13-14
A converging lens focuses

parallel beams to a point.
Figure 13-13
A diverging lens has the property

that parallel light rays incident from the
left spread apart after going through the
lens, as if they were coming from a point
source a distance +from the lens. Figure
13-14 shows such a lens. For diverging
lenses, the focal length is negative.
For lens problems, there are two formulas and a ray-tracing method. It is probably worth your while to learn both. The formulas are better for calculating numbers,
but ray tracing is better at answering qualitative questions. The method of ray tracing
will sound confusing at first, but it will become more clear as you work through the
examples.
If the distance from the lens to the object is do,the distance

from the lens to the image is d,, and the focal length of the lens
is f, then we have
1
1
1
--=-+-,
di
do
(3)
and
dm = -2
do
(4)
is the magnification of the image. If d i s greater than zero, this

indicates that the image is on the other side of the lens from the
object.
i
Ray-tracing method for a converging lens

1. Draw the lens, the object being observed, and both focuses.
2. Draw a ray parallel to the principal axis and passing
through the lens. Bend the ray to go through the opposite
focus.
3. Draw a ray passing through the object and the focus on the
same side of the lens. This ray becomes parallel to the
principal axis when it passes through the lens.
4. The intersecting point is the location of the image. If the
rays do not intersect on the side opposite the object, extend
them backwards until they do.
Ray-tracing method for a diverging lens

1. Draw the lens, object, and focus on the same side as the
object.
2. Draw a ray parallel to the principal axis. After it passes
through the lens it bends up, as if it came from the focus.
Extend the ray backwards.
3. Draw a ray going through the vertex (center) of h e lens
and passing straight through.
4. The intersection of the extended ray in step 2 and the ray in
step 3 gives the location of the image.

Example 1:A boy uses a magnifying glass (converging lens with focal length
0.03 m) to observe a bug which is 0.02 m from the lens.
a. Draw a ray diagram.
b. What is the magnification of the image?
Solution: Figure 13- 15 shows the ray diagram.
Figure 13-15
In this example, we had to extend the rays backwards in step 4 in order to find the
image. For this reason the image is virtual,meaning light rays are not actually coming from the position from which they seem to come.
If the light rays pass through the point from which they seem to come, then the
image is said to be real. We can get the magnification by first calculating the exact
position of the image:
Then
The negative sign for dimems the image is on the same side as the object. The positive
sign for rn means the image is upright (not inverted).
Example 2: The eye contains a lens whose focal length can be adjusted. A candle
(2 cm long) sits 0.1 m from the lens of the eye, and the image is focused on the retina.
Assume the length of the eye from front to back is 2.5 cm.
a. What is the focal length of the lens?
b. Is the image upright or inverted?
Solution: We calculate the focus as follows:
1 1 1
-=+-r
f di do
Figure 13-16 shows the appropriate diagram.
object
Figure 13-16
We draw the horizontal line on the left of the lens in step 2. The other line, you
will notice, takes the near focus into account. The image is where the lines meet,
.inverted and very small.
Because the image is located where light rays actually converge, the image is
real. Figure 13-16 is a physics diagram. In an actual eye, there are many rays which
converge to a point, and none of them need to be the two which we have drawn here.
See Figure 13-17 for a more realistic diagram.
object
image
Figure 13-17

Example 3: The diverging lens on a pair of glasses has a focal length of 3.0 m. A
candle is 9.0 cm tall and 6.0 m away.
a. Where is the image of the candle when viewed through the lens?
b. What is the size of the image?
c. Is the image inverted or upright?
d. Is the image real or virtual?
Solution: (You should try this solution yourself before you read about it. Then
work it out with the book.) Figure 13-18 shows the ray diagram.
Figure 13-18
We had to extend a ray backwards in step 2. That means the image is virtual. Also
the image is upright. The location of the image can be gotten from the equation:
where the negative result indicates the image is behind the lens, which we knew from
the diagram. The magnification is given by
where the positive result indicates the image is upright. That gives the magnification.
The size is then (0.333) (9.0 cm) = 3.0 cm.
It 'is a general rule that if only one lens or mirror is involved in a problem, then
the image is either both real and inverted or both virtual and upright. It will never be
real and upright, for exarnpIe.
E. Optics Using Mirrors

The methods and formulas for
mirrors are almost identical to those for
lenses, except that a mirror has only one
focus. There are three kinds of mirrors:
convex, plane, and concave (Figure 1319). For a convex mirror, incoming
parallel rays diverge after reflection, so
the focal length is negative. For a plane
mirror, the focal length is infinity. And for
a concave mirror, incoming parallel rays
converge after reflection, so the focal
length is positive.
For mirrors, you use the same
equations, but you have to be careful,
because the meaning of the signfor diis
different from that for lens. A positive
sign for d, means that the image is on the
same side of the mirror as the object, that
is, in front. You use the same kinds of ray
diagrams, but since there is only one
focus, you use that same focus in steps 2
and 3.
There are three types of mirrors:

convex, plane, and concave.
F i r e 13-19
Ray-tracing method for a converging mirror

1. Draw the mirror, object, and focus.
2. Draw a ray parallel to the principal axis which reflects
from the mirror and passes through the focus.
3. Draw a ray from the object passing through the focus and
reflecting off the mirror to become parallel to the axis.
4. The intersecting point is the location of the image. If the
rays do not intersect, extend the rays behind the mirror.
Ray-tracing method for a diverging mirror

1. Draw the mirror, object, and focus (behind mirror).
2. Draw a ray parallel to the principal axis which reflects and
goes up, as if it came from the focus. Extend the ray behind
the mirror.
3. Draw a ray going toward the focus of the mirror and
reflecting as a horizontal ray. Extend the horizontal ray
behind the mirror.
4. The intersection of rays behind the mirror is the location of
the image.

Example 1: The passenger mirror in Larry's car is a diverging mirror with focal
length 0.8 meters. A car is 10.0 meters away from the mirror.
a. Where is the image of the car?
b. What is the magnification of the image?
c. Is the image real or virtual?
d. Is the image upright or inverted?
Solution: Figure 13-20 shows the ray diagram.
------*
C-
object
image
Figure 13-20
Note.that the second ray uses the same focus as the first ray. The image of the car is
behind the mirror and is virtual and tiny. The exact location is given by
1
1
-=-
di
+-*1
do
where the negative sign indicates the image is behind the mirror. The magnification is
given by
where the positive sign indicates the image is upright. You do not need to pay attention
to the sign conventions if you get the diagram right.
So why is there a warning "Objects in mirror are closer than they appear"? There
are two things going on. The first is that the image is much closer to Larry than the
object itself, and the second is that the image is smaller than the image Larry would see
if he turned around and looked. Larry's brain does not care about where the image is
and does not notice from which point the light rays appear to be diverging. Larry's brain
compares the size of the image to what it knows is the size of a car in order to obtain a
distance to the car.The distance thus calculated is about a factor of two too far away.
ExampIe 2: Alice looks at herself in a plane minor, standing 4 meters away.

a. Where is her image?
b. What is the magnification?
c. Is the image real or virtual?
d. Is the image upright or inverted?
Solution: Figure 13-21shows a ray diagram, with which we can be a bit creative,
since the focuses are an infinite distance away.
The image is 4 meters on the other side of the mirror, the magnification is 1, and
the image is virtual and upright. To see this in the equations, we calculate
1
1
-=-
f di
1
+-9
do
I
l
l
-=+-,
w
di 4m
o=-+-,
d, 4m
di = - 4 m .
Also
Figure 13-21
Example 3: The image of a candle lies 10.0 meters behind a converging mirror
(focal length 5.0 m). Where is the object?
SoIution: Figure 13-22shows the ray diagram. Treat the image as the object and
thus the origin of light rays. The hard part of this problem (if you have to do the
calculation) is remembering the sign di= -1 0 m. Then
Figure 13-22
The
MCAT Physics Book
F.
Dispersion
In Section C we discussed the idea that the speed of light in each substance is
related to its index of refraction n, and the index of refraction governs the bending of
light as it crosses a boundary. Now, although this is true, it is not the whole truth.
A more complete version of the
truth is that the index of refraction
f
color
n
depends slightly on the frequency of the
red
1.4566
4.6 X 1 0 ' ~Hz
light. (Sometimes not so slightly, but that
orange
4.9 X 1014Hz
1.4578
is another story.) The chart shows the
yellow
5.1 X lot4Hz
1.4584
index of refraction for glass. You can see
5 . 8 X 1 0 ' ~ H z green
1.4614
blue
1.4649
6.5 X loL4HZ
7.5 X 1014Hz
indigo
1.4702
that n is approximately 1.5, but not

exactly. So blue light bends a little more
when going from air to glass than red
light. This is the principle behind the
prism (Figure 13-23). The phenomenon is
called dispersion. There are not many
simple calculations we can do at this
point, but you should study the diagram of
the prism until it makes sense to you.
--Ad
blue
Different colors (different

frequencies) refract slightly
differently, causing a separation
of colors in a prism.
Figure 13-23
G. Combination of Lenses
When we view an object through several lenses which are near each other, then it
is possible to treat the combination of lenses as one lens.
Combination of Lenses
When several lenses with focal lengthsf,, f,, ..., are near each
other, then the combination has a focal length&,, given by
The quantity l/Jfor a lens is called the power of the lens, measure in [m-' =
diopters = Dl. This word power has nothing to do with the other definition of power,
that is, energy per time. The point here is that the power of a combination of lenses is
the sum of the power of the lenses.
Example: Dieter has an eye which, when the eye is at rest, focuses light to a
point 0.024 m behind the lens, which is 0.001 m in front of the retina. What is the
power of the corrective lens he must wear?
Solution: The power of Dieter's eye is P,, = 110.024m = 41.67 D. The combination of lenses should have a focal length 0.024 m + 0.001 m = 0.025 m, so the power of
the combination of the two lenses needs to be Pa,,= 110.025 m = 40 D. Since PC,,=
Peye+ Pconscl,we have P m I = -1.67 D.
H. Ideal Lenses and Nonideal Lenses

In our discussion of lenses, we assumed that the lens was able to focus all parallel
rays to a single focus. Such an assumption is called an ideal-lens or thin-lens approximation. Real lenses are not so good. The deviation from ideality is called an aberration.
For one thing, lenses that are very thick cannot focus light to a single point, so the
image ends up distorted. If you look through a glass sphere, like a bead or a paperweight, you will notice that the image looks bent out of shape. This is called a spherical
aberration.
In Section F we noted that different frequencies of light have slightly different
indices of refraction, which can cause different colors to have different focal lengths.
This is called a chromatic aberration.
In this chapter we looked at light as an example of waves, looking specifically at

reflection, refraction, and lens effects. The properties of waves we have studied in the
past three chapters include
1. interference (by superposition),
2. frequencies in standing waves,
3. beats,
4. Doppler shift,
5. reflection and refraction, and
6. dispersion.
All waves exhibit these properties, so the way we have divided them up among
chapters titled "Waves", "Sound", and "1,ight" is somewhat artificial. Refraction is
most often observed in light waves, so it is generally studied in the context of light.
Likewise, beats are usually observed in sound waves and only extremely rarely in light
You should be aware that sound waves reflect and refract just like light, bending toward
the normal of the interface when they pass from a fast medium to a slow one. If you
visualize this principle in diagrams such as Figures 13-4 and 13-12 and practice the
ray-tracing diagram, then you should do well on problems that this chapter covers.
The
MCAT Physics Book
Chapter 13 Problems
3.
In the figure, a ray of light approaches normal to the

surface on the left. Which best represents the refracted
ray which leaves the right surface?
-nu=
Section B
glass
Use the following indices of refraction for problems 1-12:

4.
substance
air
A ray of light in air is incident on an interface with

glass, followed by an interface with water, such that the
air-glass interface is parallel to the glass-water interface. Which best represents the refracted ray?
water
hydrogen peroxide
1.414
glass
ammonium bromide
water
1.7
water
1. Which of the following best shows the refracted ray at a

glass-air-glass interface?
lass
air
glass
lass
air
glass
A.
5.
glass
air
glass
glass
air
glass
A spherical air bubble is embedded in glass, and a ray

of light (incident ray I) approaches the bubble as shown
in the figure. Which best represents the refracted ray
which passes through the bubble?
C.
2.
In the following figures, there is a triangle of glass in

air. Which best shows the refracted ray of light?
glass
Use thefollowing infonnation in questions 9 and 10:

A light beam of frequency 1.4 x 1014Hz in air
encounters a surface with hydrogen peroxide (index of
(See figure.)
refraction =
Use the following injbnnation in questions 6-8:

A beam of light in water encounters a boundary with
air, so that the angle between the beam and the normal to the
surface is 30". (See figure.)
JZ).
hydrogen
peroxide
9.
What is the critical angle for this encounter?
6. Which expression best expresses the angle the refracted

ray makes with the normal?
A.
30"
7.
B.
sin-'
-1
C.
sin-'
2
-
D.
3
sin-' -
D.
Which expression best expresses the angle the reflected

ray makes with the normal?
A.
B.
30"
60"
C.
2
sin-' 3
D.
3
sin-' -
10. If the angle of encounter is less than the critical angle,

which of the following is the frequency of the light
beam in the hydrogen peroxide?
A. 9.9 x 1013HZ
B.
1.4 x 1014HZ
C. 2.0 x 1014HZ
D. 2.8 x 1014Hz
Use the following information in questions I 1 and 12:
A light beam of wavelength 5 10 nm in air encounters
a flat surface of ammonium bromide (index of refraction =
& -- 1.7). such that the smallest angle the beam makes
with the surface is 30". (See figure.)
8. Which expression best expresses the critical angle for

the interface of water with air?
ammonium
bromide
-1
A.
sin-'
B.
2
sin-' -
C.
sin-'
D.
None of the above.
11. What is the smallest angle the refracted ray makes with
the surface?
A.
17"
-3
4
None of the above.
12. What is the wavelength of the refracted ray?
A. 300 nm
B. 510nm
C.. 867 nm
D. 1020 nm
241
GO ON TO THE N M PAGE

Section C
Use the following information in questions 13-15:

We observe a candIe through a converging lens with
focaI length 4 m. The candle is 0.1 m tall and 2 m away
from the lens. (See figure.)
17. For a different frequency of the light, the focal length of

the lens is different from 2 m. This phenomenon is
caIled
A. interference.
B. refraction.
C. dispersion.
D.
incidence.
,

A candIe 21 cm tall sits 4 m away from a diverging
lens with focal length 3 m. (See figure.)
13. Where is the resulting image?
A.
B.
C.
D.
1.333 m from the lens on the same side as the

object.
4 m from the lens on the same side as the object.
1.333 m from the lens on the opposite side from
the object.
4 m from the lens on the opposite side from the
object.
A.
B.
C.
14. Which of the following characterizes the image?

A. upright and real
B. upright and virtual
C. inverted and real
D. inverted and virtual
D.
19. What is the size of the image?-
A.
15. What is the magnification of the image?
A.
B.
C.
D.
0.5
0.6667
1.5
2
Use the following infomtion in questions 16 and 17:

A sodium emission tube produces light of frequency
5.1 x 10" Hz. It sits 6 m from a converging lens of focal
length 2 m.
16. Which of the following characterizes the image?

A. upright and real
C. inverted and real
12 m from the lens on the same side as the object.

1217 m from the lens on the same side as the
object.
12 m from the lens on the opposite side from the
object.
1U7 m from the lens on the opposite side from
the object.
B.
C.
D.
7 cm
9 cm
49 cm
63 cm

A candle is viewed through a lens. The candle is 4 m
from the lens, while the image is 2 m from the Iens on the
other side.
20. What is the focal length of the lens?
A.
B.
-4m
-4/3 m
C.
D.
413 m
4m
21. What is the magnification of the image?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Half as large and erect.

Half as large and inverted.
Twice as large and erect
Twice as large and inverted.
GO ON TO THE NOCT PAGE
Section D

We view an object at various distances using a mirror
with focal length 12 m. (See figure.)
{I,
- --------
27. What happens when a candle is placed at the focus?

A. An image is formed 6 m in front of the mirror.
B. An image is formed 6 m behind the mirror.
C . Light rays end up parallel going to infinity.
D. Light rays reconverge at the focus.
A light bulb is placed 12 m in front of a diverging
mirror with focus 6 m. (See figure.)
-------*----------------
6 6 m , 12m
24 m
4
1
22. If the object is 6 m in front of the mirror, where is the

image?
6 m in front of the mirror.
A.
B. 6 m behind the mirror.
C.
D. 12 m behind the mirror.
23. If the object is 6 m in front of the mirror, what is its
magnification?
A. It is half as large, and the image is upright.
B. It is half as large, and the image is inverted.
C. It is twice as large, and the image is upright.
D. It is twice as large, and the image is inverted.
24. If the object is 24 m away from the mirror. where is the

image?
A.
C.
25. If the object is 24 m away from the mirror, what best

characterizes the image?
A. upright and real
C.
inverted and real
26. If the object is an infinite distance away. where is the

image?
A. 6 m in front of the mirror.
C. 12 m in front of the mirror.

A. 4 m behind the mirror.
B. 4 m in front of the mirror.
C . 12 m behind the mirror.
D.
29. What is the absolute magnification of the image?

A. 0.333
B.
1.5
C. 2
D. 3
30. The image is

A.
upright and real.
B.
upright and virtual.
C. inverted and real.
D. inverted and virtual.
31. What happens if a light bulb is placed 6 m in front of

the mirror?
A. An image is formed 6 m behind the mirror.
B. An image is formed 3 m behind the mirror.
C. An image is formed 6 m in front of the mirror.
D. No image is formed and the rays end up traveling
parallel to infinity.

A light bulb is 2 m in front of a mirror, and the image
is 4 m behind the mirror.
37. Two thin lenses (6 D and 4 D) are positioned near each

other. What is the power of the combination?
A.
B.
C.
D.
32. What can be said about the mirror?

A.
It is a converging mirror with focal length 1.33 m.
B. It is a converging mirror with focal length 4 m.
C. It is a diverging mirror with focal length 1.33 m.
D. It is a diverging mirror with focal length 4 m.
33. What is the magnification

of the image?
A. The magnification is 0.5, and the image is
upright.
B. The magnification is 0.5, and the image is
inverted.
C. The magnification is 2, and the image is upright.
D. The magnification is 2, and the image is inverted.
1/10 D
5112D
1215 D
IOD
Passage 1
Electromagnetic radiation from an incandescent

source, such as a light bulb, is unpolarized, which means
that the electric field.of the wave points in random directions
perpendicular to wave travel. One way to produce polarized
radiation involves applying an alternating voltage to a
straight piece of wire to form an antenna (See figure below).
Radiation is emitted from the antenna perpendicular to the
wire with a polarization which is parallel to the wire.
Section G
34. Two thin converging lenses are near each other, so that
the lens on the left has focal length 2 m and the one on
the right has focal length 4 m. What is the focal length
of the combination?
A.
116 m
B.
314 m
C. 413 m
D. 6 m
35. A certain lens has focal length 2 m. What lens could

you combine with it to give a combination with focal
length 3 m?
A. A lens of power -6 diopters.
B. A lens of power - 116 diopters.
C. A lens of power 116 diopters.
D. A lens of power 6 diopters.
36. If parallel light rays were incident on a lens of power

3 D, what would the rays do on the other side of the
lens?
A. They would converge with a focal length of 3 m.
B. They would converge with a focal length of
113 m.
C. They would diverge as if from a point 113 m
behind the lens.
D. They would diverge as if from a point 3 m behind
the lens.
In this diagram the small arrows show the direction of

the electric field, and the large arrows show the direction of
the wave.
Another way to obtain polarized radiation involves
allowing unpolarized radiation to be incident on a film or
material which transmits radiation of one polarization but
absorbs radiation of the perpendicular polarization. Such a
film is called apolarizer. If unpolarized light of intensity I,
is incident on a vertical polarizer, the radiation that passes
through is vertically polarized with intensity 112 I,. The
figure below shows this schematically.
vertical
polarizer
unpolarized
light
observer
vertically
polarized
light
If polarized radiation is incident on a polarizer, the

amount of energy that is transmitted depends on the relative
angle of the radiation polarization and the polarizer axis. If
they are aligned, then all the radiation is transmitted. If the
angles differ by 8, then the intensity of the transmitted
radiation is cos2 8 of the original intensity.
All of the foregoing refers to ideal polarizers. All
manufactured polarizers have less than ideal efficiency
which comes from reflection off the two surfaces and
absorption of the parallel component.
In questions 1-4, an unpolarized radiation source is
incident on a series of polarizers. Without the polarizers the
intensity of the source is I,,. Assume the polarizers are ideal.
3. An optically active substance is a substance which

rotates the plane of polarization of a beam. The figure
shows a modification of the figure in Problem 2, with an
optically active substance between the polarizers. What
is the intensity of the resultant beam?
optically
active
substance
1. In the figure below, unpolarized light is incident on

polarizers A and B in series. Polarizers A and B are
both oriented vertically. What is the intensity of the
resultant beam?
C.
It could have any intensity less than (or
D.
equal to) -I,

2
0
C.
D.
2.
4.
Where does the energy of the original beam go which is

not in the resultant beam?
A.
chemical energy
B.
potential energy
C. heat
D. nuclear energy
5.
A horizontal antenna is aligned along a north-south

axis. This antenna has an alternating voltage applied to
it, so it is emitting electromagnetic radiation. An
observer is due north of the antenna. (See the figure.)
What polarization does he detect from the antenna?
less than -Io but greater than zero intensity

2
0
In the figure below, unpolarized light is incident on

polarizers A and B in series. Polarizer A is oriented
vertically, while polarizer B is oriented horizontally.
What is the intensity of the resultant beam?
C.
D.
A.
B.
C.
1
less than -I, but greater than zero intensity
2
0
D.
945
He observes horizontal polarization.

He observes vertical polarization.
He observes an unpolarized beam.
He observes no radiation.
The
MCAT Physics Book
Passage
The mammalian eye is designed to collect light and

focus it onto the retina. The retina consists of an array of
cells, each having the ability to detect light falling on its
surface: Most of the refraction (and thus focusing) of
incoming light rays takes place at the interface between air
and the cornea. The lens does the finetuning, changing the
focal length so the image lands exactly on the retina. The
tuning is necessary since the eye must be able to bring into
focus light from objects as close as 0.1 m as well as light
from an infinitely distant source.
Spatial resolution is the ability of the eye to distinguish waves coming from different directions. For example,
if a distant car is facing you at night with its headlights on,
you can see two distinct headlights, since the light from the
two headlights approaches your eye from two directions (see
figure). If the car is far enough away, however, your eye
lacks the resolution to distinguish the headlights, and you
see only one light source.
Resolution is measured in degrees or radians. For

instance, if your eye can just resolve two headlights which
are 1.5 m apart on a car which is 1 km away, then the
angular separation of the lights is approximately
radians. The resolution of your
1.5 rn/1000 m = 1.5 x
eye is 1.5 x
rad or 0.09 degrees (since 1 rad = 57") or
5 seconds of an arc. To a good approximation, the angular
separation of two light sources (or features on any sort) is
the ratio of spatial separation Ax to distance from the point
of reference L. (See figure.) Thus the better the resolution,
the smaller the resolution angle.
Ultimately the spatial resolution of any detector,

including the eye, is limited by difraction, which is the
spreading of waves. When waves pass through an aperture,
they spread on the other side subtending an angle given by
where Omis measured in radians, ilis the wavelength of the

wave involved, and d is the diameter of the hole through
which the waves must pass. Of course, diffraction is the
physical limit of the resolution. The actual resolution of a
detector may be much poorer than equation (1) would
indicate if it is poorly designed. The human eye, when
functioning properly, is essentially diffraction limited.
For the following problems use c = 3.0 x 10' mls.

Green light has a wavelength of 520 nm in a vacuum. (1 nm
= 1o - ~
m)
1. What is the frequency of green light?

A.
64 x
Hz
B.
160 Hz
C. 5.8 x 1 0 ' ~Hz
D.
1 . 2 x 1 0 ~ ~ ~ ~
2.
A human eye is focused on a moth of size 0.01 m

located 0.25 m away. The front to back length of the
eye is 0.025 m. What is the size of the image on the
retina?
A.
10-~m
B.
2.3 x l o a m
C.
low3m
D. 0.023 m
3.
In question 2, what angle is subtended by the moth in

the view of the eye?
A.
2.3"
B.
4.6"
C. 15"
D. 30"
4.
A certain eye does not focus correctly, being either

near- or far-sighted. The front to back length of the eye
is 0.025 m, but the focusing power of the resting eye is
35 diopters. What should be the approximate power of
the appropriate corrective lens?
A.
-5 diopters
B.
-3 diopters
C.
3 diopters
D. 5 diopters
5.
The cornea is made of a material which has a larger

index of refraction for blue light than for red light. If
the eye is focusing a beam of red light onto the retina,
where would the focus for a beam of blue light fall?
A. In front of the retina.
B.
C.
D.
On the retina.
Behind the retina.
Both in front of and behind the retina.
6.
An engineer is working on a camera to photograph the

distant landscape in foreign countries. He has designed
a camera with a lens which focuses incoming light on a
detector. The camera is essentially diffraction limited,
but the resolution is not good enough. Which of the
following could improve the resolution?
Increase the distance from the lens to the detector.
A.
B. Improve the lens shape.
C. Change the material of the lens to be more
transparent.
D. Increase the size of the whole camera.
A Seurat painting consists of many dots of paint about
0.002 m in diameter. If you view it from a great enough
distance, the dots of color appear to blend together, and
you see a coherent picture. The resolution of your
diffraction-limited eye is 2 x lo4 radians. If you
wanted to know how far away need you be for the dots
to blur together, which paragraph in the passage gives
the information to calculate this?
Paragraph 3, and you must stand 2 m away.
A.
B. Paragraph 3, and you must stand 10 m away.
C. Paragraph 4, and you must stand 2 m away.
D. Paragraph 4, and you must stand 10 m away.
9. The Hubble Space Telescope in question 8 above also

has detectors for ultraviolet light. Assuming diffraction
limitation, we would expect that the resolution in the
ultraviolet would be
not as good as that for visible light.
A.
B. about the same as that for visible light.
C. better than that for visible light.
D. sometimes not as good as, sometimes better than
that for visible light.
10. A cat's eye, adapted for seeing at night, has a larger

pupil than a human eye and a much larger lens. The
resolution for a cat's eye, however, is not better than
that of a human eye, which is almost diffraction limited.
Which of the following is a possible explanation for the
lack of resolution in a cat's eye?
The larger pupil allows more light to enter the
A.
eye.
B. The larger pupil restricts the amount of directional information entering the eye.
C . The large lens introduces chromatic aberration.
D. The large lens introduces spherical aberration.
8. The figure shows a cross section of the Hubble Space

Telescope (HST) (length 13.1 m and diameter 4.3 m).
Light comes in from the right and is focused by the
primary mirror (focal length 13 m). The focus is
directed by a secondary mirror into detection apparatus
(not shown). The perimeter of the mirror is a circle
whose diameter is 2.4 m. If the HST is used for viewing
galaxies in visible light, which of the following gives an
estimate for the best resolution we could hope for?
incoming
light
A.
B.
C.
D.
2 x lo-' radians
0.045 radians
0.09 radians
0.18 radians
STOP
1 Chapter 14
Many students find electrodynamics difficult because it is the physics of things

you cannot see, things no one talks about outside of physics circles. In mechanics we
used words like "car" and "force" and "wave". In electrodynamics we use phrases like
"electric field". What is an electric field?
It's a reasonable question. but if you ask your physics teacher, it's unlikely you'll
get a satisfactory answer. Well, then, is the electric field real? Well, yes, it is as real as
anything, but everyday life does not bring us in direct experience with the electric field,
and so it is less familiar.
The key to building an intuition about electrodynamics is visualizing these
unfamiliar concepts: concepts such as charge, electric and magnetic fields, and electric
potential. We can not see them directly, but we can become familiar with their properties. In this chapter there are only a few equations and concepts, but the implications are
profound. There is no doubt that this is a difficult chapter, but if you spend some effort
actively creating mental pictures, electrodynamics will become far less arcane.
A long time ago, someone noticed that when amber is rubbed with a cloth it
attracts small seeds or pieces of straw. No one knew why. (Amber is a soft ochre "stone"
of hardened tree sap.) Many years and many experiments later, the following story has
emerged as the best explanation:
Most material on Earth is composed of three particles, called protons, neutrons,
and electrons. The protons and neutrons hold together in tight lumps, called nuclei. The
much less massive electrons exist in a cloud around the nuclei, forming atoms. Sometimes the electrons hold the atoms together, forming molecules and so on. The electrons
are sometimes quite mobile, and this mobility results in most of the changes we observe.
But that's chemistry. That is not our story.
This is our story: Electrons have a
negative charge, and protons have a
positive charge. l b o charges of like sign
exert a repulsive force on each other, while
two charges of unlike sign exert an
attractive force on each other (Figure 141). Most objects are neutral, that is, they
have nearly the same number of protons as
electrons. When our unknown predecessor
Like charges repel and
rubbed the neutral amber it acquired a few
unlike charges attract.
extra electrons, giving it a net negative
charge.
Fire 14-1

Under normal circumstances, as in physical and chemical reactions, electrons,
protons, and neutrons are permanent objects. They may move around, but they do not
spontaneously disappear or appear. Thus we have the following:
r
Conservation of Charge
If a system is closed (no matter goes in or out), then the total
charge of that system is conserved (stays constant as time
passes).
i
Clearly this is true in chemical reactions, which are just rearrangements of

electrons and nuclei, but it turns out to be true even in unusual circumstances, such as
the radioactive decay of nuclei or reactions of exotic particles. (See Chapter 16.)
C.
Charges and Materials
There are some materials, most of

them metals, in which electrons are able
to move freely from atom to atom. Such
materials are called conductors. A
material which does not conduct electrons
is called either a nonconductor, or an
insulator, or a dielectric, depending on
the mood of the speaker.
If we place a bunch of electrons (a
negative charge) on an isolated conducting sphere (like a metal ball), the electrons repel and move away from one
another. So all the charge ends up evenly
distributed on the surface. (See Figure 14-2.)
0
+ +
Positive charges migmte to the

surface of a conducting sphere.
...
Negative charges migrate to the

surface of a conducting sphere.
Figure 14-2
If we examine the interior of a

piece of the sphere, the total charge on
that piece will be zero. (This has to be. If
there were any excess electrons, they
would repel each other and move out of
the piece, until they cannot go any
further.) All the excess charge is on the
surface.
The same holds for positive charge.

If a positive charge is placed on a
conducting sphere, then the excess
Figure 14-3
positive charge will spread out on the
surface, with no positive excess charge in
the interior. In other words, any interior piece has a total charge of zero (Figure 14-3).
(Although the positive charge is caused by a deficit of electrons, you will never go
wrong by thinking in terms of positive charges repelling each other.)
This is a general rule: The total charge of a piece of the interior of a conductor is
zero.Any excess charge lies on the surface of the conductor.
If a charged object is brought near a neutral conductor, electrons will move away
or.toward the charged object, depending on the object's charge. This is called induced
charge, since the charged object induces a charge on the neutral conductor (Figure
14-4).
A
(left)can induce
a charge in a conductor (right).
We can induce a charge on a

nonconductor, too. Even though charges
do not move freely in it, each molecule in
a nonconductor can have its electron
density move to one side (Figure 14-5a).
Figure 14-4
Generally the induced charge on nonconductors is smaller than that on conductors. Instead of drawing all the polarized
molecules, we generally summarize these
with a picture like Figure 14-5b.
A charged object (left)can induce a

charge in a nonconductor (right)as well.
Figure 14-5a
A ground is any huge reservoir and

depository of electrons. If you touch a
charged object to a wire connected to
ground, the charge will be neutralized
where you touch it (Figure 14-6).
The induced charge in a

nonconductor is not as large as
in a conductor:
charge
F i r e 14-5b
The following example illustrates
these concepts. In the illustrations, a slight
excess in the number of electrons over the
number of protons is indicated by a - sign,
and a deficit of electrons is indicated by a
+ sign.
ground
A ground is able to supply a

charge to or drain a chargefrom
any object it touches.
Figure 14-6
Example: In a physics lab text, the

following procedure is given for charging by induction a metal sphere connected to an
insulating rod:
1. Rub a piece of amber with cotton cloth.
2. Bring the amber near but not touching the metal sphere.
3. Touch the other side of the sphere with your finger (which acts as a ground).
4. Remove your finger.
5. Remove the amber.
Sketch what happens to charges. (Hint: Amber tends to pick up electrons.)
Solution: 1. We rub amber with a cloth.

amber
Figure 14-7a
sphere
The
MCAT Physics Book
2. We bring the amber near the sphere.

Figure 14-7b
3. We touch the other side with a finger.
Figure 14-7c
4. We remove the finger
Figure 14-7d
5. We remove the amber.
Figure 14-7e
D. Coulomb's Law
Knowing that like charges repel (and unlike attract) is only a part of the story. We
can calculate numbers as well. For this we must introduce the unit for charge
[Coulombs = C]. A Coulomb is a large amount of charge, and most laboratory situations involve the accumulation of at most lo4 C.
Coulomb's Law
If two simple charges q, and q, are a distance d apart, then
they exert a force on each other, of magnitude
F,,
=-kq,q,
dZ '
(1)
~m~
where k = 9 X 10' 7
is Coulomb's constant. This force is
C
attractive if the charges have unlike sign and repulsive if they
have like sign.
Note that the distance appears in the denominator as a square, so it is called an inversesquare law, just like the law of gravitation.
Example: A piece of amber rubbed

with a cloth acquires a negative charge on
a cold day. If the amber is brought near
neutral seeds, the seeds are attracted to it.
seed
amber
Show the charge distribution for
a.
the amber and the seeds.
A charged object may attract a
neutral object because of induced
b.
Explain why the seeds are attracted
charge and the inverse-square
to
the
amber.
relationship
- of- electric force.
Figure 14-8
charge distribution, taking into account
the induced charge in the seed. At first it
looks as if the attractive and repulsive forces balance, giving no net force. But the
distance from the amber to the left side of the seed is less than the distance to the right
side. The inverse-square relationship in Coulomb's law makes the arrow on the left
slightly longer than the arrow on the right, and the net force is to the left.
We have explained our predecessor's observation (Section B), that is, we have
explained why a rubbed piece of amber attracts seeds and small objects.
0
--
E. Uedric Field
Coulomb's law is simple, but it is not the only way we can explain the forces
which charges experience. Often in physics, there are two viewpoints which explain the
same phenomena. Usually, only one eventually prevails. Sometimes it prevails because
it is easier to use, and sometimes it prevails because it provides a deeper insight into the
working of the universe. The electric field is an example of a deeper insight
Again, we consider two charges, now call them Q and q, and assume they are
positive. Fix Q at some point. If we place charge q nearby, it experiences a force away
from Q. Now, using Coulomb's law, we can explain this phenomenon-as a repulsive
force that Q exerts on q.
Or we can explain this as follows:
The charge Q creates a "field of arrows"
around itself, directed outward and
getting shorter with distance from the
charge Q. When we place q at a point,
charge q, being nearsighted, does not see
Q over there. But it does see the arrow,
which tells it what force to feel (Figure
14-9).
Lx
Stop for a minute and think about
Z
this. Both viewpoints explain the observations, but they are very different perspecf
tives. The second viewpoint introduces a
In another viewpoint, q does not feel the
forcefrom Q directly, but Q creates an
new animal: a field of arrows (or vector
electric field, and q feels thisfield
field). Charge Q creates an electric field,
and the electric field tells charge q what
F i r e 14-9
force to feel.
So why do we introduce a new viewpoint? Isn't Coulomb's law adequate for our
needs? Actually, there are good reasons to talk about an independent existence of an
electric field. One is that Coulomb's law is not really designed to deal with moving
charges. What happens if we abruptly move charge Q. If Q is moved to a different
place, then q must experience a different force. But does it feel it immediately, or is
there a delay, and if so, how much of a delay?

If d (in Coulomb's Law) is the
actual distance between the charges, then
Coulomb's Law indicates q feels the
change immediately.
It turns out, however, that there is a
delay. The information about the change
in position spreads out quickly, but not
immediately (Figure 14-lOa,b,c). The
easiest way to explain this is to say that a
disturbance in the electricfield propagates
outward at a finite speed-the speed of
light. In fact, that's what light is: a
disturbance in the electric field which
propagates away from the source, which
is an accelerating charge. This is worth
remembering. (Fiat lux.)
In this figure charge Q has been moved up

suddenly. Ifthe charge Q moves quickly,
then the electric field does not respond
immediately. The electricfield is the same
as it was before the move and charge q
feels a force as if Q were in its old place.
Figure 14-10a
The information has moved outward

to the dotted line. The electric field
outside the dotted line is the same as
before the charge Q moved up.
Charge q still feels a force as if Q
were in its old place.
Figure 14-10b
Now q experiencesforce to the right,

but also down. This demonstration
indicates that the electricfield has an
existence independent of the charges
and that the second viewpoint is better
than Coulomb 's law. (See text.)
Figure 14-10c
The important concept is this: The
universe is filled with arrows, that is, an
electric field. Charges (some stationary and some moving) create the electric field. The
electric field tells charges what force to feel.
There are three rules for the electric field which you need to know for the MCAT.
Rule 1
A stationary charge Q creates at every point an electric field
of magnitude
E = -kQ,
d2
where d is the distance from the charge to the point in

question. The direction of this field is away from Q if Q is
positive and toward Q if it is negative.
Rule 2
Assume there are several stationary charges Q,, Q,, and so on.
Charge Q, creates electric field E, at point P, charge Q, creates
electric field I?, at point P, and so on. The electric field at P is .
the vector sum
E = E, + E , + ... .
2
Rule 3
A charge q placed at point P will experience a force given by
F = qE.
Figure 14-9 shows the electric field due to a single positive charge. A sketch of
the electric field due to a single negative charge would look the same except the arrows
would point toward the charge.
Example 1: A dipole is a positive charge and an equal-magnitude negative charge
separated by a distance. Sketch the electric field around a dipole.
Solution: Figure 14-1l a shows such a sketch. Each electric field vector shown is
actually the sum of two vectors. Figure 14-1l b shows this explicitly for point P.
A positive charge q placed at point P would experience a force to the right, while a
negative charge would experience a force to the left.
Figure 14-lla
I
I
The electricfield at any

point is the vector sum of the
individual electric fie&.
Figure 14-llb
Example 2: Square ABCD has sides of length
meters. Charges of Q =
1.1 X lo-'' C are placed at corners B and D. (The charge of a proton is 1.6 x
C.)
a. What is the electric field at point A?
b. What force would an electron
placed at point A experience?
fE"
c. If a proton were placed at point
A, what would be the ratio of
the magnitude of the force it
would experience to that which
the electron in b experiences?
DIAGRAM showing the electric fields
caused by the two charges (Figure 14-12).
D
C
The magnitude of the electric field at A
F i r e 14-12

due to the charge at B is
Figure 14-13
This is the magnitude of the electric field due to the charge at D as well. The two
electric fields add like vectors. Figure 14-13 shows this sum, in which we may use the
Pythagorean theorem, so we write
This is the answer to part a.

b. We simply calculate
F =qE
The force the electron at point A experiences is directed toward C, since the charge of
the electron is negative.
c. The force on the proton at point A is obtained in the same way, except the
direction of the force is away from C, since the sign of the proton is positive. The ratio
of the magnitudes of the forces on the proton and the electron is 1.
The following example shows how important it is to have a mental picture of the
charges, electric field, and forces, much more important than memorizing several
equations.
0
Simp1e
'fa
water molecule.
Even simpler model

o f a water molecule.
Figure 14-14
Note: A water molecule is a

complicated object, with three nuclei and
ten electrons interacting quantum mechanically. But for many purposes (as in
the following example), we can model the
water molecule as a simple dipole: a
molecule with a positive end and a
negative end. (See Figure 14-14.)
Note also: In problems of this sort,
you should ignore gravity unIess the
problem tells you to include it.
Example 3: An electric field exists

in the xy-plane directed in the positive
y-direction with constant magnitude E,,.
(Use q, for the elementary charge, or the
charge of the proton.)
a. If a chloride ion (Cl-) is placed
x
in the xy-plane, what is the
force on the ion?
Figure 14-15a
b. If a water molecule is placed
in the xy-plane with its oxygen
end pointing in the +x-direction and hydrogen end pointing in the -xdirection, which direction is the torque?
c. What is the direction of the net force on the water molecule?
Solution: a. Figure 14-15a shows
the electric field. Chloride has one more
electron than it has protons, so its charge
is -q,.The magnitude of the force on the
ion is
F =q,E,,.
F-
The force is directed in the -y-direction

Figures 14-15b,c
(Figure 14-15b).
b. For the torque on a water
molecule, think of a water molecule as having a positive end and a negative end. Figure
14-1% shows the forces on the two ends, so the torque is clockwise.
c. Adding the two forces in Figure 14-1% yields zero net force.
Example 4: A positive charge due to a sodium ion (Na') is at the origin. A

hydrogen fluoride molecule (HF) is on the positive x-axis with its hydrogen end further
from the ion than its fluoride end. What
direction is the net force due to the
sodium ion on the hydrogen fluoride
molecule?
DIAGRAM
showing the electric field
C C
(Figure 14-16). Figure 14-17 shows the
force diagram for the molecule. Notice
that the force on the fluoride part of the
I
molecule is larger than the force on the
4
Fire 14-16
hydrogen part, because the hydrogen part

is located where the electric field is
smaller. The net force is in the -xdirection.
Figure 14-17
Notice the difference between Example 4 and Example 3. In Example 3 the

electric field is uniform, so the net force on the dipole is zero. In Example 4 the electric
field is not uniform. (This is like the seeds beings attracted to the amber in Section D.)
The
MCAT Physics Book
Figure 14-18
Figure 14-19
One last note here: To draw electric
field lines, simply connect the arrows of
the electric field, each arrow directing your pen to the next arrow. Figure 14-!8 shows
an example for a dipole, and Figure 14-19 exemplifies two positive charges. This is just
another way of graphically representing the same information.
II
F.
Electric Potential
We begin this section with an analogy.
Analogy: Sisyphus, of Greek legend, was condemned to move a large stone of

mass M to the top of a mountain (with no friction). His sister moved a similar stone up
a different path to the top of the mountain.
His son moved a smaller rock (mass m) to
the top of the same mountain. (Figure 1420 shows them in action.) Each carefully
calculated the work required. (They
calculated W = FAxcos # for each piece of
the journey and then added the pieces.)
a. Who did the most work?
b. Who had the greatest work per
mass ratio?
The ratio of work required to roll a rock
Solution: This is a problem we
from the bottom to the top to the mass o f
the rock is independent of the path. "
have done before. For sisyphus7task,
there is a flow of energy from his muscles
Figure 14-20
into another form, the gravitational
potential energy of the stone. The latter is
given by MgH, where H is the height of the mountain. But by the conservation of
energy, that must be the same as the work that Sisyphus performs. By the same
argument, Sisyphus' sister performs the same work MgH, and his son performs work
mgH.
If they calculate the work to mass ratio, all obtain gH. At the top of the mountain
they could drive a stake in the ground with the title "WorWmass is 1200 Jlkg," or
whatever it happened to be. Each point on the mountain would have its own worWmass
ratio. The woddmass ratio is independent of path because gravity is a conservative
force, and it has a potential energy
associated with it.
Path 1
Q
For bees carrying charges from A to B

the wonk-@-charge ratio is independent
of path and sign of charge.
Figure 14-21
The electric force is also a conservative force.

How would we create and analogy
with electric forces? Let's say a positive
charge Q is fixed in space. (See Figure 1421.)
A honey bee carries a positive
a.
charge q, along Path 1 from A to B.
b. Another bee carries the same amount of charge along Path 2 fiom A to B.
c. A third bee carries a negative charge q, along Path 2.
Honey bees a and b perform the same amount of work. Although honey bee c
performs a different amount of work, it is different only because of the different charge.
The work per charge is the same in all cases. This work per charge is called electric
potential. We could drive a stake into space at point B with the title "7 JIC to get to this
point from A" or something to that effect. This is analogous to gravitational potential
energy per mass or roughly analogous to height.
Thus, to every point in space we assign a number, the electric potential. In
physics, point A is often set at infinity as a standard. In that case, we refer to the
Each point P in space has an absolute electric potential V,.

The work required to bring a charge from infinity'to P is
independent of the path taken and is given by
w=qv,.
The units are [JIC = volts = V].
Now the analogy to gravitational potential energy works only so far. For one
thing, mass is always positive, while charge may be positive or negative. So Sisyphus
performs a large amount of work with his large rock, and his son performs a smaller
amount of work. Honey bee a performs a large amount of work, but honey bee c
performs a negative amount of work, so she is able to derive work from the system.
Another difference is that the
Earth's surface is two dimensional, and
the third dimension, height, is equivalent
to the worwmass ratio to get to that point.
Each point on the Earth's surface may be
labeled by a height or the worWmass
ratio. On the other hand, the honey bees
can fly in three dimensions, and the
electric potential is in a fourth dimension
that we can only imagine. Figure 14-22 is
A honeybee with charge I @ C
an attempt to illustrate this. The bee
approaches aflower at 600 volts.
carries a charge of lo4 C, and the flower
Because of the amount of energy this
has a electric potential of 600 volts.
entails, the bee perceives the task as
Figure 14-22a shows how it looks to us.
we would view climbing a mountain
(as in Figure 14-226).
But since it takes a lot of energy to get to
the flower, the situation appears like
Figure 14-22a
Figure 14-22b to the bee.
If we want to know how much
energy is required to move a rock from A
to B, we don't need the exact heights of A
and B above sea level. We need only the
difference in height, the mass of the rock,
and the acceleration due to gravity.
Similarly, in most electrostatic problems,
we do not care about the absolute
potential; we need only the potential
dgerence.
Fire 14-22b
The work required to move a charge q from point A to B is

given by
W = qAV,
=
- v*),
dv.
where V, and V, are the electric potentials at A and B,

respectively.
Example 1: A DC battery is rated at 6 volts. How much energy would be

required to remove an electron from the positive terminal and move it to the negative
terminal? (The charge of an electron is -1.6 x lo-'' C.)
Solution: Note that going from a positive terminal to a negative terminal is
"downhill", so AV is negative. We apply the formula
W = qAV
We need to check the sign. Does such an action require work? Or can we derive work
from it? Removing an electron from a positive terminal requires work, and placing it on
a negative terminal requires work as well, so the positive sign in our answer is correct.
It is a good thing to know the amount of work to move a charge from one place to
another, and we know how to do that now, if we know the electric potentials at the
various points. But how do we calculate the potentials? In many situations, this is easier
than it sounds.
Consider a lone charge Q. The potential at point P due to that

charge is given by
V = k -Q
,
d
where d is the distance from P to the center of the charge.
I.
Note that there is no d in the denominator, only d.

For a positive charge q, such a
positive potential (if Q is positive) looks
like a high steep mountain. (Figure 1423). For a negative charge, it looks like a
deep pit (since the energy change is
negative for getting close to Q).
If there are several charges Q,,Q,, ..., then the potential at P is

given by the simple sum (no vectors):
Ql
Q2
V = k -+k-+...
4 dl
When we move charge q from A to B, we increase its electric potential energy by

the same amount as the work we have performed. The electric potential energy of a
group of charges is the work required to assemble the charges by moving them from an
infinite distance away. So now we have an electric potential energy in addition to the
gravitational potential energy.
Example 3: Two charges

Q
Q ,= 1.1 x i o 4 c are
2 X 10-2meters apart. Point A is exactly
between them, and point B is lo-' meters
from both of them. How much work is
required to move a charge q =
C from
A to B?
,=
A
Qt.
Qz
Figure 14-24

DIAGRAM (Figwe 14-24). Let's apply the formula:
V - ~ Q Ike,
A
--
dl,
dZA
Now let's check the sign. Since the test charge is positive, we imagine the two charges
Q are mountains next to each other, and A is a mountain pass. Point B is further down,
so the energy change is negative. No energy is required, but instead energy can be
derived. Therefore the negative answer is justified.
The
MCAT Physics Book

Example 4: Two charges Q, and Q,
(both 1.1 x lo-' C and both lo4 grams)
are initially 0.01 m apart. They are
released, and they go flying apart.
d
a. How much potential energy is
For part a, we assemble the system
in the system initially?
by regarding Q, as fired and
b. How much kinetic energy is in
moving Q,from infinity.
the system finally?
Figure 14-25
Solution: a. The potential energy is
the work needed to assemble the system.
Let's regard Q , as fixed and move Q, toward it from infinity (Figure 14-25).With this
viewpoint, the initial electric potential (at infinity) is zero and the final electric potential
is kQ,ld, where d = 0.01 m. The work done to bring Q, to this point is
The other way to do this problem is to regard Q,as fixed and move Q, toward it,
but of course we would get the same answer. Or we could move them both from
infinity. This would be harder to calculate, but since the energy is independent of path,
the answer must be the same.
b. After the particles are released, the potential energy is converted to kinetic
energy. Since there are no external forces and no heat generation, energy is conserved,
J.
and the final kinetic energy is 1.1 x
Major hint: Whenever there is a question about energy in a

problem involving charges or electricity, chances are near
certain you will use potential differences to solve the problem
(rather than W = FAxcos 4).
One last note: In topographic maps

of the Earth's surface, points at the same
height are connected by lines and labeled
according to height. We can do the
analogous thing with charges by connecting points of equal potential, forming
equipotential lines. Figure 14-26 shows
such a diagram for two equal positive
charges.
@&
300 v
200 V
Figure 14-26
G. Magnetic
Fields
Electric fields are not enough to explain everything in electrodynamics. It turns

out that we need to consider a second field as well, called the magneticfield. Both
stationary and moving charges generate an electric field, but only moving charges
generate a magnetic field.
Magnetic fields appear outside the wires in which there is current flowing. A
currenl is a flow of charge, that is, the quantity of charge moving past a point per unit
of time. The units of current are [CIS = amperes = amps =A]. For most problems it
does not matter whether we think of (negative) electrons moving left or of some
positive charge moving right. In physics we generally think in terms of a positive
charge moving, even though we know that it is the electrons which are moving. For this
reason, if electrons are moving to the left along a wire, then we say the current is
toward the right, since electrons have negative charge.
If a current is flowing in a wire, this
generates a magnetic field outside the
wire. This magnetic field points not
toward, not away from, not along the
i,magnetic field
wire, but tends to point around the wire.
It
is strongest near the wire, of course. We
./ \.
-4
b
can
remember its direction by applying
I, current
I 7'
the first hand rule: Use your right hand
and point the thumb in the direction of
Thefirst hand rule reminds us
the (positive) current. Bend your fingers
of lhe direction of the
around so the tips are as close to your
magnetic field due to current.
wrist as possible. The fingers tend to point
Figure 14-27
J
-0
-
in the direction of the magnetic field.

Figure 14-27 shows a current flowing to
/
1
Of
1
the right. The small arrows show the
1
direction of the magnetic field. Figure 1428 shows a current coming out of the
\ .
f
page. Again, the arrows show the magThe current is coming out of the
netic field. A circle with a dot in it often
page. The arrows point in the
denotes a vector coming out of the page,
direction
of the magnetic field.
like an incoming- arrow. A circle with a
cross in it denotes a vector going into the
Figure 14-28
page, like the feathers of a receding arrow.
Certain materials, such as iron, generate magnetic fields as well, and at first
glance there do not seem to be any currents here. The reason for magnetic fields in
these cases is subtle and involves the current of electrons about the nucleus. This is
almost certainly beyond the scope of the
MCAT.
0 0 0
A charge sitting still in a magnetic
0 0 0 0 0
field experiences no force. Futhermore a
moving charge experiences a magnetic
force only if its motion has a component
perpendicular to the magnetic field. In
that case the particle experiences a force
0 0 0
which is perpendicular to the magnetic
field and to the charge's path. Figure 14The magnetic fieldis coming out of the
page. and the pmton is tmveling right. zt 29 shows a situation in which the magexperiences a magnetic force down the page. netic field is coming out of the page and a
proton is moving to the right.
F i r e 14-29

The second hand rule helps you to recall the direction of the force: For a positive
particle, use your right hand. Your fingers point in the direction of the magnetic field,
which you can remember because the four fingers look like the field lines of a magnet.
Your thumb points in the direction that the particle is going, like a hitch hiker. Your
palm (which you use for pushing) points in the direction in which the particle experiences a force. For a negative particle, use your left hand.
In brief, every point in the universe has two vectors sitting on it, one being the
electric field and the other being the magnetic field. Just to help you visualize it,
imagine going to a field in the Northern Hemisphere on a clear day and picking a point
in the air. To a close approximation, the electric field points down with a magnitude 100
NIC and the magnetic field points south (0.5 gauss, if you must know, but we have not
discussed units for the magnetic field).
Now the force on a particle due to a magnetic field is always perpendicular to the
displacement of the particle. For this reason magnetic forces do no work (always we
have cosg = 0). If you ever encounter a question such as "How much work d.ws the
magnetic force ... ?'you need.read no further. The answer is zero.
H. Electromagnetic Radiation
In Section D we discussed the fact

that an accelerating charge will shake up
the electric field around it. The shaking
portion of the electric field breaks off and
moves away through space. The phenomenon is called electromagnetic radiation
or light. The electric field is perpendicular
Figure 14-30
to the wave direction, so the wave is
transverse, and the orientation of the
electric field gives the polarization. That is to say, if the electric field points up and
down, then we say the light is vertically polarized. In Figure 14-30 a charge Q on a
vertical spring moves up and down and generates the wave shown. So the polarization
is in the same direction that-thecharge shakes.
A magnetic field also goes along
with the electric field. Although Figure
14-30 does not show the magnetic field,
Figure 14-31 shows both fields. The
magnetic field is perpendicular to the
electric field and to the direction of
propagation.
Of course, this is not the full story.
These waves of electric and magnetic
fields come out as packets, called photons, generally associated with energy transitions
within a crystal, molecule, or atom. We will discuss this more fully in Chapter 16.
This chapter is the most difficult of the book. In addition to visualizing the
movement of electrons in various materials, you must also learn to visualize electric
and magnetic fields, and an electric potential as well.
The electric field relates force to charge. Whenever you read a question involving
force and charge, you will probably need to think of the electric field. You should
picture arrows (vectors) filling all of space pointing away from positive.charges and
toward negative ones. Since the electric field is a vector field, the electric field at a point
due to several charges is the vector sum of the individual electric fields at that point.
The electric potential is related to energy and charge. When a question mentions
energy and charge. you should immediately think of using electric potentials. The work
to move a charge from point A to point B is W = q(V, - V,). We can find the potential at
point A by simply adding the potentials (V = kQlr) from the charges in the problem.
An electric field is generated by both stationary and moving charges, although we
have calculated only the former. A magnetic field is generated only by moving charges
and affects only moving charges. Qualitative information can be obtained by the hand
rules. The MCAT will not ask for any more detailed information.
The
MCAT Physics Book

A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
How would F,, change if the charges were both

doubled, but the distance between them remained the
same?
A.
F,, would decrease by a factor of 4.
B. F,, would decrease by a factor of 2.
C. F,, would increase by a factor of 2.
F,, would increase by a factor of 4.
D.
5.
What is F,,, the force that charge Q, exerts on charge

PI?
Sections A-D
In all of the following problems, use the following constants:
~rn'
k=9x109q-,
cZ.
=- 1 . 6 ~ 1 0 - ' ~ ~ .
In all problems ignore gravity unless it is explicitly mentioned.

Consider the following possibilities in answering
questions 1 and 2:
I.
Both balls have a positive charge.
11. Both balls have a negative charge.
111. One ball has a positive charge, and the other, a
negative charge.
N. One ball is charged and the other is neutral.
1. In a certain experiment, two balls made of cork are
hung from insulating strings. There is a force to the

effect of pushing the balls apart, due to charges on the
balls. What can be concluded?
A. I or II.
B. I or I1 or 111.
C. ILI.
D. 111 or IV.
2. In a certain experiment, two balls made of cork are

hung from insulating strings. There is a force to the
IorII.
B.
C.
D.
I or II or rn.

A small metal ball having a positive charge is brought
near a large solid metal disk on the right side. The ball then
touches it and is removed.
6.
Which of the following best shows the distribution of

the charges before the ball touches the disk?
effect of pulling the balls together, due to charges on the

balls. What can be concluded?
A.

It would increase by a factor of 4.
7. Which of the following best shows the distribution of

the charges after the ball is removed?
111.
111or n!

Two charges Q, = 2 x lo-" C and Q, = 8 x lo-" C
are near each other, and charge Q, exerts a force F,, on Q,.
3. How would F,, change if the distance between Q, and

Q, were i n a d by a factor of 4?
266
8. A small metal ball having a positive charge is brought

near a large solid plastic disk. The ball then touches it
on the right side and is removed. Which of the following best shows the distribution of the charges after the
ball is removed?
B.
C.
D.
The oxygen atom is nearer the ion because of the

oxygen's positive charge.
The hydrogen atoms are nearer the ion because of
their negative charge.
The hydrogen atoms areJearer the ion because of
their positive charge.
13. What net electrostatic force exists between a sodium

ion and a water molecule oriented as shown in the
figure? (Assume the overlap of electron clouds is
negligible.)
9. Two charges, a positive charge Q = 1.1 X lo-'' C and a

negative charge of the same magnitude, are located
2 x 10" m apart. A third charge q = 10-l7C is located
exactly between them. What is the magnitude of the
force on charge q?
A. ON
B. 2.5 x 10-l2N
C. 2.5 x 1o6N
D. 2 x 1 0 - ' ~
Na'
A.
B.
C.
D.
Section
10. One charge (Q, = 3.3 x lo-' C) is located on the.x-axis

m, 0 m), and another charge (Q, = 4.4 x lo-' C)
at
is located on the y-axis at (0 m,
m). A charge q =
10-l6C is located at the origin. What is the magnitude
of the force on the charge at the origin?
A.
10-'~
B. 2 x 1 0 - ' ~
C. 5 x 1 0 - ' ~
D. ~ X ~ O - ~ N
11. Two positive charges, Q = 1.1 x lo-'' C, are located

10" m apart. A third charge q = 10-l7C is located
force on charge q?
A. ON
B. 10-"N
c. lo-' N
D. 8 x l 0 - ' N

In a water solution of sodium chloride, the sodium
chloride dissociates into ions surrounded by water molecules. Consider a water molecule near a sodium ion.
H\
0
'H
There is no net force.

The net force is attractive.
The net force is repulsive.
The net force is into the page.
C is located on the
14. A positive charge Q = 1.1 x
m, and a negative charge of the same
x-axis at x =
magnitude is located at the origin. What is the magnitude and direction of the electric field at the point on the
m? (Right means the positive
x-axis at x =
x-direction.)
A.
7.5 x lo6NIC, to the left.
B.
lo7 NIC, to the right.
C. 1.25 x lo7 NIC, to the right.
D. 2 x lo7 NIC, to the right.
15. A positive charge Q = 1.1 x lo-'' C is located

meters away from a negative charge of equal
magnitude. Point P is exactly between them. What is
the magnitude of the electric field at point P?
A.
lo3NIC
B. 2 x l d N I C
C.
D.
4 x lo3NIC
8x103N1C -
12 What tends to be the orientation of the water molecule?

A. The oxygen atom is nearer the ion because of the
oxygen's negative charge.

16. Two positive charges Q = 1.1 x 10-I0C are located
meters away from each other, and point P is
electric field at point P?
A. 0 NIC
B.
lo6NIC
C. 2 x 10' NIC
D.
8 x lo6NIC
19. What is the magnitude of the electric field at point E?

A. -0NlC
B.
lo5NIC
C. 3 x 10' NIC
D. 9 x 10' NIC

A positive charge of 3.3 x lo3 C is at the point (0 rn,
1 m). A negative charge -5.5 x
C is at the point (0.5 m,
0 m).
17. In the figure, points A, B, and C are the vertices of an

equilateral triangle with sides of length lo4 meters.
Positive charges of magnitude Q = 1.1 x lo-" C are
located at points B and C. What is the direction of the
electric field at point A?
20. Which arrow best shows the direction of the electric

field at the point (0.5 m, 1 m)?
21. Which arrow best shows the direction an electron would

experience a force if it were placed at (0.5 m, 1 m)?
A.
B.

In the figure, points A, B, and C are the vertices of
an equilateral triangle with sides of length
meters.
Point D is exactly between B and C, while point E is in
the same plane as A, B, and C and equidistant from them.
C are
Positive charges of magnitude Q = 1.1 x
located at points A, B, and C.
f
\
c.
D.

Two parallel metal plates separated by a distance
0.01 meters are charged in order to create a uniform electric
field (4 x lo4 NIC) between them, which points down (see
figure). A small plastic ball (m = 0.009 kg) has a small
charge Q on it and is located between the plates. The only
forces on it are the forces due to gravity and to the electric
field. The ball is not moving.
Note: An alpha particle is a bare helium4 nucleus and
has a mass about four times that of a proton. The mass of a
proton is 2000 times the mass of an electron. The acceleration due to gravity g = 10 m/s2.The charge on a proton is
1.6 x 10-l9 C.
18. What is the direction of the electric field at point D?

A. It points up (t).
B. It points down (1).
C. It points into the page.
D. It has zero magnitude.
GO ON TO ME N M PAGE
22. Which is a distribution of charge which would create
the desired electric field between the plates?

The top plate is charged positively and the bottom
A.
plate is charged negatively.
B. The top plate is charged negatively and the
bottom plate is charged positively.
C. Both plates have the same positive charge.
D. Both plates have the same negative charge.
ttttt
27. If a water molecule is placed between the two plates,
which orientation would it take to minimize its energy?
23. What is the charge on the ball?
A.
B.
C.
D.
-100C
-2.25 x lo4
2.25 x 104C
l00C
24. What is the magnitude of the force which would be
exerted on a proton between the two plates?

A 6.4 x lo-'' N
B.
1.28 x 10-l4N
C. 2.56 x 10-l4N
D.
6.4x10-'N
25. How would the force exerted on an alpha particle
between the plates compare with the force exerted on a

proton between the plates?
A.
Four times as large, and in the opposite direction.
B.
The same magnitude, and in the same direction.
C. Twice as large, and in the same direction.
D. Four times as large, and in the same direction.
26. How would the acceleration of an electron between the
plates compare with the acceleration of a proton
between the plates?
A. The same magnitude, but in the opposi& direction.
B. lbice as large, and in the opposite direction.
C. One thousand times as large, and in the opposite
direction.
28. If the water molecule were oriented as shown below,

what would be the direction of the net force on it?
A.
No force.
B.
C.
D.
t
1
+
29. If the water molecule were oriented as in the previous
problem, what effect would the electric field have on

the molecule (other than net force)?
A. The molecule would be rotated clockwise.
B. The molecule would be rotated counterclockwise.
C. The molecule would be compressed.
D. The molecule would be stretched.
D. Two thousand times as large, and in the opposite

direction.

%o parallel metal plates are charged in order to
create a uniform electric field between them which points up
(see figure). A water molecule can be modeled as a simple
dipole, that is, having a negative end (the oxygen atom) and
a positive end (the hydrogen atoms).
The
MCAT Physics Book
Section
F
A

A cube, 0.1 m on a side, is made up of six metal
plates, insulated from each other (see figure). Plates A and D
are opposite each othex and maintained at 1000 V. Plates B
and E are opposite each other and maintained at 0 V. Plates
C and F are maintained at -1000 V. The elementary charge
is 1.6 x
C.
electrons
.-
transfer
device
34. A charge Q = 1.1 x lo-' C is fixed in space. Another

charge q = -lo4 C is_5 meters away. It is slowly moved
4 meters in a straight line directly toward the charge Q.
How much work is required to move charge q?
A.
-0.08 J
30. A charge of 10-14cis pushed very slowly from the

center of plate A straight across to the center of plate D.
What is the work done by this force pushing the
charge?
A. -10-"J
B.
OJ
C.
D.
lo-" J
2x10-"J
B.
C.
D.
-0.016 J
0.016J
0.08 J
35. A charge Q = 1.1 x lo-' C is fixed at the origin. k

second charge q = lo4 C is moved along a straight path
from the point (0 m, 2 m) to the point (2 m, 0 m). How
much work is performed in moving q along this path?
31. What is the change of potential energy of the system if

an electron is transferred from plate A to plate C?
A.
-3.2 x 10-l6J
B. - 1 . 6 ~ 1 0 - ' 6 ~
C.
D.
+1.6x10-'~~
+3.2 x 10-l6J
32. Two charges (q, = 1.1 x 10-8C and q, = 1.1 x lo-' C)

are a distance 0.1 meters apart. How much energy is
required to bring them to a distance 0.01 meters apart?
A.
J
B.
lo4 J
C. l o d J
D. lod5J
33. At the beginning of an experiment, two identical metal
balls (radius 0.1 m) are neutral and considered to be at
zero electrical potential. They are located far apart
(5 m). Electrons are transferred by a mechanical technique from ball A to ball B, such that the system of balls
and apparatus is isolated fiom the environment After the
transfer, ball A has acquired a potential of 10,000 volts
and ball B a potential of -10,000 volts. Now,how much
work is required to transfer lo-'' C from ball A to B?
36. A dry cell (or battery) is in the shape of a cylinder of

length 1 and diameter d. Its terminals have a small
radius r, and the rating of the battery is voltage V. What
is the energy required to bring one electron from the
positive terminal to the negative terminal? (Charge on
electron = q,)
I
A positive charge Q is held fixed at the origin. A

positive charge q is on the positive x-axis and is let. go.
(Assume no friction.)
39. Which of the following describes the theoretical

acceleration of q afrer it is let go?
A.
Its acceleration decreases, eventually reaching
zero.
B. Its acceleration decreases forever, but it never
reaches zero.
C. Its acceleration decreases and then increases.
D.
Its acceleration increases forever.
40. Which of the following describes the theoretical
velocity of q afrer it is let go?
A.
Its velocity increases and then decreases to zero.
B. Its velocity increases and then decreases, but it
never reaches zero.
C. Its velocity increases forever but never becomes
greater than a certain bound.
D. Its velocity increases forever without bound.

Charges Q,and Q,(both 1.1 x
C) are located at
(-3 m, 0 m) and at (3 m, 0 m) on the xy-plane. Point A is the
point (-1 m, 0 m), point B is the point (1 m, 0 m), and point
C is the point (0 m, 4 m).
I
37. What is the potential difference between A and B?
A. 0 volts
B.
lo6volts
C. 2 x lo6 volts
D. 7.5 x lo6 volts
38. What is the potential of C relative to a point an infinite
Use the following information in questions 4 1 4 3 :

When a proton encounters a large atomic nucleus, to a
good approximation, we can assume the large nucleus is
fixed in space. The main force between the nucleus and
proton is electrostatic. Assume a nucleus of charge Q is
fixed at the origin, and a proton (mass m, charge q ) approaches it moving along the x-axis. Far away from the
nucleus the proton has a velocity v, but as the proton
approaches the nucleus, it slows and comes to a stop at a socalled turning radius r. (See figure.) Energy is conserved
during this process.
turning
radius
k-4
Q
proton
Note: The electric potential energy (or electrostatic

energy) between two charged particles q, and q, a distance d
apart is E = kq,q,ld.
distance away?
A.
B.
C.
D.
2xldvolts
4x ~ O ~ V
O ~ ~ S
5 x 10' volts
7.5 x l d volts

41. Which of the following best describes the flow of
energy?
A. potential to kinetic
B. kinetic to potential
C. . kinetic to potential to heat
D. kinetic to potential and heat
B.
C.
D.
Use the following information in questions 46 and 4 7

In the figure the magnetic field is pointing down. A
horizontal wire is shown.
42. Two protons are fired at the nucleus, the second with
four times the velocity of the first. How would the
electrostatic energy of the second proton at its turning
radius compare with the electrostatic energy of the first
proton at its turning radius?
A. It would be greater by a factor of 16.
B. It would be greater by a factor of 4.
C. It would be greater by a factor of 2.
D. It would be the same.
43. How would the turning radius be affected if the initial

velocity v were increased by a factor of 4?
A.
C . It would decrease by a factor of 2.
D. It would stay the same.
Section

A wire canies a current I which is traveling up the
page. Point P lies off to the right.
Down the page.

In a spiral.
In a circle.
magnetic
lPll
46. If an external force pulls the horizontal wire down the

page, which of the following best indicates the direction
of the force of the magnetic field on the electrons i n the
wire?
A. Up.
B.
Into the page.
C. Out of the page.
D. There is no magnetic force.
47. If the horizontal wire is pulled out of the page toward
you, which of the following best indicates the direction
of the force of magnetic field on the electrons in the
wire?
A.
Right.
B.
Into the page.
C. Left.
D. There is no magnetic force.
48. A proton is traveling to the right and encounters a region

R which contains an electric field or a magnetic field.
44. What is the d i i t i o n of the magnetic field at point P?

A. Up the page.
B.
To the right.
C. Out of the page.
D.
Into the page.
The proton is observed to speed up. Which is the best

conclusion about the region R?
A. There is a magnetic field pointing up the page.
B. There is a magnetic field pointing down the page.
45. Which direction are electrons traveling in the wire?

A. Up the page.
C.
D.
272
There is an electric field pointing to the right.

There is an electric field pointing to the left.
49. A proton is traveling to the right and encounters a

region S which contains an electric field or a magnetic
field.
proton
electric force cancel, so that the electron beam is

straight.
u
In which direction must the electric field point?
The proton is observed to bend up the page. Refer to the

following possibilities:
There is a magnetic field pointing into the page.
I.
11. There is a magnetic field pointing out of the page.
111. There is an electric field pointing up the page.
IV. There is an electric field pointing down the page.
Which is the best conclusion about the region S?
A. I only.
B.
II only.
C. I or III.
D. I1 or IV.

A beam of electrons is traveling to the right. Point A is
above the beam, as shown.
A.
Up the page.
Down-the page.
Into the page.
Out of the page.
B.
C.
D.

A current I is flowing through a wire loop as shown.
Point P is in the middle of the loop.
53. What is the direction of the magnetic field at point P?

A.
electron beam
50. What is the direction of the electric field at point A?

A. Up the page.
B.
Down the page.
C. Into the page.
D. Out of the page.
B.
C.
D.
Out of the page.

Into the page.
To the right.
To the left.
54. If a proton is at point P and moving upward ( t ) , what is

the direction of the acceleration of the proton?
A.
To the left.
B. To the right.
C. Up, that is, speeding up the proton.
D. Down, that is, slowing down the proton.
51. What is the direction of the magnetic field at point A?

A.
Into the page.
B. Out of the page.
C. To the right.
D. To the left.
52. An electron beam is traveling to the right, and encounters a region R with a magnetic field pointing down. as
shown. ?his region also has an electric field. We
observe that the effects of the magnetic force and of the

D.
Passage 1
'
The radio waves which carry information in a standard

broadcast are an example of electromagnetic radiation.
These waves are a disturbance, not of a material medium,
but of electric and magnetic fields. When the wave is
linearly polarized, the electric field points in a direction
perpendicular to the propagation of the wave, although its
magnitude varies, of course, in space and time. The magnetic field points in a direction perpendicular to the wave
propagation and to the electric field, and the two fields
propagate in phase.
The electromagnetic radiation is generated by an
antenna, which is a wire or metal rod which points perpendicular to the direction of the intended wave propagation.
An alternating current is generated in the antenna, whose
frequency is the same as that of the radiation to be produced. The electric field of the resulting electromagnetic
radiation points along the same axis as the current.
The electric field of the electromagnetic radiation
encounters electrons on the receiving antenna, which is
another wire or metal rod. The electric field creates a current
along the receiving antenna. One way to have good transmission and reception is to have the length of the antenna be
one quarter of the wavelength of the electromagentic wave.
For the following questions, consider a situation in
whlch a transmitting antenna points vertically, and the
receiving antenna is directly to the north. The speed of light
is 3 x 10' mls.
4.
Upldown.
What would be the best orientation of the receiving

antenna?
A.
North/south, that is, pointing toward the transmitting antenna.
B.
Vertical.
C. EasVwest.
D.
Any orientation would suffice.
5. In the third paragraph, how does the electric field create

a current on the receiving antenna?
A.
The electric field changes the resistance of the
antenna.
B. The electric field exerts a force on the electrons.
C. The electric field boosts the electrons to higher
energy orbitals in the atoms.
D. The electric field polarizes the electrons.
6. Which of the following best describes the energy flow?
A.
Electrical to electromagnetic to electrical.
B. Electromagnetic to electrical to electromagnetic.
C. Mechanical to electromagnetic to mechanical.
D.
Kinetic to electromagnetic to kinetic.
1. If the alternating current in the transmitting antenna has

a frequency of 10' Hz, what would be a reasonable
length for an efficient antenna, according to the
passage?
A. 7.5 m
B.
C.
D.
2.
30m
60 m
120111
For a point between the two antennas, what is the

direction of the electric field vector for the radiation?
A. North/south.
B.
EasVwest.
C.
D.
Northlsouth or eastlwest.
Upldown.
3. For a point between the two antennas, what is the

direction of the magnetic field vector for the radiation?
A.
B.
C.
Northlsouth.
Eastlwest.
Northlsouth or eastlwest.
B.
C.
D.
Passage 2
In a certain apparatus, a long wire along the z-axis

carries a uniform charge on it. The resulting electric field
outside the wire is directed away from the wire and has a
magnitude given by
3.
4.8 x 10-l3N toward the wire.

4.8 x 10-13N away from the wire.
1.9 x loz3N away from the wire.
Which of the following best depicts the electric field

lines?
where
and d is the perpendicular distance from the wire to the

point in question.
wire
wire
Charges near the wire experience forces due to the

electric field. This is true of elementary particles, like
electrons, as well as ions and molecules. Polar molecules
have one end charged positively and the other end, negatively. The two sides of the molecule thus experience two
forces.
If the electric field is great enough, the gas around the
wire may undergo breakdown, that is, the molecules are
ionized by the electric field.
For the following questions, use for the charge on an
electron
q,
= -1.6 x 10-19c.
1. What is the sign of the charge on the wire?

A. Positive.
B. -Negative.
C. Positive or negative.
D. Positive and negative in equgl amounts to make
neutral.
2.
4.
wire
wire
A fluoride ion (F)has a mass 19 times greater than a

hydrogen ion (H'). If a hydrogen ion and a fluoride ion
are at the same location relative to the wire, how does
the magnitude of the force on the fluoride ion compare
to that of the force on the hydrogen ion?
A.
19 times weaker.
B.
The same magnitude.
C.
10 times stronger.
D.
19 times stronger.
5. If a butanol molecule (CH,CHzCHICHIOH) is near the

wire, what is its most likely orientation?
A.
The methyl group will be near the wire.
B. The methyl group will be away from the wire.
C. The oxygen atom will be near the wire.
D. The oxygen atom will be away from the wire.
What is the force on an electron located 0.01 meters

from the wire?
A.
1.9xld3Ntowardthewire.
If two parallel metal plates separated by a small gap

are charged, one positively and one negatively, then there
will be an electric field between the plates. If the electric
field is larger than a certain threshold, then a spark may
jump across the gap, partially discharging the plates. The
threshold electric field depends on the type and pressure of
the gas between the plates.
To see how a spark occurs, imagine a lone electron
between the plates. It experiences a force and an acceleration, so it will move in the direction of the positive plate.
Before it gets there, it is likely to collide with a gas particle.
The average distance an electron travels before encountering
a gas particle is the mean free path. The mean free path
depends only on the number density of the gas, that is, the
number of gas particles per unit volume. If the electron
gains enough energy before colliding with the gas particle to
ionize it, then after the collision there are more electrons to
continue the process. The original electron loses much of its
kinetic energy but is still available to accelerate and ionize
other gas particles. (See figure.)
1.
If an oxygen ion (0'-)and an electron are both between

the plates, which experiences the greater force?
A. The oxygen ion by a factor of 8.
B. The oxygen ion by a factor of 2.
C. They experience the same magnitude of force.
D. The electron experiences a much greater force
because of its small mass.
2.
How much force would a calcium atom experience if it

were between the plates? (Assume the electric field is
the threshold electric field for air.)
A. ON
B. 4 . 8 ~10-I3N
C. 9.6 x 10-1' N
D. 9 . 6 ~
1 0 - l ~ ~
3. How would the threshold electric field change if the

pressure of the gas were increased?
A. The threshold would decrease because the mean
free path would decrease.
B. The threshold would decrease because the mean
free path would increase.
C. The threshold would increase because the mean
free path would decrease.
D. The threshold would increase because the mean
free path would increase.
4.
A lone electron thus undergoes acceleration and

energy gain, followed by a collision, depositing energy into
the gas particle and debris. Each collision releases several
electrons, so the phenomenon grows exponentially. The
process described is a run-away chain reaction. The result is
a transfer of charge from one plate to the other. In addition,
the discharge leaves many molecules in an excited state,
which releases photons as they decay to the ground state.
For air at atmospheric pressure the threshold electric
field is about
Sulfur hexafluoride is a dense gas which absorbs

electrons. What would be the effect of replacing air
with sulfur hexafluoride between the plates?
A. The threshold would decrease because the density
would be greater.
B. The threshold would increase because the density
would be greater.
C . The increased density would increase the threshold, while the lone electrons would be absorbed,
increasing the threshold even more.
D. The lone electrons would be absorbed, increasing
the threshold. (Density is not a factor.)
You may also use the following:
r, = the average atomic radius = 6 x 10 -I1 meters,
I,, = the mean free path = 8 x 10"meters.
5.
Which graph could be a typical graph of the electron

described in paragraph 2 above?
STOP
Chapter 15
Electric Circuits
A. Introduction
In the last chapter we developed some intuition about ele-ctric fields and electric
potentials, so in this chapter we will apply this intuition to electric circuits. A simple
electric circuit consists of a voltage source, wires, and resistors, so that charge flows in
a closed path or circuit. This flow of charge is called a current. In this chapter the
concepts to watch are current and electric potential, two reIated but distinct concepts.
Whenever you see a circuit diagram, you should imagine seeing currents and potentials.
By doing this as you read this chapter, you will find that this subject becomes fairly
straightforward.
A voltage source (often a DC cell or battery) is a potential difference enforcer, its
one job being to ensure that the potential difference between the two terminals remains
constant. It does this by chemically transporting electrons from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal. When the potential
I
I
between the terminals becomes the rated
voltage (6 volts, or whatever), the
-r
I
chemical reation in the cell reaches
DC cells o r batteries
equilibrium and the electron transport
stops. The symbols for a cell are shown in
Figure 15-1
Figure 15-1, where the long bar is the
positive end, the end with higher potential.
A wire is simply a long, long cylinder of metal. Because it is a piece of metal,
however, the potential difference between any two points in it is zero. That is to say, all
along its length, a wire has one potential. In our analogy with Sisyphus and the mountain (Chapter 14), a wire is like a plateau, all of it at one height. The reason for this is
simple: If it were not so, that is, if one end of the wire were at a higher potential, then
electrons, being free to move, would rush toward the higher potential and lower it.
Perhaps a better analogy is a mountain lake which is, of course, flat. If one end were
higher than the other, the water, free to move, would flow away from that end into the
lower one.
For this reason also the electric field inside a piece of metal is always zero. If it
were not so, then the electric field would push electrons to one side, and the shifting
electrons would cancel the electric field.
At any rate, you should remember

that inside a metal, the electric field is
zero, and if the potential at one point in
@
the wire is V,, then the potential all along
resistor light bulb
the wire is V,.
Electric current may flow through a
Figure 15-2
resistor as well, but the charge does not
flow freely as it does in a wire. For
current to flow through a resistor, there must be a potential difference across it. A
simple example of a resistor is a piece of graphite (pencil lead). Other examples include
w'

a light bulb and a toaster.-Thesymbols for
these are shown in Figure 15-2.
In order to think about circuits, it is
helpful to think of an analogy. The
electric current is like a current of water,
and the electric potential is like the height
of the water. W~resare like level streambeds (level because they have one
potential). Resistors are like rocky
A simple circuit consisting
of a battery and a light bulb.
Figure 15-3
Circuit diagram for circuit

in Figure 15-3.
waterfalls, and a voltage source is like a

pump which pumps water from one
height to another.
Let's look at the example of a 6-V
battery connected to a light bulb. This is
Figure 15-4
shown in Figure 15-3, and the circuit

diagram is shown in Figure 15-4. The
6 volts
battery pumps the charge from one
electric potential to another. The charge
flows through a wire to the light bulb,
through the light bulb, and back to the
battery. The analogy is shown in Figure
15-5. in which the water flows in a circuit.
Note the following very important idea:
The current in the upper trough is the
same as the current in the lower trough. If
0 volts
the current in the upper trough were
Water-course analogy for circuits
larger, then more water would be going
in Figures 15-3 and 15-4.
into the waterfall than coming out of it,
and the waterfall would overflow. m a t is
Figure 15-5
not what happens. Think about this
scenario until it is intuitive.
Also, energy flow is not the same as water flow. The energy starts in the pump
and becomes the energy of flowing water. As the water falls, however, the energy
becomes heat. Similarly, the chemical
energy of the battery is transformed into
I = current
electrical energy and then into heat and
light.
Whereas in the last chapter we were
often interested in the absolute potential,
in circuits we are interested only in
ov
changes in potential from one position to
another. Therefore, we are free to choose
a standard 0 volts. relative to which other
We can analyze a c i ~ u i t
potentials
are measured. In this circuit, we
bv not in^ the currents and
can
label
the
low end of the battery
htentials.
.
r -0 volts. The other end of the battery is
F i 15-6
then 6 volts (Figure 15-6).
'
Chapter 1 5 ..... ... . . . .. . . . . ... . Electric Circuits
B. Ohm's Law and the Combination of Resistors

It turns out that the current through most resistors is approximately proportional
to the electric potential across them.
Ohm's Law
If I is the current through a given resistor and AV is the
potential across the resistor, then
AV = IR.
(1)
where R is the resistance of the resistor, a measure of how

difficult it is for charge to flow through it. The unit for R is
[volt/arnp = Ohm = R].
In the next example we encounter a combination of resistors. Several resistors in

a circuit are often either in series or in parallel. Several resistors are in series if a
charge coming from the source must go through each of them before going back to the
source. Several resistors are in parallel if a charge may go through any of them before
going back to the source.
Example 1:Two resistors (R, =

10 R and R, = 20 R) are connected in
series with a potential source (9 volts).
What is the current through resistor l?
Solution: First, let's DRAW A
DIAGRAM of the circuit (Figure 15-7).
A slightly more complicated circuit
involves hvo.resistors in series.
Figure 15-7
We label the lower wire 0 volts.
There is 9-volt jump across the voltage
source, so the upper wire is labeled
9 volts. We label the wire between the two
resistors with the potential V,. The
current is the same through both resistors
and the source.
The equivalent water course is
shown in Figure 15-8 in which the current
in the top wugh is the same as the current
through both waterfalls and through the
bottom trough.
Water-courseanalogy for
Figure 15-7.
Figure 15-8
If several resistors are in series, then the same current flows

through all of them.
DO
you see why?
981
The MCAT Physics B b ~ k

Applying Ohm's law to the first resistor gives
9V-V, = IR, ,
and applying Ohm's law to the second resistor gives
V, - O = IR,.
Substituting the expression for V,,,gives
9V- IR, = IR,,
Example 2: In the circuit above, what is the potential drop across resistor I?
Solution: If we apply Ohm's law to resistor 1, then we have
AV, = I, R,
= (0.3A)(lOQ)
= 3v.
Generally, we do not have to go through as much trouble as we did in Example 1
because there are two rules for combining resistors:
1
f
If several resistors (R,, R,, and so on) are in series, then we can
replace them with one resistor whose resistance is the sum
RT = R, + R,
+.-..
(2)
becomes
R,
R,
R3
RT
.
If several resistors (R,, R,, and so on) are in parallel then we
can replace them with one resistor with resistance RT, where
1
1
-=-+-+
RT
R2
R,
....
(3)
RT
becomes
Chdpter
1 5 . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . .
Electric Circuits
Example 3: In the circuit shown

(Figure 15-9), we have R, = 20 SL, R, =
30 R, and R, = 60 SL, and the potential
source is 12 volts.
a. What is the current through
resistor R,?
b. What is the current through the
potential source?
Vcell
Another simple circuit

involves resistors in pamllel.
Figure 15-9
Figure 15-10
Solution: a. First, let's label the

negative terminal of the source 0 V and
the positive terminal 12 V. The potential
all along the left wire is 0 volts, and along
the right wire is 12 volts (Figure 15-10).
This gives us the potential drop across R,:
AV, = 12V,
b. Note that the current splits into

three parts through the resistors. To obtain
the total current, we need to combine
resistors to obtain an equivalent circuit
(Figure 15-11):
Figure 15-11
RT = i o n ,
Water-course analogy for
the circuit in Figure 15-10.
Figure 15-12 shows the analogous water
course.
Figure 15-12
If several resistors are in parallel then the same potential exists

across all of them.

When faced with a question concerning a circuit, there is no general procedure
which always leads to an answer, but here are some things to try:
1. Label the lower end of the battery 0 V.
2. Label other wires with voltages.
3. Label the currents going through the wires.
4. Combine resistors.
5. Apply Ohm's law.
Example 4: Consider the circuit

shown in Figure 15-13, where R, = 1 Q,
R2=R,=4!2,andV =6V.
a. What is the current going
through resistor l ?
b. How does 1, change if points A
and B are connected with a
wire?
Solution: a. First we draw in the
current and voltages (Figure 15-14), but
this does not seem to get anywhere,
Figure 15-13
because we do not know a potential
difference across resistor 1 to apply
Ohm's law. (Many students make. the
mistake here of using 6 volts and 1 Q in
Ohm's law, but the potential difference
across resistor 1 is not 6 volts.)
Figure 15-15 shows the result of
Figure 15-14
combining the two parallel resistors.
Figure 15-16 shows the final equivalent
circuit, by combining the two resistors in
Figure 15-15. The total current is (by
Figure 15-15
Ohm's law. finally) 2 A. The total current
is the same as the current through resistor 1
(see Figure 15-14), so the answer to part a
is 2 A.
F i r e 15-16
b. If we connect points A and B by a

wire, then they have the same potential,
and this is shown in Figure 15-17. No
current Aows through resistors 2 and 3, and
resistor 1 has the full 6 V across it. The
current t h u g h it (by Ohm's law) is 6 A.
F i m 15-17
Chapter
15
. . . ..... . ........ .... Electric Circuits
C. Real DC cells and Real Wires

An ideal voltage source would maintain a given potential across its terminals
regardless of the circuit. Real DC cells are not so good, and we find that any current
through the cell reduces the potential across the terminals. We can model a real cell as
an ideal potential source in series with a resistor, as if there were a resistor inside the
cell. The potential across the ideal source is the electromotive force or emf, the resistance of the internal resistor is the internal
resistance R,,, while the actual potential
difference across the whole cell is the
tenninal potential.
In the simplified circuit of Figure
15-18,the circuit outside of the cell is a
represented by a single resistor and
dashed lines enclose the cell. The potenRcircuit
tial jump across the ideal source is V,,,.
A real cell is like an ideal
The current flowing through the'circuit is
potential source (V, ) in series
I, so the potential drop across the internal
with a resistor "(R~~,,).
resistor is IR,. Thus from the illustration
Figure 15-18
we can give an expression for the terminal
potential:
I - - - - - - - - - -
In addition to knowing this equation, you should understand the discussion which leads
to it.
Example 1: A battery has a measured potential difference of 6.0volts if no

circuit is connected to it. When it is connected to a l@Q resistor, the current is
0.57amps. What is the internal resistance of the battery?
Solution: First let's DRAW A DIAGRAM (Figure 15-19).We label the negative
terminal of the potential source 0 volts; the other side, 6 volts. The potential drop across
the external resistor (10R) is given by Ohm's law:
AVext = I&=,
= (0.57~)(10R)
= 5.7v.
?he potential on the other side of
the external resistor is 0.3 volts. The
potential difference across the internal
resistor is 0.3 volts, and Ohm's law gives
us the resistance
The
MCAT Physics Book

Another way to do this problem is to combine resistances. Notice that equation
(4) does not automatically give the answer in this example, but if we draw a diagram
and apply the methods of Section B, then we obtain the answer in two steps.
In addition to idealizing DC cells, we have been assuming that wires have noresistance at all. In fact, they have a small resistance which is proportional to their
length and inversely proportional to their cross-sectional area. A given material has a
resistivity p, so the resistance of a wire is given by
1
R=p-,
(5)
A
where p has the units [Ohm meters], 1 is the length of the wire
(in [m]) and A is its cross-sectional area (in [m2]).
Some resistivities are given in the table below.

substance
silver
copper
gold
resistivity(i2m)
1.5 X lo-8
1.7 X lo4
2.4X lod
You can assume wires have zero resistance unless the passage tells you otherwise.
D. Power
Recall that power is a measure of how quickly energy is transformed, measured
in [Jls = Watts = W]. The power dissipated by a resistor is
P, = IAV,
where I is the current through the resistor and A V is the
potential difference across it.
Because of Ohm's law, we may also write
(It is better to remember how to derive this equation than to memorize it.) The power
provided by a DC cell to a circuit is
Pd, = IAV,
where I is the current through the cell and A V is the potential
Chapter
1 5 . .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . Electric Circuits
Example: Light bulbs that you use around the house are designed to have 120 V
across their terminals. For instance, a
120-W bulb uses 120 Watts of power
*120-W" "30-w'
when placed in a socket with a 120-V
potential difference. (Actually it is a little
more complicated. See Section F.) With
that in mind,
a.
what is the resistance of a
" 120-Watt" bulb?
What is the resistance of a
b.
Which b u m brighter when a
"30-Watt" bulb?
30-W bulb and a 120-W bulb
c.
If these two bulbs are connected in
are connected in series?
series, anaplugged into a wall outlet,
Figure 15-20
which bulb would be brighter (Figure 1520)?
Solution: a. Figure 15-21 shows the circuit diagram for a single 120-W bulb
plugged into a potential source. The equation for power is
By Ohm's law, we have
AV=IR,
1 2 0=
~( ~ A ) R ,
R = 120 St.
120 v
Figure 15-21
b. A similar calculation gives a resistance 480 Q for the "30-W" bulb.

c. If we place the bulbs in series (Figure 15-22), then the current through the
bulbs is the same. Since
the power is proportional to the resistance. So the 4 8 0 4 bulb (that is, the
"30-W' bulb) is brighter because the
bulbs are in series. -(Usually the "120-W
bulb is brighter because the bulbs are
connected in parallel.)
Figure 15-22
E. Capacitance
slight positive charge
A DC cell creates a potential
difference between its terminals by
transferring electrons from the positive to
the negative terminal. As it transfers more
and more electrons, the negative terminal
gains a greater charge, and the terminal
exerts a greater force on every additional
electron the cell transfers. Thus it takes
more energy to transfer each additional
electron onto it. Finally, the energy cost of
adding an electron is too much and the
cell stops, but by that time the terminal
potential has been reached (Figure 15-23).
slight negative charge

Figure 15-23
If, however, we connect each

terminal to a plate of metal (Figure 1524). then the cell is able to transport more
electrons at a low energy cost, because the
additional electrons are able to spread out
across the plate. Eventually the cell tries
to push one more electron onto the plate
but cannot, because the energy cost is too
great. In this case the potential between
the plates is same as before, but the
difference is that more charge is able to be
contained on the plates than on the
terminals of the cell.
When metal plates are

connected to battery terminals,
the plates become charged.
Figure 15-24
If we bring the plates near each
other but not touching (Figure 15-25),
even more charge is able to be transferred
through the cell. An electron aniving at
the negative plate feels the opposing force
from the electrons, but it also feels the
attractive force of the nearby positive
plate, so it does not mind so much getting
onto the negative plate. (That is, it can be
energetically favorable.)
Such a device, which holds a charge
when a potential difference is applied to
it, is called a capacitor. In Figure 15-25, if
a larger potential is applied to the plates, a
proportionally larger charge will sit on
them. The capacitance, the capacity to
hold charge, is defined by
Bringing the plates near each

other increases their capacity
to hold charge.
Figure 15-25
.-
Chdpter
15
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. Electric Circuits
c=-Q
(8)
AV '
where Q is the charge on one plate, and AV is the potential
difference across the plates. The units of capacitance are
[Coulombs/volt = Farads = F].
To reiterate, the capacitance of a device depends on how it is built. The charge on

it is proportional to the voltage applied to it: Q = CAV
Example: We place two metal plates parallel to each other and 0.01 meters apart.
One sheet we connect by a wire to the positive end of a 6-V DC cell; and the other, to
the negative end. The two plates now have a 6-V potential difference between them.
The electric field between the plates is uniform (though we will not prove it), that is,
the same direction and magnitude everywhere. A dust mite has a 2 x 10-l4C charge tied
around his ankle.
a. How much work is required for him to cross from the negative plate to the
positive plate?
b. What force does he experience as he crosses?
c. What is the magnitude of the electric field between the plates?
Solution: a. First let's DRAW A
DIAGRAM showing the electric field
(Figure 15-26); second, a diagram
showing the forces on the mite (Figure 1527).
+
-Moving from a negative to a positive
+
-plate is an uphill battle for the mite, so we
+
expect the work to be positive. We write
B
riq
An electric field exists between
the plates o f a capacitor:
Figure 15-26
=1 . 2 ~ 1 0 - ' ~ ~ .
b. If the electric field is uniform, then the force (F,, = qE) that the mite experiences must be constant. If he goes straight across, then we have the old work equation
W = Fm,Ax cos 4.
Now the mite moves at a constant
velocity, so the forces are balanced and
we can replace Fmi, with F * . Also, we
know cos$ is 1. Thus we write
w = FClrcAx,
and
Fekf =-W
Ax
Fmia
Fe,
Figure 15-27
c. We obtain the electric field from F,, = qE, so that E = 600 NJC.
It is more important to understand the pictures and the ideas than to apply the formulas
in this example.
The equation we derived is worth remembering in its own right:
where A V is the potential across a capacitor, E is the magnitude

of the electric field inside of the capacitor, and Ax is the
separation of the plates.
Remember what this equation is

about. This is just our old W = FAx
equation in new clothing, that is, work
(per charge) is force (per charge) times
displacement. In fact, the assumption
made in the problem is fairly accurate:
The electric field between two charged
parallel plates is uniform.
Now let's complicate the situation
A dieletric between the metal
even more. A dielectric is a nonconductplates incremes the copaeitance.
ing substance, such as plastic. Its electrons are not free to move from one atom
Figure 15-28
to the next, but the electrons can slosh a
little onto one side of the molecules (they
are slightly polarizable). If a dielectric is placed between the plates, then the molecules
in the dielectric become polarized, with electrons being pulled toward the positive plate
(Figure 15-28). The result is that the DC cell c8n transfer still more charge from one
plate to the other, since an electron arriving at the negative plate feels also the slight
positive charge of the one side of the dielectric. Thus,placing the dielectric between the
plates increases the capacitance.
Each material which is a nonconductor has a dielectric constant K. The capacitance of the capacitor with the dielectric in the middle is given by
The constant K is always greater than 1.
F. Alternating current
When a DC cell is connected in a circuit, the potential difference between the
terminals stays constant. This is called direct current (hence DC). In a wall outlet,
things are more complicated.
In the United States, the long slit is the ground, connected to the Earth itself,
which is a large supply of charge. This ensures that this terminal stays at a constant
potential which we call 0 volts. The short slit is "hot". Its potential, relative to ground,
Chdpter
15
. . . . . ....
.. . . . . . . . ... Electric Circuits
varies like a sine wave between +I70

volts and -170 volts. The voltage goes
from high to low to high about 60 times
a second, that is, with frequency 60 Hz.
This is called alternating current, since
the current in the wire is changing back
and forth (Figure 15-29).
-120
-170
Figure 15-29
Example: Consider your toaster
plugged intithe wall. Thebower company pulls electrons out of the Earth and
pushes them onto a wire. The resulting
electric field pushes electrons on down the
wire, until electrons are pushed into your
Figure 15-30
toaster. Electrons are pushed out of the
toaster into the wire, out of the wire into
the Earth. Any one electron does not go very far, but the signal goes from the power
company to your toaster. (See Figure 15-30.)
Then the power company pulls electrons out of the wire and pushes them into the
Earth. The resulting electric field pulls electrons along the wire, out of of your toaster.
Electrons in the other wire go into the toaster and are replaced with eIectrons puIled
from the Earth.
Sixty times a second. Until your bread is toasted.
Note that only one wire needs to go from the power company to your house,
since the Earth itself completes the circuit.
Generally we do not talk of the line current as being 170 volts (the maximum).
Instead we talk of a kind of average (root mean square) which is V, = 120 volts for the
line current. The following equations hold for alternating current:
So there are no new equations to memorize.

Things begin to get complicated when we connect alternating current to capacitors (and to other things), but that is beyond the scope of the MCAT.
In this chapter we built on the concepts of the previous chapter to study simple
circuits. When you solve problems involving circuits, it is helpful to visualize the flow
of charge as the flow of a fluid and the potential in the wires as a height above a
standard. Each piece of wire is at one potential. Each individual resistor has a current I
through it and a potential AVacross it such that AV= IR (Ohm's law). It is important to
be careful when using Ohm's law. Think about the circuit first. The power dissipated by
a resistor is Pi= I,AV,.
A capacitor is two parallel conducting plates which store charge when a potential
is appIied to them. The capacitance of a capacitor is its ability to hold charge C = QlAV.
The capacitance is determined by the dimension and material of the capacitor and the
stored charge depends on the applied potential. The electric field between the plates is
given by AV = EAx, where Ax is the separation of the plates.
Chapter
4.
15 Problems
What would be analogous to the pool?

A. a resistor
B.
an inductor
C. a ground
D. a wire
Section A
Section

In a certain water fountain, a pump takes water from a
large pool and pumps it up to a trough. The water flows
along the trough and falls through 3 hole in the bottom. As
the water falls, it turns a water wheel and returns to the pool.
Assume this water fountain is analogous to an electric
circuit.
In the circuit shown, use the following:

R, = m a ,
R,=MR.
1. What would be analogous to electric current?

A.
water
B. flow velocity
C. volume flow rate
D. height of water
5. What is the current flowing through resistor 2?

A.
0.2 A
B.
C.
D.
2.
What would be analogous to electric potential?

A.
water
B. flow velocity
C. volume flow rate
D. height of water
3. What would be analogous to the water pump?

A. a motor
B. a resistor
C. a battery
D. a light bulb
0.4A
0.6 A
1.2A
6. How does the current flowing through the wire at point

P compare with the current flowing at Q?
A. 'Ihe current at P is less. B. The current at P is the same.
C. 'Ihe current at P is greater.
D. 'Ihe answer depends on whether one considers
positive current or negative current
Chapter 1 5 ..... . ..... .... . . .. . . Electric Circuits

In the circuit shown, R, = 1 Q, R, = 2 R, and the emf
of the cell is 6 volts.
7.
How does the current flowing through resistor 1

compare with the current flowing through resistor 2?
A. The current through resistor 1 is less.
B.
C.
D.
10. How does the current through light bulb A compare

with the current through light bulb B?
A. The current through light bulb A is less.
B. The current through Light bulb A is the same.
C. The current through light bulb A is greatei.
D. None of the above is true.
The current through resistor l.is the same.

The current through resistor 1 is greater.
None of the above can be concluded.
8. How does the voltage drop across resistor 1 compare

with the voltage drop across resistor 2?
A.
The voltage across resistor 1 is less.
B. The voltage across resistor 1 is the same.
C. The voltage across resistor 1 is greater.
D. None of the above can be concluded.
9.
11. What is the potential difference between points C and

D?
A.
6 volts
B.
12 volts
C.
18 volts
D. 24 volts
Two batteries are connected to a single resistor, as

shown in the diagram.
V,= 6 volts
v, = 9 volts

Four 6-V batteries are connected in series in order to
power lights A and B. The resistance of light A is 40 SL and
the resistance of light B is 20 SL.
12. How does the voltage drop across light A compare to

the drop across light B?
A. The voltage drop for A is less than that for B by a
factor of 4.
B. The voltage drop for A is less than that for B by a
factor of 2.
C. The voltage drop for A is the same as that for B.
D. The voltage drop for A is greater than that for B
by a factor of 2.
13. What is the current through the wire at point C?
R=60R
What is the current through the resistor?
A. 0.083 A
B. 0.125 A
C.
D.
0.020A
0.250A
The
MCAT Physics B ~ o k

In the circuit diagram shown, note that
R, = 4 a,
R2=2a,
R3 = 2 0 .
In addition, the current through resistor 1 is 2 amps.
17. What is the current through resistor l ?

A. 2.77 amps
B. 6 amps
C. 8 amps
D. 9 amps
14. What is the voltage drop across resistor l?
A.
2 volts
B. 4 volts
C . 8 volts
D.
12 volts
18. How does the voltage drop across resistor 2 (that is, V,)
compare with that across resistor 3 (that is, V,)?
A.
V, = 2 V3
B.
c.
D.
V2 = V3
v3= 2 v2
V2+V3=36V
15. What is the cument through resistor 2?

A.
B.
C.
D.
1 ampere
2 amperes
4 amperes
8 amperes
16. What is the voltage difference between points A and B?

A. 2 volts
B. 4 volts
C.
8 volts
D.
12 volts
In the diagram, resistors 2 and 3 are in parallel, and
their combination is in series with resistor 1. Point A is in
the wire between the voltage source and resistor 1. Point B
is in the wire between resistor 1 and the combination 2 and 3.
Point C is on the other side of resistor 2.
19. How would the potential difference across resistor 2

change if points A and B were connected by a wire?
A. It would increase.
B.
It would stay the same.
C. It would decrease, but it would not be zero.
D.
It would be zero.
20. How would the current through the source change if
points A and C were connected by a wire?
C. It would increase by a factor of 2 4 .
D. None of the above, the circuit would be shorted.
In the circuit shown, use the following:

R,=4S2,
R2=6S2,
R,=3Q,
AV= 36V.
GO ON TO THE NUCT PAGE
Chapter
Sections
C and D
Use rhe following information in quesrions 21-24:

In the circuit shown, the light bulbs are each 20 R,
and the potential source is 6 volts.
21. How much energy is dissipated by light bulb 2 in

10 seconds?
A.
18 Joules
B.
120 Joules
C. 200 Joules
D.
1200 Joules
22. What would happen to light bulb 2 if light bulb 1 were
to blow (interrupting the connection)?
A. It would go out.
B.
It would be dimmer, but it would not go out.
C. It would burn the same.
D. It would be brighter.
1 5 .... . . . . . .. . . .. . .. . .. Electric Circuits

In the circuit shown, resistor 1 has resistance 2 R, and
resistor 2 has resistance 4 R. The potential source has a
potential of 12 volts.
25. How much power is dissipated by resistor l?

A.
8 Watts
B. 24 Watts
C. 48 Watts
D. 72 Watts
26. Which correctly gives a relationship between the

potential drop across resistor 1, AV,, and that across
resistor 2, AV,?
A.
AV, = AV,
B. AV, = 2AV2
C. AV, = 4 AV,
D. AV, + AV, = 12 V
Use rhe following information in questions 27-30:
In the circuit shown, each of the light bulbs has a
resistance 2 R, and the potential source has an emf of
6 volts.
23. What would happen to light bulb 3 if light bulb 1 were

to blow (interrupting the connection)?
A. It would go out.
B. It would be dimmer, but it would not go out.
C. It would bum the same.
D. It would be brighter.
24. What would happen if the points A and B were connected with a wire?
A.
Light 1 would extinguish, otherwise nothing.
B. Lights 1 and 2 would extinguish, light 3 would
remain the same.
C. Lights 1 and 2 would extinguish, and light 3
would be brighter.
D. All lights would extinguish, and the battery would
be shorted.
27. Which of the following would increase the power

dissipated by light bulb 3?
A. Decrease the resistance of light bulb 3.
B. Increase the resistance of light bulb 3.
C. Decrease the emf of the battery.
D. Introduce another resistor at C.
995
The
MCAT Physics Book

32. Which dissipates more power, light bulb 1 or 3?
28. Which graph best shows the power dissipated by light

bulb 3 as a function of time?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Light bulb 1.
They dissipate the same.
Light bulb 3, by a factor 2.
Light bulb 3, by more than a factor of 2.
33. What happens if points A and B are connected by a
29. What would happen if light bulb 1 goes out (thus

breaking the circuit)?
A.
Nothing else happens.
B, Light bulb 2 goes out.
C. Light bulb 3 bums brighter.
D. Light bulb 2 goes out, and light bulb 3 bums
brighter.
30. What happens to light bulb 2 if light bulb 1 is

shorted, that is, if points A and B are connected by a
wire?
A.
It extinguishes.
It becomes dimmer, but it does not extinguish.
B.
C. It bums the same.
D. It bums brighter.
In the circuit shown, each light bulb has a resistance
of 2 Q, and the voltage source maintains a potential of
.
.
12 volts.
.
.
wire?
A. Light 1 extinguishes.
B.
Light 1 extinguishes, and light 3 is brighter.
C. Lights 1 and 2 extinguish, and light 3 is brighter.
D. All lights extinguish, and the voltage source is
shorted.
34. What happens to the voltage across light 3 if A and B
are connected with a wire?
A. It becomes zero.
B. It stays the same.
C. It increases but not to 12 volts.
D.
It becomes 12 volts.
35. What happens if points C and D are connected by a

wire?
A. Light 3 extinguishes.
B. Light 3 extinguishes, and lights 1 and 2 bum
dimmer.
C. Light 3 extinguishes, and lights 1 and 2 burn
brighter.
D. The potential source is shorted.

In the circuit shown, R, = 100 S2, R, = 200 S2, and
AV = 6 volts.
31. What is the current passing through the voltage

source?
A.
B.
C.
D.
lamp
2 amps
4 amps
None of the above
36. What is the total resistance for the circuit?

A. 67 Ohms
B.
100'0hms
C. 2000hms
D.
300Ohms
Chdpter
1 5 .. . .. .. . . .. . . .. .. . . . . Electric Circuits

A variable resistor is a resistor whose resistance can
be adjusted by turning a knob. In a certain experiment a
battery is connected to a variable resistor R. The potential
difference across the resistor and the current through it are
recorded for a number of settings of the resistor knob.
Assume the battery can be modeled as an ideal potential
source in series with an internal resistor.
37. What is the voltage flowing through resistor l ?

A. 2 volts
B. 4 volts
C. 6 volts
D. None of the above
38. How much energy is dissipated by resistor 2 in
10 minutes?
A. 108J
B. 720 J
C. 7.2 x lo3J
D. 7.2 x lo4J
variable
Use the following information in questions 3 9 d 1 :

The heating element of a toaster is a long wire of
some metal, often the alloy nichrome, which heats up when
a potential difference is applied across it. In the U.S.A.,
plugging a toaster into the wall outlet is equivalent to
applying a 120-V potential source across it. For these
problems, consider a 300-W toaster connected to a wall
outlet.
39. What is the resistance of such a toaster?

A. 0.4Ohms
B. 2.5 Ohms
C. 48Ohms
D. 3.6 x lo4Ohms
40. How could one increase the rate at which heat is

produced?
A. Use a longer wire.
B. Use a thicker wire.
C. BothAandB.
41. In one experiment, we use a collection of toasters with
various resistances. We record the power consumed by
each. Which graph best represents the relationship
between power consumption and resistance?
-.
'-- - - - - - - - - - - ,
battery
42. The emf of the potential source is 6.2 volts and the
internal resistance is 0.1 Q. If the variable resistor is set
.for 0.5 Q, what is the current through it?
A.
10.3A
B.
15.5 A
C. 30.6A
D. 74.4 A
43. Consider the following possibilities:

I. a small external resistance
11. a large external resistance
III. a small total current
IV. a large total current
When would it be a good approximation to ignore the
internal resistance of the battery?
A. I1 only
B. n o r m
C. I only
D. I or IV
297

44. From the resistances R and currents I mentioned in
the experiment, we prepare a graph of 111versus R.
Which of the following best represents that graph?
plates. The copper plates are carefully separated to a new

distance 26,.
1. An alpha particle is a bare helium-4 nucleus. If an alpha

particle is placed between the plates in Experiment 1,
how would the electric force on it compare to the
electric force on a proton?
A. Both experience zero force.
B. The force on the alpha particle would be the same
as that on the proton.
C. The force on the alpha particle would be double
that on the proton.
D. The force on the alpha particle would be four
times that on the proton.
Passage
1
2.
In a certain experiment, we place two metal plates

of area A parallel to each other and separated by a
distance d to form a capacitor. The copper disks are
mounted on nonconducting stands in a dry room which
does not allow the conduction of charge through the air.
The two plates are connected with wires to the opposite
ends of a DC cell. The capacitance of such a device is
given by
B.
C.
D.
Q,
3Ql
9Q1
3.
What is the magnitude of the electric field between the

plates in Experiment 2?
A. E,l3
B. El
C . 3E,
D. 9 E ,
4.
What charge is on the positive plate at the end of

Experiment 3?
5.
What is the magnitude of the potential difference

between the plates at the end of Experiment 3?
A. Avb,,/2
B. AV,
C. 2AV,,
D. 4AVb,
where
In Experiment 1 we place two copper circular disks

of radius R , a distance d l apart and connect them to a
battery which produces a potential AV,,. This produces a
positive charge Q, on one of the plates and an electric
field El between the plates.
In Experiment 2 we use two copper circular disks of
the same radius ( R , ) and place them three times as far
apart (3d,) as in Experiment 1. Again, the two disks are
connected to the opposite ends of the same battery.
In Experiment 3 we reproduce the setup in Experiment 1. Then the wires are removed from the copper
What charge is on the positive plate in Experiment 2?

A. Q,l3
GO ON TO THE ND(T PAGE
Chapter
4.
Passage 2
In a certain experiment, we place two metal plates of

area A parallel to each other and separated by a distance d to
form a capacitor. The copper disks are mounted on nonconducting stands in a dry room which does not allow the
conduction of charge through the air. The two plates are
connected with wires to the opposite ends of a DC cell. We
can increase the capacitance of such a setup by inserting a
nonconductor, called a dielectric in electrical engineering
parlance, between the plates. In this case, the capacitance of
the device is Cdi= KC,, where C,, is the capacitance of the
plates with a vacuum between them, is the dielectric
constant of the nonconductor, and Cdiis the new capacitance.
In Experiment 1 we place two copper circular disks of
.
area A, a distance d, apart, thus creating a capacitor with
capacitance C,. We connect the two plates to opposite
terminals of a battery which produces a potential AV,,. This
produces a positive charge Q, on one of the plates and an
electric field El between the plates.
In Experiment 2 we reproduce the setup in Experiment 1. This time, however, the two disks are connected to
the opposite ends of a battery which produces four times the
potential as that in Experiment 1 (4AV,,,).
In Experiment 3 we reproduce the setup in Experiment 1. Then the wires are removed from the copper plates.
We place cellulose nitrate (a dielectric with dielectric
constant K = 9) between the plates.
B-
Q1
C.
9Q,
81Q,
What is the magnitude of the potential difference

between the plates at the end of Experiment 3?
A.
AVl/9
B. 3AV1
C. 9AV,
D. 81AV1
Passage 3
The Earth itself is a relatively good conductor. 1he

atmosphere near the surface of the Earth, the troposphere
and stratosphere, is composed mainly of neutral oxygen and
nitrogen molecules, and it is a fairly good insulator.
About 30 km above the surface of the Earth, the
atmosphere is composed mainly of ions. These ions are
created by the bombardment of cosmic rays, and the low
density of gas at that height inhibits their recombining to
form neutral species. This portion of the atmosphere, called
the ionosphere, is a good conductor. (See figure.)
1. What is the capacitance of the capacitor in Experiment 2?

A. C,
B. 2C,
C. 4C,
D.
16C
2.
. . . .. . . .. . . . . ... . .... Electric Circuits
What charge is on the positive plate at the end of

Experiment 3?
A.
Q119
D.
5.
15
ionosphere,
,stratosphere
What charge is on the positive plate in ~xperiment2?

A. Ql/4
B. Q,12
C.
281
Thus, a very much simplified model of the Earth and
its atmosphere consists of two conductors separated by an
insulator. Furthermore, there is a net charge of -lo6 C on the
surface of the Earth and a corresponding positive charge on
the ionosphere. The potential between the Earth's surface
and the ionosphere is about 9 x 10' volts. Thus the model
roughly resembles a parallel-plate capacitor.
For these questions, you may consider the charge on
the electron to be -1.6 x
C.
3. What is the magnitude of the electric field between the

plates in Experiment 2?
A. E,!4
B. E,!2
C. 2E,
D. 4E,
999
GO ON TO ME NEXTPAGE
The
MCAT Physics Book
1. Considering the Earth and its atmosphere as a
capacitor, what is its capacitance?

A.
1.1 Farads
B. 30 Farads
C. 2.7 x lo9 Farads
D. 9 x 10" Farads
An electrostatic precipitator is a device used in

industry to remove pollution from exhaust gas. It consists of
a long thin wire surrounded by a conducting cylinder, such
that a potential about 5 x lo4volts is maintained between
the negative wire and the positive cylinder. (See figure.)
2. What is a good approximation for the magnitude of

the electric field in the Earth's atmosphere?
A.
1.4 x 10-l3NIC
B. 30NlC
C. 2 . 7 ~1o9N1C
D. 9 x ~ O ' ~ N I C
clean gas
3. What would be the change in potential energy of an

electron which was transported from the Earth's
surface to the ionosphere?
A. -1.4 x 10-I3Joules
B.
C.
D.
4.
-1.8 x
Joules
1.8 x
Joules
1.4 x 10-l3Joules
Which of the following best represents the electric

field?
5. Assuming the electric potential at the Earth's surface

is zero, which of the following best represents the
electric potential as a function of height h above the
Earth's surface?
polluted gas
.-.
The resulting electric field inside the cylinder varies

inversely with the distance from the center wire. Neutral
particles of pollution are attracted to the center wire. The
electric field near the wire is strong enough (greater than
about 3 x lo6NIC) to ionize air, so the pollution particles
are ionized negatively. They are attracted to the outer
cylinder, where they collect and are eventually removed.
A typical energy requirement for such a device is
about 300 Joules for each cubic meter of gas processed.
Note: The charge on an electron is -1.6 X 10-l9 C.
Point A is in the plane of the page.
1. If a sodium ion is at point A, in what direction would it

experience a force?
A.
right
B.
left
C. up
D. down
2. If a C,&-I,,O,molecule is at point A, in what direction
would it experience a force?
A. . right
B.
left
C. up
D. down
3. If a fluorine atom were ionized to form fluoride (mass

3x
kg) near the center wire, what is the best
approximation for the maximum kinetic energy it could
have by the time it reached the outer cylinder?
A.
8xl0-~'~
B.
1.5x10-=~
C.
J
4.
If the potential maintained across the wirdcylinder were

increased, how would the capacitance of the device be
affected?
A.
The capacitance would decrease.
B. The capacitance would stay the same.
C. The capacitance would increase.
D. The capacitance could decrease or increase
depending on the gas in the cylinder.
C.
D.
The van der Waals attraction between two

nitrogen molecules in air.
A charged comb picking up pieces of paper.
When thunderclouds form, the base of the cloud is

generally about 2 km above the surface of the Earth, while
the top of the cloud may extend to about 8 krn above the
Earth. The charge structure is quite complicated. The top of
the cloud has a strong positive charge; the middle of the
cloud, a strong negative charge; and the bottom of the cloud.
a weaker positive charge. Meanwhile the cloud induces a
positive charge on the surface of the Earth. (See figure.) The
resulting potential difference between the bottom of the
cloud and the ground is around 10' volts.
5. If the flow rate of gas through an electrostatic precipitator is 100 m3/s, what would be the electrical current
through the device?
A.
0 amps
B.
low2amps
C. 0.8 amps
D.
3 x lo4amps
6.
Which of the following best represents the electric field

lines in the cylinder?
7. Which of the following is the closest analogy to the

attraction of neutral particles of pollutants to the center
wire?
A. The aligning of a small magnet to Earth's magnetic field.
B. The attraction between a chloride ion and a
sodium ion in a salt crystal.
When lightning strikes, some of the negative charge of

the cloud neutralizes the positive charge of the Earth.
Approximately 4 Coulombs of negative charge pass from
the ground to the cloud, forming a current of 20 kamps. This
results in a huge release of energy in the form of dissociation, ionization, and excitation of molecules in air, the
heating and expanding of gas, and electromagnetic radiation.
In places especially prone to lightning, it is helpful to
install lightning rods. A lightning rod is a long piece of
metal with one end embedded in the ground and the other
end extending up higher than the surrounding buildings. The
end in the air comes to a sharp point. The purpose of such a
piece of metal is to conduct electrons from the Earth into the
air and reduce the charge imbalance, thus reducing the
of lightning. If lightning strikes anyway, it is
more likely to strike the lightning rod than the buildings.
The
I.
2.
MCAT Physics Book

What is the approximate magnitude of the electric field
in the air during a thunderstorm?
A number of aquatic species have evolved the

capability to produce sizable electric fields. For some
species this helps them to detect other organisms, either
predator or prey. Other species, such as the electric eel, use
this capability to stun or kill a predator or prey.
What is approximate resistance for charge flow during a

lightning strike?
A.
B.
5 m n
2x104sz
3.
How much energy is released during a stroke of

lightning?
A.
8 x lo4Joules
B. 4 x 10' Joules
C. 2 x 10" Joules
question.
4.
What is the approximate duration of a stroke of

lightning?
A.
2x
seconds
B. 5 x lo-' seconds
C. 2 x lo-' seconds
D.
posterior
anterior
The organism generates the electric field in an

"electric organ" which can take up most OF the body cavity.
The Following description refers to a hypothetical electric
organ, which includes many features by which these organs
operate.
Electrocytes are flattened cells (like disks) which are
stacked in a series, as shown in the figure below. During the
equilibrium state, the cells actively exclude sodium ions
(Na3, creating a potential difference between the inside of
the cell and the outside of the cell. The cell membrane is
permeable to potassium ions (K'), so the interior of the cell
becomes enriched with K+ ions, partially but not fully
compensating for the potential difference due to the imbalance of Na' ions. The magnitude of the potential difference
between the inside and outside is of the cell is about 0.1 V.
0.5 seconds
5. Whlch of the following best represents the electric field

near a lightning rod?
Equilibrium State
During the activated state, the posterior side of the

cells becomes permeable to sodium ions, so they rush in
through the posterior face due to the potential difference.
Potassium ions rush in the same direction through the
anterior face of the cell. The result is a potential difference
across the whole organ, which acts, in effect, as a battery.
(See the figure below.) The circuit is completed in the
surrounding water, as shown in the second figure below.
C.
6. Which of the following is most likely to result in the

light associated with lightning?
A. dissociation of molecules
B. excitation of molecules
C. heating of air
D. expansion of air
Chapter
1 5 . .. . . .. .. .. . . .. . . .
. ..
Electric Circuits
4.
Which of the following best shows the electric field due

to the fish during the activated state?
5.
Which of the following best shows the magnetic field

due to the fish during the activated state?
6.
Which is a better conductor of electricity, fresh water or

sea water?
A.
Fresh water, because sea water is slightly more
dense.
B. Sea water, because sea water is slightly more
dense.
C. Fresh water, because ions impede current in sea
water.
D. Sea water, because ions c a w current in sea water.
Activated State
(arrows show currentflow)
arrows show currentflow
During the activated state, the current across the

anterior and posterior faces of a cell in this hypothetical
electric organ is 30 milliamps. The duration of a pulse is
2 milliseconds.
The charge on an electron is -1.6 x 10-l9C.
1.
Consider x, and x, to be points in the extracellular

medium and x, a point in the interior of the cell. During
the equilibrium state, which graph best shows the
electric potential as a function of x?
/
2.
If the electric organ of a fish consists of 5000

electrocytes stacked in a series, what is the approximate
total current through the fish during the activated state?
A. 30 milliamps
B.
C.
D.
3.
75 amps
150 amps
300 amps
How much charge crosses the cell membrane during the

activated state?
A.
B.
1.6~10-19c
3 x 1 0 ~ ~
STOP
Chapter
16
Atomic and Nuclear Physics
A.
B.
Introduction
In this chapter we break out of the tradition and viewpoint of classical physics
and discuss results from quantum theory. In the 1890s, physicists began to realize that
the very language of particles and positions, forces and fields was insufficient to discuss
the world of the very small, of atoms and molecules. They needed a new language and
a new way of thinking, and quantum physics was born.
In classical physics, which we have been studying thus far, if we wanted to talk
about a particular electron in an atom, we would specify its position and velocity.
Physics would tell us how that position changed in time.
In quantum physics, we do not even talk about position and velocity in this way,
because it turns out these terms are impossible to define. Particles simply do not have a
definite position nor velocity. Instead we talk about a particular electron in an atom by
specifying the orbital it is in. Orbital it is in? An orbital is a state of being for an
electron. Knowing an electron's orbital means knowing its energy (generally) and
knowing something about its location (often), but not its exact position.
One way to think about it is to think that electrons are tiny particles which move
so fast that we do not know where they are, and the area of space they move in is an
orbital. That is one way to think about it, but it's the wrong way.
It is not the case that electrons have position and velocity of which we are simply
ignorant. An electron truly has no exact position, existing all around the nucleus at
once, although it does exist more strongly in some places than in others.
For instance, an electron in the lowest-energy orbital of a hydrogen atom exists
throughout the area near the nucleus, but it exists 90% within a radius of 1.4 x lo-'' m
and 10% outside of that radius. (That does not mean that it spends 10% of its time
outside of 1.4 x lo-" m. That is thinking classically again.)
Basic Structure of an Atom
As was mentioned in Chapter 14, an atom consists of a tiny positive charge center
m) called the nucleus and a surrounding cloud of electrons (lo-" m). Atoms
connect together by interactions of their electrons to form molecules and ionic solidr,
which comprise almost all of the matter around us.
The nucleus of the atom contains protons and neutrom. Each proton has a charge
+1.6 x 10-l9C (chemists call this +I), each neutron has zero net charge, and each
electron has charge -1.6 x
C (chemists call this -1).
The mass of the proton and the mass of the neutron are about the same
(1.7 x lo-'' kg), and electrons are about 2000 times lighter. As you can see, kilograms
are really too large a unit to use to talk of these masses, so we often use another mass
unit, called the atomic mass unit, or [amu] (or sometimes just u), so that
1 amu = 1.6606 x
kg .
It is very nearly the mass of a proton or neutron, so we have

m,,, = 1.0073 amu ,
m,
,, = 1.0087 amu,
me,,,, = 0.00055 amu.
The atomic mass (sometimes erroneously called the atomic weight) is the mass of
an atom in amu. The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus. The mass number is approximately the atomic mass of an atom in amu, since
most of the mass comes from the protons and neutrons.
Thus we can describe a nucleus by specifying the number of protons in it, or
atomic number, and the total number of protons and neutrons, or mass number. The
atomic number also determines which element the atom makes up. The notation we use
for a single atom contains all this information. For instance, we denote common helium
by one of the two symbols:
(pronounced "helium four"), where the mass number is 4 and the atomic number is 2.
We really do not need to specify the atomic number, since we can obtain that from the
periodic table. The mass of such a nucleus is about 4 amu (actually 4.00260 amu).
Several atoms which differ in the number of neutrons but have the same number of protons are called isotopes of that element, for example, 3 5 ~and
1 3 7 ~ 1The
. chemical
l 37C1are nearly identical, since the neutrons of the nucleus have
properties of 3 S ~and
hardly any effect on the surrounding electron cloud.
The symbol :He may refer either to a nucleus having two protons and two
neutrons or to an atom having such a nucleus. We write nuclear reactions using similar
notation as that for chemical reactions, except now we are concerned with changes in
the protons and neutrons in the nuclei.
Example 1: When a slow neutron collides with a 1 7 0 nucleus, the

e
and what other nucleus?
include a " ~ nucleus
Solution: The information given in the problem can be written
where we have used the symbol i n for the neutron (do you see why?). The number of
protons mentioned among the reactants is 0 + 8 = 8, of which 2 went into the :He. The
number of protons and neutrons all together among the reactants is 1 + 17 = 18, of
which 4 are in He. Tbus the final nucleus has a 6 in the lower left position and a 14 in
the upper left, corresponding in the periodic table to I4cor carbon-14, so we write
When writing reactions, the sum of left superscripts for the reactants must equal
the sum of left superscripts for the products. This assures that the number of heavy
particles stays constant. Also, the sum of left subscripts for the reactants must equal the
sum of left subscripts for the products. This assures that charge is conserved in the
reaction.
There are always at least two product particles in any nuclear reaction. (Exceptions are vanishingly rare.) One of these particles is often a particle of light, called a
photon and symbolized by 7
Chapter 1 6 . . ... . Atomic and Nucledr Physics
Exampie 2: When a proton collides with a nucleus of carbon-12, generally the

result is one new nucleus (if there is a reaction at all). How do we write the reaction?
Solution: We write the reaction as follows:
:H+
':c+ ':N+
'H+
12c+1 3 ~ y+
or
where we have used H for the proton (again, do you see why?).
C.
Energy Levels and Transitions
For an isolated atom, the electrons are in various orbitals. The atom as a whole
has a certain energy, depending on what orbitals are occupied by electrons. Quantum
theory predicts that only certain energies are allowed for a given atom.
For instance, a hydrogen atom can have only energies corresponding to the
equation
where n is a positive integer. There is no

such thing as an isolated hydrogen atom
with energy -1.5 x 10-" J or with energy.
- 1.1 x lo-'' J, since they do not fit into
the formula. This can be shown graphically on an energy level diagram Figure
16-l), in which the vertical axis represents energy and the horizontal axis does
not represent anything. Zero energy
corresponds to the state in which the
proton and electron are infinitely separated. Bringing the proton and electron
Figure 16-1
together releases energy, so the energies
for all the other states are negative.
Even though the atom cannot have energies between the allowed energy states
shown on the diagram, the atom can jump, or make a tmnsirion, from one state to
another. It does this either by colliding with another atom or by absorbing or releasing a
photon. The state corresponding to the lowest energy is called the growtd state. Other
states are excited states.
In previous chapters we discussed light in terms of a wave of disturbance of
electric and magnetic fields. Quantum theory maintains that these disturbances come in
little packets called photons. If there are a large number of photons, then they act like
the classical field discussed in Chapter 13. At any rate, there is a connection between
the frequency of the light and the energy of a photon of that light, so that
where h = 6.63 x 10"~J/Hz is a constant of nature, Planck's constant.

If a photon is emitted or absorbed by an atom, then the photon has an energy
given by the difference of the energies of the atomic states. Several examples will make
this more clear.
Example 1: A beam of laser light is incident on a sample of hydrogen gas. Most

of the gas in the sample is in the ground state (lowest energy state). To what frequency
should the laser be tuned so that the hydrogen atoms absorb the light and end up in the
second excited state?
Solution: The ground state corresponds to n = 1, so its energy is
The second excited state must have n = 3, so its energy is
The energy of the photons in the laser are (-0.24 x lo-'' J) - (-2.18 x lo-'' J) =
1.94 x lo-'' J. Thus the frequency of the photons is
Transitions are shown in an energy

level diagram by arrows from one line to
another. Figure 16-1 shows the transition
for Example 1.
Several things can happen after an
atom has absorbed a photon. It can decay
back to its previous state, emitting a
photon of (almost) the same energy. This
process, called scattering, is shown in
Figure 16-2, in which the up arrow
represents absorption and the down arrow,
subsequent emission. Figure 16-3 shows
the process differently, where absorption
occurs between steps 1 and 2 and emission between steps 2 and 3.
An atom which has absorbed a
photon may emit a photon of a different
energy by making a transition to a new
Figure 16-4
Figure 16-2
Step 1
-./u
Eo
Step 2
El
Step 3
F i r e 16-3
state. This is shown in Figure 16-4. The
upward arrow represents the absorption of
the original photon. The downward
arrows represent emitted photons, so the
atom emits two photons for each one it
absorbs. This phenomenon, in which a
substance absorbs one frequency of light
and emits light of different frequencies, is
called$uorescence.
Chapter 1 6 . . . . . . Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Do not get thrown off by notation. Sometimes the ground state energy is labeled
E, and sometimes E,. Also, sometimes we say the ground state has zero energy, but
sometimes zero energy corresponds to complete ionization and the ground state energy
is negative. It is a matter of convention which the problem will specify. The ground
state is always the lowest-energy state.
The nucleus is often content to spend many years undergoing no major changes.
The protons and neutrons hold together, while the electrons in the electron orbitals are
doing all sorts of things. Sometimes, however, the nucleus undergoes a change. If this
happens spontaneously, it is called radioactive decay.
There are three main types of radioactive decay. Nuclei which have an especially
large number of protons and neutrons will sometimes throw off a packet of two protons
and two neutrons, called an alpha particle (a).Note that an alpha particle is the same
as the nucleus of the common helium nucleus. This is called alpha decay.
Example 1: What is the reaction

representing the alpha decay of the
thorium-232?
Solution: The answer is
232
,Th+ ';~a+ : ~ e .
We know the atomic number of thorium
(90) from the periodic table. The alpha
particle is always represented by the
.
16-5 shows this
symbol : ~ e Figure
decay. (Figure 16-5 shows this decay.)
Step 1
step 2
132Th
'r.
In alpha decay, a single

nucleus, here shown initially at
rest, breaks into two pieces, one
a small 4 ~nucleus.
e
Figure 16-5
Generally alpha emitters are not dangerous to biological tissue (provided you do
not eat them), since the alpha particles lose energy very quickly and do not penetrate
very far even in air (several centimeters). That means they generally do not get inside of
you.
The second type of radioactive decay is beta decay. Nuclei with many neutrons,
compared with protons, undergo normal beta decay (p-). In this process, a neutron
decays into a proton, an electron, and an antineutrino. The proton stays in the nucleus,
and the electron shoots away from the nucleus. The speeding electron, often called a
beta pahcle, can be highly injurious to biological tissue, since it is able to speed
through the air and penetmte into the body. Once in the body, it slows down by ionizing
molecules that it passes by, which can be very dangerous if one such molecule is DNA.
The antineutrino is so penetrating that it generally passes through the body and the
planet without depositing any energy, so it is mostly harmless.
Example 2: What is the reaction for the (normal) beta decay of lithium-9?
Solution: On the left side of the reaction we have ; ~ i On
. the right side we place
an electron. For accounting purposes, the symbol of the electron is -ye. Thus we have
the incomplete equation
?L,i+?+ -qe.
In order to complete it, we need to make sure the upper and lower left numbers add up
correctly. Also we add an antineutrino, so we write

or we can write
before
after
' ~ i +' ~ e + e - + v Figure 16-6 shows this decay schematically.
o0o
e0 0
oO.
.o
+coo
00.
2"
8 = proton
o = neutron
Nuclei with many protons undergo
= electron
positron decay (P'). In this process, a
proton decays into a neutron, a positron,
Figure 16-6
and a neutrino. The neutron stays in the
nucleus. The positron, which is a particle
just like an electron (in mass and so on) with a positive charge, shoots away from the
nucleus. The positron is dangerous to biological tissue as well, and the neutrino is
innocuous.
(A word about words: Radioactivity is generally divided into alpha, beta, and
gamma decays (although there are some other sorts of decays as well). Beta decays are
divided into beta decays and positron decays, so the wording can be a bit tricky.
Sometimes writers will be careful to say "normal beta decay" and sometimes they will
not. If it matters which sort of beta decay is required, assume the normal kind unless
otherwise specified.)
Example 3: What is the reaction for the positron decay of carbon-1 l?

Solution: On the left side of the reaction we have 'JC. On the right side we place
a positron, whose symbol is l e . Thus we have
A third type of radioactive decay is gamma decay. Just as the electrons of an

atom may be in an excited state, the nucleus can also be in an excited quantum state.
When the nucleus decays into the lower energy state, it releases a photon, called a
gamma particle, just as a photon is released in the electronic case. When the nucleus
decays, however, the energies involved are much greater, about a million times greater,
than for the electronic decays. This reaction is the most penetrating, able to penetrate
many meters of lead. It can be harmless if it passes simply through the human body, or
it can be quite harmful.
Example 4: The radioactive decay of an excited state of cobalt-60 is given by
where the asterisk indicates an excited state. In this case @ c o gdecays into one excited
state of @Ni,which decays into a second excited state of 6 0 ~ which
i,
decays to the
ground state.
We can measure the time it takes a nucleus to decay in terms of a halfZi$e. This is
the time it takes half the atoms in a sample to decay. The lifetime of an atom is not the
same as the lifetime of, say, humans.
If we imagine a population sample of 1000 humans all born in the same year,
Chdpter
1 6 . . . .. . Atomic and Nuclear Physics
then after 75 years we would expect about half of them (or 500) to still be alive. After
another eight years, only half of those would be surviving. After another five years, it
would be half again. We would expect, 150 years after the birth date, that there would
probably be no survivors.
Consider now a sample of 1000 gadolinium-148 atoms, all generated at the same
moment. This isotope decays by alpha emission to samarium-144 with a halflife of
75 years. After 75 years we expect about half of the original Gd-148 to remain. After
another 75 years, about half of those have decayed, leaving about 250 Gd-148 atoms.
After yet another 75 years, there are around 125 left. Radioactive atoms do not age and
die, but at any moment they have some constant risk of decaying.
Example 5: The nucleus Ru-103 decays to the stable isotope Rh-103. We obtain
a pure sample and measure that its radioactivity to be 16-16millicuries. After 156 days
the radioactivity is down to 101 millicuries. What is the halflife of this isotope?
Solution: The activity of the sample is down by a factor of 16161101 = 16, that is,
down by four factors of 2. That means that four halflives must have transpired. One
halflife is (156 days)l4 = 39 days.
In Example 1, the mass of a Th-232 is 232.0381 amu. The mass of Ra-228 is
228.03 11 amu, and that of He-4 is 4.0026 amu. Notice that the sum of the Ra-228 and
He-4 masses is less than that of Th-232. Where did the missing mass go? This mass has
been converted into energy.
There is a deep connection between mass and energy which we will mention
only briefly here. In this reaction, mass is converted into energy, and the amount of
energy can be determined if we know the masses sufficiently well. The mass deficit m,,
is the difference of the mass of products and the mass of reactants, and the energy of
reaction is given by
where c = 3.0 x 10' mls is the speed of light. This is the famous E = mc2 equation. In
order to apply this equation we must be careful that the units agree.
Example 6: In the decay of Th-232, most of the energy of the reaction ends up in
the kinetic energy of the alpha particle. After a decay,
a. how much energy (in J) does the alpha particle have?
b. How fast (approximately) is the alpha particle going?
Sdution: a. The mass deficit in this reaction is m,,, = (232.0381 - 228.031 1 4.0026) amu = 0.0044 amu. We convert this to kg and multiply by c2 to obtain energy
1-66x
kg)kvo
1amu
108
J;
This energy is mainly in the form of kinetic energy of the alpha particle.

1
b. We want to use the equation E, = -mv2 to solve for v. We know E, in Joules,

2
so we want m to be in kilograms:
ma = 4.0026 amu
1.66x lo-'' kg
= 6.6 x
1amu
kg.
Then we have
This is quite fast, about 5% of the speed of light, but not so fast that we have to resort to
the full mechanics of special relativity.
In summary for this section, here is a chart of special particles and their symbols
for nuclear reactions:
Particle
Other names
Symbol
proton
:H
neutron
0"
helium-4
a,alpha
:He
electron
positron
p-, e-, beta minus

p+, e+,beta plus
photon
y, gamma
e
Y
(do not need to know)
antineutrino
(do not need to know)
neutrino
0
-1
0
+l
In this chapter we discussed the physics of the atom and nucleus: atomic structure, electronic energy levels, radioactivity, and nuclear reactions. The key to understanding many physical situations lies in understanding the energy level diagram. An
atom or nucleus can exist only in certain discrete states of precise energy. When the
atom or nucleus makes a transition from one state to another, a photon is absorbed or
released with energy equal to the difference of the energies of the two states.
The key to understanding problems involving nuclear reactions, including
radioactive decay, lies in visualizing the decay and in writing the nuclear reaction
correctly. There are three types of radioactive decay, called alpha, beta, and gamma
decay. These decays vary in the type of particle expelled from the nucleus and the
effect that this expulsion has on the nucleus.
1 6 . .. . .. Atomic and Nucledr
Chdpter
Sections A and
4.
A proton and an electron are both between the plates,

and both are at rest at t = 0 seconds. How does the
magnitude of the acceleration of the proton a, compare
with the magnitude of the acceleration of the electron
a,?
1. A charged parallel-plate capacitor has an electric field

of 160 NIC between its plates. If a proton (mass
1.7 x
kg, charge 1.6 x
C) is between the
plates and starts from rest, what is its speed after
0.1 milliseconds?
A.
1.7~
l~-~~mls
B.
1.7 x 10-lom/s
C. 5 . 9 x 1 0 f m / s
D.
1.5~10~rn1s
5. The bare nuclei of ' H and of 4 ~aree between the

plates, and both are at rest. How does the magnitude of
the acceleration of the hydrogen nucleus a,compare
with the magnitude of the acceleration of the helium
nucleus a,,?
Use the following information in questions 2 6 :

A charged parallel-plate capacitor has an elecuic
field Eo between its plates. Ignore the force of gravity. Note
the approximations:
mmon = 2000 m,,,Iron *

mdcceon= 9 x lo-" kg ,
qPmmn
= 1.6 x lo-" C .
2.
Physics
'
6. The bare nuclei of H and of 'H are between the plates,

and both are at rest. How does the magnitude of the
force of the light hydrogen nucleus F, compare with the
magnitude of the force of the heavy hydrogen nucleus
F,?
An elecuon and a deuteron (bare nucleus of H) are

placed between the plates. How does the magnitude of
the force on the electron Fek compare with the
magnitude of the force on the deuteron Fd?
A. F,, = 4000 F,
B. F* = 2000 F,
C . F,, = Fd
7. Some isolated ='u atoms will spontaneously fission
into two approximately equal-sized fragments. The

following represents a possible reaction:
3. Two ions are placed between the plates: the fluoride

r former
ion 'OF - and the bromide ion m ~-.The
experiences a force of magnitude F, and the latter a
force of magnitude F,,. How do these compare?
A. F,, = FF
us^+ " ' ~ a +9 2 ~ r +?

What is missing from the right side of the reaction?
A.
A proton.
B.
C.
D.
A neutron.
A proton and a neutron.
Two neutrons.

8.
A common reaction in the Sun involves the encounter

of two nuclei of light helium ()He). If one )He nucleus
encounters another, which is a possible list of products?
A. ' H ~ + ~ H
B. 4 ~ e + 1 ~ + ' ~
C. 7 ~ i + ' ~
D. 2 ~ + 2 ~ + 2 ~
9.
If the nucleus "N is bombarded with a proton, one or

more products may result. Which of the following
represents a possible set of products?
A.
B.
16N+y
12. What is the maximum number of spectral lines for this
atom?
A.
1
B. 3
C. 4
D. 6
Section C
10. In the spectrum of a hypothetical atom, we discover a

m, and we discover that
line with wavelength 1.5 x
the transition is from the ground state. The ground state
corresponds to zero energy. What other energy level
must exist in the atom? (Use c = 3.0 x 10' d s and h =
6.63 x
J s.)
A.
B.
-3.0x 1 0 4 ~ ~
-1.3 x lo-'* J
11. If an atom has only the three energy levels shown in the
figure below, what possible frequencies might be in the
spectrum of this atom? (Use h = 4.14 x lo-'' ev s and
c = 3.0 x 10' mls.)
A.
B.
C.
D.

The figure below shows the energy level diagram of a
hypothetical atom. Light in the visible portion of the
spectrum has frequency between 4.0 x 10" HZ and
7.5 x 10'' Hz. (Use h = 4.14 x lo-'' ev s and c =
3.0 x lo8mls.)
7.2 x
2.4 x
2.4 x
2.4 x
13. How many lines are possible in the visible spectrum?

A. 0
B.
1
C. 2
D.
3
14. The figure below shows the known energy level
diagram for a hypothetical atom. A brilliant young
scientist discovers a new spectral tine with frequency
4.8 x 10'' Hz, which she determines is a transition from
the ground state to an excited state. What is the energy
of the (excited) quantum state she has discovered? (Use
h = 4.14 x lo-'' ev s and c = 3.0 x lo8 mls.)
1014HZ
1 0 ' ~Hz and 7.2 x 1014Hz
10" Hz and 9.7 x 1014Hz
10" Hz, 7.2 x 1014Hz, and 9.7 x loi4Hz
314
Chapter 16
Atoms of lithium are able to absorb photons of
frequency 2.01 x 10" Hz. This corresponds to a transition
from the ground state (at -5.37 ev) to an excited state.
Zero energy correspoads to the state in which one electron
is completely removed from the atom. (Use h =
4.14 x lo-'' ev s and c = 3.0 x lo8mls.)
. . . . . . Atomic
dnd Nuclear Physics
alpha decay?
A. -=8Th
B. 2 2 8 ~ n
C. 230Th
D.
"'~n
21. In the Sun much of the energy results from a set of

reactions called the pp chain. The first step involves two
protons colliding to make heavy hydrogen. Which of
the following expresses this reaction?
15. What is the energy of the excited state referred to in

the passage?
A. -6.20 ev
B. 4 . 5 4 ev
C. -0.83 ev
.
D. 6.20 ev
A;
16. What is the wavelength of light corresponding to this

transition?
A.
2.3x10-'m
B.
1.5 x
m
C. 4.3 x lo6m
D. 6.7 x 10' m
22. Another step in the pp chain is a reaction in which

heavy hydrogen combines with a proton to make a third
nucleus. Which of the following shows this reaction?
(The third step in the pp chain is given in problem 8.)
17. If a photon ionizes a lithium atom, what conclusion

can be drawn about the photon?
A.
It had frequency less than 1.3 x 10" Hz.
B. It had frequency 1.3 x 10" Hz.
C. It had frequency greater than 1.3 x lo1' Hz.
D. None of the above may be concluded.
'H+ 'H+ l H + y
A.
'H+ 'H+ 3 ~ e y+
B.
'H+'H+~+~H~
C.
' H + 'H+ 4 ~ e + y
D.
'H+ 'H+
3 ~ i + y-
23. The Curies prepared about 1 gram of Ra-226 (with

Section D
18. What nucleus results when "Ni decays by positron

emission?
A.
" ~ e
B. s s ~
C. "Ni
D. " ~ a
19. The daughter nucleus from an alpha decay was

identified to be " ~ a . What was the parent nucleus?
A. " * ~ n
B.
C.
D.
halflife 1600 years). How much will be left after

8000 years (about the length of time of recorded
history)?
A.
None.
B. 3 . 1 10-"grams
~
C. 3.1~10-~g1-ams
D. 0.5 grams
24. We measure the radioactivity of a certain sample of 3 2

to be 300 mCi. How long before the radioactivity
decreases to 20 mCi? (The halflife of 3 2 is~ 14.3 days.)
A. 26.7 days
B. 28.6days
C. 55.9 days
'=~r
"~AC
2 2 6 ~
20. What is the result when a "*udecays by alpha

emission, followed by two beta decays, and another
The
MCAT Physics Book
25. A nuclear power plant provides loE2

J of electrical
power each day to run a small community by using heat
from the fission of uranium-235 to turn turbines. The
mass deficit due to the fission of one uranium-235 atom
is 3 x
grams. How much mass is converted to
energy per day to power the community?
(Hint: c = 3.0 x lo8 m/s, h = 6.63 x 10-j4J s.)
A.
B.
10-~g
C.
1 0 - ~g
D.
13g
C.
D.
29. Each second the Sun produces 3.9 x

J. HOWmuch
mass does it lose per second from nuclear processes
alone? (Use c = 3.0 x 10' rn/s h = 6.63 x 10-j4J s.)
A.
7.8x101kg
B.
2.2 x lo9 kg
c. 4.3 x lo9 kg
D.
1.8~
106'kg

Atomic masses of some isotopes
1
on
1.00866 amu
tH
1.00783 amu
: ~ e
2.01410 amu
4.00260 amu
,Li
7.01601 amu
:-I
7
The mass is greater than double the mass of the

He atom.
None of the above may be concluded.
30. In a nuclear reaction the mass of the products is less

than the mass of the reactants. This is not observed in a
chemical reaction. Why not?
A. Mass is conserved in chemical reactions, which
involve only the electromagnetic force.
B. The mass deficit in chemical reactions is too
small to be observed by present techniques.
C. In chemical reactions, the mass deficit is balanced
by a mass surplus.
D. In chemical reactions, the mass is held constant
by the nucleus.
26. In the Sun, four hydrogen nuclei react to form a helium

nucleus, so that the net reaction looks l i e
4 'H-+ 4 ~ e 2v,
+
where the neutrino is massless or nearly so. What is the
mass deficit for this reaction?
A. 0.02872 amu
B. 0.03204 amu
C. 2.99477 m u
D.
5.01043 amu
II
Passage 1
A hydrogen atom has energy levels given by
En = -(I 3.6 ev) n2 '
where n is a positive integer. A state in which the electron is

infinitely far from the nucleus corresponds to 0 ev. (Note:
1 ev = 1.602 x 10-l9J) The energy level diagram is shown in
the figure below. An atom generally has an electron in a
given energy level; however, a transition may occur if the
atom absorbs or emits a photon, or particle of light.
27. Consider the interaction of one lithium atom (7 Li) and

one hydrogen atom ('H) to create two equal particles.
What is the mass deficit for this reaction?
A. 0.01 864 amu
B. 0.47 129 amu
C.
1.0249 1 amu
D. 4.00260 m u
28. An isolated ' ~ atom
e
will spontaneously decay into
two alpha particles. What can be concluded about the
e
mass of the ' ~ atom?
A.
B.
The mass is less thandouble the mass of the 4 ~ e

atom.
The mass is exactly double the mass of the He
atom.
I
316
GO ON TO THE NE)CTPAGE
Chdpter
For the following questions, consider a hydrogen

atom in an excited state initially at rest. It emits a photon
of energy E,, which travels to the right. The hydrogen
atom is now in its ground state.
= hf,
The energy of a photon is given by E,,
wheref is the frequency and h = 4.14 x lo-" ev s. The
, Elc, where c =
momentum of a photon is given by p p h o=
3.0 x 10' mls, the speed of light. The mass of a hydrogen
atom is m, = 1.7 x lo-'' kg.
1. What is the smallest energy a photon must have to

boost a hydrogen atom in its ground state to an
excited state?
A.
3.4 ev
B.
10.2 ev
C. 13.6 ev
D. There is no smallest energy.
2.
3.
4.
What is the ionization energy for a hydrogen atom?

A.
1.5 ev
B.
3.4 ev
C.
10.2 ev
D.
13.6ev
A hydrogen atom in its ground state absorbs a photon
and ends up in the excited state corresponding to n =
3. What is the most restrictive statement that can be
concluded about the photon?
A. The photon had an energy of 12.1 ev.
B. The photon had an energy greater than or equal
to 12.1 ev.
C. The photon had an energy greater than 12.1 ev
but less than 12.8 ev.
D. The photon had an energy greater than 10.2 ev.
1 6 . . . . . . Atomic and Nucledr
Physics
Certain toys found in cereal boxes display the phenomenon of phosphorescence. If a child exposes the toy to a
bright light (for example, the Sun), then the toy will glow
with a characteristic color when the child takes it into a dark
closet.
The phenomenon of phosphorescence requires the
interaction of light with three energy levels in an atom (or
molecule). The figure below (not to scale) shows a hypothetical energy diagram in which the lowest state shown is
the ground state (E = 0). When the toy is taken into the Sun,
a photon causes a transition from the ground state to state 2.
Almost immediately, .the atom emits a photon, making a fast
transition to state 1.
IE=O
ground
state
The atom makes a transition to the ground stateonly

slowly. Thus when the child takes the toy into a closet, he is
able to observe the phosphorescent photons from this final
transition. The transition from state 1 to the ground state is
said to be forbidden, and it takes place by different (and thus
slower) processes than the other transitions.
Letf,, be the frequency of the absorbed photons,f, be
the frequency of the photons emitted while the object is still
in the sunlight, and fph be the frequency of the photons
released in the closet. (Planck's constant is h =
4.14 x lo-" ev s.)
1. How doesfa, compare to the f@?
In the scenario mentioned in the second paragraph,

what can be concluded?
A.
Momentum is conserved, but not energy.
B. Energy is conserved, but not momentum.
C. Both momentum and energy are conserved.
D. Neither momentum nor energy is conserved.
A.
L b s Cf,,
B.
f*, = f p h
frbr > f*
c.
D.
2.
It depends on the specific atoms used in the

material.
How does f, compare to the f,,?
f, cf*
B. fn = f p h
c* ffl> fph
5. What is the longest wavelength corresponding to a

photon which could cause a transition in a hydrogen
atom?
A.
9.1~10-~m
B.
1.2 x
m
C. 3 . 6 ~ 1 0 - ~ m
D. There is no longest wavelength.
A.
D.
317
It depends on the specific atoms used in the

material.

3. Which of the following gives a correct expression for&,?
4.
SampIe 2
We dbtain a pure sample of 6 6 ~(Sample

a
2), which
has a radioactivity level of 1000 mCi. We observe that the
radioactivity is not blocked by a piece of thin metal foil, but
it is blocked by several centimeters of aluminum. After
19 hours, the level of radioactivity is down to 250 mCi.
A beam is made of the radioactive efflux in the same
way as mentioned for Sample 1. The beam is traveling to the
east, and it enters a strong magnetic field pointing up. The
beam veers to the south.
After the child brings the object into the closet, which
atomic state is the most populated? That is, a number of
atoms have electrons in the ground state, a number in
state 1, and a number in state 2. Which number is
greatest?
A. The ground state is the most populated.
B.
State 1 is most populated.
C . State 2 is most populated.
D. Either the ground state or state 1 is the most
populated.
1. What is the product of the decay of '09po?
A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
5. Which is correct?
A. The Sun emits photons of many frequencies, but
only photons corresponding to the absorption
frequency will be absorbed by the object.
B. The Sun emits photons of many frequencies, but
only photons corresponding to the absorption
frequency make it through Earth's atmosphere.
C . The Sun emits photons of one frequency, and the
toy is constructed to absorb that frequency.
D. The Sun emits photons of one frequency, and the
toy converts the photons to the desired frequency.
Sample 1
We observe radioactivity from a sample of 209Po
(Sample I), but the radioactivity is effectively blocked by a
piece of thin (0.05 rnm) gold foil. The radioactive efflux is
made into a beam by placing the sample in a block of lead
(Pb) with a hole which allows the particles to escape as
shown in the figure below). In one experiment the beam is
subjected to an electric field which points up. In another
experiment the beam is subjected to a magnetic field which
points down.
When the beam from Sample 1 enters the electric field,

what is the effect on the beam?
A.
The particles in the beam go faster.
B. The particles in the beam slow down.
C.
D.
The beam bends up.

The beam bends down.
3.
When the beam from Sample 1 enters the magnetic

field, what is the effect on the beam?
A. The beam bends up.
B. The beam bends down.
C. The beam bends to the left, as viewed from the
top.
D. The beam bends to the right, as viewed from the
top.
4.
What type of radioactivity is produced by 6 6 ~ a ?
A.
B.
p+
c. pD.
5.
At what time after the beginning of Experiment 2 was

the radioactivity level at 500 mCi?
A.
B.
C.
__+
'OSpb
209~t
209~i
209~o
D.
9.5 hours
12.6 hours
15 hours
None of the above is correct.
beam
Chdpter
6.
In Experiment 2, when will the level of radioactivity

decrease to zero?
A.
28 hours.
B.
56 hours.
C. 112 hours.
D. It will last indefinitely.
What kind of nuclei would tend to undergo K-capture?

Nuclei with many more neutrons than protons.
A.
B. Nuclei with more protons than neutrons.
C. Nuclei with a deficit of electrons.
D. Nuclei with protons in low energy orbitals.
3.
Which of the following, if true, would explain why Lcapture, the interaction of a nucleus with a second-shell
electron, is extremely rare?
A.
The second shell has greater energy than the first
shell.
B. The second shell has a vanishing amplitude in the
nucleus.
C. The second-shell electrons are easily removed
from the atom.
The
second-shell electrons cannot be converted to
D.
positrons.
4.
When an atom undergoes K-capture, several photons

are often observed in the vicinity of the event. Which is
the best explanation for this?
ez,
where N is the number of neutrons and Z is the atomic
number, and the symbol means that N is greater than or
approximately equal to Z.
When the difference N - Z is strongly positive, it is
likely that a nucleus will decay by 0- decay, in which a
neutron converts into a proton, an electron, and an antineutrino (which rarely interacts with matter).
When N - Z is only slightly positive or even negative,
then there are two likely modes of decay: 0' decay and
K-capture. In P' decay (also called positron decay), a proton
is converted into a neutron, a positron, and a neutrino.
In K-capture, an electron from an orbital of the first
shell (or K-shell, that is, the 1s orbital) combines with a
nuclear proton to make a neutron and a neutrino. This often
happens in nuclei in which positron decay is forbidden, for
instance, because it is energetically unfavorable. K-capture
is possible because there is some overlap of the first-shell
orbital and the volume taken up by the nucleus, that is, the
first-shell orbital has a nonzero amplitude at the center of
the nucleus.
. . . ... Atomic dnd Nuciedr Physics
2.
Passage 4
The two dominant forces in the nucleus of an atom are

the electromagnetic force, which is the repulsive force
among protons, and the strong force, which is attractive
among protons and neutrons. Many of the things we observe
in nuclei can be explained by a balance of these two forces,
combined with the Pauli principle for the particles in the
nucleus. For instance, most stable nuclei have somewhat
more neutrons than protons, although nonmassive stable
nuclei have about the same number of neutrons as protons.
Nuclear physicists say that these nuclei are in a valley of
stabiliv, so that
16
A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
The neutrino ionizes the sumounding atoms.

The neutron decays into particles which ionize
surrounding atoms.
Electrons in outer shells make transitions to lower
shells.
The positron interacts with an electron.
What happens to the difference N - Z during normal

beta decay?
A. decreases by 2
B.
decreases by 1
C.
D.
increases by 1
increases by 2
6. What happens to N - Z during alpha decay?

A. decreases by 4
B.
decreases by 2
C. stays the same
D. increases by 4
1. Which of the following represents the K-capture decay

of %Ni?
A.
S 6 ~ i -%
+co+e'+v
B.
S6~i-+S6~~+e-+V
C.
S6~i-+56~0+e-+~
D.
S6~i+e--+m~o+v

Passage 5
One strategy in the fight against cancer involves the

interaction of neutrons with a particular isotope of boron,
called boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT). In BNCT,
boron-10 is introduced into tumor cells, and the area is
irradiated with slow neutrons. The interaction of a boron-10
nucleus and a neutron results in the production of an alpha
particle with 2.3 Mev of kinetic energy.
A charged particle with large kinetic energy will lose
that energy as it ionizes molecules that it passes by. In this
case the alpha particles disrupt the DNA (among other
molecules) of the tumor cells, effectively destroying
cancerous tissue.
There are several problems with this method. It is
important not to use a neutron flux so high that neutrons
react substantially with oxygen and hydrogen in normal
tissue, producing gamma rays. This sets an upper limit on
the flux of neutrons and thus a lower limit on the necessary
concentration of 'OB in tumor cells.
It has proven difficult to concentrate 'OB in tumor
cells. One idea involves attaching boron to certain monoclonal antibodies which would recognize antigens on cancer
cells. Another idea involves attaching boron to nucleosides,
which tend to be taken up by dividing cells.
Another problem is finding a significant source of
slow neutrons. Nuclear reactors are few, expensive, and
f been suggested as
relatively immobile. The isotope 2 5 2 ~has
a source of neutrons. Although its main channel of decay is
alpha, with a 2.6-year halfife, a significant fraction of it
can
f be
spontaneously fissions, yielding neutrons. Thus 2 5 2 ~
taken to the site where it is needed. The neutrons from the
fission can be moderated and directed to the area to be
irradiated.
1. In paragraph 1, when a slow neutron encounters a 'OB
nucleus, what particle is created, in addition to the
alpha particle?
A. a proton
B. a neutron
C. 4 ~ e
D.
Li
'
2.
Why do the neutrons used in irradiation not cause

significant ionization and thus radiation damage of
normal tissue?
A.
B.
C.
D.
The neutrons do not contain any orbitals.

The neutrons get captured before they have a
chance to ionize anything.
The neutrons have overall zero charge.
The neutrons are not an elementary p&icle.
Paragraph 3 alludes to nuclear reactions which may be

dangerous to normal tissue. Which of the following is a
possibility, according to this paragraph? .
A.
160+ 'n+ I3C+ 4 ~ e
What is the immediate decay product for the alpha

decay of 252 Cf?
A.
252~s
B. 2 s 2 ~ k
C. 256 Fm
D. 2 4 s ~ m
A sample of 2 5 2 ~is fshipped to a hospital, and 7.8 years
f How much was
later there are 0.01 moles of 2 s 2 ~left.
shipped to the hospital in the first place?
A. 0.01 moles
B. 0.03 moles
C. 0.04 moles
D. 0.08 moles
Which reaction shows an example of the spontaneous

fission mentioned in the last paragraph?
A.
252 Cf
+2S0+
~ fIn + 'n
Why is it dangerous to have too large a neutron flux?

A. The neutrons will ionize molecules in biological
tissue.
B.
C.
D.
The neutrons will convert hydrogen and oxygen

to other elements.
The neutrons will react with hydrogen and
oxygen to produce ionizing radiation.
The neutrons will react with boron in normal
cells, not just tumor cells.
Chapter
Passage 6
The first method of imaging the interior of the

human body came with the discovery of X-rays in 1895.
A major advance in image resolution came with computerized axial tomography (CAT), a method of imaging
which combines X-ray images from numerous axial
viewpoints.
A new method is positron emission tomography
(PET). PET allows us to obtain very precise tomographic
information of a specialized nature. For instance, we can
obtain information about cells which are metabolizing a
large amount of glucose. In this method, an analog of
glucose, 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose, or FDG, is introduced into a person's bloodstream. The analog is incorporated into the cells along with normal glucose by the same
carriers. Hexokinase converts FDG into FDG-6-phosphate, but its metabolism stops at that point, and the
fluorine may be detected.
The key to this procedure is using the isotope "F in
FDG, since "F is unstable to positron decay (halflife 110
minutes). In the production of this isotope, a cyclotron
)
a target of I0Ne and &.
accelerates deuterons ( 2 ~ toward
A deuteron and a neon nucleus collide to form "F, which
chemically reacts with the hydrogen gas to form hydrogen
fluoride (H ''F). This is used in the synthesis of FDG.
The cells which are metabolizing a large amount of
glucose will have a high concentration of FDG tagged
with "F. When a 18Fnucleus emits a positron, the
positron travels several millimeters before slowing to a
stop. It then reacts with an electron to form two photons,
which are emitted 180" apart. These photons are detected
by a ring of detectors circling the person's body. Thus the
original site of the decay can be reconstructed.
Another use of PET involves the incorporation of
the isotope "0 (halflife 122 seconds) into water. This can
be accomplished by bombarding a target of ' 4 with
~
protons from a cyclotron. The water (with "0) is introduced into the bloodstream. Detailed information can be
obtained as to what capillaries are open or closed and
therefore what areas of the brain are active.
1. Where does the kinetic energy of the positron go as it
comes to a stop?
A.
sound
B. ionization
C. gravitational potential energy
D.
16
. . . .. . Atomic and Nuclear
Physics
2.
In paragraph 3, when a deuteron collides with the 2 0 ~ e ,

what particle is produced in addition to the ' 8 nucleus?
~
A.
a gamma particle
B.
a proton
C. a neutron
D.
an alpha particle
3.
What does the "F nucleus become after positron

decay?
A.
1'0
B.
"0
C.
"Ne
D.
I9Ne
4.
What is a possible problem of using glucose tagged

with l5 O?
A.
Glucose with "0 would not be transported into
the cells.
B. Glucose with "0 would be a poison to biological
functioning.
C. The halflife of ''0 might be too short to record its
incorporation into cells.
D. The isotope "0 would not positron decay when
incorporated into a carbon compound.
5. If a sample.of "0 is to have an activity of 10 mCi at a

time 8 minutes after it is created and injected into the
body, what must its activity be at the time it is synthesized?
A.
60 mCi
6. In the last paragraph, a proton collides with a 14N

nucleus to create ''0 and what other particle?
A.
A gamma particle.
B.
A proton.
C. A neutron.
D.
An alpha particle.
nuclear energy.
STOP
Solutions
Solutions
Chapter 1 Solutions
. . .. . . . ... . .. . . .. . . . ... . . ... . . rchdPter
10 kg in the numerator, giving
To cancel J, we can use the J from the power the

resistor dissipates 2 W = 2 Jls. Thus
1. A.
We start with the information 1.1 x 10-I2g. Unit
analysis takes us to the answer:
At this point we rejoice, because we have seconds in the

numerator. Now we cut everything down to one digit
and quickly multiply. This gives
i 1=-
1 . 110-l2
~
1microbe
6x10-16g
1.1 10-12-(-L6)
microbes
6
= 0.2 x lo4microbes
-= 2000 microbes.
This is close to choice C.

Does this method always work? Clearly you
cannot answer every conceivable question by looking at
units. But it is surprising how many questions can be
answered this way, specifically any question in which
all the formulas involved are simple proportionalities
without unitless proportionality constants.
Here we estimate (1.1)16 to be about 0.2, which is close

enough to give us an answer. Remember. all you need is
an answer. You do not need to calculate a second digit.
2. B.
The question again is, "How much?We have
information in mL,and we want it in mg. Thus we write
5.
We know this involves the ideal gas equation, but

how do we start a unit analysis? Since we know we
want to end up with K in the numerator, we can just
place it there at the outset:
=-3000
1000 mg
K rnol
0.082 1L atm
= 3 mg.
Here we estimated 4 times 8 = 30. This is close enough

to yield the answer B.
Now we cancel L and atm, giving

Kmol
2 LlOatm
0.0821Latm 1
1
3. C.
We can cancel rnol if we think of a connection between

rnol and the 16 g Ar, so that we write
Here we start with 1 molecule H,O.Then we can

convert to rnol and g:
lmolec(6.02 wlmol
10"molec
Kmol
-2--L--lOatm 40g 1
0.0821 Latrn 1
1 rnol 16g Ar
x ~ ) , ~ x 160 - z 3 g
1mol
We can guess that the amount of time required is

proportional to the temperature change desired, so let's
start with that. Next, we want to cancel the units "C, so
we add a factor of 4.2 x lo3J k g "C, giving
We want to caacel kg, so we canjust place a factor of
B.
I
323
- 2.10-uK
0.08 -16
In the second step above, we multiplied numerator and denominator by 100. In the third step we
calculated 2 40/8 = 10. Most calculations go pretty
quickly if you look for these shortcuts. Our answer is
close enough for us to realize the correct answer is B.

6. B.
13. B.
If the diameter of a circles increases by a factor of

4, the radius increases by a factor of 4 also. (If you do
not believe this, uy it with a few numbers.) The
circumference increases by a factor of 4 as well.
Since g is in the denominator, a decrease in g

results in an increase in T. If g decreases by a factor of
6, then T increases by a factor of & = 2.4. Of course,

you do not have to work out the square root. A glance at
the answers indicates that B is correct.
Clearly the area increases, but since the radius is

squared in the formula, the area increases by a factor of
42= 16. The n in the formula does not make any
difference.
14. B.
Since m is in the numerator, an increase in m will

increase T. This results in a decrease in frequency f.
Since m changes by a factor of 4, the period changes by
a factor of
= 2. The frequency changes by a factor
of 2, so the answer is B. This approach is the most
straightforward way to do the problem. Any time spent
calculating the value of k is wasted time.
8. D.
This time there is an r in the formula, so the
volume increases by a factor of 4) = 64.
9.
B.
15. A.
If the volume of a sphere decreases by a factor of

27, then its radius must decrease by a factor of 3, since
33= 27. If the radius decreases by a factor of 3, then the
diameter decreases by a factor of 3 as well. Again, you
should try this method with some numbers if it does not
make sense to you.
First, if the period is larger for mass P, then mass

P must be larger. Next, for there to be a change of 36 in
the period, there must be a change of 1296 inside the
square root. Thus the answer is A.
16. C.
Since we have (1 + 501100) = 1.5, the period is
multiplied by 1.5. Thus the frequency is multiplied by
(IS)-' = 0.67. We rewrite 0.67 = (1 - 331100), so the
frequency decreases by 33%.
10. C.
If the radius increases by 30%, that is the same as
increasing by a factor of 1.3. since (1 + 301100) = 1.3. If
the radius increases by a factor of 1.3, then the area
increases by a factor of 1 .32= 1.69. An increase by such
a factor is an increase by 69% so the answer is C. Keep
in mind that you need to know how to manipulate
numbers like this quickly.
17. D.
If s increases by a factor of 9, then V increases by
a factor of 81. Do not let the 113 in the formula throw
you off. If it did, try the problem with numbers to see
why the 113 does not matter.
11. B.
Since 1is in the numerator, T increases if 1does. If

1increases by a factor of 4, then T increases by a factor
18. B.
This is a simple proportionality.
of f i = 2.
19. C .
12. B
In this case, both s and h increase by a factor of 3.

The increase in s causes V to increase by a factor of 9,
and another factor of 3 comes from the h.
A problem like this is easier if we solve for 1,

giving
Passage 1
A decrease by 20%in the period is equivalent to

multiplying the period by (1 - 201100) = 0.8. If the
period is multiplied by 0.8, then then the length is
multiplied by 0.8' = 0.64. We can rewrite 0.64 =
(1 - 361100). Thus the length decreases by 36%.
1. C.
I
The separation of the plates is unchanged, so the

electric field increases by a factor of 9.
Solutions . . ... . . .... ...... .. . . ...... . . ..Chapter 1
2.
B.
5. C.
- We can eliminate A and B immediately, since F
decreases as r increases. We can eliminate D, since F
does not have a linear relationship with r (that would
look like F = kr + c). As r approaches 0, the force
becomes infinite, so C is a good choice. Also, as r
becomes large, F approaches 0 but never reaches it.
According to the first equation, the electric field

and the plate separation are inversely related, so an
increase in d results in a decrease in E, so that B is the
answer. If this is unclear, solve for E in the first
equation.
3.
B.
For this question we need to remember that a

helium nucleus has two protons (its atomic number on
the periodic table), so the bare helium nucleus has twice
the charge of a proton. Thus the force on it is twice as
great.
6. B.
If both balls acquire a charge q, then the force

between them is given by
which is equivalent to F = a?, a quadratic equation.

Thus the answer is B.
If the separation of the plates increases by a factor

of 2, then the electric field decreases by a factor of 2.
And the force on the proton decreases by a factor of 2.
5.
A.
B.
The voltage V and electric field E are proportional, so A is correct. For C to be correct, the equation
would need to be V = Ed + V,.
In order to determine n, we need two experiments

where everything stays the same except for the area, so
that we can investigate the results of a change in area.
As for choice A, the object changes and the area does
not, so that is out. In choice B, area changes from 1.5 to
3.0 cm2, and nothing else changes, so B is correct.
Choice C is incorrect becaus.e the velocity is the only
thing that changes. In choice D, both A and v change,
so we would not be able to tell how much change in F
is due to A and how much is due to v.
Since r is in the denominator, if r decreases, then

the force increases. If r changes by a factor of 2, then
the force changes by a factor of 22= 4.
2.
The distance r is multiplied by 1.25. Thus F is
multiplied by 1.25" = (514)-~= (415)' = 0.8~= 0.64 =
(1 - 361100). The force decreases by 36%.
3. C.
Concerning choice A, a factor of 4 in both q, and
q, will result in a factor of 16 in F, so this choice is
incorrect. If F is to stay the same, and q, increases, then
the distance r must increase, so choice B is incorrect. A
factor of 4 in q, is equivalent to a factor of 2 in r, since
2, = 4. Another way to see this is to solve for r, which
you should do if this discussion was unclear.
4.
D.
If the charge on one ball increases by a factor of 4
(from 2 C to 8 C), then the force must increase by a
factor of 4.
D.
In the previous solution, we realized that experiments 4 and 6 have the property that all the input
variables stay the same except for velocity v, which
increases by a factor of 4. The force increases by a
factor of 16. which means that p must be 2. That is, if p
is 2, then an increase by a factor of 4 in v results in an
increase by a factor of 4, in the force.
3. B.
In choice A, experiments 1 and 2 both use a cork
ball. For choice C, many input variables are altered
between experiments 1 and 6, so it is impossible to
isolate the effect of object density. As for choice D,
experiments 4 and 6 both use a steel ball. Choice B
involves two experiments in which only the density of
the object changes.

4.
If A is reduced by 20%, then A is multiplied by 0.8.

According to the above equation, D is multiplied by
(0.8)-' = 1.25, representing an increase by 25%.
A.
As for choice A, experiments 1 and 2 could be

used to determine p, since the velocity changes and
nothing else does. Once p is determined, k can be
determined by substituting in values Erom either
experiment 1 or 2. Thus experiments 1 and 2 are
sufficient We can exclude choices B and C (not
minimum sets).As for choice D, there is not enough
infomation to obtain p or k.
Passage 4
1. B.
If v increases by a factor of 2, then the required
energy increases by a factor of 2' = 4.
If Julie increases her speed by 20%, then she

multiplies her speed by 1.2. Thus the required energy is
multiplied by (1.2)~= 1.44, which is an increase of
44%.
'
3. B.
Comparing Scott's car to Laura's, all the linear
dimensions are increased by a factor of 2 (see figure).
The cross-sectional area A is width times height (A =
hw), so if both h and w increase by a factor of 2, then A
increases by a factor of 4. Thus the required energy
increases by a factor of 4. The increase in length does
not matter.
4. C.
Julie increases her speed by a factor of 55/50 =
1.1, so the energy increases by a factor of 1.1' = 1.21.
This is an increase of 21%.
5. C
The easiest way to do this is to solve for D, giving
Solutions .... . . .. . . . ... . .... ... . .. . . . . . . Chdpter
Chapter 2 Solutions
First we move the horizontal vector, so its tail is

on the tip of the top vector. Then we move the bottom
vector, so its tail is on the tip of the horizontal vector.
The resulting sum is the arrow from the first tail to the
last tip (see diagram).
The mass of the mobile unit does not change just

because we transport it to a different place.
We add the fly's velocity to the car's velocity in

order to obtain its total velocity relative to the ground.
We move the fly velocity vector so that its tail coincides
with the tip of the car velocity vector. The resulting
total is just west of north (see diagram). In the choices,
only choice A shows the correct total vector. The choice
does not show the fly vector already moved. You must
do that.
5.
C.
Again we s&quentiallyplace the tail of one vector
on the tip of the previous one. The resulting sum is zero
(see diagram). We could see this in the diagram anyway,
since the arrows seem to cancel out each other.
6.
A.
They exert the largest net force when they pull the
same direction (see figure), giving the total 7000 N.
They exert the smallest net force when they are directly
opposed to each other, giving 1000 N. Therefore it is
not possible for the net force to be 500 N. If this is
unclear, try drawing a few vector diagrams to get a total
of 500 N.
3. B.
From the diagram of the previous solution, we
can see that the answer must be slightly larger than
2 m/s and certainly not so large as 2.3 d s , so B is
correct. To do the numbers, we use the Pythagorean
theorem:
The
7.
MCAT Physics Book

B.
If they pull at right angles, then we need to apply
the Pythagorean theorem (see figure):
(s)'
= (3000N)'
14. C .
-Wecan write the equation
+ (4000N)' ,
F,, = 5000N.
We want a formula which relates distance,

velocity, and time, so we write
8. A.
Since she starts from rest, her initial velocity is
zero.
9.
A.
Again, she ends at rest.
Now Ax is the same, while we want v to increase by a

factor of 3.To do this we need At to decrease by a
factor of 3.You could probably do this without writing
down the formula. Other problems will not be so
simple.
10. B.
The net displacement is As = 27 krn = 27,000 m.
The total time is At = 75 min = 4500 s. Thus the
average velocity is v, = hldt = 6 mls.
We want to know change of velocity Av, while we

know acceleration a = 0.3 m/s2, the time interval At =
3 s, and the initial velocity v, = 1.5 m/s. We need the
definition of acceleration:
11. D.
During these 9 s, she was accelerating uniformly,
so we can write the equation:
v2 -vl =aAt,
v, = v, + a h
m
~0.9-.
S
So wedid not need the value of v, at all. The key to

many problems is making an inventory of what we
know and what we want.
Since the car is accelerating uniformly, we can

write a = AvlAt = (30 m/s - 5 mls)/lO s = 2.5 m/s2.
13. C .
Since the car is accelerating uniformly, we can
write v,= lf2 (v, + v,) = 17.5 d s .
We know Ay = -10 m, a = -10 m/s2 (approximately), v, = 0 mls (because it is dropped). We want At.
Thus we have
18. B.
Solutions . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. . .. . . Chapter
22. A.
If we want v,, we use the equation:
vi = v:
We still use v, = 0.2 mls and a = -0.05 m/s2, but

now we have At = 6 s. The net displacement is obtained
from
+2a&,
It is important to pay attention to signs in this

problem, translating "up" into positive and "decelerating" into negative. Also note that the ball travels further
than 0.3 m, going 0.4 m up the slope before heading
back. The net displacement is the difference between
final position and initial position.
19. B.
We know v, = 20 m/s, a = 1.2 m/s2,and At = 5 s.

Thus dr = v,&
+ -1a ( ~ t ) ' = 115 m.

2
20. C.
We know a = 4 . 1 m/s2, v2 = 0 mls (because it

comes to a stop), and At = 5 s. We use the following
equation:
23. C.
v2 -vl =aAt,
Here we have v, = - 5 m/s, At = 10 s, and v2 =

10 mls. We can obtain acceleration from its definition:
a = (v, - v,)lAt = 1.5 mls2.
We obtain the net displacement from Ax =

1/2(v, + v,) At = 25 m.
21. B.
We want an equation which relates v, Ax, and At.

This is v = drldt. If v increases by a factor of 3, then At
must decrease by a factor of 3, so the answer is C.
We know v, = 0.2 mls and a = 4 . 0 5 m/s2. If we

want to know how long it takes to stop, we add the
datum v2 = 0 mls. Thus we have
v, -v, = a h .
26. A.
Here we know that v, = 25 mls, x, = 3000 km,a =

0.02 mls2, and At = 500 s. We want x,. We know that
Ax = x, - x,, so we can calculate
= 15 km.
Thus x2 = 3015 km.Remember to be careful with the
units.
The
MCAT Physics Book

We calculate Ax = 112 (v, + v,)At = 4.4 m.
28. B.
We want an equation involving velocity and time

and possibly acceleration. Let's look at the equation
31. B.
The following figure is x versus t. We can obtain v

versus t by looking at the instantaneous slope at various
times. This gives the points shown in the second figure.
Here a is constant and dt increases by a factor of 3.

Thus Av increases by a factor of 3 as well, giving B as
an answer. Another way to see this is to rewrite the
equation:
Av =a&,
so an increase in At yields an increase in v.
29. C.
The figure in the problem shows a car which

starts from rest, speeds up to a cruising speed which it
maintains, then slows to a stop. Let's keep this in mind.
LA&
A B C
To obtain the acceleration, we need to take the

instantaneous slope at various points in the second
figure, but clearly the slope is always positive (and
probably constant).
D E t
The figure above shows v versus t, and we want to pick

the best graph for x versus t. From point A to point B,
there is no area under the graph, so the displacement is
zero, and all the choices show this. From B to C, there
is an increasing amount of area under the curve,
eliminating choices B and D which show a jump in x
versus t. From C to D, there is area under the curve, so
dx is positive for every interval Ar. This means x is
increasing, which is shown only in choice C. After E,
the velocity goes to zero, and dx goes to zero. This
means that no more increments get added to x. But this
does not mean that x returns to the x-axis (as in choice
A).
32. A.
The net displacement is Ax = x, - x,, the difference between final and initial position. But in this case
x , and x, are the same, so the net displacement is zero.
33. C.
In words, we can say that the velocity starts large

and decreases to a stop. Then it increases again. Just
this description alone might lead us to recognize C as .
the answer.
Between A and B, the instantaneous slope is zero

(see figure). Between points B and C, the instantaneous
slope jumps to a constant value, eliminating A and C as

choices. Between C and D, the instantaneous slope is
zero, so the acceleration jumps back down to zero, so B
is correct. Between points D and E, the acceleration is
negative.
E
I
The figure shows how successive areas under the

curve v versus t result in successive increases in the
curve x versus t. Note that the fact that v is always
positive translates into the fact that x is always increasing.
Solutions . .... ...... . . ...... . . .......... Chapter
We can also work this problem by taking the

choices and working backward, taking instantaneous
slopes, in order to find which would produce the given v
versus t.
The average velocity is v,,, = drldt. The net

displacement is Ax = 1.35 m - 1.35 m = 0 m.
p9'
This question consists entirely of words, but let us

write an equation anyway. Uniform acceleration means
a is constant, and a = Avldt. Thus Av and At are in a
constant ratio. If one of the choices expresses this fact,
then that would be the solution. (If not, we will have to
think some more, perhaps find another equation.) D is
the correct answer.
t/no increment added
34. B.
Taking instantaneous slopes of v versus t gives an

acceleration which'is constant and negative until the
cusp. Then it is constant and positive. This is shown in
choice B.
4.
D.
We apply the definition of acceleration:
35. B.
The net change in velocity Av = v2 - v, is simply

zero, since the velocity starts and ends with the same
value.
36. A.
The car is backing up at the beginning of the
problem, so the velocity is negative. The only choice to
show this is A. The flat portion in the center of choice A
is when the car is stopped. The later flat portion shows
the constant velocity while going forward.
37. C.
The car accelerates exactly twice: while it slows

to a stop going backward (positive acceleration) and
while it speeds from a stop going forward (positive
acceleration). When the car is cruising at constant
velocity, the acceleration is zero, so C is the correct
choice. By the way, choice B shows a sketch of x versus
A.
Since acceleration is positive, the vector points in

the forward direction (according to the sign convention
of the passage).
6. B.
For any 0.5s interval in the chart, the acceleration
(Avldt) is a constant 1.2 m/s2, even for the intervals near
t = 1.5 s, where the velocity is zero. Thus B is the best
answer.
1. B.
We apply the formula Ax = v,Af + 112a(dt)~=
(0 mls)(4 s) + 112 (10 mls2)(4 = 80 m.
t.
Passage
5.
1. A.
The initial velocity is just that at the beginning of
the experiment.
.
The
MCAT Physics Book

The equation which involves change in velocity
Av and time is the definition of acceleration:
We use the equation involving Ax, At, and the

acceleration (since we know its value):
Av=gAt,
AV
We have
= 0-S ,SO we write
= g(t, - t , ) .
3. C.
If the time interval At increases by a factor of 3, what

happens to Ax? Apparently it increases by a factor of 9.
Since velocity starts at zero, we can eliminate D.

The instantaneous slope for the graph of v versus t must
be a constant g = 9.8 m/s2.?he graph to which this
applies is C.
4.
V,
7.
Choice A is nonsense. Choice B is a true statement, but it cannot be an adequate explanation for the
fact, since the lead and iron balls fall at the same rate,
and the force of gravity is presumably different on those
two balls as well. Choice C is a good candidate,.since
the passage mentions air resistance as a caveat. Choice
D is irrelevant.
B.
Let's be clear about this by writing an equation.

The equation involving Av is the definition of acceleration (see solution to problem 2 above). Thus Av = gAt.
The acceleration g is constant, and At is the same for
the two situations (both have Af = 1 s). Thus Av is the
same. The velocity increases at a constant rate throughout the fall.
We can calculate the height at the four clock

readings:
Thus from 1 to 2 s, the object falls 15 m,while from 3

to 4 s, the object falls 35 m. This confirms our intuition
that the distance fallen is greater for the later time
interval. Notice the difference between this problem and
the previous one.
C.
Solutions . . . ..... . .... ....... ... . . . . . . . .Chapter 3
Chapter 3 Solutions
Case 1
1.
Case 2
Case 3
D.
From the first law of motion, a force balance on
an object implies it has constant velocity. From this we
conclude that the force of gravity and the drag force due
to the air are exactly balanced.
6. A.
(This was a review problem.) We calculate a =
(3.5 mls - 1.5 m/~)l3s = 0.67 d s 2 .
7. A.
2.
3.
D.
We calculate F W = ma = (60 kg) (0.67 mls2)=

40 N.
Since there is only one force, there must be a net

force on the object; there is no way for forces to be
balanced. From the first law of motion, we conclude
that the object is not undergoing uniform motion, so it
is speeding up, slowing down, or changing direction.
But none of the choices can be definitely concluded.
8. C.
C.
9.
Since the car is not undergoing uniform motion (it

is slowing), it has a net force on it. In fact, the net force
points in the opposite direction the car is going.
We calculate a = (20 mls - 0 mls)l(12 s) =

1.67 mls2.
A.
We calculate (from Chapter 2) Ax =

112 (Omls + 20mls) (12s)= 120m.
,
--
10. C.
The magnitude of the net force is given by Fm=
ma = 167 N.
11. C.
Since the object is moving with uniform motion,

the forces on the object must be balanced. Since there
are exactly two forces, the only way for them to be
balanced is thal they be of equal magnitude in opposite
directions, which is choice C. If you chose B, think of
the example of the paratrooper falling in question 1, in
which the downward force of gravity is balanced by the
upward force of the air drag.
The vertical .forces, which are balanced, are

gravity (down) and the normal force of the ground (up).
The one horizontal force accelerates the tiger, and it is
due to the ground pushing forward. This may seem
strange, but it is a result of the thud law of motion. The
tiger pushes the ground backward. There is then an
equal force of the ground on the tiger pushing forward,
even though there is no "active" agent creating the
force. But it has to be the ground pushing the tiger
forward, since that is the only thing touching him.
Certainly he does not push himself forward (what
would that even mean?).
B.
In case 1, we move the tail of
cBto the tip of
FA(see figure). The sum, pm,is drawn from the first

tail to the last tip, giving a magnitude of 700 N. So
choice B is correct. The same method for case 2 yields
a magnitude 100 N. For case 3, we need to apply the
Pythagorean theorem to obtain a magnitude 500 N.
We want an equation which connects force.

acceleration, and mass. This is F = ma. Since we are
looking for the change in acceleration, we can write this
equation a = Flm. If the mass decreases by a factor of 2,
then the acceleration increases by a factor of 2.
The
MCAT Physics Book
13. C .
As in question 12, we write a = Flm. If F increases by a factor of 3 and m increases by a factor of 3.
then a remains the same.
14. A.
We draw a diagram (see figure). We cannot

calculate the acceleration using the methods of the
previous chapter, but we can find a net force. In one
dimension, we can call east positive, so Fnel=
0.0015 N - 0.0010 N = 0.0005 N. Thus we can find
acceleration a = FnJm = 0.0005 Nl0.0005 kg = 1 m/s2.
17. B.
We draw a diagram showing the forces on the

mass (see figure). There is the force of gravity and the
tension in the string, which pulls up. The net force (with
down as positive) is Fm= (0.8 kg) (10 m/s2)- 6 N =
2 N. The sign indicates the net force is down. Now we
can calculate the acceleration a = Fnc(m= 2 Nl0.8 kg =
2.5 rn/s2.
15. B.
We draw a diagram (see figure). We can obtain

the net force by applying the Pythagorean theorem. The
net force is 13000N. From this we obtain the magnitude of the acceleration a = Fwlm = 26 mls2.
We draw a diagram (see figure). We include the

vertical forces of gravity and the normal force, which
add to zero (that is, balance each other). There is
nothing touching the truck except the ground (the girl
has already let go), but there must be another force
because the truck is changing velocity. This force is the
drag force, pointing backward. (There is no forward
force.) We want to know the magnitude of the drag
force, since this is also the net force. We obtain the
acceleration a = (0 m/s - 15 m/s)/5 s = -3 mls2.Thus, in
magnitude, the net force is Fm= ma = 12 N.
18. B.
We draw a diagram showing the forces on the
woman. Since she is traveling at constant velocity, the
net force on her is zero, and the forces are balanced.
Thus the force of the floor against the woman's feet has
the same magnitude as the force of gravity on her. This
is just the first law of motion. If you chose C, then you
need to study the first law of motion again.
19. B.
We can calculate an estimate of acceleration a =
AvlAf = (1 m/s)/(7 s) = 1/7 m/s2.Thus the total mass is
given by m = FJa = 9001(1/7) kg = 6300 kg. The mass
of the rocket case is then (6300 - 3300) kg = 3000 kg.
This is close to B.
Solutions . .. . . .. . . . . .. ...... .... ..... . . . Chdptcr
25. A.
20. C.
We need an equation which connects time and

mass (which differs from A to B). We also have
information about F, v,, and d. We can use F = ma and
d = v,At + 112 a(&)=.Combining these, we obtain
Forces A and B represent the normal force and

gravitational force on the stove. If these were not
balanced, the stove would not undergo uniform motion
(first law), so A is correct. Choice B is not a true
statement. Choice C is not even a correct statement of
the second law of motion, which states that the ac~eleration is proportional to net force. Choice D concerns
two forces which act on different objects.
26. D.
Forces A and C are paired. Force A is the upward

contact force of ground on the table, and force C is the
downward contact force of the table on the ground.
So if m increases by a factor of 4, then time increases
by a factor of
= 2.
21. A.
First we draw a diagram (see figure). The vertical

forces balance. The net horizontal force is Fnct=
105 N - 30 N - 70 N = 5 N. The net force is forward, so
the car is speeding up.
There is certainly gravity, and there is an upward

force from the road to balance i t There must be another
force, because the car has an acceleration vector
pointing backwards, hence the frictional force. The
correct choice is C. There is no force pushing the car
forward. It continues going forward for a while because
that is what cars do, by the first law of motion. The
force diagram is shown in the solution for problem 3.
28. B.
Gravity acts, of course. What else is touching the
arrow? Nothing, so B is correct. (See figure.)
The force which accelerates the car must be a

force of some agent acting on the car, so that fact
narrows the choices to C and D. The acceleration is
horizontal, so the net force must be horizontal, therefore
C is correct. nie car exerts a force on the road, so that
(third law) the road exert. a force on the car.
23. B.
The gravitational force acts on the stove, pulling
it toward the Earth. The answer is B.
24. D.
The paired force is the gravitational force of the

stove on the Earth, that is, arrow D.
The Sun's gravity acts on Mars. What else

touches the planet? Nothing. so B is correct The Sun's
gravity changes the course of Mars,which would be a
straight line away from the solar system, into the
circular orbit. (See figure.)
path if there
were no gravity
The
MCAT Physics Book

6.
Passage 1
C.
Only the table and the string are touching mass
M,but the string has no tension in it, so the answer is C.
1. D.
Choices A and B are irrelevant, and comparisons,
such as those in choice C, are meaningless if the units
do not match. The correct choice is D. From the table
we can see that equal jumps of time (for example, 0.2 s
to 0.4 s) result in equal jumps of velocity (0.1 m/s to
0.2 m/s). This is consistent with the statement that
AvlAt is a constant, or that acceleration is constant.
2.
Passage 2
1. A.
We have encountered two ways of calculating
acceleration: We can get the acceleration over an
interval by calculating a = AvlAt. Or we can obtain
acceleration Trom a = FJM. Since we do not want
acceleration over an interval (like 0 to 90 s) but at an
instant (t = 0 s), we will use the second approach, if
possible. We draw a force diagram (see figure). The net
Mg = 2.86 X lo7N force is given by Fnp=F-(2.0 X 106 kg) (10 m/s2) = 8.6 X lo6N. Thus we obtain
acceleration a = FnJM= 4.3 m/s2.
B.
It seems as if acceleration would be a useful
quantity to calculate, so let's choose the interval from
t = 0.0 to 0.2 s, obtaining a = AvlAt =
(0.1 m/s - 0.0 m/s) I (0.2 s - 0.0 s) = 0.5 m/s2. Now we
can look at the interval from t = 0.0 s to 0.9 s. We want
to find Ax, and we have At = 0.9 s, v, = 0.0 m/s, and a =
=
0.5 m/s2. From this we calculate Ax = 112
0.20 m.
3. B.
Gravity certainly acts on m. The only thing
touching mass m is the string, so B is correct. (See
figure.)
2.
A.
The passage states that 3400 kg of fuel are burned

each second, and that this rate is fairly constant. The
remaining mass after 300 s 6 2.0 X 106 kg (300 s) (3400 kgls) = 1.0 X 106kg.
4. B.
The things touching mass M are the table and the
string. It is true that the tension in the string is, in some
sense, caused by mass m, but M does not know or care
what the other end of the string is connected to. It only
cares that there is a force due to a string which is
directed to the right.
5. C.
By definition, we have vavg= Addt =
(0.09 m 0.0 m)1(0.06 s - 0.0 s) = 0.15 mls.
3. C.
Choice A is not even a true statement. Choice B is
a true statement, but v increasing with time indicates
only that the ship is speeding up, hence having positive
acceleration. The ratio of Av to At is the acceleration, so
if this ratio is increasing, the acceleration is increasing.
Choice C is correct. The ratio Ax to Av does not have
any obvious meaning.
Solutions .. ... ... ... . . . ... .. ... . .... .. . . Chapter 3
According to the passage, the mass of the ship

decreases as it bums its fuel. In addition, there is reason
to assume the Force is constant, since the rate of fuel
burning is appximately constant. The connection of
force, mass, and acceleration is a = FJM, so if M
decreases, then a increases. Thus C is correct.
5.
B.
In order for the shuttle to accelerate, there must
be a force on it by some agent. The third-law-pair force
must be a force of the shuttle on that agent. This
narrows the choices to A and C. Since there is little air
in space, A is ruled out. The shuttle pushes off from the
exhaust, and that is what creates the force which
accelerates it forward, according to the third law of
motion. (See figure.)
We only need to work as far as At2 in order to eliminate

choices B, C, and D.
Chapter 4 Solutions
6. C.
The weight of the block on the Moon is an exact
= 20 N.
analogy to its weight on Earth: F,,, = mg,
B.
The fact that the stars revolve about their combined center of mass is irrelevant for calculating the
force of gravity between them. That depends only on
their masses and the distance between their centers.
Since we have F,,= ~ m , m , l dif, one of the masses
decreases by a factor of 2, then F,,, decreases by a
factor of 2.
2.
On Earth (or on any planetary body), we get the

acceleration due to gravity on the surface by assuming
that gravity is the only force acting on an object. So we
where r is the
set F, = ma equal to F,, = ~m,,pd?,
radius of the planet:
A.
The factor of d2in the denominator indicates that

if d increases by a factor of 2, then Fgr,decreases by a
factor of 2' = 4.
See Example 2 in Section A. Now if the radius of the

planet were multiplied by 0.5, then the acceleration due
to gravity would be divided by (0.5)'. giving us 40 rn/s2.
(We expect an increase, since the acceleration increases
if radius decreases.) But the mass of Mars is 0.1 of
Earth's mass, so a factor of 0.1 in the numerator brings
the acceleration down to 4 m/s2.
3. B.
If m, decreases by a factor of 2, and m2 increases
by a factor of 5, then F,,, changes by a factor of 512.
4.
B.
I hope this one did not fool you. The mass of an

object does not change just because you transport it
somewhere.
5.
8. A.
This time the relevant equation is
A.
Objects in free fall on the Moon have a constant

acceleration due to gravity 1.6 m/s2 for the same reason
that free-fall objects have a = 9.8 m/s2 here on Earth.
This comes from setting F,,,= m equal to F,,,= mg, so
that a = g. In this case, we have
where d is the distance from the Sun to that planet. The

mass of Mars is 0.1 times that of Earth, so that is a
factor of 0.1. Another factor comes from the distance
from the Sun to Mars, which is 1.5 times greater, so we
divide by (IS)', yielding about 0.04.
9.
D.
The equation we need for this problem and the
next is
where d is the distance between the Earth and the

Moon. If d decreases by a factor of 3, then F,, increases by a factor of 3' = 9.
Solutions ... ...... ...... . . . . .. .. .... .... Chapter
Certainly there is the force of gravity, down.

There is nothing else touching the can opener, so
gravity is the only force. Since there is no horizontal
force, there is constant horizontal motion. But horizontal motion does not imply a horizontal force (see the
first law of motion).
The Earth's gravitational pull on the Moon is the

same as the Moon's on the Earth. That's the third law of
motion. (Why does the Moon in its orbit move so much
more than the Earth, then?)
In problem 7, we worked out the surface acceleration due to gravity of a planet. Since we are looking for
radius, we can solve for it, so we have
If the new planet has the same mass as Earth, but a

larger acceleration due to gravity, then the radius must
be smaller. And if a changes by a factor of 3, then r
changes by a factor of
a,so the answer is B. (We
don't need to know

right.)
8to figure out which choice is
17. B.
Since we have a force diagram, we next need to
inventory the information relevant to the vertical
motion. We have a,= -10 mls2and At = 2 s. Because
the opener is traveling horizontally when it leaves
Barbara's hand, we have v,, = 0 m/s. Since we want to
know Ay, we use the equation Ay = v,Pt + 112 a, (At)2=
20 m.
We want to relate acceleration and time, so we

want an equation that involves these quantities. (We
have seen enough of these problems to realize v, = 0.)
We can use
18. A.
Since we are looking for Ax, we now inventory
the horizontal information. We have ax=0 mls2 and
v,, = 1.5 mls. Thus we have Ax = v,,At + 1/2a, (At)' =
3 m.
19. C.
The problem asks for v2,:so we write v2, =*v,,+

ayAt= -20 mls. Since only positive choices are listed,
we choose the magnitude 20 mls.
20. B.
We can calculate v,, = v,, + a,At = 1.5 m/s. Of

course, we don't really have to do a calculation, since
we know that the horizontal velocity is constant as long
as there are no horizontal forces on the opener.
If g increases by a factor of 3, then At decreases by a
factor of
&.
Since weight is the force of gravity on an object,

and there are no massive planetary bodies around, the
weight is zero.
The acceleration is a = (0 m/s - 0.5 rnls)l(4 s) =

-0.125 m/s2.(This was a review question.)
Once we have the acceleration, we can calculate a

mass m = Flu = (0.08 N)/(O. 125 rn/s2) = 0.64 kg.
21. B.
As the ball just leaves the table. it is going 1.5 m/s

horizontally, so v,, = 1.5 mls.
22. A.
Since the initial velocity is horizontal, we have
V l Y = 0 Ids.
We draw a diagram including all the forces (see

figure). Since nothing is touching the ball, gravity is the
only force. Thus F,,,= mg = (0.2 kg) (10 mls2)= 2 N.
The
MCAT Physics Book
24. C .
30. B.
Since the ball simply drops the height of the

table, we have Ay = -1.25 m (choosing "up" to be
positive).
25. B.
For horizontal information, we have a,= 0 m/s2

and v t x= 1.5 mls, which is not enough to obtain At. For
vertical information, we have
-The vertical acceleration a, is the same for both

coins, and the initial vertical velocity v,, is the same for
both coins. The vertical displacement for the fall is
certainly the same, so in the equation Ay = v,,At +
1/2ay( ~ t )all
~ ,the parameters are the same. This
question combines the two ideas in this chapter, namely,
for freely falling bodies near the surface of the Earth the
vertical acceleration is 9.8 mls2 down, and for all bodies
vertical motion is independent of horizontal motion.
Ay = -1.25m,
31. A;
Both coins have the same vertical velocity. In
addition, Barbara's coins retain their horizontal velocity.
We can calculate
First, let's draw a diagram showing all the forces
on the wagon body.
I
We do not really need to take the square root to figure

out the answer. If choice A is right, then (At)2=
(0.26 s)' = 0.12 s2(wrong). If choice B is right, then
(At)' = (0.5 s)' = 0.25 s2.(Do not feel the need to work
every arithmetic problem to its end.)
26. A.
There is no horizontal force on the ball.
The handle and the ground are touching the wagon, so

we inciude the tension force of the handle T and the
upward force of the ground N. The problem mentions
friction, so we inciude that as well. There are four
forces on the wagon. We can redraw the force of the
handle as the sum of two components, as shown in the
second figure.
27. A.
We want Ax. Since we now have At, we have

enough information to calculate
We calculate T,as follows:
28. A.
Since gravitational force is given by F,, = mg,
and since Barbara's coins have four times the mass of
Alice's coins, the force on them is four times as large.
29.
B.
The acceleration of Alice's coins is a constant
9.8 rnls2 down, as is the acceieration of Barbara's.
Solutions
. . . . . ... . . . ... . ... . . . . . . . .. . . . . Chdpter
40. C.
33. B.
On Earth, the hammer lands first because of air

resistance, but if there is no air, then they have the same
acceleration (about 1.6 m/s2). Concerning choice D, of
course they do not fly off, but they move along with the
Moon in the same way that the grapefruit moves along
with the ship. See the example in the text. This is the
same way that a passenger moves along with a swiftly
moving train.
We calculate T, as follows:
T, = T sin 30".
34. A.
The gravitational force is vertical, so its horizontal component is zero.
41. B.
There is the force of gravity, down, and the

normal force, up. The only thing touching the ball is the
floor, which can cause only a normal force and possibly
a frictional force. Since the problem states there is no
friction, choice B is correct. Concerning choice C, there
is nothing pushing the ball to the right, since it simply
retains its initial motion. Choice D adds in a leftward
force, presumably of friction, which the problem says is
not there.
35. D.
The vertical component of the gravitational force

is the magnitude of the force, which is F,,= mg.
36. A.
We don't have enough information to add up the
force vectors, but we don't need to. The problem states
the wagon is nonaccelerating (velocity is a constant
2 d s ) , so a = 0 m/s2 and Fn,,= 0 N.
42. D.
If, as the problem states, the ball is going to the

right at 0.3 m/s at time t = 0 s, then without any
horizontal forces, it will continue to go 0.3 m/s forever.
The problem is idealized, but without any information
about a horizontal force, there is no way to calculate a
horizontal acceleration or a horizontal change in
velocity.
37. C.
Gravity is acting on the bale, of course. The rope
exerts a tension force. The force diagram is shown.
Note that the bale is not in free fall.
Passage
1. D.
For the student cunning along the roof, he starts
from rest (v, = 0 mls) and ends up running v2 = 5 m/s.
We have Ax = 5 m, and we want At. We use & =
1/2(v1+ v2)& to obtain At = 2 s.
2.
38. B.
If "up" is positive, then the net force is given by
F,= 4000 N - (500 kg) (10 mls2) = -1000 N. We have
used a negative sign for gravity since it points down.
We can calculate the acceleration a = FnJm =

1000 NI50 kg = 2 mls2.
B.
The acceleration on the roof is one problem; the
falling is another. For At, we need the vertical information:
Ay =-7.2m,

We use the equation
Here we have estimated a = 3. Next we estimate 1.43=

1.4 - 1.4 - 1.4 = 2 - 1.4 = 3, so we have
to obtain (At12 = 1.44 s2.We can eliminate choice A, and

choice C is too large, so B is right.
3. B.
We know gravity pulls down and the roof pushes
up, and these forces add to zero. In addition, there must
be a force accelerating the student forward (to the
right). Surprisingly, it is the roof which exerts the force
forward. His feet push backwards on the roof, and the
roof (by the third law of motion) pushes forward on
him.
The arithmetic is spelled out so that you can see

how you can do a lot of fast estimating and still get a
reasonable answer. Even on questions which involve
much less arithmetic, you should always be looking for
shortcuts.
2.
C.
We know gravity pulls down. Since nothing else

touches the student, there is no other force.
5.
The acceleration due to gravity is given by
D.
where M is the mass of the body, and r is the radius.
The passage states that M for a neutron star is the gme
as M for the Sun, but r is 50,000 times smaller. That
means a,is greater by a factor of (50,000)~.
Since the student's fall takes At = 1.2 s, the

=
horizontal displacement is Ax = v , , h + 1/2a,(~t)~
6 m.
6. B.
All during the fall the student has the same
horizontal velocity 5 rnls.
3.
A.
The force due to gravity is
Fgm" =-GMm
d2 '
Passage 2
1. A.
We estimate density as follows:
where G is the gravitational constant. Considering the

two situations in the problem, we know the mass of the
neutron star is the same as the mass of the Sun. The
mass of the two planets is the same. The distance d is
the same for the two situations. The force of gravity
does not depend on the size of the bodies but on the
distance from center to center.
Choice A is not relevant to the things which

happen 2000 km away from the neutron star. Concerning choices C and D, the surface gravity of the neutron
star is also irrelevant. Choice B correctly states that the
force of gravity between near things is greater than
between far things. This difference is enough to pull a
body apart.
Solutions .... . .. .. . . .. ... . .. . . .. .. .. ... . Chdpter
Chapter 5 Solutions
The force diagram should include gravity,

pointing down. Nothing else is touching the orange,
except the problem mentions that wind exerts a horizontal force, so we add that. The force diagram is shown.
C.
First we draw a force diagram (see figure). In

addition to gravity, we have two forces, normal and
tension, due to two things touching the crate. There is
no friction. The gravitational force vector can be
separated into two components (see figure).
vertical
2.
C.
The only vertical force is due to gravity, so F, =

F,,, = mg = 30 N.
3. C.
At the top of the orange's path we have v,, =
0 d s . Since this is vertical information, let's see what
other vertical information we have. We have a, =
-10 d s 2 and v,, = 5 d s . We want At, so we write v,, =
v,, + a p t and obtain At = 0.5 s.
4.
B.
We want a,. The horizontal information we have
is v,, = 0 and F,= 6 N. We don't have enough information for the equations of Chapter 2, but we can use a, =
FJm = (6 N)/(3 kg) = 2 d s 2 .
5.
B.
From trigonometry we know
Since we know a,, v,,, and At, we can find v2,=

v,, + a,dt = 0 + (2 d s 2 )(0.5 s) = 1 mls.
G, = Gcos 30".
6.
B.
First we draw a force diagram. This problem has
those key words "at constant velocity", which means
there is a force balance on the shoe. The horizontal
forces are equal in magnitude so that their vector sum is
zero, so B is correct. If you chose C, then go back and
read the section on the first law of motion.
This gives us choice C.
B.
We get this from the same diagrams shown in the
solution for 7.

9. C.
If we take the sum of all the perpendicular forces
(in the text we called them "vertical"), we obtain
N - C, = (F,),. The negative sign denotes the "downward" direction of G But the crate is moving at a
constant velocity, which tells us that the acceleration is
zero, and the net force is zero. Thus N - C = 0, giving
choice C.
F, = F,,, sin 30"
..
14. B.
Using the same diagram as in solution 13, we

obtain F,/F,,,= cos 30, and Fy= 17 N.
10. A.
As we noted, the net force is zero because of the

information we have on the acceleration.
15. D.
In order to obtain the normal force, we need to
consider all the vertical forces. We can obtain the
vertical component of the net force by looking at the
force diagram, so we write
II. B.
This time we take the sum of parallel forces

("horizontal"), and we obtain T - C,,= (F,,), = 0. Again,
we know the horizontal component of the net force is
zero because the crate is moving at constant velocity.
Thus the answer is B.
(FneJy= N - mg - F,.
Here we have used F,, = mg and have chosen "up" to
be positive. But we know that the sled is not moving up
or down, so the vertical acceleration a, is zero. And
from second law of motion, we know that (F,), = ma, =
0. The above equation becomes
12. B.
There are two things touching the sled: the
ground and the stick. So, in addition to gravity pointing
down, we draw the normal force pointing up and the
force due to the stick pointing downlright. There is no
friction (which would act to the left). So B is the correct
answer (see figure).
O=N-mg-F,,
16. B.
In the last problem, we talked about the vertical

component of the net force being zero. We can tell from
the force diagram that there is a net force, however, and
this net force is the horizontal component F,.
13. A.
We use the following diagram to obtain the
vertical component of the stick's force.
The acceleration of the sled is given by a,=

(Fn>,lm = 2.0 m/s2
18. D.
The books are following a straight path. By

turning the wheel, the driver pulls her car door into the
path of the books, giving the impression that the books
have a force on them.
Using trigonometry, we obtain
F, = sin 30"
F&k
Solutions . ......... . ...... . . . . ...... . . . . Chdpter
19. B.
The direction of the velocity vector is always

changing but not its magnitude. At the moment shown
in the diagram, the velocity vector is pointing in the
direction of the stopper's motion, that is, B.
20. A.
The tangential acceleration is zero, since the

speed is constant. However, because the stopper is
moving in a circle, the velocity vector is changing
direction, and the acceleration vector points toward the
center of the circle.
consider what would happen if there were no friction

between the tires and the road. The car would simply
slide straight forward into the other lane.
28. A.
Gravity and the normal force add to zero. We

know there is a net force toward the center of the wheel,
because the beetle is moving in a circle, so this narrows
our choices to A and C. Choice C includes a force in the
forward direction, but since the wheel is rotating at
constant speed, there is no tangential acceleration and
no reason to assume there is a tangential force.
29. C.
21. A.
Since the acceleration vector a" points toward the

A
center, we can'conclude that the net force F,,,,= ma'

points toward the center as well.
The acceleration can be calculated a = v2/r=

(2 m/~)~/(0.5
m) = 8 m/s2.
30. B.
22. B.
The centripetal force is provided by the string,

which is a force of tension.
Once there is no longer a centripetal force, there

is no longer a centripetal acceleration. According to the
first law of motion, the velocity vector would be
constant.
23. B.
If the string were to break, then there would no

longer be a force to affect the velocity vector. The
velocity vector would be constant (first law of motion),
so B is correct.
We draw a diagram, including the three forces on

the crate. We choose "horizontal" and "vertical" to be
parallel and perpendicular to the surface, respectively,
and we divide gravity into components (see figure).
Because the car moves in a circle, we know there

is a centripetal acceleration and a centripetal force. This
narrows the choices to A and C. There is no reason to
assume there is a force acting forward on the car,
especially since the tangential acceleration is zero
(because of the car's constant speed). Hence A is
correct. If you chose C, perhaps you were thinking that
motion in the forward direction implies there must be a
force in the forward direction. Not so.
25. C.
The acceleration is given by a,,=
v2/r =
(3 m/~)~/(4
m) = 2.25 m/s2.
Since the normal force is "vertical", let us consider the

vertical component of Fna
= G. From the diagram we
obtain
(F~,);= N - Mgcosa.
Once we know the acceleration of the car, we
necessarily know the net force on the car: F,,= ma =
(1200 kg) (2.25 m/s2)= 2700 N.
~ u t w know
e
that a, = 0,because the crate is not
moving up or down. This implies (F,,,), = 0, and we
have
O=
27. C.
To see that the centripetal force is due to friction,
N - Mgcosa,
N = Mgcosa.

32. D.
The tangential acceleration is in the same direction he is

going. It would point the opposite way if he were
slowing down. Adding the two vectors together gives
the result B (see figure).
If we consider the "horizontal" component of

Fw,=MZi, then we can obtain from the diagram
(F,()~= T - Mgsina,
where we have taken the positive direction to be up the
incline. The acceleration is
=--T
In one second the centrifuge sample undergoes 50

revolutions, and each revolution is the circumference
2 n r = 2 K (0.1 m). Thus in one second the sample
travels 50 (0.2nm), giving a velocity 10wm/s.
gsina.
39. B.
If there is no gravity, then there is no net force,
and Jupiter follows a straight line at constant speed,
maintaining the same velocity vector as it had when the
gravity was cut off.
33. A.
The force inward is due to friction between the

runner's shoes and the track. It may seem surprising
that there is not a force forward, since the runner is
actively running. There is a horizontal acceleration, and
thus net force, only at the beginning of the race when
the runner is accelerating. When she is going at a
constant speed, she expends effort pushing down with
the foot in contact with the track and moving it back
fast enough.
Passage
1. B.
Each day the man travels a distance given by the

circumference of the Earth C = 2w R-.
34. C .
The net force is given by F,,= ma, and the only

acceleration is centripetal, so we have a = a,,,= v2/r.
2.
In order to calculate the centripetal force F,,,=

ma,,,,,we need the mass of the man and the centripetal
acceleration. We can find the centripetal acceleration
a,,,,= v 2 / ~ , , if we know his velocity and the radius of
the Earth. It seems that D is the correct answer. The
problem with choice D is that we can calculate the
velocity once we know the period and radius (as in the
previous problem).
35. B.
The frequency is the number of revolutions per
unit of time. Each revolution represents a trip of length
2w R. So the velocity is the total distance per time, that
is, v = 2 z Rf. Iff is doubled, then v is doubled.
36. C .
On the other hand the centripetal acceleration is
a , = v2/r, SO a,, is increased by a factor of 4.
3. D.
Since the man is traveling in a circle at constant
speed, his acceleration vector points toward the center
of rotation, and so does the net force vector. For this to
be so, the magnitude of the gravitational force must be
greater than the magnitude of the force of the ground.
37. B.
The person experiences a centripetal acceleration
because he is moving in a circle, and he experiences a
tangential acceleration because he is speeding up.
C.
4.
A.
The gravitational force for the two men is the
same. Since the scale reading on a rotating Earth is less
than the gravitational force, the correct answer is A.
5.
C.
According to Newton's law of gravitation, if the

distance in the denominator is less, then the gravitational force is greatex.
Solutions ...............................
Chapter 6 Solutions
Chapter
We can also get an expression for ( F , , , ) ~from the

diagram:
('Es)x
= Tx - 4r*
1. B.
We draw a diagram with all the forces. The two

things touching the block are the ground, which
contributes the normal force and friction, and the rope,
which contributes tension. We also include gravity. We
can read the horizontal component of the tension from
the diagram.
Since the surfaces are not slipping, the friction is

static friction.
5. C.
We draw a diagram showing all the forces.
2.
D.
Since only the steel is touching the copper block, the
only forces besides gravity are the normal force and
friction. We choose axes which are tilted compared to
the level ground, and divide the gravitational force into
two components. In order to find the normal force, we
look at the "vertical" forces, so we write
Since the normal force is vertical, we add all the

vertical forces to obtain (F,,),, so that
But
(eel), is ma,, and the vertical acceleration is zero
,),'(
because the block is not changing its velocity up and

down. Thus
(F,,)~
= 0, and
= N - Gy.
But ( F - ) ~is zero, since a, is zero. So we have
N=Gy
= mg cos 30"
3. C.
Our first thought for this question is the definition, F,= &N, but none of the answers corresponds to
this, since N is not mg. Choices C and D mention the
tension T, so let's look at the force diagram again. The
problem states that the block's velocity is constant,
implying 4,= 0. Thus we must have ( F , ) ~ = 0.
We do not really need to do the last few calculations.

Since we know cos 30" is somewhat less than 1, we
know that the normal force is somewhat less than mg =
20 N.
Since the block is not moving, it is not accelerating, and F,,,= 0.
Since there is force balance on the block, we must
Force balance allows us to conclude that the

frictional force is equal to the gravitational force (as in
question 10).
12. A.
The friction in this problem is static friction. We
know this friction must be less than the quantity 4 N in
order for the friction to be sufficient to keep the
surfaces from slipping. Since we have j@ =
(0.2) (0.4 N) = 0.08 N, and F,is less than this, there is
no slipping.
have (F,,)~= 0. But from the diagram we know that
(F,,.)~ = Ft,- G,, so that we have

0 = (Fnet),
13. D.
= mg sin 30"
First we draw a diagram including all the forces.
By definition, we have p= Ff)N

= (10 N)/(17 N) = 0.58.
The man is pushing to the right, and the ground exerts a
normal force and a frictional force. Since the washer is
not moving, its acceleration is zero, and we have force
balance. From the diagram we can see that the normal
force and the gravitational force add to zero, so their
magnitudes must be equal. Thus we have N = F,,,=
1000 N.
9. B.
First we draw a diagram with all the forces.
14. B.
Force balance tells us that the man's force and the

frictional force are equal in magnitude, so F,= 700 N.
Did you calculate Ffr=&N = 800 N? Remember, this is
the calculation for the maximum static friction. The
actual static friction forcecan have any magnitude from
zero up to this maximum.
The wall and the pencil touch the card. The problem
states that the pencil exerts a horizontal force (see
diagram), and the wall exerts a normal force and a
frictional force. The normal force is perpendicular to
the surface and the frictional force parallel to it, even if
the surface is vertical. The gravitational force is simply
FP,= mg = (0.004 kg) (10 m/s2) = 0.04 N.
Since we are assuming the card is not moving, the

acceleration axis zero, and we have (F,)~ = 0. But
(F,)== Fw- N,so the normal force is equal in

magnitude to F
,
,which is given in the problem.
15. C.
The man would have to exert a force in excess of
the maximum possible friction, that is,
I1
= 800 N .
Solutions . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter
16. B.
We have gravity, pointing down. The road exerts a
force normal to its surface. Also, there is a force of
friction. Since the car is going uphill with its brakes
applied and tires skidding, the kinetic friction force is
parallel to the surface and downhill. ?Ae force diagram
is shown.
But the car is not moving up or down, so a, = 0 and
(F,,)~= 0, SO we have
O=N-Gy,
N=Gy
= GCOS
= mgsin 8.
19. C .
We cannot obtain the force of friction from the

force diagram because we do not have a force balance
and do not have any information about the acceleration.
But we can calculate F, = &A'.
20. C.
Did you choose D? If so, go back and read about
the first law of motion. Meditate on it for about fifteen
minutes.
The net force is the same as the sum of all the

horizontal components of the forces, so
=&N+mgsin8
17. C .
The components of gravity are shown in the
diagram below.
where we have taken "downhill" to be positive.
21. A.
Because the car is turning at constant speed, we
know the net force points toward the center of the turn.
There is no force in the direction the car is going
because the car is neither s p e d n g up nor slowing
down. The force diagram is shown, in which we view
the car from the rear and the turn is to the left.
We calculate Gxas follows:
G, = Gsin 8,
G, = mgsin 8.
18. B.
We can obtain the net vertical force from the

diagram, so we have
( F ~ )=, N- G,.
22. C.
Friction supplies the centripetal force. (The turn
would be impossible if the surface were frictionless.)
Since the tires are not slipping on the road, the appropriate friction is static.
23. C .
The acceleration is centripetal acceleration given
by a- = v2/r = (8 m/s)'/ 10 m = 6.4 m/s2.
The
MCAT Physics Book

From the diagram we can see that the normal
force provides the centripetal force.
From the force diagram we can see that the

normal force and gravity balance, so that N = 10,000 N.
25. A.
3.
A.
Because the motion is uniform circular rotation,

the acceleration vector points toward the center of
rotation.
If we know the acceleration, we can calculate the

net force F,,= ma = 6400 N.
26. A.
Remember that the expression @ gives the
maximum force of static friction. If any more friction is
required by a situation, then surfaces begin to slip. In
this case, this would mean the car goes into a skid. But
@ = (0.9) (10,000 N) = 9000 N, which is large
enough. Thus the car will not go into a skid.
Passage 1
1.
A.
We draw a force diagram including the force of

gravity.
4.
C.
The rider traverses the circumference of the circle
(2n R) during each period of time T. Thus his speed is
2 n RIT.
5. A.
The upward force must balance the gravitational
force, so the magnitude of the upward force must be Mg
as well.
6. D.
The force of friction (which is the upward force
in the previous question) must be less than the maximum possible static friction (F,),, = @:
Mg < PY
But N is the centripetal force, so we substitute N =
MV*IRto obtain
'
Dividing both sides by M and multiplying by ~ l v gives
Translating this into words gives choice D.
The only thing touching the rider once the floor drops is
the side of the drum, which exerts a normal force that
ends up being toward the axis of rotation. It also exerts
a frictional force, which is up (balancing gravity). For
uniform circular motion, we know the net force must be
toward the center of rotation, so we can see that this
force diagram is complete.
Chapter
4.
Passage 2
1.
D.
For turbulence we need the Reynolds number to
be greater than about 2 x loS,so we have
Re> 2 x 10'
B.
According to the passage, equation (1) is valid as
long as the Reynolds number is greater than about 100,
so, using equation (2). we have
Re> 100,
-pvl
>2x10S.
tl
This is just an estimate, so choice D is about right.
5.
B.
We apply equation (1) again, so we have F,,,=
(0.2) (lo3 kg/m3) (0.01 m2) (2 d s 1 2= 8 N.
6. B.
2.
B.
The diagram shows the car, modeled by a block
shape.
We draw a force diagram for the drop at terminal

velocity.
The two forces are equal in magnitude, so we can write
The arrow shows the direction the car would go, so the
shaded face is the cross section we are interested in.
The area is A = (1-5 m) (2 m) = 3 m2. The length of the
car does not matter.
3.
A.
We apply equation (1) to obtain
Fdrag= CPAV'
Let's compare this terminal velocity for the two

situations, on Earth and on Venus. The question states
that M,the mass of the drop is the same, g is the same,
A is the same, and C is a constant. The density of the
respective atmospheres is different, however. Looking
at the choices, we exclude I. The density of the atmosphere depends on temperature and pressure, so choice
B is correct.
The
MCAT Physics Book
Passage
1.
A.
If air resistance is included, there is an.initia1

force down while the ball is going up, so the maximum
height is less. The ball loses energy to air resistance, so
its speed just before hitting the ground will be less than
in the idealized problem.
A.
C.
Even if the density of air changed appreciably (it
does not), it would not help cats survive a greater fall.
This holds for choice B as well. Regarding choice C, if
cats stretch their legs, then this increases their crosssectional area, which would decrease their terminal
velocity, so is a viable possibility for an answer.
Regarding D, the statement is true, but the fact would
not help a cat to have a lesser terminal velocity from a
greater fall.
If there is no air, then the only force is the force of

gravity:
(~"et),
= Fgrav .
But the force of gravity is mg, and the acceleration is

given by
may = m g ,
So, if we call "up" positive, then a, = -10 m/s2, and v,, =

3 m/s. Also, to obtain the height, we write
v;, = v:~
2.
+ 2ayAy ,
B.
We calculate the drag F,, =

(0.2) (1.3 kg/m3) ( ~ ( 0 . 0 3m)') (3 m/s)' = 7 x
3.
N.
C.
According to the passage, the air resistance must
be small compared to the other forces in the situation,
but this is just the force of gravity.
4.
A.
As the ball travels away from the center of the
E d ,the force of gravity decreases slightly, since

Fgnv=
~m,rnd/:
Solutions . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . Chdpter
Chapter 7 Solutions
1.
4.
A.
The radius vector is shown in the diagram.
A.
We consider the fixed point to be the origin, and

we add the angles and &, to the diagram of the meter
stick (see figure).
We calculate torque
z= rFsing
= (0.4 m)(20 N) 1
= 8 Nm.
The torque is clockwise, so its sign is negative.
z,
For force the value of q5 is 90". Thus torque is

z = rFsin q5
= (0.5 m)(10 N) sin 90"
5.
C.
There are two ways to calculate the torque of
force g about the pivot (see diagram).
= 5 Nm.
The torque is clockwise, so the sign is negative.
For force g, the value of q5 is 150". but when we

calculate torques we can always use the smaller angle
30" (see figure). The torque is
z= rFsinq5
= 2.5 Nm.
The more difficult way leaves 2 in the lower right

comer. In the easier way we can move E. Since B points
down, we can slide it directly up (maintaining its
direction) to the upper right corner. Now we have r =
0.3 m and sin q5 = 1. so that T = (0.3) (10 N) = 3 Nm.
The sign is negative because the torque is clockwise.
2
The torque is counterclockwise. so the sign is positive.
3.
B.
e,
For force the angle $ is 0". so sin $ = 0, a d the

torque is zero. We can see this from the diagram, in
which force C does not tend to produce any rotation
about the fixed point.
The
MCAT Physics Book
6.
B.
9.
The torque is zero since sin @ is zero. Another

way to see this is to note that force C would slide right
through the pivot, so its torque must be zero. (See
figure.)
A.
The force is perpendicular to the line connecting
B and A, so 4 = 90". We have
= -60 Nm.
10. C.
The tension due to the person pulling the rope
acts at the point B, so the torque due to this tension is
zero (since r = 0 m).
11. D.
7.
A.
We draw a diagram (see figure) showing the

forces on the meter stick.
The easiest way to do this problem is to take

torques about point A and to apply torque balance. The
torque due to the horizontal rope is zero, and we have
rnct = 0
= 4 1 . 5 m)(40 N)
+ r2,
5 = 60 Nm.
This makes sense, because the torque due to the weight
of the book about A should be balanced by the torque of
the tension T about A.
A more difficult way to do the problem is to
calculate T using force balance (F,), = 0 and obtaining
T = 80 N. Then apply the definition of torque.
The net torque on the meter stick about the fulcrum
must be zero. Since the torque due to the force of the
fulcrum is zero, we have
met = 0,
-F,r,
+ F2r, = 0,
m2 = 2.4
12. A.
We draw a diagram (see figure) showing all the
forces on the seesaw itself.
kg.
c.
We draw a diagram (see figure) showing all the
forces on the rope. Since the weight of the book acts at
point B, the torque is zero (because r = 0 m).
Since there is a torque balance about the fulcrum, we

may write
F,(2 m) - F,(y) = 0,
Now y = 1.5 m represents the distance from the fulcrum

to Scott's seat. Thus he sits 0.5 m from the end.
Solutions . . . .. .... . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . .. .. ..Chapter
16. C .
13. A.
We draw a diagram showing all the forces on the
meter stick (see figure).

forearm (see figure).
If we take torques about the fulcrum, then the fulcrum

force will not have a torque. Torque balance becomes
The torque due to the weight of mass A is
m = 0.4 kg.
Z,
= (0.4 rn)(l.5 kg 1l0):

= 6 Nm.
We draw a diagram showing all the forces which

contribute to torques about the axis of pulley B (see
figure).
17. B.
The torque due to the weight of the arm is
= 4 Nm.
18. C .
Torque balance about the elbow yields the
following equation:
The torque due to the weight of mass m is
z = (L)(mg)l .
15. C.
We can take torques about the axis of pulley B. In
both cases we have sin@ = 1, and torque b,alance yields

two rods (see figure).
The torque is -1T, so that the torque balance is

-dF,sin 90" - lTsin 90" = 0,
-dF, - lmg = 0,
The negative sign tells us that the direction of ph is to

the left.
21. D.
The sum of the vertical forces must be zero, so
we have
Fh + FBr- mg = 0,
Fh
We do not know if the forces are to the left or right, but
the equation will tell us later on if our choices were
right. If we take torques about A, then torques due to
>
F,, FAY,
and FBy
are zero. Torque balance becomes
dFB,sin900 - lTsin90 = 0,
+ FBI= mg.
And this makes sense, because the wall is providing the

upward force which adds to the one downward force of
gravity of the brick.
22. D.

rod (see figure).
dFB,- lmg = 0,
1
FBK
= ;T mg.
The positive sign tells us that our choice was correct,
that is, that
to the right.
2-0. A.
If we take torques about B, then torques due to
FAY,FBx,
and FBy
are zero. We can calculate the torque
due to the tension in the wire easily by sliding the force
down the string to the point shown in the figure.
We can use the Pythagorean theorem to obtain the

length of the wire. The torque due to the tension in the
wire about point A is given by
?: = (2
m) Tsin8
Thus the ratio dT is given by dividing both sides by T,

so we have
Solutions . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 7
23. C.
We do not know Faand F,, so we can obtain an

equation without them if we take torques about point A.
Torque balance becomes
(2 m)Tsin8- (1 m)F,,sin90
- (1 m)F2,,,sin900 = 0 ,
Then we can write the torques at sight, and torque

balance becomes
(1 m)F, sin 90" - (1 m)F,,,
(1 m)Fz,
sin 90" sin 90" = 0.
( l r n ) ~-20Nm-10Nm=0,
F, = 30 N.
26. B.
We draw a diagram with all the forces on the leg
(see figure).
24. C.
If we take torques about point B, then F, and T do

not appear in the equation, so torque balance becomes
-(2 m ) ~sin
, 90"+ (1 m)F;,,, sin 90" +
(1 m) F,,,, sin 90" = 0,
"1
(1 rn)(2 kg. loF
If we take torques about point B, we eliminate Fwy, T,

from the torque balance, leaving just m, and the
and
mass of the leg, so we write
sin 90' = 0,
27. B.
25.
D.
This time we eliminate F, and T from the torque
balance by taking torques about point C. The torque due
to Fxis (1 m) F,, since q3 = 90".We can get the torques
due to F,,,, and F2 by sliding the forces upwards,
that it, opposite the d~rectionthe vectors point (see
figure).
To obtain an equation with just m, and m,, we can

take torques about the center of mass of the leg, so
torque balance becomes
Dividing by 10 m/s2 and solving yields
-0.3m1+0.6m2= 0,
We could obtain the same result by figuring out mZ=

3.33 kg with the same method used in the previous
problem.
The
MCAT Physics Book
28. C .
The tension exerted by the body must be equal in

magnitude to the one other horizontal force, the tension
due to the weight of the 8-kg mass. We write
-Fmy + T = 0,
FbOdY
=T
Both the length and the area are increased, the

length by a factor of 4, and the area by a factor of 16.
The equation in solution 29 indicates A1 decreases by a
factor of 4.
34. B.
The torque due to the force on the rod is given by

7,= rFsin90,
The equation we need is the proportionality

between stress (FIA) and strain (Alll). For this problem,
we do not need to put the proportionality constant in the
right place, but the equation is
If F, A, and Y stay the same, and we increase 1by a

factor of 3, then A1 increases by a factor of 3.
Since nothing is moving, we must have static

equilibrium, and therefore torque balance. The figure
shows the torques acting on the axle, and since there are
two they must be balanced. This implies that z, and .r,
are equal in magnitude.
30. B.
Stress is defined as
stress =
F
A'
so if F and A stay the same, then the stress does not

change.
31. A.
The circumference is C = 2nr, so if the circumference increases by a factor of 4, then the radius increases
by a factor of 4. (See discussion in Chapter 1 if this is
unclear.) Then the cross-sectional area increases by a
factor of 42 = 16. Refemng to the equation in solution
29, if area increases by a factor of 16, then A1 decreases
by a factor of 16.
32. A.
The cross-sectional area increases by a factor of

16 (see previous problem), so the stress (forcerarea)
decreases by a factor of 16.
Passage
1. B.
Don't let the information in the problem distract
you from the fact that there must be a force balance on
the muscle, since the muscle is not accelerating. Thus
and Fh,, are the same.
the magnitudes of F,,,
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . . ... . Chdpter
Stress, force, and area are related by the equation
The force exerted at the center of the biceps is the same

as the force exerted at the forearm (force balance, see
previous question), and the area is 100 times smaller.
Thus the stress at the foreann is 100 times larger. (You
may have done this problem by an intermediate step by
calculating that force to be 500 N.)
3.
D.
Statue B has 8 times the volume of statue A.
Since m = pV, statue B has 8 times the mass. Since
weight w = mg, statue B has 8 times the weight as well.
Stress is forcelarea. The force (weight) increases

by a factor of 8, and the area increases by a factor of 4.
so the stress increases by a factor of 814 = 2. Also, see
the last sentence of the fourth paragraph.
5. C .
The passage indicates that the breaking point is
related to the threshold stress for the material in the
cable. Stress is force per area. Increasing the length
does not change the force of the load (the lantern
weight) or the cross-sectional area, so the breaking
weight would be the same.
The
MCAT Phyncs Book
Chapter
3.
8 Solutions
B.
The sticking together provides the clue that this is
a conservation-of-momentum problem. We draw a
diagram showing the system before and after the
collision (see figure).
before:
1. A.
The fact that the carts stick together is our clue

that this is a conservation-of-momentum problem. Let's
draw a diagram (see figure) of the system before and
after the collision.
after:
before:
Before the collisior. we calculate the total momentum as

follows:
The total momentum before the collision is given by
I
The collision of A and B does not affect the
momentum of the system, so the answer is the same as
the answer for problem 3.
where the negative sign indicates the momentum vector

points left. The question asks only for the magnitude.
2.
A.
The external forces, which are gravity and the

normal force, are balanced, so momentum is conserved.
Thus we can set the momentum before the collision
equal to the momentum after the collision, so that
Pbefort
= Puw '
where the negative sign indicates the velocity vector

points left.
In this problem we set the initial momentum

equal to the final momentum after all the collisions have
occurred, so the final velocity is given by
Pberare
=P h
-1.1- kg m =(6kg)v,,
S
Solutions .... .... . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. .. Chdpter 8
6. C.
If the track were not level, gravity and the normal
force would not be balanced, and there would be a
component of gravity accelerating the carts. Thus the
momentum of this system would not be conserved. Of
course, if the system included the Earth, then the
momentum would be conserved, but then there would
not be enough information to do the problem.
7.
before:
1-
A.
We draw a diagram of the system before and after

the explosion (see figure). The momentum before the
string is cut is just.0 kg d s , since neither of the carts is
moving. Since the external forces are balanced, the final
momentum is also zero.
before:
after:
Before the collision, Michael's momentum is

(60 kg) (0.5 m/s) = 30 kg m/s pointing north, and
Carol's momentum is (40 kg) (1.0 m/s) = 40 kg m/s
pointing west. The total momentum before the collision
given by a vector diagram (see figure below).
While the sting is cut, there are no unbalanced

external forces, so we can set the momentum before to
the momentum after the cutting, so we write
By the Pythagorean theorem, the magnitude of the
momentum is 50 kg m/s pointing in the northwest
direction. Since momentum is conserved, this is the
same as the momentum after the collision.
The final velocity must be v,= &=

Since Michael and Carol stick together, we think
this is a problem in conservation of momentum. During
the tiny time of their collision, momentum is approximately conserved. (Gravity is an unbalanced force, but
it operates in the vertical direction only, and we are
ignoring that direction because the change in momentum due to gravity is so small.) Thus we draw a diagram
of the system before and after the collision. See figure
below.
mto,
(50 kg m/s)/lOO kg = 0.5 m/s.
ll.A.
. Before the collision, the total momentum of the

system is 0 kg m/s, since the rifle and bullet are not
moving. Momentum is conserved in the explosion, so
the total momentum after the explosion is 0 kg m/s, as
well. The momenta of the moving rifle and the moving
bullet are in opposite directions, so they add to zero.
The
MCAT Physics Book
12. A.
If we draw a diagram,
15. D.
after:
Vbullet
we can write the conservation-of-momentum equation:

Pbefore
= Palter
13. C.
Since the problem mentions force and time, we
think immediately of momentum. The external force of
3 N imparts to cart A the momentum given by
Ap, = FAt
= 3~
Concerning choice A, gravity acts only vertically.

Choice B is ambiguous, referring either to the car's
force on the road or the road's force on the car. In
neither case is there a force on the books pulling them
forward - the brakes do not come into it, they don't
touch the books - so B is not correct. Concerning
choice C, momentum is not a force (it does not even
have the same units). A force is a push or pull on an
object due to something. So D is correct.
What is going on? If you missed this problem,
you need to work on your understanding of the first law
of motion. The car and the books are traveling along
with forces balanced at the beginning of the problem.
When the driver applies the brakes, the wheels push
forward on the road. The road pushes backward on the
car (third law of motion), and it is the backward force
that slows the car. The books, not having a backward
force, continue in uniform motion until the seat they are
on is pulled out from under them.
16. A.
Since momentum is conserved during the
collision, the change in momentum is zero.
(s)2
= 6Ns
17. A.
Let's draw a diagram showing the system of two

asteroids before and after the collision (see figure).
before:
pA= 6 b + o - = 6kgm
-a
S
kgm
S
Here we have explicitly worked out the units. Recall

that FAt gives the change of momentum, but since cart
A starts at zero momentum, the momentum of cart A
after the force has acted is 6 kg d s .
14. B.
For the collision, there is no unbalanced external

force, and we can apply the equation for conservation
of momentum:
1.25 kg
Solutions .... . . . ...... . . ...... . . ........ Chapter
The total momentum before the collision must be

determined by adding the individual momenta as
vectors. This is shown in the momentum diagram (see
figure). Thus we obtain the total momentum of the
system before the collision to have the magnitude
13 kg m/s (from the Pythagorean theorem).
19. D.
. An impulse is a change in momentum. If the ball
is initially going in the positive direction, after the
bounce it is going in a negative direction. We calculate
Ap = p,- p, = (0.3 kg) (7 m/s) - (0.3 kg) (-5 m/s) =
3.6 kg m/s.
A force and a time reminds us of momentum. The

change in momentum is given by Ap = FAt = 50 kg d s .
Since the object is initially at rest, this must be the
magnitude of its final momentum. But when we look at
the choices, we realize that we do not know the
direction of the force and therefore the direction of the
final momentum. Thus B is correct.
The final velocity can be determined from momentum
conservation:
21. A.
When the first ball hits the floor, it has a momentum vector pointing down. After the bounce, its
momentum vector points up. The impulse imparted by
the floor is shown in the first figure. (Recall that p,=
Pbelorc + 4 . )
18. B.
before:
after:
impulse
We draw a diagram (see figure).
.A
before:
after:
ball 1
I AT
m
3- S
We do not know which direction cart B is going after

the collision, but if we draw the vector going to the
right, the equation will tell us in which direction B
moves. Momentum is conserved, so we write
The second ball hits the floor with the same

momentum as the first. After the impact, its momentum
vector is zero. The impulse imparted by the floor is
shown. From these diagrams, we can see that choice A
is .correct.

We know there is the force of gravity and a force
due to the rod, since the rod is the only thing touching
it. Therefore A is incorrect (excludes rod) and C is
incorrect (includes force from a surface). We need to
draw a diagram (see figure) to see if the force due to the
rod is tension only or also to the right. Gravity acts
downward.
Clearly the momentum of the apple is not

conserved, since it goes from zero velocity to a finite
velocity of impact, so A and D are wrong. If we
consider the apple and Earth as a system, we can draw
the force diagram shown. In this system the force of
Earth's gravity on the apple is an internal force (rather
that an external one). We have simply defined our
system large enough to include all the forces. The
momentum of this system is conserved, so B is the
answer. This reasoning shows the flaw in choice C: If
gravity is an internal force, momentum may be conserved if there are no unbalanced external forces.
The net force is a centripetal force, since the bob is

traveling in a circle at constant speed at the moment the
bob is at the bottom. Therefore the force of the pendulum is up. Did you say there was a force to the right? If
you did, you have not learned about the first law of
motion. Just because an object is moving to the right
does not mean there is a force in that direction.
Impulse is change in momentum. If the head is

initially at rest, and ends up going backwards at the
velocity of the fist, then the impulse it receives is given
by
4 = 0- (mw)(v,,,)
The impulse is the same in either case, so choices A and
B are incorrect. Choice C mentions force and time, so
we think to write
&=FA.
Riding the punch has the effect of increasing the time of
contact with the fist and thus decreasing the magnitude
of force of the fist on the face, so choice C is a possibility. Choice D is not relevant. This question is not really
a very good one, but it is typical of some of the questions on the MCAT.
Passage
1. C.
Both the second and third laws of motion concern
unbalanced forces. But the third law of motion states
that, if the ship exerts a force on the gas, then the gas
exerts an equal and oppositely directed force on the
ship, so C is correct.
2. C.
Choice A is a true statement: Neon is not a
product of uranium fission, but neither is hydrogen. The
passage says that hydrogen is heated and then expelled.
This is different from conventional rockets in which the
products of the reaction themselves are expelled.
Choice B is a true statement but also irrelevant, because
the hydrogen does not react chemically in this process
either. Concerning choice C, let's think of exhaust
velocity. It is related to temperature and molecular mass
of the exhaust gas. Since neon is more massive, the
exhaust velocity will be less, and the thrust will be less.
Choice C is correct.
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . ... . . . . . . . . Chapter
3. D.
According to the passage, the hydrogen can not
be heated fast enough. This would result in a low mass
expulsion rate.
4.
D.
It helps to visualize this problem if we draw a
diagram (see figure).
From the figure we can see that, reiative to the ship, the
gases are going 5000 m/s.
5. A.
Let's draw a diagram of the system.
before:
after:
We can do this by momentum conservation:

Pbcfan
=Par
6. B.
This problem asks about force, and since a time is
given in the problem, we immediately think to write
A
Ap = F,, At.
We know how to caicuiate the impulse Ap of the ship

during the explosion, Ap = (10 kg)(0.2 d s ) - 0 =
2 kg d s . Thus F = (2 kg rn/s)/0.2 s = 10 N.
The
MCAT Phvs1cs Book
Chapter 9 Solutions
The force diagram is shown. The direction of

travel is shown by a dashed vector, to distinguish it
from forces. We have W,,= (30 N) (10 m) cos 30" =
260 J.
The force of the man is perpendicular to the

direction of the box's motion, so cos I$= 0.What is
going on here? The reason our intuition is poor is fhat
the man does a fair amount of microscopic work inside
his striated muscles' in order to maintain a force. Such
muscles are extremely inefficient. That energy ends up
as heat, which radiates from his body.
8. A.
We have p = mv = (4 kg) (3 d s ) = 12 kg m/s.
9.
C.
We have E,= 1/2 mv2= 112 (4 kg) (3 m/s12= 18 J.
A force diagram is shown, although we do not

need it in this case. We deduce there must be a frictional
force since the net force is zero. The horse is pulling in
the same direction as the direction of travel so cos$ = 1.
Also Ax is vAt.
The normal force and the direction of travel are
perpendicular, so cos $ = 0.
3. B.
The gravitational force and the direction.of travel
are perpendicular, so cos $ = 0.
4.
A.
The words "constant velocity" tell us that the net

force is zero. Thus the total work is zero.
11. B.
The gravitational force is perpendicular to the
direction of travel, so cos I$= 0.
12. D.
The friction does negative work on the sled. The
only other work is from the rope (question I), that is,
260 N. Since the total work is 0 J, the friction must do
-260 J.
6.
B.
The box is not sitting on a surface, so there is no
normal force. The man is certainly pushing up. Is he
pushing forward? There is no reason to think so, since
the box is moving at constant speed in a straight line.
We have v,, F and At, which do not combine in

any way to make energy. If we had the mass of the cart
we could obtain the acceleration from F, then the final
velocity, and then the energy. If we had the distance
FAX.But we do not have
traversed, we could use W,a=
those things.
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chdpter
We set
13. B.
EKI+ EPI= EK2+ Em*
Gravity and the normal force are balanced vertical

forces. Since the car is slowing down, which is accelerating backwards, there must be a net force backwards,
and this is provided by friction (or braking). If you
thought there had to be a force pulling it forwards, then
you forgot that the car would tend to keep going
forward in the absence of any forces (first law of
motion). The force diagram is shown below.
O+mgH=E,+O,
Use EK=112 mv2, but just estimate the square

root.
19. C .
As in problem 17, we obtain E,=
were doubled, then E, would double.
mgH. If H
20. A.
Change in energy is always final minus initial.
Thus we have E,- E,, = 0 J - 112 (1000 kg)(20 mls), =
-2 x 105~.
15. A.
The only force doing work is the road, so the

work done by the road is the total work. But this is the
same as the change in kinetic energy.
Setting now E, to 112 mv, 2, we obtain 112
mgH. Notice that m cancels, and this yields v,= &@.

This looks more complicated than the variable relationships we have seen, but it is not. If H increases by a
factor of 2, then v2increases by a factor of f i which is

1.41. But an increase by a factor of 1.41 is the same as
increasing by 4 1%. If this is unclear, think of increasing
a number by 41%. That means taking 41% of a number
and adding it to the original number. That is the same as
multiplying by 1.41.
16. D.
In this case the direction of travel is in the
opposite direction of the road's force, so cos $ = -1.
Thus W = FAx cos 4 yields 8000 N.
17. C.
This is one of the cases in which the simple
statement of the conservation of energy holds. The only
force acting on the cat is gravity. (See figure.)
Momentum is always conserved as long as there

is no unbalanced external force. The external forces
here are gravity and the normal force, which are
balanced. The internal forces are the forces that the
wts exert on each other. Choices B and D are equivalent, so neither can be the answer. In fact, the collision
is not elastic. It is not completely inelastic because the
carts do not stick together.
22. A.
Using conservation of momentum gives
PI = P 2 3
The initial kinetic energy is E,, = 112 rnAv,, =

0.125 1.The final kinetic energy is E , = 112 m,v,, =
0.0625 J. The ratio is 0.5.
The efficiency is defined in this problem as ratio

of energy expended due to air resistance to energy
consumed. The energy expended due to air resistance is
W , = F,p case, where cos @ is 1 because the road is
level. The total energy consumed is simply nAHH,,.
If the current and the potential difference were

both doubled, then the power would increase by a factor
of 4. If the energy expended is the same in AE = PAt,
then At decreases by a factor of 4.
31. D.
The first method of doing pulley problems
involves drawing a force diagram for the bottom pulley,
as shown. This gives the force equation T + T - mg = 0,
so that T = 112 mg.
The problem makes no mention of how efficiency

depends on speed. On the other hand, the energy
expended to overcome air resistance will increase as the
square of the velocity. In many situations the efficiency
is defined as the ratio of useful work to input energy,
the rest of the energy wasted as heat. This problem is
different in that the efficiency is defined as the ratio of
energy consumed by a given drag to input energy.
The answer is not A or B, because the car has as

much kinetic energy before as after. since it goes at one
speed, and as much potential energy before as after,
since it travels on level ground. The energy starts as
chemical energy, so D is incorrect.
27.
D.
The amount of energy expended is AE = P A , by
definition. This is equal to the increase of the potential
energy of the box. The energy does not go anywhere
else: not into heat because the transfer is 100% efficient
and not into kinetic energy because the box moves
slowly and at constant speed. Setting P A equal to mgH
yields H = 40 m. Note the the 30' angle had nothing to
do with the answer.
28. A.
See the answer to problem 27.

29. A.
In this case the power is 120 Watts. This gives an
energy expenditure of (120 W) (60 s) = 7200 J. The
energy which becomes potential energy is 720 J
because of the 10% efficiency. If this is set equal to
mgH, then H = 1.8 m.
The second method involves imagining that the

end of the rope is pulled 1 meter. That means that
1 meter of rope goes over the upper pulley, and 0.5
meters of rope are taken from either side of the lower
pulley. The angle a has no part in this problem. The
work done by the pulling is the work done pulling the
mass, so T (1 m) = mg (0.5 m) and T = 112 mg.
32. A.
The force diagrams are shown. Clearly the second
tension is double the first tension.
Solutions . . . . .. . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . Chapter
38. C .
33. C .
Many students are tempted to choose 300 N,

thinking that the two weights add. The force diagram
below shows that the tension in either string is 150 N.
The right string exerts 150 N on the force meter, the left
string exerts 150 N on the force meter, and the force
meter records 150 N.
We use E,, = 112 mv2.

39. A.
We use En= mgh.
The only force acting on the cannonball is gravity,

so the simple statement of the conservation of energy
holds in this case, and we write
EK1
+ EP1 = EK2 + EP2'
The first method is the easier method for this

pulley problem. The force diagram for the lower pulley
is shown. Thus T + T + T- mg = 0, so that T = 113 mg.
41. C .
Since the kinetic energy is decreasing, I is false.

Since the potential energy is increasing, I1 is false. The
sum is conserved, because gravity is the only force
acting on the ball, so the simple statement of the
conservation of energy holds.
42. C .
35. B.
Using E, = 112 mv2 gives us v = 8 d s .
36. C .
Whenever we see force and distance, we think of
energy and the equation W = FAxcos $. In this case,
cos @ = 1, so that F = 130 N.The force is the force that
the track, through friction, exerts on his feet.
After the cannonball leaves'the cannon, there is

nothing touching it besides air, and we are ignoring air
resistance. If you chose B, then you need to review the
first law of motion.
The momentum is large and directed up at the

beginning, but it goes to zero by the end. The unbalanced force is gravity.
43. B.
dravity is the only force on the ball in flight, and

it does work on the ball, so A is false. The energy starts
as kinetic and ends as potential, so B is true. C is false.
The force of the hand ceases to play a role after the ball
leaves the touch of the hand, so D is false.
44. A.
Here we have enough information to apply the

definition, E,= 112 mv2 = 112 (2.005 kg) (1.5 d s ) ' =
2.25 Joules. It is safe to round 2.005 to 2.
The
MCAT Physics Book
45. C.
A.
In this question we are talking about part 1 of the

event: a collision involving hot wood and partially
cornbusted organic compounds, that is, energy lost as
heat. This resembles a car collision, so conservation of
momentum is the relevant concept. We write
Since the speed is constant, the kinetic energy is

constant and therefore conserved. The potential energy
is not constant but increases. Option III sounds attractive, but the cart as a system is not isolated, since the
winch does work on it, and so its energy is not conserved. The proper statement for the conservation of
energy in this problem is this: The potential energy
increase of the cart is given by the work done by the
winch. Remember to follow the energy flow.
PI =p29
50. B.
This is the correct, although contrived, answer. It
is correct because the forces are, in fact, balanced and
the momentum stays constant throughout the problem.
It is contrived because this information does not allow
you to calculate anything of use.
46. B.
In this question we are talking of part 2 of the
event. The forces on the block (with bullet) are gravity
and the tension of the strings. But the tension is always
perpendicular to the direction of travel, so the tension
forces do no work, and the simple statement of the
conservation of energy applies:
51. A.
The net force on the cart is zero, so W,,,=

F,,Axcos @ is zero. Remember that the total work is a
measure of the energy that goes into the kinetic energy
of the cart. In this problem, winch energy goes into
potential energy of the cart. A is true. B and C are false
a ~role.
s
because kinetic energy, being ~ o n s t a n t , ' ~ lno
Both the winch and gravity do work, so D is false.
EKI+ E P 1 = E K Z + E P 2 '
- "after
h = - 2=
1
(5.):
We could do these problems by drawing forces,

taking components, obtaining accelerations, and finally
velocities. Conservation of energy gives us the answer
much more quickly. The only two forces on the rocks
are gravity and the normal force, so the simple statement of the conservation of energy applies. We write
z(10;)
= 0.11 m = 11 cm.
EK1+ E P 1 = E K 2 Em.
+
Certainly the energy starts as kinetic, so the

answer is A or C. But during part 1, there is no change
in the potential energy of anything, so A is incorrect.
Most of the kinetic energy of the bullet goes into heat,
some goes into kinetic energy of the block, and a little
stays as kinetic energy of the bullet.
48. A.
The block is moving at first, and by the time it

stops, its height is greater. So the energy goes from
kinetic to potential.
Notice that the angle a or P never appears at all, and the

mass of the rock m or M cancels in the second step
above. The only thing that matters, countenntuitively, is
the height from which the rocks fall.
Solutions ... . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. .. .... .. ..Chapter
This problem is more difficult. Our intuition

comes from Section 4.C. The reason that two rocks, one
more massive than the other, take the same time to fall
is that at each point along the path their accelerations
are the same, their velocities are the same, and they take
the same time to fall. The same is true in this problem.
Once we determine that the acceleration of rock M is
the same as rock m then they must take the same time
to slide down. We can see that their accelerations are
the same in the force diagrams below.
An increase from 50 to 55 mph is an increase of

lo%,that is, a factor of 1.1. Since W,,varies as v2, War
must increse by a factor of 1.1' = 1.21, which is an
increase by 21%.
58. D.
Power is given by P = F,,v = cpAv3,so an

increase by a factor of 2 in velocity yields an increase
by a factor of 23= 8 in power.
Passage 1
B.
It is true that there are more particles on the left
side of the reaction, but that would tend to make the
pressure go down, not up, so A is false. The pressure
goes up because the temperature goes up, so B seems a
good choice. Spontaneous reactions can have either an
increase or a decrease in pressure, so C is incorrect. D
is incorrect for the same reason.
The horizonel components Fm,=ma'for the

respective diagrams is
Mg sin a =Ma,,
mg sin a =max,
2.
The amount of work done is W = Fdrcos $=

( P A ) ( l ) ( l ) = P,,,,Al. The quantity AHm,is given in
Joules per mole of reactants going across the reaction
equation, that is, per mole of 0,.
Thus the amount of
energy used is nAHm,.
In the above cases the accelerations are the same

because the factor m cancels. This situation is the same
as the case with falling masses (Section 4.C).
The first answer we think of is number ratio,

since the coefficients in a reaction refer to the number
of atoms/molecules/formula units or whatever. But that
is not a choice. Mass ratio is wrong, so A is excluded.
For ideal gases, volume ratio is proportional to number
ratio, and since the reactants are gases, B is a good
choice. C is nonsense. D is irrelevant since the reactants
are at the same temperature.
The analysis in the previous problem should

convince you that if the angle is greater, then the
acceleration is greater, and the time of fall is less. Even
if we do not think through the analysis, we can consider
the extremes of a very small a, which would make the
rock take a long time to slide, versus a large P (steep
slope), which would be almost free fall. Thus the time
is shorter.
4.
56. C.
The energy required to get from A to B is given

by the work done against air resistance. The work done
by the air is W,,= F,&, where AKis the distance
between the cities. which is a constant. Thus we have
W,,= C ~ A V ~ Aand
X , if v is doubled, then W,,is increased by a factor of 4.
C.
D.
One of the reactants would be in excess. The heat
of reaction is unchanged, so A is false. The combustion
would still ignite, so B is out. The answer is C or D. If
any of the intermediates in the reaction were stable
compounds, then some of those compounds could end
up in the waste gas. But the reaction of hydrogen with
water is clean, and the waste gas would contain only
leftover hydrogen or oxygen.

5.
A.
If the reaction were performed isothermally, then

the number of gas particles would be less after the
reaction than before the reaction. Since pressure at a
given volume and temperature is proportional to the
number of gas particles by the ideal gas law, the
pressure would decrease.
4.
B.
The only difference in the two nuclei is the mass,

which plays no role in equation (I).
5.
C.
Since both gases are at STP, the ideal gas equation guarantees that the two gases have the same
number of moles per unit volume, hence N is the same.
Neon has 10 electrons per gas particle, and helium has
2 per particle. So neon has a Z which is 5 times larger
and removes 5 times as much energy per unit distance.
6. A.
When the gases are introduced in the chamber,
the ideal gas law is P,,AL = n,,$?T,,, where n,,,, is the
number of total moles of both gases. Only one third of
those molecules are oxygen, so A is correct.
A.
We have assumed that the piston movement is

small and the pressure stays about the same. If the
piston movement were larger, the increase in volume
would decrease the pressure. The gas in the chamber is
doing work against the piston, so the internal energy of
the gas must decrease. The temperature must decrease
as well.
1. C .
The slowing of the car implies the momentum is

decreasing, but an unbalanced external force does not
necessarily nullify the conservation of energy, just the
conservation of momentum, so A is false. The conservation of energy takes entropy into account if heat is
included in the accounting of the energy of the system,
so B is false. If heat is transferred to the air, that is, out
of the system, then energy is not conserved for that
system, and C is true. Option D makes little sense.-.'
Passage 2
1. D.
If the collision is isolated, then there are no
external forces and momentum is conserved, so I is
true. The word "elastic" implies that kinetic energy is
conserved, so I1 is true. The total energy is always
conserved in an isolated collision, so 111 is true. Thus
the answer is D.
The equation looks complicated, but it does not

look as forbidding if we break it down. Consider the
left-hand side. mere is an energy and a distance, which
reminds us of force, fiom the equation W = FAxcos 4.
The quantity energy divided by distance has the units of
force.
3. D.
On the right-hand side of the equation, everything
is constant except N, 2, and z. In this question we are
, the only difference is z. That
comparing 'H and ' ~ e so
is, 'H has z = 1 and 'He has z = 2. Since z is doubled,
' ~ must
e lose 4 times as much energy per unit distance.
2.
D.
The energy of motion is turned into heat, so the
equation is
3. C .
The initial kinetic energy of the car is 112 M,,v~,

of which 112 a&v2 actually gets transferred to the
flywheel. Thus we write
Solutions
4.
B.
3.
We have learned that the force on a mass d m

moving in a circle of radius R is d m v 2 1 ~We
. also know
that the velocity v = 2 z RIT, where T is the period, that
is, T = llf. Puttkg all this together with o = 2 z f given
in the passage yields F = Amd~.
. . . . . . ...... . . .. . .. ............
Chapter
C.
The situation is the same for the car going from

point C to F as it is in going from C to E. The only
forces ever operating are gravity and the normal force,
so the simple statement of energy conservation works:
+ EPI = EKZ + 4 7 . r
5. A.
The car initially has kinetic energy 1/2 M,v'. Of
this, only energy 112 ahi,vZ is placed into the flywheel.
And of this, only energy 112 a b ~ , , vis~transferred back
into kinetic energy, which is 112 M , , V , ~ . Thus
The normal force never does work. This is

because its direction is normal to not only the surface
but to the motion of the object as well.
Gravity, certainly, is acting down. The only thing

touching the car is the tracks, which provide a normal
force, down. Thus gravity and the normal force together
provide the centripetal force. So if we are counting
forces, there are two. If you chose C, you need to
review the section about the first law of motion.
The change in potential energy is AEp= mgAh.

We multiply this by 0.40 before setting it equal to
112 mv2.Thus, using Ah = 50 meters,
This is analogous to the books in the car in

Section 5.D, which get "pulled" toward the door when
the car turns. No such thing happens, of course. The
books are going in a straight path and the car's door
turns into their path. In this case, the blood would be
going along a straight path, but the body is pulled by a
centripetal force (from gravity and the normal force)
away from the blood.
Passage 4
1. C .
When the car goes from point C to point D, the

only forces acting on it are gravity and the normal
force. The normal force does no work, so we can use
the simple statement of the conservation of energy. The
initial kinetic energy is very small, so
E ~ ~ = & l + EK1*
EK2= M g H L .
2.
C.
In order to obtain the velocity, we use the above

equation and set kinetic energy to 112 hivZ.
7.
C.
A glance at the answers shows expression which
look like centripetal force and gravity. The force
diagram is shown.
The
MCAT Physics Book

Gravity and the normal force add to make the net
force, which is centripetal and leads to the acceleration
of the car. On the one hand we can write F,,= N + Mg.
On the other we write F,,= Ma,,. Thus
2.
Pressure and temperature go together in the ideal

gas equation, and though we may have the volume of
the "reaction flask", we do not have the number of
moles, so A is not the answer. It seems difficult to
connect velocity with pressure, so let us look for a
better answer than B. Pressure and force together
remind us of the definition of pressure P = FIA. Since
we have the cross-sectional area of the cannon, this is a
connection between force and pressure. C is the answer.
This is close. Now we need to remember that the radius

of the circle R is half the diameter, which is H,,so the
answer is C.
3.
The friction on the tracks plays no role in our

cument analysis and plays only a small role in reality.
Since A is not a likely answer, let's look at the others.
The bumpers are used to stop the car at. the end of the
ride, and they rely on friction. If the coefficient of
friction is reduced, this could be disastrous. The cars are
stopped by rubbing past the bumpers, so the friction is
kinetic. By reducing the mass, the park operators reduce
the amount of force necessary to negatively accelerate
the cars to a stop.
-
4.
B.
Since the reaction is irreversible, the entropy

change is positive, so A is false. The reaction is
spontaneous, so the free energy change must be
negative.
5.
B.
The energy starts as chemical energy and turns to

heat after burning. The whole point of a cannon is to
convert energy to kinetic energy of the ball. Note that
the conversion of heat to kinetic energy is inefficient.
Among the choices given, however, B is the best
answer.
A.
The energy in the motor certainly starts out as
electrical. If the bumpers dissipate the energy, then the
energy ends up as heat. In the ride itself, energy is
sloshed back and forth from kinetic to potential.
This is like a problem we have done before.

Because of the following calculation:
Passage 5
+ EpI =
1. C .
The definition of kinetic energy involves mass

and velocity, and we know neither, so A and B are not
right. Choice C mentions force, and there is a connection between force and energy, the equation W =
FAxcos $. Does this equation apply in this case? The
change in kinetic energy is given by the total work done
on an object, that is F,,,Ax cos$, so the equation does
apply. The quantity Ax is the length of the barrel, and
we have cos $ = 1.
A.
The rate of reaction does depend on surface area,
concentration, and temperature, but grain size affects
only the surface area. So A is the answer. Only a
catalyst could reduce the activation energy.
8. C .
9.
C.
+ Ep2
1
-mv2 = mgh,
2 .
h = -v 2
2g '
we see that we do not need anything besides the bail
Solutions . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . Chapter
Chapter 10 Solutions
IO
The force diagram is the same as that in the

previous problems. In this problem, we want an
equation which includes the volumes in and out of the
fluid. Again we have F, = mg,but we call the displaced volume V,,, and the total volume of iron we call
Vin+ V , [ , SO we have
1. C.
FB = mg,
A diagram of a human head is shown.
5.
C.
The buoyancy force is FB= p,,V,, g, but V,,, is
the volume of the man dp,,. Thus F, = (p,, I p-) mg
= 1.2 x
(686 N) = 0.8 N.
The area over which the force is acting down is

the top of the head d = N0.1 m12. We multiply this by
atmospheric pressure, which we approxmate as
10' ~ l m This
~ . is a force in Newtons. If rn is the
number of kilograms we are seeking, then this force is
rng. Thus m = [ ~ ( 0 . 1 )10'110]
~
kg = 310 kg.
This is a simple application of the ideal gas law
PV = nRT. (Did you recognize R in the answer

choices?) The quantity nlV, which is PIRT, is the
number of moles per volume, that is, number of moles
per liter, if P is in a m , R is in L atm/ K mol. If we
, obtain
multiply by the atomic rnass.4 g r ~ s l m o l ewe
density. There is a factor of 1000 ro convert liters to
cm3. Note that temperature Tmust be measured in
Kelvins, and 27" C is 300 K.
We draw a force diagram as shown.
7.
D.
First, we draw a force diagram, as shown.
The second step is to write a force equation.

Because the cork is not accelerating, we can write
F, - mg = 0. Let rn and V be the mass and volume of
the cork. We replace m with pV. We replace F, with
pmmV,, g,but V,,, is
3
V, according to the problem.
4
We cancel g and V to obtain p/p,=
-3
4'
The force diagram is same as that for the previous

problem. The force equation is again F, - mg = 0. In
this problem V,,, is 0.9V. Solving ,we obtain
p/p- = 0.9.

We assume the balloon is not accelerating, so we write
FB-mHeg-Mg=O.
We replace F, and m, and cancel the factor g, so we
have
pairVg - pHcvg - Mg = O
8. D.
We apply the formula
P = Pa, + pgh
= (1.0 x 10'
A. If you chose C, you were thinking along the right

track, but it is not the total outside pressure that makes
breathing difficult; it is the net pressure, that is, the
difference in pressure.
The force Flu,, must balance the two pressure
forces, so the force is most nearly the product of the
gauge pressure and the area of the chest. The best
answer is A.
The pressure at the top of the column on the right

side is simply the atmospheric pressure Pm. Pascal's
law states that the pressure at point Q is the same (see
figure).
+ lo3 - i 0 . 5 j Pa
= 1.5 x 10' Pa.
9.
A.
The guage pressure is defined as

P - Pa, = pgh
= 5 x lo4 Pa.
10. A,
11. A.
The questions here are a bit confusing, so let us
think about what the muscles which expand the lungs
do. During normal breathing conditions, the pressure
inside your lungs is similar to the pressure outside, so
these forces balance. To breathe in, you exert a small
force to expand the push out the chest (and pull down
the diaphragm). A force diagram for the chest is
shown, where Pi, is the pressure of gas inside the lung,
and P, is the pressure of fluid outside your lung.
If we apply hydrostatic equilibrium to the points Q and

S (at the top of the column at the left), we obtain
Po = Ps + pHgg(h1 - hz)
13. A.
This is a simple application of Pascal's law.
14. A.
Since the pressures are the same P, = P,, we can
substitute an expression for force P = FIA. Thus
F,IA, = FiIA,, and F, = (A,IA,)F,.
Underwater, however, the force P,, is greater than

Pinby an additional pgh. Thus for question 10, we
would say that the pressure the lungs are expanding
against is the difference P , - P,. The best answer is
Solutions
. .. . . .. ... . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. Chapter
10
20. B.
15. B.
The long way to do this is to realize that a change
of volume on one side of the press is the same as a
change of volume on the other side of the press. If the
piston on the right moves Ax, and the load moves Ax2,
then
AV = A&, =
But
W , = F,Ax, =PA,&, = PAV,
and
W2= F2Ax2= PA2&, = PAV.
The short way to see this is to realize that the flow
of energy is from the piston doing the work on the fluid
to the fluid doing work on the load, increasing its
potential energy. We assume no energy is lost to
friction, so we must have W , = W2.
16. B.
This is an application of hydrostatic equilibrium.

The pressure at the top of the column is zero, and the
pressure at the bottom of both flasks is p,,gh.
17. A.
Hydrostatic equilibrium allows us to write
P, = Pa,
+ p,,,g(h2
-h,)
which becomes
- Pam
= ~Ruidg(~2
-hl)
'
The left side is constant. On the right side, if p,,,

increases, then h2 - h, decreases.
Compare this problem with the needle in Example 2 of Section E. The circumference about the
needle turned out to be twice the length of the needle.
Here we have bent the needle into a rectangle, so the
length L that goes into F,, = yL will be L =
2 (l+w+l+w). This is not like a rectangular bug foot
(see Example 1 of Section E) in the water. The circumference for the thread has to go all around the outside as
well as all around the inside.
19. A.
The relevant length for the wire circle is L,, =
2(2nr),just like Example 2 in Section E. The coin's
relevant length is 2 m , just like Example 1.
Since water is incompressible, the flow rate must

be constant along the flow.
21. A.
If the flow rate is 0.06 m.3/s, and the area of the

pipe at B is K (0.03 m12, then the flow velocity is
v = f / A = 21 mls.
Certainly one expression for the velocity at point

B is flnr:, but that is not any of the choices. But the
velocity at p0int.B is related to the velocity at pointA
as well. Since we know fA =f,, we can write
v A m A2 = v,m, 2 . Frpm this we get choice D.
The area of contact is the area of the side of the

piston, that is, 27171. The distance between the sliding
surfaces is Ar, so the viscosity equation gives choice A.
Work is force times distance times cos 9. We can

draw a force diagram. There are four forces we are
concerned with, since we are ignoring gravity. The
problem mentions the viscous force. There are pressure
forces for the two faces of the piston. In addition, the
shaft is attached to the piston, and it is by moving the
shaft that the piston does useful work. We are interested in the work done by the atmospheric pressure.
The force is P a d = P,,nr2. The distance the piston
moves is vAt, so that B is the correct answer.
25. C.
The quantityf gives the revolutions per second.

Each revolution represents a distance 2&, that is, the
circumference. Thus the velocity is 27rh'fi If this
question confused you. go over it several times. This is
a common calculation that could save you some day.

26. A.
31. C .
Torque is force times radius times sin@ The

torque of the rod must balance the retarding torque due
to the viscous force. The viscous force is F,, = qAvld,
and the relevant radius is R. Because the force is
perpendicualar to the radius vector, we have sin = 1.
Thus the retarding torque is z= RqAvld, and this is also
the torque of the rod.
This is similar to an example worked in the text.

The fact that the hose goes over the top of the tank does
not change the application of Bernoulli's principle. A
streamline can be said to go from the top of the tank
(pressure Pa,, v = 0)through the hose to the other end
(pressure Pa,, velocity desired). Bernoulli's equation
becomes
27. B.
Increasing the flow rate increases the likelihood
of turbulence, so A is incorrect. Making the joints
smooth does not seem to do anything at first glance, but
perhaps this would remove obstacles that would create
turbulence, so B is a possibility. Reynolds number says
nothing about temperature, so C is also incorrect.
Increasing the radius of the pipe increases the likelihood of turbulence, so D is incorrect, and the answer
must be B.
32. B.
This is a question about hydrostatic equilibrium,
=
pdh3 -
Pbottom
33. B.
Loolung at the answers, we see that the question
writer intends for us to apply Bernoulli's equation. A
streamline goes from the reservoir (pressure P,,
velocity 0) to the pipe 2 with no gravity gradient, so
28. B.
We can consider a streamline which goes from
the reservoir (pressure P,, v = 0) to the nozzle (pressure Pa,, velocity desired). Since gravity plays no role,
the pgh terms drop out. Bernoulli's equation gives
Bernoulli's equation becomes P,
+ 0 = Pa, + -1 p,2,
2
so B is correct.
34. B.
Relating the velocity'vl tb velocity v2 is a matter
of continuity. The flow f has to be the same all along
the flow, so Alv, = A2v2.Thus B is correct.
29. A.
35. C .
We can consider a streamline which goes from

the reservoir to the top of fountain (pressure Pa, and
v = 0), so that Bernoulli's equation gives
I
30. B.
The viscosity depends only on the substance and
not on the situation, so A is incorrect. The water does
develop turbulence, and this would disqualify the flow
from Bernoulli's principle, so B is a possibility. C is
irrelevant, as well as D, so B is correct. The energy of
the flow goes into turbulence and eventually into heat.
Again we can apply Bernoulli's principle. The

answer choices do not refer to v,, so let us take for the
two points, a point in the reservoir and a point in the
constricted pipe, and see where that leads. If nowhere,
then we can try again:
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .. . Chapter 1O
36. A.
First we draw a diagram. In addition to gravity,

there are two forces on the necklace due to the two
things touching it: the water (buoyant force) and the
string (tension). The reading on the force meter is the
magnitude of the tension.
38. C.
Even if the pump draws a perfect vacuum, the
column will not rise above 10 m. Consider the situation
shown, which turns out to be impossible.
beverage
tubeC
We write the force equation
The pressure at the top of the column is P,,,, and we
write
'sun = Plop
.We would have gotten the right answer by estimating

g to be 10 d s Z .
37.
D.
This problem is similar to other problems we
have done. In order to achieve force balance, the sink
must exert a force mg - pw,,Vdi,g. The problem gives
all the information except V,,. The capacity of the cup
is not the same as the volume the cup displaces when it
is under water.
+ ~bevexa~eg~
*
This is impossible. Even the best pump can draw

at best zero pressure, never a negative pressure. The
water column would fall, so that the top of the column
would have zero pressure and the evacuated space
above it would also have zero pressure.
39. B.
We can obtain the height of the water column by
setting P,, to 0. Thus, P,, = P,, + pgh becomes
h = PJpg. Using a different straw clearly has no
effect, but decreasing p will increase h.
40. C.
We have to careful of units in this problem.
Pressure is the connection between gas data and
information about force. We do not need PV = nRT,
because we already know P = 2 atm. In order to
calculate force, however, we need Pascals, so P is
approximately 2 x 10' Pa. Using F = PA, where A =
0.01. m2 (the area of one face), we obtain that F is
approximately 2000 N.
The
MCAT Physics Book
41. A.
Thus, since the finger is not accelerating, we write

We draw a diagram as shown below.
pw,4
'boy
- PamA - F b o y = 0
= (Prater - Pam)'
44. A.
This reminds us of a Bernoulli question (especially with the explicit "ignore viscosity"), and we can
draw a streamline as shown. The pressures at points 1
and 2 are both Pa,. The velocity at point 1 is essentially 0. If the top of the ocean is the standard height,
then the height of point 2 is -1 m. Bernoulli's equation
becomes
This is similar to problem 36. There we learned

that a force meter provides a force, and the reading tells
us what the force is, A force diagram is shown.
Since the hammer is not accelerating, the force equation

is F,,,, + FB - mhg = 0. We know m,g =
(0.79 k g ) (10 m/s2)= 7.9 N. The displaced volume is
simply the volume of the hammer, that is, mlp,,, =
100 cm3, so that F, = p,,,, V,,, g = 1 N (by the time the
units are straightened). Thus F,,, is (7.9 - 1) N = 6.9 N.
42. A.
If we know the flow velocity, we can obtain the

flow rate fromf = Av = (.01 m)' (4.5 m/s).
43. A.
Since the problem asks for force, we draw a force

diagram.
The pressure of the water can be obtained by hydrostatic equilibrium: P,,,, = Pam + pgh, where h is 1 m.
The force diagram for the water is shown in the

same diagram. We have not discussed the force that the
hammer exerts on the fluid, but by Newton's thii law
of motion, its magnitude must be the same 1 N we
calculated in the previous problem. Recall that a scale
provides a force, and the reading tells the magnitude of
the force provided. Since the water is not accelerating,
the force equation is F,, - F, - m, g = 0. Thus
F,,=50N+ 1N=51N.
Solutions . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . Chapter
Since nothing is accelerating, the force equation

&comes the following:
PA
,
+ F,,,- P a d - m g = 0 ,
Passage 1
Well, points P, and P, are in the water, and P, is

above P,, so the pressure at P, should be greater by pgh.
It is confusing, though, since the pressure at P, must be
Pa,. The air just above P, must have pressure Pam.
Usually the pressure on one side of a boundary between
two substances is the same as the pressure on the other
side, but this is not m e if the boundary is curved, as
when a meniscus forms.
2.
Fsu6= mg ,
2my= d h p g ,
h=-. 2~
rPg
From this we see that height h increases proportionally
as r decreases.
C.
Certainly there are pressure forces, but these
balance (both are F = P,,ar2). The surface tension
pulls the column up, balancing the force of gravity.
Passage 2
1.
3.
C.
2.
C.
The length of the line of contact is the circumference of the straw, so L = 2 m
6.
D.
According to this equation, the height h depends
only on the atmospheric pressure, the density of the
fluid, and the acceleration due to gravity.
The force due to gravity is F,, = mg = pVg =

psrr2hg.
5.
B.
In this model a maximum height is obtained by
setting the pressure at the top of the column to zero.
= Ptap+ pgh becomes Pa, = 0 + pgh. Thus
Thus, Pbollom
h = P,,/pg = lo5 Pa / (lo3 kg/m3) (10 rn/s2) = 10 m.
C.
The pressure at the top of the column is given by
F = PA = ~ , , s r r ~ .We use the air pressure since it is the
air that exerts the downward force on the column.
4.
10
The passage mentions that the surface tension and

the gravitational force must add to zero. Thus,
2~ -pnr2hg= 0(as in the previous passage). This becomes
B.
The force diagram for the column of water is
shown.
= 72 meters.
h = 2ylrpg =
(2 x 10-~m)(10~
3)(10~)
4.
A.
In this model the height is inversely proportional

to the radius.
Passage
The'main difference between the inner and outer

chambers is the presence of enzymes in the outer
chamber. Enzymes are catalysts which reduce the
activation energy. Choice A may play a role, but a
smaller one.

2.
D.
7.
We apply the formula f = Av =

~ ( 0 . 0 1em)' (1200 cm/s) = 0.4 cm3/s, where we have
done the necessary unit conversions.
B.
The table in the passage allows us to calculate the
heat released per mole of quinone produced. We need
to know the concentration of quinone to know how
much heat per quantity of solution is produced. Thus A
is incorrect: not enough information. Once we know
the heat available per quantity of solution, then we can
use the heat capacity to get the temperature change. B
is correct. As for choice C, the heat of reaction is
necessary but it is derivable from information in the
passage. As for choice D, the volume of the chamber is
unnecessary information, since the question is about
intensive properties of the solution and not about
extensive properties. That is, the question is not about
how much stuff there is, but about quantities that do not
depend on volume (such as temperature).
Any object, whether it be a cannon ball or a drop

of beetle spray, accelerates down at 10 mls2 if gravity is
the only force acting on it at the surface of Earth. The
initial velocity is 12 m/s up, and the final velocity is
0 mls. We can obtain the distance traveled by
vZZ= v12+ 2ah ,
1. B.
Option A seems good, except it is the purpose of
thejlter screen to filter out byproducts, so this is not a
likely possibility. The rupture film would certainly
keep in the reactants, increasing the concentration and
speeding the reaction. B is a likely possibility. The
rupture film does keep the reactants dry, but that is
important during the days and years before the accident,
not the 1-5 rns during the reaction, so C is incorrect.
There is no catalyst involved, so D is incorrect.
An alternate solution involves using energy

conservation: E,, + E,, = E,, + E,,. A third solution
could involve Bernoulli's equation, using the points just
outside the abdomen and the top of flight for the spray.
4.
B.
A catalyst affects activation energy but has no
effect on the heat of reaction.
5.
A.
Choice A reminds us of Bernoulli's principle,
which might give an estimate of the pressure inside the
outer chamber, even if some energy is dissipated as
heat. Indeed there is no reason to assume the flow is
not turbulent and not viscous. But if Bernoulli's
principle applies, then A is a good estimate. Choices B,
C and D definitely remind us of an ideal gas, but the
passage clearly stated that the spray is a liquid, so these
choices are definitely incorrect.
The connection between force and pressure is F =

PA, so the answer is A or B. The pressure inside the
chamber is pushing in the opposite direction as the
atmospheric pressure outside the chamber, so A is
correct.
2.
A.
In the absence of other information about entropy,
it is reasonable to assume that the reaction which
produces the most gas has the largest entropy increase.
At a given temperature gases tend to have much more
entropy than liquids and solids.
3. B.
Using P V = nRT, we note that 1000 / (0.0821)
(300) is the number of moles df gas we desire. Multiplying by 619 (because of the reaction coefficients)
yields the number of moles of sodium azide required.
Multiplying by the molar mass (65 gramslmol) yields
the number of grams required.
Solutions . . ... .. . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . ... Chapter
I
Having the bag deflate will not affect the temperature appreciably, so A is incorrect. There are a
number of ways to ensure that a bag will not burst
(safety valve, and so on) that are better than having it
deflate, so B is incorrect. The energy of collision or,
rather, the work that must be done on the driver to stop
him is a constant (equal to the negative of his kinetic
energy before the collision), so C is incorrect. The
language of choice D reminds us of W,o,= FAx. And,
indeed, the presence of an airbag increases the distance
over which the decelerating force acts: not all at once at
the steering wheel, but "gradually" over 0.3 meters.
This decreases the force and reduces grievous bodily
harm.
5.
6.
Passage 5
In the figure shown,
the pressure at point Q is the same as the pressure at

point S, the reservoir pressure (Pascal's law). Hydrostatic equilibrium dictates that Po = Pa,, + pg(h2- h,).
C.
It is not clear how a larger area of the bag could
affect the flow rate. A larger area of the nozzle could
increase the flow rate, but the question is asking about
the airbag, so A and B are incorrect. Option C reminds
us of the formula P = FIA. If A is increased, and F is
the same, then pressure is reduced, hence the cushioning effect Thus C is correct. D makes a correct
statement, but doesnot lend advantage to the driver, so
it is incorrect.
IO
2.
D.
The pressure all along the flow is the same,
except for the tiny region where Barometer 2 disturbs
the flow. Thus the pressure measured by Barometer 1 is
the same as the upstream pressure. If we take the
streamline shown in the figure, then upstream we have
pressure PI and desired velocity v , and at the point in
front of the barometer we have pressure P2 and v = 0.
Bernoulli's equation becomes
D.
Option A, chemical to heat, misses the point. If
this were a reaction that generated a lot of heat that then
dissipated, then A would be a possibility. The point of
energy release in an airbag is that the airbag is actually
inflated. So A is incorrect, as well as B. Option C
seems like a possibility, since the bag seems to gain
kinetic energy, which might later be turned to heat.
Option D is a better description; however, since the true
energy flow involves pushing back the atmosphere and
not in moving the bag (which has little mass).
All the options are reasonable byproducts except

A, which involves Na or 0 in bizarre valence states.
3. C .
Since the flow must go through a smaller area, the
velocity must increase to maintain the same flow rate
f = Av.
4.
A.
Bernoulli's equation (neglecting the gravity
terms) is
If v, is greater than v,, then P, is less than P,. But do not

rely on the equation; remember that for flow along a
streamline, the pressure increases when the velocity
decreases.
The
5.
MCAT Physics Book

B.
A, ,,v
as v,.
If the fluid is incompressible, then f = A, v, =

regardless of viscosity. Thus v,,,, is the same
Bernoulli's equation can no longer be used to

obtain pressure, but perhaps we can figure out the
answer by figuring out where the equation breaks down.
The equation is a statement of energy conservation. If
viscosity is added, then viscosity converts some energy
into heat. Thus, we have
1 2 = P, + -pv,2
1
P3 + -pv3
2
2
+ heat energy
volume
Comparing this with the equation in problem 4 above,

we see that in this equation P, must be smaller (the
1
-pv; term is the same; see previous problem). The
2
key to this problem is remembering that Bernoulli's
equation is about energy. Viscosity robs the flow energy,
creating heat, thus reducing pressure from the prediction given by the Bernoulli equation.
Solutions . .......... ..... ..... ........ Chapter
Chapter 1 1 Solutions
II
We can draw a force diagram for the mass (shown

below). (There are two forces not shown: the force of
gravity and the normal force of the table, which sum to
zero.) The spring provides the centripetal force, so we
rnv21~.Solving for v gives v = 2 d s .
can write Fs,=
One revolut~onis the equivalent of the circumference
C = 21rR=. 12 m. Thus the time it takes is Clv =
(12 m)l(2 mls) = 6 s, which is closest to D.
1. D.
If we draw a force diagram for the mass (shown

below), then we see that the gravitational force and the
spring force add to zero, so they must be equal in
magnitude (second law of motion). The magnitude of
the force is FPv = (0.8 kg) (10 mls2) = 8.0 N. We use
the spring equation to calculate x = F,,,Bk =
(8.0 N)1(2.5 Nlm) = 3.2 m. Since the spring is being
stretched, we add that to the resting length 0.15 m, for a
total 3.35 m.
4.
B.
The extension x is given by
x = F,,,Bk = (10 N)/(50 Nlm) = 0.2 m. Since the radius
of the circle of revolution is 2 m and since the spring is
pulling, the resting length of the spring must be 1.8 m.
5.
A.
We simply use
1
E,= -kr2 = (0.5) (50 Nlm) (0.2 m)' = 1 J. Of course,
2
on the real MCAT, the answer to a problem would not
depend on the answer to a previous problem.
Before we started pulling, the forces due to spring

and gravity were balanced. Then we increased the
spring force. The increase in spring force is given by
AFsMn,=kdr = (2.5 Nlm) (0.10 m) = 0.25 N. Another
way to get the same result is to realize the new extension x is 3.2 m + 0.1 m, so the force exerted by the
spring is F,+,= (2.5 Nlm) (3.3 m) = 8.25 N up. The
force of gravity is 8.0 N down, for a net force 0.25 N
up. (See figure.)
The figure below shows a force diagram for the

bob. The net force must be either up or down or zero.
The velocity vector is changing direction, so the
acceleration cannot be zero, and in fact, there must be a
centripetal component to the acceleration. These two
facts together imply the acceleration is up.

7.
A.
12. C.
Thus also the net force is up. Questions 6 and 7

are the same because of the second law of motion.
The period is the time for one oscillation. If 20

oscil1ations take 60.0 s, then one oscillation takes 3 s.
If you try to work out the forces involved, things

get tangled pretty quickly. This is a conservation of
energy problem, and energy is converted from potential
to kinetic, so we write
The frequency is the number of oscillations per

unit time, sof = 1IT.
14. A.
EKI+ E P I= En +EPZv
Clearly the choices intend for us to use frequency

information (not F,,,,, = kx). The equation is
The displacement of the spring is increased by a factor

of 4 in our experiment, so the initial stored energy is
increased by a factor of 16. The velocity must increase
by a factor of 4, and v, = 4v,.
9. B.
Again, this is a conservation of energy problem.

This time the displacement is the same in both experiments, so the stored energy is the same at the beginning
of the experiment, and the kinetic energy is the same at
the end of the experiment. The larger mass does not
affect the final kinetic energy but its velocity would be
less.
The energy begins as gravitational potential

energy. Just before the ball hits the spring, it has its
maximum kinetic energy. The energy is then converted
to spring potential energy.
15. A.
The amplitude is the size of the displacement

from the equilibrium position. The mass travels 0.1 5 m
to the left of equilibrium and 0.15 m to the right of
equilibrium in one oscillation. So the amplitude is
0.15 m.
16. B.
The relationship between frequency and spring
constant is given by
11. C.
The change in gravitational energy is -mgL. The
1
change in spring potential energy is -kr2. These should
2
add to zero, since energy is conserved (there is no
change from begin point to end point in kinetic energy):
If k increases then f increases. If k increases by a factor

of 2, then f increases by a factor of &,that is, 1.41.
Increasing by a factor of 1.41 is the same as increasing
by 41%.
17. D.
There is no relationship between amplitude and
spring constant. Any amplitude may be chosen for the
oscillation.
Solutions . . . ...... .... .............. . . Chdpter
11
18. B.
In an oscillating system, the energy is going back
and forth between two or more forms (so A is incorrect).
It cannot dissipate as heat, so D is incorrect. Gravitational potential energy plays no role in the problem, so C
is also incorrect. Indeed, spring potential and kinetic are
the two forms of energy.
23. A.
The acceleration is the greatest when the net force
is the greatest, that is, when the spring is compressed or
extended. The net force is to the right when the spring
is extended. Some readers confuse acceleration with
velocity (or speed) and think that the block must be
moving when the acceleration is great. This is not so.
Remember that whenever there is a collision

involving sticking or crunching or what-have-you,
momentum is likely to be the only conserved quantity.
During the brief moment of the collision, the spring does
not do anything, so the potential energy does not come
into play. And the kinetic energy before the collision
turns into heat (mostly). Momentum is conserved
because there are no external forces during the collision:
gravity is balanced with the normal force, and the spring
is not compressed and hence exerts as yet no force.
24. D.
During the collision, most of the initial kinetic
energy gets dissipated as heat. The choices involving
chemical energy would also be possibilities (since the
tearing and grasping of velcro is chemical), but any
answer must also involve heat, so D is the best answer.
The question is a little vague on purpose, since some
MCAT questions are like that.
Momentum is not conserved, the external force

being the spring which acts on mass B. Although kinetic
energy is clearly not conserved, the sum of kinetic and
potential is.
25. B.
These are the two conditions for resonance to

occur. A strong coupling will generally not allow
energy to build up.
We need to use conservation of momentum (the

clue is that the collision involves sticking), so that if the
initial velocity is v,, then we write
26. C.
The wavelength is the distance from peak to peak.
27. A.
m,v, + m, (0)= (m,+ mB 012 - ,
The period is 2 s, so the frequency is f = IIT =

0.5 Hz.
28. A.
The velocity is given by v = Af = (4 m) (0.5 Hz) =

2 m/s.
29. A.
?he amplitude is from equilibrium point to peak.
22. A.
If we try to think of forces, we will get confused,
because the spring force keeps changing. Again this is an
energy problem, in which the kinetic energy (after the
collision) gets completely converted to potential energy:
30. D.
This is a question about geometry only. If the

diameter of a circle increases by a factor of 4, how does
If the diameter
the area change? We know A = d.
increases by a factor of 4, the radius increases by a
factor of 4. and the area increases by a factor of 16. If
this seems counterintuitive, see Section 1.D.
The
MCAT Physics
Book
31. A.
The passage stated that p = pA. Thus if the
diameter is decreased by a factor of 2, then the radius is
decreased by a factor of 2, the area is decreased by a
factor of 4, and the linear density is decreased by a
factor of 4.
32. C.
If this were a whole number, then we would have an

antinode. If it were a haif-odd integer (0.5, 1.5,2.5,
etc.), then we would have a node.
38. B.
As in the previous problem, we calculate
We want to increase the wave velocity by a factor

=
of 1.3. Since vZ = TI1 we want to increase T by (1.3)~
1.69, that is, we want to increase T by 69%.
We have a node.
Since we want to keep v the same and T the same,
we therefore (since vZ= Tlp) want to keep p the same.
Thus we have
pA = const,
The density p is to decrease by a factor of 4, so the

radius increases by a factor of 2, and the diameter
increases by a factor of 2. Thus it is 0.8 mm.
39. C.
If the waves are out of phase, the combination has
its minimum amplitude of (0.5 - 0.3) Pa = 0.2 Pa. If the
waves are in phase, the combination has its maximum
amplitude 0.8 Pa.
40. C.
The fundamental is shown in the first figure

below, while the first harmonic is shown in the next
figure. We can read from the figures that ill = 4 m, and
4=2m.
The two waves, if superposed, would add to zero

at every point.
The question does not say whether the wave

arrives in phase or out of phase or inbetween. The
duck's oscillation could be as little as 1 m (out of
phase) or as much as 7 m (in phase).
Since the midpoint is the same distance from both

speakers, and the speakers produce waves that are in
phase, the waves must arrive at the midpoint in phase. If
this explanation is unclear, visualize the following. Two
crests are emitted by the speakers at the same time.
They travel at the same velocity toward the center, and
they arrive at the same time. Accordingly, the center is
an antinode.
37. C.
The distance from the microphone to speaker 1 is
1.3 m, and its distance to speaker 2 is 0.7 m. We are
interested in the difference in phase, which is the
difference in distance, relative to wavelength. We
calculate
second
harmonic
41. A.
Since the frequency is inversely related to the
wavelength (from v = ilf),the ratio f1& is 112. We could
also write
Solutions
42. C.
...... .. ............... . . . . . . C h d p t e r
11
Passage 1
The third harmonic is shown in the figure above.

One the one hand, we can read the wavelength from the
figure. If this is not clear, we can also write that there
are 3R wavelengths contained in the 2 m, so that we
write
1. C.
Our first thought is to use the information about

linear density, but there is no way to find the tension
in the string. What other formula do we have for
wave velocity? Well, v = AJ and we know f = 660 Hz.
We can get the wavelength just by knowing that the
note 660 Hz refers to the fundamental. The fundamental has a wavelength d = 2 (0.65 m) = 1.3 m.
2.
A.
For the D string we can use d = 1.3 m, so that

f = VIA= 294 Hz. We do not have to do the calculation. If we look at the choices, we see only one
choice less than 382.
The fourth harmonic is shown. We can see there
are two wavelengths in the 2 m, so that we write
3.
C.
The fourth harmonic (see the figure in problem

40) has a wavelength d = 112 (0.65 m) = 0.325 m,
yielding f = vld = 1175 Hz.
4.
44. B.
The fundamental does not have a node at the

midpoint, but the second harmonic does, so this is the
lowest frequency that can make a sound. Its frequency
is given by
C.
-.
The first node occurs one fourth of the way

from the neck end. Since the neck is a node as well,
there must be a node at the midpoint and three
fourths of the way down. ?his corresponds to a
wavelength 0.325 m, as in problem 3 (above).
?he sixth harmonic has five nodes (not including the ends). This is shown in the figure. The
wavelength is d = 113 (0.65 m) = 0.22 m.
=1.5x104 Hz.
The third hannonic is the first mode with a node

at the "third" point, so the frequency is given by
= 2.25 x lo4Hz.
Increasing the frequency by 3% is the same as

increasing it by a factor of 1.03, which means
increasing the wave velocity (recall v = AJ and A.
does not change) by a factor of 1.03. Now T = v2p,
and pdoes not change, which means T is increased by
a factor of (1.03)' = 1.06, which is an increase of 6%.
The: MCAT Physics Book

Passage 2
Passage 3
1. B.
1. D.
We apply v = A$ using the speed of sound in air.
Choice A is true but does not do a good job of

explaining anything. Choice B refers to the transition
from deep to shallow water, which happens over length
scales very long compared to the 10-m ocean waves.
The pool waves hit the sharp boundary of the side of the
pool and are reflected. Choices C and D are true but
irrelevant.
2.
According to the first paragraph, the wavelength

must be smaller than the observed object. A wavelength
of
m corresponds to a frequency of about
1.5 x lo6Hz in biological tissue, where we use v= 1500mls.
D.
3.
As waves, the energy is initially both kinetic and

potential, which the MCAT refers to as mechanical.
.
Choices A and B do not express what happens when a
wave breaks, and the mechanical energy goes into
another form. There are no chemical changes, so C is
incorrect. Choice D is reasonable. The source of friction
is the sandy beach.
According to the second paragraph, a wave has its

best chance of being transmitted if it has short wavelength.
4.
D.
Choice A is incorrect, since we certainly do not
want to convert light energy to anything else. Choice B
is incorrect, since the situation more closely resembles
paragraphs 1 and 2, the coating providing a gradual
transition. Visible light waves have a small wavelength,
so a thin coating would suffice. This would decrease the
reflectivity.
5. C.
Choice A is incorrect, since the point is that the
.
snow is not reflecting sound, resulting in your not
hearing it. Choice B would be a good explanation, if the
coat of snow were thick compared with the wavelength
of sound (paragraph 2). This is not the case. It must be
the case that the snow absorbs the sound energy, turning
it to heat.
6. B
Choice A is incorrect, because the transition from
air to wood is abrupt. Choice B seems likely. There is
nothing to indicate C is correct. Choice D is definitely
incorrect, since the frequency of a wave stays constant
as it travels from place to place. There is nothing in the
passage indicating a change of frequency.
A.
The lowest frequency is 20 Hz, so T = I&=
1420 Hz) = 0.05 s.
The two real choices are B and D. Since there is

tearing and rupturing involved, there must be chemical
bonds broken. so D is it.
I
I
5-
n.
Frequency is not directly connected to intensity.
and intensity are connected, but amplitude is

-- -Amplitude
.
not mentioned among the choices.
6.
D.
Choices A and B are irrelevant. doncerning
choice C, the problem is not energy reflecting off the
organ but being absorbed by it. This is an example of
resonance, and there must be a weak coupling between
two oscillators: the sound is one and the oscillating
organ is the other.
7. D.
The equation here is given by
Solutions .... . .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... Chdpter
Chapter
1 2 Solutions
12
5. C .
Since the problem said the sound was barely

perceptible, that means that the intensity at Betsy's ear
was I, = 10-12w/m2. Since the mosquito was 1 m away,
we can imagine a ball 1 m in radius around the mosquito (see figure).
We simply apply the formula

W ~ m ~ ) l ( l~~l- r' ~n ]~= )
/3 = 10 log,, [
10 10~,,[10~]
= 10 (6) = 60 decibels.
2.
A.
In Section B we discussed how intensity varies as

the inverse square of the distance from the point source
of sound. If distance increases by a factor of 3, then
intensity decreases by a factor of 32= 9.
If 10-l2W emerges from each area 1 m2, then for this

ball, with area 4n(1 m)2, the power must be
3. A.
The 40 W goes out in all directions. If you stand
6 m away from the sound, then you can imagine a ball
around the speaker of radius 6 m. The total surface area
of that ball is 4z 3. (If you have forgotten this formula,
then take a minute to memorize it.) Since intensity is
power per area, we can write
This is the power produced by one mosquito. To obtain

the energy produced in 100 s, we write
AE=PAt
6. D.
In the last problem we determined that the power
produced by one mosquito was 1.3 x lo-" W. To power
a 10-W bulb, we would need (10 W)/(1.3 x lo-'' W) =
10110-'I = 1oL2.
7. B.
We estimated n = 3 and 3 x 36 = 100. Look for these

shortcuts.
The intensity I is proportional to the power, so an

increase by a factor of 10 in power leads to an increase
by a factor of 10 in intensity. But P i s related to the
logarithm of intensity. An increase by a factor of 10
leads to an addition of 10 to P. You can also work this
out by using the formula, and plugging any number you
want in for area (like 1 m2). But it is better to think it
through as we have done here.
If a mosquito were 10 m away (instead of 1 m),

then the intensity of the sound would be lo2= 100
times less. Thus there would have to be 100 mosquitos
in order to be barely perceptible.
8. B.
Moving from 30 to 3 m away decreases the
distance by a factor of 10, and this increases the
intensity by a factor of 100 (two factors of lo), and this
adds 10 to twice, so = (20 + 10 + 10) decibels. You
can work this problem by explicitly using the formula,
but that is more difficult.
The
MCAT Physics Book
9.
14. D.
D.
If we consider the displacement of air particles,

then the closed end is a node and the open end is an
antinode. The fundamental wave form is shown in the
figure. The 1.5 m shows merely a quarter of a full wave,
so the wavelength is 6 m.
If we consider the displacement of air particles,

then both ends are antinodes, and we need at least one
node in the pipe, even for the fundamental.. This is
shown in the figure. This is half a wave, so the wavelength is 0.2 m, since the pipe length is 0.1 m.
10. A.
15. C.
Thus the frequency is f = VIA=(343 m/s)/(6 m) =

60 Hz.
11.
Thus the frequency of the fundamental is f =

VIA=(343 m/s)/(0.2 m) = 1700 Hz.
B.
16. B.
The second harmonic has one more node than the

fundamental, and it is shown in the figure. What is
shown is only three quarters of a wavelength. We can
write (314) A = 1.5 m to obtain I = 2 m.
The fourth harmonic has three more nodes than

the fundamental, for a total of four nodes. The ends are
still antinodes:This is shown in the figure. There are
two wavelengths packed in the 0.1 m, so .I= 0.05<n.
17. B.
12. A.
Sound speed and frequency are related by f = VIA,

where I is constant since it is simply twice the length of
the organ pipe. If sound speed is 2% slower, then v
decreases by a factor of 0.98, and f decreases by a factor
of 0.98. Thusf decreases by 2%.
The fifth harmonic has four more nodes than the

fundamental. This is shown in the figure. There are
1 9
2- = - wave forms present, so we may write (914)I =
4 4
1.5 m to obtain I = 213 m.
18. A.
The beat frequency in this case is f,, = 29.1 Hz 27.5 Hz = 1.6 Hz.Thus the period is T = Ilf= 0.6 s.
19.
13. A.
The wavelength A is still 6 m for the fundamental,

since the length of the tube does not change, and we
apply f = VIA.
D.
The problem states that the beat frequency is
twice a second, or 2 Hz. This means that the E string
frequency differs from true 660 Hz by 2 Hz.Thus it
could be 658 Hz or 662 Hz.
Solutions ............................. Chapter
Choices A, B, and C look really tempting, since

sound needs to come into it somehow. We know,
however, that the energy starts in the strings and ends
up as sound. Choice D describes sound in another way.
After all, sound is a wave, which is a "sloshing back
and forth" of kinetic and potential energy. Thus, D is
the answer, the first medium being the guitar string and
the second medium being air.
21. C.
Choice A is tempting since the mini-passage is
about beats, but we hear beats only at the end of the
procedure. For choice B, interference is the addition of
two waves in the same medium, which is what happens
when waves from both strings combine, but that is not
the excitation of the C, string. Choice C is when energy
gets transferred from one oscillator to another of similar
frequency by a weak coupling, so C is the answer,
Choice D, dispersion, is the spreading of waves due to
the dependence of wave speed on frequency (which we
have not discussed).
= 490 Hz.
25. C.
This time the detector is moving, and we choose
the positive sign in the numerator to obtain an answer
greater than 420 Hz (again they are approaching). Thus
,,,
f,= 350
(420 Hz)
8
7
= -(420
Hz)
= 480 Hz.
26. B.
Again the emitter is moving, but this time we

choose the positive sign:
fdel
,
The beat frequency between the notes is f
f, -f,= (784.87 - 783.99) HZ= 0.88 HZ.
1P
350 (420 Hz)

= 350 + 50
= 367.5 Hz.
23. B.
The figure shows the fundamental and the third
harmonic for the C , string. The fundamental frequency
is given by f,= vl(2L). The frequency of the third
harmonic is given by f, = vl(2l3 L) = 3 f,.Thus to get
the frequency of the fundamental, we need to divide
784.87 Hz by 3.
27. D.
If the car were to hear the frequency, the frequency it would hear is given by
,,,
f ,= 350
(42 kHz)
Now if it were to re-emit this frequency, the frequency

detected by the police detector would be
24. D.
The emitter is moving, and we choose the minus
sign in the denominator because we want the answer to
be greater than 420 Hz.Thus we have
350 (420 Hz)

fh = 350-50
= 56 kHz.
This is the equivalent of sending a signal and having it
reflectfrom a moving target. There are two Doppler
shifts.

Passage 1
6. B.
1. B.
The bat does not hear frequencies which are too

far from those it sends out. Choice D is definitely not
right, but it is interesting to think why. Why is such an
adaptation completely useless?
According to paragraph 1, the wavelength must

be shorter than the target insect. Thus the frequency
must be greater than f = vlli,,= 34300 Hz = 34.3 kHz.
The sound pulse must travel from the bat to the

insect, be reflected, and travel back again, for a total of
6 m. The time required is dr = Axlv = 0.017 s.
Use A = v/f.
3.
B.
Since the insect and the bat are moving in the
same direction at the same speed, there is no Doppler
shift, and the detected frequency is simply 30 kHz. If
you want to make sure, you can work this problem like
problem 27 above.
4.
D.
If the tree could detect a frequency, it would
detect
f=
,,,_,,
343
50 kHz.
If it re-emitted this frequency, then the bat would detect

a frequency given by
---358 343 (50 kHz)

343 328
There are two Doppler shifts.

You do not need to do the calculation to obtain
the answer. Given the fact that the bat and the tree
approach each other, the frequency must be increased,
so D is the only possible answer.
D.
In the upper figure we see the beat, so T refers to
the beat period, which is l/j-,. The reason that the
power never reaches zero is that the outgoing wave has
a larger amplitude than the incoming wave.
C.
Higher harmonic content refers to higher frequencies being present in addition to the fundamental. These
higher harmonic frequencies thus have shorter wavelength. This would not really aid in distance measurement, so choice A is incorrect. Stunning the insect?
Choice B is also incorrect. There is a sentence in
paragraph 1 which indicates that C is plausible, since
shorter wavelengths are more likely to be reflected if
the wavelength of the fundamental is too large. If the
harmonics are Doppler shifted, then so is the fundamental, so choice D is incorrect.
5.
3.
4.
A.
Maxima correspond to times when the two waves

are in phase.
5.
D.
Because the detected frequency is lower, the
vehicle is receding, but there is no way to know from
the passage whether it is doing so directly away or at an
angle. The Doppler effect happens in three dimensions,
and we have discussed only the one dimension parallel
to the motion (which is the important one).
Passage 3
1. C.
$+
I
You may have been tempted to choose D, but the

question asks for the wavelength of the wave in the
pipe, not the wavelength of the wave in the air, so we
cannot use 343 m/s. The passage describes the vibration
as having antinodes at the midpoint and ends and a
node at the onequarter point. This is shown in the
figure. One wavelength corresponds to the length of the
pipe.
Solutions . . . . . . . . .. . .... .. . . .. . . . . .. . . Chdpter 1 P
Passage 4
1.
B.
This is the definition of interference. Diffraction
is the spreading of waves. Beats is a particular phenomenon which occurs when waves of similar frequency
interfere. Difference tones have to do with the way the
ear processes sound.
2.
C.
The passage says that a note of average frequency
turns on and off. Thus the perceived frequency is (30.87
Hz + 32.70Hz)/2 = 3 1.79Hz.
node
7
antinode.
3. B.
This question asks for the beat frequency (times
per second), sof
, = 32.70Hz - 30.87Hz = 1.83 Hz.
4.
C.
Choices A, B, and C all share the property that
the difference is the desired frequency 110 Hz, but
choice D is excluded. Choices A and B include frequencies lower than 110 Hz, which cannot possibly be
harmonics, so A and B are incorrect.
The pressure in the room does not change

markedly from the equilibrium pressure. Sound is tiny
variations of pressure. If the vertical axis were marked
AP = P - P,, then an answer like A would be appropriate.
2.
A.
We usef = VIA.
The waves in the pipe are analogous to waves on

a string, and the hammer blow is a transverse blow,
Sound waves in air must be longitudinal.
We need to introduce at least one more node. If

we introduce another node between the end and the
place where the string attaches, that forces us to include
three more nodes. The second fundamental is shown in
the figure above. Three waves fit in 0.8 m, so the
wavelength is 0.27 m.
6.
C.
According to paragraph 3, sound of two frequencies f, and f, enter the ear. Choice A is definitely wrong,
especially with a wavelength drawn onto the graph. For
that the horizontal axis must be a space coordinate like
x. Choice B might show a portion of the power spectrum after some processing, but the frequencyf, -f,
does not enter the ear. The ear constructs the difference
tone later. Choice C is correct. Choice D might have
been correct if time were the horizontal coordinate.

Passage 5
1. B.
Since Alice is an equal distance from the speakers, and the speakers are emitting sound waves in phase,
wave crests arrive at her location in phase. Thus she is
at an antinode. Bob has moved to a position of relative
silence, which must be a node.
2.
C.
The waves arrive out of phase where Bob is
sitting, because the wave fiom the left speaker takes a
bit longer to arrive. When a crest from the right speaker
is arriving, the corresponding crest from the left is still
in transit. By the time it arrives, a trough is arriving
from the right speaker.
3. D.
The sum of the two distances is not significant
and cannot be derived from the information.
4.
D.
The key here is that, for Bob, the waves arrive out
of phase. When crest is coming from the left speaker,
trough comes from the right. The difference is half a
wavelength.
5.
C.
Alice is positioned equidistant from the speakers,
so for her the waves will still be in phase, so A and D
are incorrect. Bob's location at a node depends on the
wavelength of the sound, which we change when we
change the frequency.
6. C .
Experiment 2 is the prescription for creating
beats.
Solutions
..... . . . . .......... ..........
Chdpter
13
beam bends toward the normal, back to horizontal. Thus

the answer is C. To see that the beam is indeed exactly
horizontal, you need to work out Snell's law.
As the light beam goes from the glass to the air, it

bends away from the normal (so the refracted beam
makes a larger angle with the normal than the incident
beam), and this eliminates A and B. As it passes into the
glass it bends toward the normal.
The dashed line shows the normal, and at the first

interface the light bends toward the normal, which is
down. At the second interface (normal is dashed line),
the light bends away from the normal, which is down.
--.
lass
As the light beam passes into the glass, the

incident angle is 0, so the transmitted ray is still
horizontal. Passing into the air, the light bends down,
away from the normal. At the interface with glass, the
At the first interface, from air to glass, the beam

bends toward the normal (A and D are incorrect), and at
the second interface, the beam bends away from the
normal (C is incorrect).
glass
At the interface to air, the beam bends away from

the normal, which is a radius, shown dashed. At the
interface to glass, the beam bends toward the normal,
which is again up.
The
MCAT Physics Book
6. C .
11. D.
Snell's law becomes
n, sin 0, = nisin Oi,

4
1.00 sin 8, = -sin 30,

3
In this case the incident angle is 60, since the

problem states that the angle with the horizontal is 30".
Thus,
Oi = 60".
n, sin 8, = ni sin 8,,
6sin 0, = (1.00) sin 60,
2
8, = sin-' -.
3
The reflected angle has the same magnitude as the

incident angle.
1
sin 6 , = 2'
If the refracted angle is 30, then the ray makes an

angle with the surface which is 60".
12. A.
For the critical angle, we must have the refracted
angle be 90":
ni sin 8,,, = n, sin 90,
The frequency of the beam does not change as it

goes from air to a salt crystal, but the wave speed does,
so we have A = v,,,,)' Thus A = clnf. Since n increases
by a factor of 1.7, the wavelength must decrease by a
factor of 1.7. so the answer is A.
3
sine,, = -,
4
3
0cnt. =sin-' -.
4
9.
D.
The equation for critical angle becomes (setting

8,= 90")
ni sin O,,
The figure shows the ray diagram. From this we

can see the answer is B. If you want to use equations,
you can write
= n, sin 90".
Since sine cannot be greater than 1, there is no critical

angle. There is a critical angle, and total internal
reflection, only for light beams traveling from a slow
medium encountering a fast one.
10. B.
The frequency of light is the same, although the
wave speed, and thus wavelength, changes.
where the negative sign indicates the image is on the
same side as the object.
14. B.
From the diagram we observe the image is

upright and virtual, since the rays must be extended to
intersect.
The magnification can be read from the diagram,

or we can write
19. B.
The magnification is given by
The candle image has a height
20. C .
The figure shows the ray diagram, from which we

see the image is inverted and real.
We can get the focal length from the following

equation:
1- 1
--+-r
17. C.
Since the index of refraction depends on the

frequency, and the focal length depends on the refraction of the beam in the lens, dispersion causes the focal
length to depend on frequency.
(object
di
do
21. B.
The magnification is given by
The figure shows the ray diagram. From it we can

read the position of the image close enough to realize
that B is the answer. The equation is
where the negative sign indicates the image is inverted.
The
MCAT Physics Book
22. D.
26. C.
If the object is an infinite distance away, then the
focus is on the focal plane, 12 m in front of the mirror.
To see this in the equation, we write
Ii
Z image
The figure shows the ray diagram for the candle
6 m from the mirror. From the diagram we can see that
the image is about 12 m behind the mirror. The equation becomes
where the negative sign indicates the image is behind

the mirror.
We can read this from the diagram, or we can

calculate m = - di/&= - (-12 m)/(6 m) = 2.
Conversely to the previous problem, light rays

that start at the focus end up parallel.
28. A,
29. A,
30. B.
image
'
From the diagram we see the image is in the same

position as the object but inverted. If we wanted to do
the calculation, we would write
25. C.
From the diagram we see the image is inverted

and real.
These answers can be read from the ray diagram (see

figure).
The figure shows the ray diagram.
Solutions ......... .. .......... . ... . . .. Chdpter
13
32. B.
We calculate the focal length as follows:

1
1.
B.
The light emerging from the first (left) polarizer
has half the intensity of the original source, since the
horizontal component has been taken out of it. All of
the resulting light passes through the second (right)
polarizer, since it is already vertically polarized. Thus
the final beam has half the intensity of the original.
The light emerging from the first polarizer has

half the intensity of the original source, and it is
vertically polarized. The second polarizer cuts out the
vertical component and passes the horizontal component, so the resulting intensity is zero.
where the positive sign indicates the mirror is converging.
The magnification is given by m = +do =

- (-4 m)/(2 m) = 2.
Again, the light emerging from the first polarizer

is vertically polarized and has intensity 112 1,. After it
goes through the optically active substance, it may have
any orientation, since that information is not given in
the problem. If the beam ends up horizontallypolarized,
then the resulting intensity is 112 1,. Ifit ends up
vertically polarized, then the intensity is zero. If the
more probable situation arises that the beam is somewhere between these two extremes, still polarized but at
some oblique angle, then the resultant intensity is
between 0 and 112 I,,.
We use the equation
1 - 1
---
f,,
2m
+-, 1
4m
Since the light is absorbed, the energy turns to

heat.
5.
35. B.
The first lens has a power P, = llf= 112 D. We

want a combination with total power P,= I&,= 113 D.
Thus P, = Pa- P, = - 116 D.
D.
The passage states (paragraph 1) that radiation is
emitted perpendicular to the wire. For the antenna in
question 5, most of the radiation is emitted east, west,
up, down, and so on, but none is emitted north and
south.
The focal length is 113 m, so the lens is a converging lens.
37. D.
The power of the combination is the sum of the
powers.
This is an application of the equation f = CIA=

m) = 5.8 x 1014Hz.
(3 x 10' m/s)/(520 x

6. D.
The figure shows the ray diagram for this problem. The diagram is not too much help in this problem,
so we calculate
According to the passage, if the camera is

diffraction limited, then the resolution depends on the
size of the lens (that is, light gathering hole) and the
wavelength of the light used. Choices A, B, and C
address neither of these issues. Increasing the size of
the entire camera would increase the size of the lens,
which would increase the resolution, by decreasing the
resolution angle.
Trying to determine if two dots are separate or

blurred is analogous to trying to distinguish two
headlights, so the information is in paragraph 3. The
resolution of the eye is the ratio of dot separation to
standing distance, so we write
Since the magnification is - 0.1, the size of the image is

m and inverted.
(0.1) (0.01 m) = 1o - ~
D = 10m.
You must stand 10 m away.
3. A.
The subtended angle can be calculated from
information in the third paragraph, that is, the ratio of
the spatial separation of the top and bottom of the moth
to the distance from the moth to the eye. Thus the angle
is 0.01 m10.25 m = 0.04 radians, which is about 2.3".
4.
The best resolution we can hope for is diffraction

rnY(2.4 m) =
limited, for which 8,,= A/d = (520 x
2 x lo-' rad. We have used green light as being
representative of visible light.
D.
The desired power of the combination of corrective lens plus eye lens is 110.025 m = 40 D. Since PC,,,
= Peye+ Pmmt, we must have PC,,=
5 D.
W light has a shorter wavelength than visible

light, so the diffraction angle 8,,= Ud would decrease,
giving a better resolution, assuming the apparatus is
diffraction limited.
10. D.
The figure shows the red light focused on the

retina. This lens refracts the blue light more than red
light and hence focuses blue rays in front of the red
focus. The figure exaggerates the case.
Concerning choice A, a larger pupil does allow in

more light, but this does not explain a decrease in
resolution. For choice B, the opposite is true: a larger
pupil allows more directional information to enter the
eye, which should improve resolution if there were not
another factor present. For choice C, both cats and
humans contend with chromatic aberration (see
question 5). The large lens introduces spherical aberration, so D is correct.
Solutions ............................. Chapter
14
Chapter 1 4 Solutions
First let's draw a diagram with all the forces. If Q

and -Q are 2 x 104m apart, then q is lo4 m from Q.
Sections A-D
1. A.
For a repulsive force to exist, the balls must have

like charge.
At first it seems as if 111can be definitely concluded. Then we remember that a charged object can
attract a neutral object if it induces a charge, so D is the
correct answer.
The force to the right due to charge Q is F,, =

N, where we have used d = lo4 m. The
k~qld2=
force due to the charge -Q is also to the right and has
the same magnitude. The forces add to yield 2 X lo-' N.
10. C.
First let's draw a diagram with all the forces.
By Coulomb's law, as the distance increases by a

factor of 4, the force decreases by a factor of 4'.
4.
D.
Both charges increase by a factor of 2. Both
contribute an increase of a factor of 2 to the force.
5.
B.
By Coulomb's law, the force exerted by one
charge on the other has the same magnitude as the force
the other exerts on the first. This is an example of
Newton's thud law.
The magnitude of the force in the -x-direction is given

by Coulomb's law, so that F, = 3 x lo-' N. Likewise
F, = 4 x lo-' N. We obtain the total force by the
Pythagorean theorem, F,, = 5 x 1o - ~N.
11. A.
First let's draw a diagram with all the forces on

charge q.
This can be obtained by process of elimination. In
choice A, the positive charges are concentrated in an
area. Their mutual repulsion would cause them to move
apart, so choice A is out. In choices C and D, the
charges in the middle would be repelled by the charged
ball and move to the left. So choices C and D are out.
Q*
The forces add to zero.

12. A.
7. B.
The positive charges will repel each other and,
being free to move, will move as far apart as possible.
Thus they will end up distributed as in choice B.
The positive charges will repel each other, but not

being free to move, they will remain where they are
placed. The correct answer is D.
The sodium ion Na' is positively charged and

attracts the oxygen atom. Oxygen is slightly negative
because it is more electronegative than the hydrogen
atoms to which it is attached.
The
MCAT Physics Book
13. C .
First, we draw a diagram.
Subtracting these yields the result A.

15. D.
First we draw a diagram, showing the electric

field from the various charges.
The water molecule can be modeled as having a

positive end and a negative end, so that is how we will
draw i t The sodium ion exerts a force on each end, as
shown. The repulsive force is greater than the attractive
force because the positive end is nearer the sodium ion,
and Coulomb's law states that the force varies as the
inverse square of the distance.

field from the various charges. ( The vector El, is due to
charge Q, at x =
m.)
Both electric field vectors point toward the negative

charge, and both vectors have a magnitude
Since there are two vectors of equal magnitude,-the

result is D.
16. A.
Note that because point P is closer to the negative
charge, the vector to the left is longer. The sum will be
to the left, so the answer is A.
If we want to calculate the numbers, we calculate
the magnitude
Note that the electric fields are of the same magnitude

and point in the opposite direction, so the total electric
field at that point is zero.
17. A.
First we draw electric field vectors into the
diagram.
Likewise we calculate the magnitude
The horizontal components add to zero, and the

vertical components are both up, away from the
charges. Thus the answer is A.
Solutions ... .. .. . . . . .... ... . . . . . . . . . . Chdpter
14
First we draw electric field vectors into the

diagram.
The electric fields due to charges B and C add to

zero, so the total electric field at point D is down.
19. A.
The electric fields due to the various charges

add to zero.
Force balance yields F,, - mg = 0. What do we use for

F,,,, We do not have data for Coulomb's law, but we do
have an electric field. Thus we write QE - rng = 0,
where Q is the charge on the ball. We obtain Q =
-2.25 x lo4 C for the ball, where we have used E =
400 NIC, and we have taken up to be positive. In order
to check the sign on the charge, we realize that the
electric force must be up. If the electric field is down,
then a positive charge would experience a downward
force. So the charge must be negative, so the electric
force will balance gravity.
24. A.
We apply the formula F = q,,,E =

(1.6 x 10-l9C) (4 x lo4 NIC) = 6.4 x lo-'' N.
20. B.
The relevant equation is F = QE. Since E is

constant, and Q is twice as large for the alpha particle
(helium has two protons and two neutrons), the force is
twice as large.
We need to relate acceleration to data in the

problem. Let's start with F = ma, or
We read the direction from the diagram.
21. D.
Since $ = q~?,and the charge q for an electron

is negative, @isthe in opposite direction from f.
F
m'
a=-
where F is the force on the proton (or electron), and rn

is the mass of the proton (or electron). The force is
given by F = qE, in both cases, so
a=- 4E
m
2 2 A.
The positively charged top plate will create a

downward electric field, and a negatively charged
bottom plate will create a downward field as well.
Choice B will create an upward field, and choices C
and D will not create electric fields at all.
23. B.
The force diagram for the ball is shown.
The electron has a charge of opposite sign, E is constant, and m is 2000 times smaller. Therefore, the
acceleration of the electron is of opposite direction and
2000 times greater.
The positive end of the water molecule would

experience a force in the same direction as the electric
field, that is, up. The negative end of the molecule
would experience a force in the opposite direction of
the electric field, that is, down. The energy would be
minimized, therefore, if the hydrogen end pointed up
and the oxygen end down, so C is the answer.
28. A.
Note that this is not the orientation derived in

problem 27. Let's draw a diagram showing the forces,
and drawing the water molecule as a dipole. The forces
cancel. (This is not like those problems in which one
arrqw is longer than the other, because the electric field
here is uniform.)
Then, we have
w =%(v, - Y )
29. C.
From the above diagram, we see that the molecule

tends to be compressed.
Note that we get the same answer if we consider q,
fixed and move q,.
30. B
The clue here is the combination of energy and
charge, so the equation to use is W = qAV. Although the
problem specifies that the path is straight across, the
energy is path independent, so we do not need that
information. Thus
w = q(V, - VA)
33. A.
Whenever we see a problem about work or energy

with charges, we know to write W = Q AV. The charge
we want to transfer is Q = lo-" C. Thus we have
W = (10-lo C) (-10,000 V - 10,OOOV) = -2 x
J.
A positive charge going from 10,000V to -10,000 V is
going downhill, so the negative sign is correct.
31. D
Again we use
W = qAV = q(v, - v,)
Let's check the sign. Moving a positive particle from

1000V to -1000 V is downhill, so moving an electron
is uphill, that is, an increase in energy.
34. A.
with charges, we know to write W = QAV. If we try to
apply W = FAxcos I$,we are dead in the water, because,
as the charge moves, F changes. In this case the charge
q starts at point A, where the potential due to Q is VA=
kQ /rl = 2 x lo4V, where we use r, = 5 m. It moves to
point 8, which is r, = 1 m away from Q, so V, =
kQlr2= 10' V. The work required is
W=qAV
32. D.
with charges, we know to write W =Q AV. Let's
consider the charge q, to be fixed and move charge q,
from initial distance rito final distance r, (see figure).
Does the sign make sense? Since we are moving a

negative charge nearer a positive one, we expect that the
energy required be negative.
Solutions ............................. Chapter 1 4
Whenever we see a problem about work or

energy with charges, we know to write W = Q AV. If
we try to apply W = FAxcos $, we are lost. The
potential at the starting point A is VA = kQ Ir,, where
r, is 2 m. The potential at the ending point B is VB =
kQ /r2,where r, is 2 m. Thus the potential at the two
points is the same, and no energy is required. This is
the equivalent of moving a rock from one point 50 m
above sea level to another point 50 m above sea level.
You may move the rock uphill and downhill, but the
total work required is zero, because you pull as much
energy out of the rock as you put into it.
Since the acceleration is always positive (that is,

away from charge Q), the velocity will increase forever.
(There is no friction force in the problem to slow it
down.) This narrows the answer to C or D. To distinguish between these possibilities we need an energy
argument. The energy of the system starts as elecmcal
potential energy, and is given by E , , = kQqlr, where r is
their initial distance. (Recall that the electrical potential
energy is the energy required to bring a system together
from charges starting at infinity.) After the charge Q has
moved very far away, the energy of the system is all
1
kinetic: - mv2.But since E, can never be greater than
2
kQqlr, there is a limit on the size of v. (See the figure for
a sketch of v versus t.)
36. A.
Whenever we see a problem about work or

energy with charges, we know to write W = Q AV. In
this case, Q is the charge of the electron, and AV is
the voltage rating of the dry cell.
37. A.
If we work out the electric potential at points A
and B, we obtain
41. B.
The energy starts as kinetic and ends as elecuical

potential. In order for there to be heat, there must be a
large number of particles in random motion. Heat is not
an appropriate concept with just two particles.
where r, = 2 m and r2 = 4 m. But the calculation for

VB involves the same numbers, except that r, = 2 m
and r2= 4 m. So V, = V,, and the potential difference
is zero volts.
.
The energy is conserved, so there is no energy

entering or exiting. Furthermore, there is no heat
generation or such nonsense, so the initial kinetic energy
1
The electric potential at point C is given by

1
(- mv2)is entirely converted to electrical potential
2
energy. Thus if v is increased by a factor of 4, then the
initial kinetic energy is increased by a factor of 16, as is
the final electrostatic energy.
43. A.
= 4 x 105 volts,
since r, = r4= 5 m. (Use the Pythagorean theorem.)
We derived the expression for the electric potential

energy in Example 4 of Section F. (Note: The denominator is r, not 2.This is not Coulomb's law, which is about
force. This is an equation about energy.) If we set the
expression for the initial kinetic energy equal to the final
electrostatic energy, we obtain
39. B.
Its acceleration is given by force divided by

mass, and the force is an inverse-square law with
respect to distance. The force decreases as q moves
away ffom Q, for the force decreases forever, never
reaching zero.
Clearly v and r are inversely related, so if v increases by

a factor of 4, then r decreases by a factor of 16.
The
MCAT Physics Book

52. D.
44. D.
We use the left hand (because electrons are

negative) to figure out the direction of the magnetic
force. The fingers point down and the thumb to the
right. The palm faces out of the page, so that is the
direction of the magnetic force. We are told that the
electric force opposes it, so it must be into the page. If
the electric field points out of the page, then its force on
an electron is into the page (because the electron is
negative).
Using the right hand, point the thumb up, so that

the fingers curl counterclockwise when viewed from the
top. At point P the magnetic field is into the page.
45.
B.
If the current is up, then the electrons (being
negative) must be flowing down.
46. D.
53. A.
The external force pulls the wire, so the electrons

move in the same direction as the magnetic field. Thus
there is no magnetic force on the electrons.
No matter what point along the wire loop we

choose, if we apply the right hand rule, we obtain a
magnetic field pointing out of the page.
47. C.
Using the left hand, point the fingers down the

page and the thumb toward you. The palm faces left, the
direction of the magnetic force.
Since the proton is speeding up, there is work

being done on it, so it cannot be a magnetic force
speeding it up. The acceleration of the proton is to the
right, so the force is to the right. The electric field must
be to the right as well.
54. B.
Using the right hand, point the fingers out of the

page and the thumb up. The palm faces to the right, so
the answer is B. Choices C and D are definitely out
anyway, because a magnetic force cannot speed up or
slow down a particle (that is, it does no work).
Passage 1
1. A.
49. C .
The frequency of the radiation is the same as the

frequency of the alternating current, lo7Hz. The
wavelength of the radiation is A = clf =
(3 x lo8rn/s)l(10~Hz) = 30 m. For a quarter-wave
antenna (see paragraph 3), the length would be 7.5 m.
There is a force on the proton up the page. If it is

an electric force, then the electric field points up the
page. If it is a magnetic force, then the force would be
provided by a magnetic field pointing into the page.
2.
If a proton is placed at point A, it experiences no

magnetic force (it is not moving). But it will feel the
attraction toward the electrons, down the page. This
indicates that the direction of the electric field is down
(toward the electrons). It does not matter that the
electrons are moving.
According to the passage, the electric field

"points along the same axis as the current" that produces it. Since the antenna is vertical, the current it
carrieiis vertical, so the electric field is vertical as well.
3. B.
The magnetic field is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation (northlsouth) and to the
electric field (upldown). So the magnetic field must
point eastlwest.
51. A.
The tricky part here is realizing that if the

electron beam moves to the right, then the current
points to the left. Using the right hand with the thumb
pointing left (or the left hand with the thumb pointing
right, either one), the fingers curl in the direction into
the page at point A.
D.
4.
B.
'IAe electric field points up and down, so the force

on the electrons in the antenna is up and down as well.
The electrons should be free to move in this direction if
an alternating current is to be set up. Thus the antenna
should be vertical.
Solutions ... ....... ... .. .............. Chapter
When you think of an electric field, you should

immediately think of force on a charge. Choice B is
correct in that the force creates the current. (Choice C is
incorrect because the electrons are not bound to
individual atoms.)
A calcium atom has no charge, so the force on it

would be zero.
Increasing the pressure would put the gas

particles closer to each other, so an electron could not
travel as far before colliding with a particle. Thus the
mean free path would decrease. If the electron is not
able to travel as far, then the energy it gains is less. (The
kinetic energy it gains is about F,,, I,, , from the
standard formula for work.) Thus the electron is not
likely to create a spark. A greater electric field is
required, so the threshold is higher.
6. A.
The energy starts as electrical.
Passage
14
1. A.
Since the electric field is directed away from the

wire, this indicates that the charge on the wire is
positive.
The mass density does not have anything to do

with this phenomenon, so choices A, B, and C are out.
It is true that an electron absorber will inhibit the
phenomenon like killing a baby in its crib.
At a distance 0.01 m from the wire, the electric

field is E = (3 x lo4NrnlC)/(O.Ol m) = 3 x lo6 NIC. To
obtain force, we calculate F = q, E = 4.8 x lo-" N.
Since the electric field is directed away from the wire,
the force on the electron is toward the wire.
5.
This graph shows the constant acceleration (due

to the constant force) of the electron inthe parts of the
graph which have a small positive slope. The rapid
decreases in velocity are the times of collision where
the electron loses energy.
The electric field lines point in the same direction

that the field points, that is, away from the wire.
The force of a charged particle in an electric field

is simply F = Q E. The charge on the fluoride ion is due
to an extra electron, so it is -1.6 x 10-l9C. The charge
on the hydrogen ion is 1.6 x 10-l9C. Thus the force on
the fluoride is the same in magnitude and opposite in
direction.
In an butanol molecule, the oxygen atom is the

most electronegative atom, so it is negatively charged
relative to the rest of the molecule. Since the electric
field points away from the wire, the negative oxygen
experiences a force toward the wire.
Passage
The force on a charged particle in an electric field

is F = QE, so the oxygen ion (0'3 experiences twice
the force.
C.
409
The
MCAT Physics
Booic
1. C.
The electric current is the amount of charge going

by a point in the circuit per unit time. In a flow of water,
the analogous parameter is the amount (volume) of
water going past a point per unit of time, the volume
flow rate. Note that the current is the same for resistors
in series, and the volume flow rate is constant along a
flow (if there is no branching), which is not m e of flow
velocity.
2.
The current, from Ohm's law, is I = (18 V)/(90 Q) =

0.2 A. If you chose C, then you probably tried to apply
Ohm's law by substituting in 18 V for the potential drop
across the resistor. But the potential drop is not nearly
so large, as is shown in the first diagram of this solution. We need to consider the entire circuit to obtain the
current in any one place. This is like water in a pipe, in
that the current at one point is affected by conditions
(such as a partial blockage) both upstream and downstream.
D.
Height gives a measure of the energy per mass
required to place water at that point, just as electric
potential is a measure of the energy per charge required
to place a charge at that point
6.
B.
See the above explanation.
3. C.
A battery pumps charge from one electric

potential to another.
4.
C.
A pool is a large supply of water from which you

can take or to which you can add water without
disturbing it. A ground is a large supply of charge.
In the circuit diagram we label voltages and

currents. The current splits into two unequal pieces. The
current through resister 1 is given by Ohm's law: I, =
6 V/l S2 = 6 A. The current through resister 2 is I, =
6 V/2 S2 = 3 A. Of course, this is not surprising, since
we would expect that the lesser resistance would have
the greater current if the voltage drops are equal.
We can label the circuit diagram with currents

and voltages. Clearly, the current which flows through
resistor 2 is the current which flows through the entire
circuit. To obtain this current, we can combine resistors.
Since they are in series, we simply add in order to
obtain the equivalent circuit shown below.
8.
B.
See above explanation.
We label the voltages and currents in the circuit

diagram, beginning with 0 volts at the short end of
cell 1. Because of the jump of V,= 6 V, we label the
wire on the other side 6 volts. The short end of the cell
2 is 6 V, so a jump of 9 V means the wire on the other
side is 15 V. Thus the potential drop across the resistor
is 15 V. Ohm's law gives us I = 15 V/60&
= 0.25
I
A.
Solutions .............................
Chapter 1 5
14. C.
For this question, we can simply apply Ohm's law

to obtain AV, = I, R, = (2 A) (4 Q) = 8 V.
15. B.
Since resistors 1 and 2 are in series, the current

going through them must be the same.
Since the bulbs are in series, the current through

them is the same.
Since the current through resistor 2 is 2 amps, the

voltage drop across it is I, R, = 4 V. If we label point A
to be 0 V, then a jump of 4 V will bring.us to point B.
11. C.
We label voltages and currents in the circuit

diagram. We can read off that the potential difference
between C and D is 18 V.
12.
D.
In this case, Ohm's law is A y = IR, since I is
constant. The light bulb with the higher resistance has a
proportionally higher potential drop.
We can label the circuit diagram with voltages

and currents, but this does not give us the answer
immediately because we do not know the potential drop
across resistor 1. (If you chose D, you should pay
attention to this point) First let's combine resistors 2
and 3, as shown in the equivalent circuit below. The
resulting resistance is given by
To obtain the total current, we draw an equivalent

circuit, combining the voltage sources and the two
resistor light bulbs (see figure). Ohm's law yields 0.4 A.
The
MCAT Physics Book
The resulting new circuit is shown in the diagram.

But what is this? Definitely a problem. We have shorted
the circuit. Do not try this at home.
(If you chose C, you forgot to take the final

reciprocal.) We combine the resistors in series to obtain
the equivalent circuitshown. The total current is
6 amps, which is also the current through resistor 1.
18. B.
Since resistors 2 and 3 are in parallel, the voltage

drop across both of them are the same.
On the circuit diagram, we label the potentials.

The current splits into three pieces. By Ohm's law we
can calculate the current through light bulb 2,1, =
(6 V)/(20 Q) = 0.3 A. From this we can get power, P, =
I, AV, = 1.8 Watts = 1.8 J/s. In 10 seconds, 18 Joules
are dissipated.
The resulting new circuit is shown in the diagram.

The potential drop across resistor 2 is the full 36 V.
Thus the voltage increases when A and B are connected.
If the connection through light bulb 1 were

interrupted, then we obtain the circuit shown. The
electric potential across light bulb 2 is the same 6 V that
it was before, so it bums in the same way.
Solutions
............................. Chapter
15
Question 23 is essentially the same question..The

6-V potential across light bulb 3 does not change if
current through light bulb 2 is interrupted.
but this does not correspond to any of the choices.
The short is made clear in the resulting circuit

diagram. If you tried this in real life the battery would
get very hot while a large current surged through the
wire connection.
We draw in potentials and currents in the circuit

diagram. Introducing a resistor at point C would split
the potential drop across light bulb 3, decreasing the
power P3 = (AV,)~/R,,so choice D is out. Decreasing
the emf of the battery would decrease the power of
resistor 3, so C is out. If we hold the potential drop
across light bulb 3 constant, then a decrease in the
resistance will increase the power since, again, P3=
(AV,)~/R,.So A is correct.
28. C.
The power dissipated (that is,-the energy per unit
time) is constant. If the question had asked, "What is
the energy dissipated look like as a function of time?',
then D would have been the answer. B might have been
the answer if the source were alternating current.
We draw potentials and currents on the circuit

diagram, but we know neither the potential drop nor the
current for resistor 1. We can obtain this current,
however, by combining resistors. Since the resistors are
in series, we obtain I = 12 V/6 R = 2 A. Thus the
current through resistor 1 is 2 A, and the potential
difference across it is I R, = 4 V. Thus the power
dissipated is P, = I, AV, = 8 Watts.
From the circuit diagram (Problem 25) we can see

that the sum of the potential drops across the resistors
must be 12 V. We could obtain another relationship,
since the current through both resistors is the same.
Thus
29. B.
Since current can no longer go through the wire

with light bulb 1, light bulb 2 extinguishes. Choices A
and C are eliminated. Does light bulb 3 bum brighter?
The potential drop across light bulb 3 is not a function
of what happens in the upper wire. The potential across
it remains 6 V. Its current does not change, and the
power it dissipates does not change.

We draw a new circuit with A and B connected.
In this new circuit, light bulb 2 has the full 6 volts
across it, so it bums brighter.
7 3 e resulting circuit diagram is shown. The new

wire ensures that the potential on both sides of lights 1
and 2 is zero. So these lights extinguish. On the other
hand, light 3 gets the full 12 volts, so it bums brighter.
In order to obtain the total current, we need the
total resistance of the circuit. Lights 1 and 2 are in
parallel, so we can combine their resistances to obtain
1 52. The resulting equivalent circuit is shown above.
The last two resistors can be combined to obtain 3 i2 as
shown below. The total current is 4 amps.
34.
D.
See the diagram above.
The new circuit diagram is shown. The new wire

ensures that the potential on both sides of light 3 is
zero, so it goes out. Lights 1 and 2 are brighter.
36. A.
We apply the equation for resistors in parallel:
1
RT
Rl
R2
--r=-+-
It is difficult to know how the potential across

light 1 compares with the potential across light 3. On
the other hand, the whole current through the potential
source goes through light 3 and splits in half before
going through lights 1 and 2. (Later it recombines and
returns.) Since the power dissipated is P, = Z'R and
resistance is the same for lights 1 and 3, the fact that
light 3 has twice the current means it dissipates 4 times
the power.
37. D.
Voltage does not flow. The question makes as
much sense as asking what height is flowing in a river.
Solutions
. . .................. . . ....... Chapter
I5
38. A.
The potential drop across resistor 2 is 6 volts, so

the current through it is 1, = 0.03 A, and the power
dissipated by it is P, = 0.18 Watts. In 600 s, it dissipates
E = P,& = 108 Joules.
Ignoring the unfamiliar symbol and the dashed

lines around the battery, we see that this is just a circuit
with two resistors in series. We can combine the
resistors into one with resistance R, = R + R,, (see
figure). Ohm's law yields the result, which we can
estimate by I = 6 Vl0.6 SZ = 10 A.
43. B.
Since Rimis added to the external resistance of the

circuit, we can ignore it if the external resistance is
large (see the above solution). If the external resistance
is large, then the current is small, so either I1 or IEI
would allow us to ignore the internal resistance.
44. C.
The circuit diagram is simply that shown above.
Since the power is given by P = IAV, we obtain the
current from I = 300 Wl120 V = 2.5 A. The resistance is
120 V12.5 A = 48 a.
Combining the power equation with Ohm's law

where AV = 120 V is a constant. To
yields P = (AV)~IR,
increase power, we want to decrease the resistance. A
longer wire will increase resistance, while a thicker
wire will decrease it, since R = pUA.
In the previous problem we mentioned P =

(AV)~IR,
where AV= 120 V is a constant. If we graph P
versus R, we obtain something like C.
The formal solution to the problem involves

writing down Ohm's law for this circuit and then
solving for 111:
= I ( R + R*,)
111 is not proportional to R, but this equation has

the familiar y = mx + b form, with positive slope and
positive y-intercept. Let's say you did not think of that.
We know that as resistance R increases, the current I
decreases, which means 111 must increase, so that
eliminates A and B. In choice D, there is a resistance
where Ill is zero, and the current is infinite. But you
cannot obtain that from this circuit, so choice D is out.
1. C.
There is an electric field E, between the plates,
and the force on a charged particle is given by F,, =
QE,. Since a helium nucleus has twice the charge of a

proton, the force on it is double.
2.
4.
After the wires are removed, no charge can be

transferred from one plate to the other. The dielectric is
a nonconductor.
A.
In Experiment 2 the increase in distance results in
a decrease in capacitance by a factor of 3 (see equation). Since AV is the same in Experiment 2, the charge
(Q = CAV) decreases by a factor of 3.
3.
B.
The charge Q is constant, but the capacitance

increases by a factor of 9. Thus the potential AV = QlC
decreases by a factor of 9.
A.
The electric field is simply given by E = AVld, so

an increase in d by a factor of 3 results in a decrease in
the electric field by a factor of 3.
1. A.
Once the wires are removed from the plates, no
more charge may be transferred, so the charge must
stay the same. This is a situation in which the question
becomes easy if we visualize the charges and think
about the experiment. The question is difficult or
intractable if we rely on rote memorization of equations.
5.
Passage 2
1. A.
We have changed the potential across the plates,

but we have not changed the capacitor itself. Thus its
capacitance does not change. (Capacitance depends
only on the capacitor itself, not on the applied potential.)
D.
The capacitance does not change, so the charge
must increase by a factor of 4, since we have Q = CAV.
3.
2.
D.
The electric field is E = AVld, so the electric field
increases by a factor of 4.
B.
The formula AV = EAx works here, where Ax is
the separation between the Earth's surface and the
ionosphere. The Earth and the ionosphere are like a
parallel-plate capacitor which has been bent intoa
sphere.
C.
The capacitance is decreased by a factor of 2
since the distance is increased by a factor of 2. The
charge is still Q,since there is no way for it to.change.
Thus the potential between the plates must change. The
only equation we have relating voltage and charge is
AV= QIC, so AV increases by a factor of 2.
2.
Capacitance is defined as charge per potential.

Both are given in the passage.
3.
A.
The work required is given by W = qAV =
(-1.6 x 10-I9C) (9 x 105J/C) =-1.4 x 10-l3J.But we
are unsure about the sign. The Earth has a negative
charge, so taking an electron away from it is easy: a
downhill ride, so to speak. Thus the change in potential
energy is negative.
4.
D.
The electric field points away from a positive charge
and toward a negative one. Thus it points toward the
Earth and away from the ionosphere. The other two
pictures are reminiscent of the Earth's magnetic field.
5. A.
Since the passage said that the potential difference between the ionosphere and the Earth's surface is
9 x lo5volts, we can exclude C and D. For a proton,
going from the surface to the ionosphere is uphill, that
is, going to greater potential energy away from the
Earth's negative charge. Therefore A is the correct
answer.
Solutions ....... . . .... . . .... . . . . . . .. .. Chdpter
paper. Choice A does not refer to charges at all. Choice

B involves two charged particles, and choice C involves
two neutral species. Choice D refers to a charged and a
neutral species, just like the wire and the pollutants. A
charge is induced on the pollutants, and the resulting
net force is attractive (see chapter text).
Passage 4
1. A.
A sodium ion (Na') is positively charged, and the
negatively charged central wire will attract it.
2.
15
A.
It does not matter what kind of molecule this is.
The only thing that matters is its neutral charge. The
passage states that it will be attracted to the wire.
Passage 5
1. B.
We have several formulas involving electric field:
E = kQlr for a point charge, E = AVIAx, and F = qE.
We are not given the charge of the cloud in the passage
(and even if we were, it would be difficult to get E from
it), nor are we given a force on a charge. But we are
told the potential AV between the cloud and the Earth
and the distance Ax between them. Thus E =
(10' J/C)/(2 x 10' m) = 5 x 10' NIC. (To get the units,
recall J = Nm.)
3. D.
Since this question is about energy and charges,
our guess is that we will use W = qAV somewhere. A
fluoride ion near the negative wire has high potential
energy, so it gains kinetic energy as it moves away from
the wire. The change in potential energy is qAV =
(-1.6 x 10-l9C)(5 x 10' JIC) = -8 x lo-" J. (Recall: a
fluoride ion has one extra electron, so its charge is the
same as an electron.) The increase in kinetic energy is
thus 8 x 10-ISJ, since energy is being conserved. Now
some energy may be lost to heat, and so on, so this is
actually the maximum energy available.
The main formula we have for capacitance is C =

QIAV, which may tempt you to think that an increase in
potential would lead to a decrease in capacitance, but
this is not so. The capacitance of a device is fixed by the
construction of that device, and the amount of stored
charge goes up proportionally as the potential. An
increase in potential would result in an increase in the
charge on the wire Q,,, but the capacitance remains the
same.
2.
The main formula with resistance in it is Ohm's

law. Do we have enough information?.Yes,the current
is given in the second paragraph I = 20 karnps. We can
write R = AVII = (10' V)1(2 x lo4A) = 5 x lo3Q.
3.
6. D.
B.
Let's go through the passage scanningfor

information that could go together to get an energy
estimate. The first piece of information is 2 km,but that
is not helpful. (If a single object moved 2 km under the
influence of a constant force, we could obtain its energy
W = FAxcos t$, but there is no information about force.)
Next we are given the potential between cloud and
ground, and we could get an energy if we knew an
amount of charge that was transferred. But we are given
that in the next paragraph. Thus W = qAV =
(4 C) (10' JIC) = 4 x 10' J. (This represents the work
done on the charge by the electric field.)
5. C.
The only thing we can do with the new piece of
information is to combine it with the information in the
third paragraph, to obtain the power usage of P =
(300 Ym3) (100 m31s) = 3 x lo4Watts. The question
asks for current, and the only connection we know of
between power and current is potential difference. Aha!
I = PIAV = (3 x lo4Jls)I(5 x lo4JIC) = 0.8 Us.
A.
4.
A.
This is easy if we remember that current is the
rate at which charge moves, I = Qldt. Thus dt = QII =
(4 c)1(2 x loqUS) = 2 x lo4 S.
The electric field lines point away from the

positive charge and toward the negative charge.
7.
D.
The attraction of neutral particles to a charged
wire is like a charged comb attracting neutral pieces of
Since the electric field points away from a

positive charge, it will point away from the positive
lightning rod, especially away from the very positively
charged tip.
The
MCAT Physics Book
6. B.
Visible light results from the electrical transition of electrons in atoms and molecules. Dissociation of molecules may produce some light, but
excitation of molecules is a better answer. (Ionization
andrecombination would have been another good
answer, if it had been a choice.) Heating and expansion of air is lower on the energy scale, producing
merely thunder.
Passage 6
1. C.
According to the third paragraph, the positive

sodium ions are transported to the outside of the cell.
The outside of the cell acquires a positive charge and
a higher potential. So C is the correct choice. The
diffusion of potassium ions lessens the effect, but the
qualitative picture is the same.
2.
A.
The cells are stacked in series. Thus the current
through all the cells is the same, and the total current
is simply 30 rnilliarnps. Remember, the currents add
up if the components of the current are in parallel.
The voltages add up in series.
We know the current during the activated state

is 30 mA. Current is the rate at which charge is
transferred, so if the time for the activated state is
2 ms, then the charge transferred is IAr =
(30 x 1o-~Us) (2 x
s) = 6 x lo-' C.
The elecmc field points away from positive

charges and toward negative charges. So where are
the charges during the activated state? A glance at
Figures 1 and 3 shows that the fish pushes positive
charges from its tail to its head, so a positive charge
collects at the head of the fish, and a negative charge
at its tail. Thus the answer is B.
5.
D.
To obtain the magnetic field, we need to
consider the current. The main current during the
activated state is along the fish from tail to head. The
right-hand rule applied to this implies a magnetic
field circling the body in the direction shown in
choice D. The secondary currents outside the fish in
the fourth figure reinforce this magnetic field. On
problems like this one, if you are in doubt, choose one

typical point and apply the right-hand rule. For instance, choose the point under the fishes belly. If the
magnetic field there is to the right, choose A; up, B; left,
C; or into the page, D.
Sea water has the charge carriers which make it

more conductive. You knew this.
Solutions
. .. .. .... .. .. .. . . .. . . . ... .. . . Chdpter
16
If we write the atomic numbers explicitly, we

obtain
235
,U+ ' 2 ~ a - t
EK~+?
The subscripts already add to 92, so adding a proton

(: H) on the right would ruin the sum. On the other
hand, the superscripts add to 235 on the left and to 233
on the right. If we add two neutrons to the right
(in + n), then the sum becomes correct.
1. D.
The force on the proton is given by F = qE.

This gives us the acceleration from a = Flm, and
since we are given the initial velocity v, = 0 mls, the
final velocity is given by v, = v, + aAf = (qElm) At =
(1.6 x lo-'' C)(1.6 x 10' N / c ) ( ~ os)1(1.7
~
x
kg) =
1.5 x lo6 mls. (Notice how easy it is to do the
arithmetic if the variables are manipulated first and
the numbers substituted afterwards.)
2.
C.
The force on a particle is simply F = qE,. The
charge on the deuteron (orie proton and one neutron)
is the opposite of the charge on the electron. Thus the
forces on the two are the same in magnitude.
3. A.
The symbol 'OF- represents an ion with a
nucleus of 9 protons (hence F) and 11 neutrons
(hence mass number 20) and 10 electrons outside the
nucleus (hence the overall charge). For this problem,
the overall charge is all that is needed. Since F = qEo,
the magnitudes of the forces are the same.
The magnitude of the acceleration is given by

a = Flm = qE,jm. The electric field is constant, of
course. The charges of the proton and the electron are
equal in magnitude and are opposite in sign. The
proton is 2000 times more massive, so its acceleration is 2000 times smaller.
5.
C.
We have a = qE,jm from Problem 4. Now 'H
has one half the charge of He (decreasing the
acceleration by a factor of 2) and one fourth the mass
(increasing the acceleration by a factor of 4). The
result is an increase by a factor of 2, as expressed in
answer C.
6. B.
The nuclei have the same charge (both have
one proton). The forces on both are the same.
8.
B.
The reactants are i ~ + e He. Thus the superscripts must add to 6, so C is not the answer. The
subscripts must add to 4, so A and D are eliminated.
9.
C.
The left side of the reaction is represented by
so the superscripts add to 16 and the subscripts add to 8.

This eliminates A and B (recall that y represents no
protons and no neutrons). The problem with choice D is
that :li cannot exist, since the mass number (total
number of protons and neutrons) must be greater-&an
the atomic number (number of protons).
10. C.
The energy of the transition is the same as the

energy of the photon E,,= hf = h(c/A) = 1.3 x lo-'' J.
Therefore the new energy level differs from the ground
state (0 J) by 1.3 x lo-'' J. Is it positive or negative?
Since the ground state represents the lowest energy, the
excited state must be +1.3 x lo-'' J.
11. D.
There are three possible transitions, as shown in

the figure below, Thus D is the answer. In order to get
the frequencies listed, we calculatef,=
(1 ev - 0 evy(4.14 x lo-'' ev s) = 2.4 x loL4HZ,
and
cetera.

12. D.
19. D.
The six possible transitions are shown in the

figure below.
We write the nuclear reaction

? +':;~a
+ :He.
The subscript of the parent nucleus is 90, and the

superscript is 226. Thus the parent is Z T h .
20. C.
238
,,U+
13.
i ~ e -ye+
+
-ye+ ; H e + ? .
Thus the daughter is
B.
The lower limit for visible light is 4.0 x 1014Hz,
which corresponds to E,,,,, = hf = (4.14 x
ev s)
(4.0 x 1014Hz) = 1.7 ev, and the upper limit corresponds to E,,,,, = (4.14 x lo-'' ev s) (7.5 x 1014Hz) =
3.1 ev. ?he only transition to fall in these limits is from
-2.5 ev to 0 ev.
21. C.
If we add in the subscripts and add notation to the

beta particles, we obtain
The young scientist calculates a photon energy

E-=
hf = (4.14 x lo-" ev s) (4.8 x 1 0 ' ~Hz) = 2.0 ev.
Since this is a transition from the ground state, it must
be a transition from -5 ev (the ground state) to -3 ev (an
excited state).
The energy of transition is the same as the energy

of the photon Ep,= hf = (4.14 x lo-'' ev s)
(2.01 x 1014Hz) = 0.83 ev. Thus the excited state is
0.83 ev above the ground state at -5.37 ev. So the
energy level is at -4.54 ev.
16. B.
A.
:H+ :H-+ ? ~ + y
B.
:H+ :H+ ;He+y
C.
:H+ :H+ :H+ :e+
D.
:H+ :H+ :H+
+v
-ye- + V
Choice B does not have heavy hydrogen as a product,

and choices A and D do not satisfy the criteria that the
sub- and super-scripts have the same sum on both sides.
Recall that the symbol for the neutron is n or in.

The only reaction which satisfies the criteria is A.
23. C.
Eight thousand years is five halflives. If we

g=
multiply 1 gram by 112 five times, we obtain (112)~
1/32 g = 3.1 x
grams.
The wavelength is given by A = clf.

24. C.
17. C.
The frequency given in the choices corresponds to

E-iti,,,,/h. If a photon has any energy greater than this.
then 5.37 ev of the energy will liberate the electron from
the atom, and the rest of the energy will go into the
kinetic energy of the electron.
18. B.
The subscript of the daughter nucleus must be 27, and

the superscript must be 55. Thus the daughter is ~ C O .
A decrease in radioactivity from 300 to 20 mCi is

a decrease of about a factor of 16, that is, four factors of
2. Four halflives corresponds to 57.2 days, which is
close to C. The formal way to do this problem is to write
200(+]
= 30,
Solutions
25. C.
.. . . ..... .......... . . . . . . . . . .
Chdpter 16
Passage 1
A glance at the answers indicates we need get
only an estimate. We want to know how much uranium

we need to obtain 10" J. The amount of mass that needs
to be converted each second is given by
1. B.
We see from the energy level diagram that the

smallest energy from ground state to excited state is
from n = 1 to n = 2. The difference in energy is Ep,,o,=
(-3.4 - -13.6) ev.
By definition, ionization energy is the amount of

energy required to remove an electron from an atom (or
molecule) in its ground state. The energy level diagram
shows this to be 13.6 ev.
3.
The photon energy corresponds to the difference

between the two energy states. Certainly B and C are
incorrect. It is not the case that we must merely have
enough energy to reach the next rung of the ladder. We
have to hit it exactly. Compare this with problem 17,
where we wanted to ionize the atom. In that case we
can hit the atom with a photon of greater energy
because the excess goes into kinetic energy. We have
no way of soaking up the extra energy.in this case.
26. A.
We calculate m,,= 4 (1.00783 m u ) 4.00260 amu.

27. A.
The reaction we seek is
We calculate m,=
(7.01601 + 1.00783 2 (4.00260)) amu.
28. C.
The original ' ~ must
e have more mass than the
final products in order for the reaction to occur. The
mass deficit is converted into the kinetic energy of the
resulting products.
29. C.
This is a simple application of E = m 2 .
30. B.
Choices C and D are nonsensical. Choice A is
possible, but in fact the principle of massenergy
conservation is completely general. The energy of a
reaction must be in the form of mass before the reaction
occurs. It is, however, quite small for chemical reactions, about a million (lo6) times smaller than for
nuclear reactions.
A.
4.
C.
Both momentum and energy are conserved
because there are no external forces in this scenario.
Energy is converted from one form to another: from the
energy of an excited state to photon energy and (much
less) kinetic energy of the recoiling atom.
We want the longest wavelength, which means

the smallest frequency (sincef = CIA.),which means the
smallest energy (since E = hj). If we look at the energy
level diagram for the differences between levels, we see
there is a transition corresponding to a largest energy,
but the energy difference can get as small as you like
(at the upper end of the diagram).
The
MCAT Physics Book
Passage
3.
We need only know that the alpha particles are

positive. Applying the right hand rule for magnetic
force indicates a force to the left as viewed from the
top.
1. C.
The energy level diagram makes clear that the

largest transition is the transition of absorption, from the
ground state to the highest energy level. Thus those
photons have the most energy and the highest frequency.
Since the radiation is blocked by several centimeters of aluminum, it is not gamma radiation. But it is
not alpha radiation, since a sheet of metal foil fails to
block it. Is it normal beta radiation or positron radiation? The information from the magnetic field indicates
the particles are positive. n u s the decay is positron
decay.
On the other hand, nothing in the passage

indicates that the energy difference between levels 1 and
2 should be less than (or greater than) the energy
difference between level 1 and the ground state.
3.
A.
5.
6. D.
Each 9.5 hours sees a decrease by a factor of 2 in
radioactivity. Therefore, the sample will never have zero
radioactivity. (However, there must be a last atom todecay, so the answer "indefinitely" is better than
"forever".)
5. A.
The Sun emits photons of all sorts of frequencies;
that is what makes the colors of the rainbow. And many
photons make it through the atmosphere.
A.
After 19 hours, the radioactivity of the sample
decreases by a factor of 4, that is, two halflives. Its
halflife is 9.5 hours, which is what the question asks
for.
The question refers to the transition from state 1

(E,) to the ground state (E = 0), so the frequency is f =
(El - 0)lh.
Clearly state 2 is not very populated, since

transitions out of state 2 to state 1 (or to the ground
state) occur very quickly. Otherwise, the passage is
silent on this issue, so D is the answer.
C.
Passage 4
1. D.
The text mentioned that alpha radiation is not very

penetrating, able to be blocked even by several centimeters of air. Beta and gamma radiation are more penetrating. Because this radiation is blocked by a single sheet
of gold, it must be alpha radiation, so the product must
be '02 ~ b .
2. C .
The only information we need here is that the
alpha particles are positive. In an electric field which
points up, they will experience a force up.
Choice A represents the positron decay, which is

forbidden for subtle quantum reasons. Choice B
represents normal beta decay, which does not happen
for this nucleus. Choice C does not have balanced
subscripts. Choice D fits the description in the question.
2.
B.
According to the passage, K-capture happens
under the same conditions which promote positron
decay, that is, proton-rich nuclei. That is to say, nuclei
with more protons than neutrons have a negative N - Z.
3. B.
According to the passage, the possibility of
electron capture is nonzero only if there is some overlap
of the electron wavefunction and the nucleus, so if the
orbital has vanishing amplitude near the nucleus, the
probability of capture is small.
Solutions .... . .... .. .... . . . . . . . . .. .. . . Chapter
4.
C.
4.
Choice A is incorrect because the neutrino

hardly interacts with matter (see paragraph 2). The
whole point of K-capture is to turn one of the many
protons into a neutron, so the neutron is not likely to
change back, and choice B is incorrect. Since
K-capture pulls an electron from the innermost shell,
that orbital is empty and can be filled by another
electron from outer shells. This is accomplished by
emitting photons, so choice C is a possibility. There
is no positron created, so choice D is incorrect.
16
D.
The reaction is
z
~ +fi ~ + e';:~m.
5. D.
The 7.8 years represents 3 halflives, so the.
original sample decreased by a factor of 2 three times.
The original sample must have been 0.08 moles.
6. B.
5.
A.
Choice A is spontaneous neutron drip, not fission.

Choice B is correct. Choice C is nearly correct, except
the reaction is not spontaneous. For a reaction to be
spontaneous there can be only the one reactant. Choice
D is excluded for the same reason.
During normal beta decay, a neutron goes away

(N decreases by 1) and a proton appears in its place
(Z increases by 1). The net effect is N - Z decreases
by 2.
6. C.
This is a paraphrase of the second sentence of

paragraph 3.
During alpha decay, both N and Z decrease by

2, so N - Z stays the same.
Passage 5
Passage 6
1. D.
1. B.
Most of the energy goes into the ionization of
molecules. The energy comes from nuclear energy.
We write the reaction

10,B+ i n - + :He+?.
The only choice for the missing particle that satisfies
the criteria that the superscripts and subscripts add up
is : ~ i .
2.
D.
:H+ : : ~ e - + ':F+?.
Choice A is nonsensical. Choice B misses the
point, since the question asks why these neutrons do
not tend to ionize the tissue. The passage indicates
(paragraph 2) that a charged particle with large
energy is ideal for ionizing tissue, so a neutron with
no charge and little energy will do little harm. Choice
C is a likely possibility. Choice D is excluded since
neutrons are an elementary particle.
3. B.
Choices C and D do not have the superscripts
and subscripts balanced. Choice A does not satisfy
the description in the passage, in that there is no
gamma ray in the products.
The particle which balances the superscripts and

subscripts is : ~ e which
,
is an alpha particle.
3* B* We write the reaction
The nucleus which balances the superscripts and

subscripts is 0.
':
4.
C.
Glucose marked with "0would react chemically

(almost exactly) the same as glucose with 160,so
choices A and B are incorrect. The chemical environment of the nucleus hardly affects its decay, which is
entirely due to nuclear physics. so D is out. In fact, a
halflife of 128 seconds is very short. Just for your
information, the other problem is that the glucose gets
The
MCAT Physics Book

completely metabolized before there is a chance to
detect its presence. The FDG tends to build up in the
cell since it cannot be metabolized as easily.
5.
D.
The 8 minutes is about 4 halflives, so the activity
must have decreased by a factor of 2 four times. Its
initial activity was 160 mCi.
6.
A.

1, H + ';N+ ' i 0 + ? .
This equation seems to be already balanced. The only
particle which can be placed in the products without
disturbing the balance'is a gamma particle.
Index
Index
Conservation of energy. See Energy,: conservation

of
Conservation of momentum. See Momentum:
Acceleration 1 7-1 8
centripetal 6 5
uniform 21, 22-23
conservation of
Continuity 1 6 6
Air Resistance 83-85
Coulomb's law 2 52-2 53

Critical angle 2 9 9 -
Airbag 181-182
Alpha decay 3 0 9
,4mplitude 1 9 0
Antinode 1 9 2
Archimedes' priniple 160
Crocodile 14, 49, 78, 94,

Current
11 3, 1 5 9
alternating 290-991
electric 263, 279, 290
Atom 3 0 5
Atomic mass 3 0 6
Atomic number 3 0 6
Atomic weight 3 0 6
D
DC cell 9 7 9
Density 1 59-1
Attitude 3-4
60
Dielectric 250, 2 9 0
Bad Star 68, 69

Barometer 163, 183-1 8 4
Battery 971, 979
Beats. See Sound: beats
Beetle, bombadier 1 80-1 8 1
Bernoulli's principle 167-1
Beta decay 3 0 9
69
Boron neutron capture therapy 3 2 0

Buoyancy 160
Differencetone 2 2 1
Diffraction 2 4 6
Dimensions 2, 5
Diopters 2 3 8
Dispersion 2 3 8
Doppler shift 2 1 3-2 1 5
Drag 83-85
Dust mite 9 8 9
E
Eficiency 1 29-1 3 0
Capacitance 988-290, 299

Capacitor 968, 969, $88-990,
998
Center o l mass. See Mass: center o l
Centripid accduation. See Acceleration:
centripetal
Centripid !om.
See Force: centripetal
Charge 249-950
conservation 01 2 5 0
electric
949
induced 9 5 0
Circular motion. See Motion: circular
Closet 3 1 7
Collision
elastic 1 2 9
inelastic 1 2 9
color 225, 9 3 8
Components 34
Conductor 2 5 0
Elastic limit 1 0 2
Elasticity 1 0 2
Uectric charge. See Charge: electric
Electric circuits 279-991
Electric dipole P 57, 2 5 8
Electric eel 3 0 2
El-c
fidd
953-958,
964-965,
989
Uectric fidd lines 2 5 8

Eiectric force. See Force: electric
Electromagnetic spectrum 2 2 5-22 6
Electromotive force 2 8 5
Electron 949, 3 0 5
Electrostatic precipitator 3 0 0
Energy 121-133
conservation of 127-1 28,
kinetic 124-1 26
levels 307-309
potential 126, 1 8 6
Equations 3-6
168, 1 8 6
The: MCAT Physics Book

7uilibrium
rotational 9 7
translational 97
quipotential lines 263
K-capture 3 1 9
ccited state 307
Kinetic friction. See Friction: kinetic
OW
Laminar flow. See Flow: laminar
laminar 167, 167-1 69
Law of hydrostatic equilibrium 1 6 2
rate 1 6 6
Lens 230-234
streamline 167, 167-1
69
aberations 2 3 9
uorescence 308
combination 2 3 8-239
,cal length 2 3 0
convergng
xce 13
diverging 2 3 0
160-1 6 1
65
bouyant
power 2 3 8
centripetal
thin 2 3 9
conservative 126
36-3
diagrams
meter
Lever arm 9 6
electric 252-253,
230
Light 225-239,
253-258
161
ultraviolet
reefall 47-48
254, 264-265
speed of 2 2 5
226
visible 2 2 6
requency 93, 188, 1 9 0
Lightning rod 3 0 1
riction 77-85
kinetic 80-89
static 77-80
Magnetic fields 263-264,
"ndamental. See Wave: fundamental
264-265
Mass 13, 13-1 4

center of 5 3
Mass deficit 3 1 1
3arnma decay. 3 1 0
Jamma rays 2 2 6
Mass number 3 0 6
Mass-energy conversion ' 3 1 1
Jauge pressure 1 6 4
Microwaves 925-226
Jraphs 18-90
Mirrors 2 3 5-23 7
zravitation, Law of 5, 4 5
Molecule 2 4 9
Sravity 45-5 3
Moment of inertia 9 3
Sround 2 5 1, 9 9 0
Momentum 1 1 1-1 1 5
conservation of 1 1 2-1 1 4
Sround state 307
-.-
impulse 1 1 4
Motion
Harmonic 195,
2 10-9 1 2
Harmonic motion, simple 1 87-1 8 8

Hooke's law
66-69
circular 64-66,
Halflife 3 1 0
1 85
Hydrostatic preswre. See Law o l hydrostatic
first law
3 1-3
notmal mode 1 9 4
second law
3 3-3 5
6
third law 3 5-3
equilibrium
Neutron 249,
Impulse 1 1 4
305
Newton's
Inclined planes 6 3 - 6 4
cradle 1 1 1
Index of refraction 2 2 6 1 3 0 , 23 8
first law. See Motion: first law
Inertia 3 1
gravitation law. See Gravitation, Law of
Infrared waves. See Wave: infrared
second law. See Motion: second law
insulator
250, 990
third law. See Motion: third law
199
Intensity 208-2 1 0
Node
Interference 1 9 1
Nonconductor
constructive
destructive
192
250,
951,
990
Normal mode. See Motion: normal mode

Nudeus
305
Index
1 87-1 88
226-230
Sound 207-21 5
beats 21 2, 22 1
intensity 208-2 10
pipes 2 1 0-2 12
pitch 21 0
production 207
speed 208
Specific gravity 1 59
Speed 16-17
Sphygmomanometer 1 64
Springs 1 85-1 96, 1 86
Simple harmonic motion.
28 1-284
305
Ohm's Law
Orbital
P
1 88
93, 1 88
Periodic motion 1 87-1 88
Phase 192
Phosphorescence 3 17
Photon 264, 306
Pendulum
Period
Pitch. See Sound: pitch
191, 226, 244

310
Positron emission tomography 32 1
Snell's law
Polarization
Static friction. See Friction: static
Positron decay
Strain
Potential
1 01
Streamline flow. See Flow: streamline
101
Stress
259
electric 2 58-263
terminal 285
absolute electric
Potential difference
260
Power 1 30-1 31
electric 286-2 87
Pressure 1 59, 1 59-1 60, 162-1 64
Projectile 47-48, 52
Proton 249, 305
Pulleys 131-133
electrical
Superposition
Surface tension
T
301
291, 297
93-102
Thunderclouds
Toaster
Torque
Total internal reflection

Transitions
Turbulence
electromagnetic
264-96 5, 974
929
307-309
1 66-1 67
Ultrasound
Radiation
192
1 64-1 65
205
Ultraviolet light. See Light: ultraviolet
2-3
Units
Radio waves. See Wave: radio
309
309-3 1 2
Ray-tracing diagram 231, 23 5
Real image 232
Reflection 226-230
Refraction 226-9 30
Radioactive decay
Radioactivity
Rehadive index. See index of refraction
981
internal 285
Resistivity 286
Resistor 981-984
ddinition 979
in parallel 989, 983
in series 981, 989
Resolution 946
Resonance 189
Reynolds number 89
Rocket engine 1 1 9
Root mean square 291
Resistance
Scattering
308
Shear modulus
101
v
253
1 4-1 5
Velocity 1 6-1 7
Virtual image 232
Viscosity 1 66-1 67
Vector field
Vectors
Visible
spectrum
926
Visible light. See Light: visible
258-963, 979-980, 281984, 285-286
Voltage
Wave
199
1 88
frequency 1 88
fundamental 195
infrared 225-926
intensity 208-9 10
longitudinal 190
radio 995-996
standing 194-1 96
addition
amplitude

19 1
194
velocity 190
Vavelen3th 19 0
vaves 185-196
Weight 1 4
vire 279
Vork 121-123
transverse
traveling
'ouns's modulus
I OI

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The

In sixteen chapters, the bas[= of

E m Chapter coneludes with a set of

students are den frustrated by books in

Additional Educational Products from Nova Press:

Master The LSAT (608 pages, includes 4 official LSAT exams!)

Copyright O 2005 by Nova Press

Phone: 1-800-949-6 175

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The Language of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3

Planes and Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Friction and A i r Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Torques and Properties of Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3

Periodic M o t i o n and Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16 Atomic and Nuclear Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0 5

E. Position, Displacement, and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6

A . First Law of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1

Surface of the Earth

Planes and Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

A . Horizontal and Vettical Motion. Again . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1

Friction and Air'Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Torques and Properties of Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3

A . Introduction and Dtfinition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Solving Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

E. Surface tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Periodic Motion and Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 5

E. Waves, an Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Chapter 12 Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Doppler Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Chapter I2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916

D. Optics Using Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3 0

E . Optics Usins Mirrors

Chapter 14 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

Atomic and Nuclear Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B . Basic Structure of an Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 16 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

Perodic Table of the Elements

[223.02] [226.03] [227.03] [261.11] [262.11] [263.12] [264.12] [265.13]

1208.981 [208.99] [222.02]

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A. Philosophy of the Book

Reading his Book

The M C A T Physics Book

.Both are equivalent to 1, but the units

cancel, leaving us with moles.

0.4.1000 - 0.08 -300

Students generally have one of three attitudes toward equations:

The M C A T Physics Book

Combining these two proportions we get

1 ............... . . ...... .... Introduction

Some equations are a little more complicated. An example is Newton's law of

There is a constant, so write

That's why we call gravity an inverse-square force.

Another example concerni the volume of a sphere:

What happens to the volume when the radius is doubled?

The MCAT Physics

In this chapter we discussed the importance of units in solving problems. If a