Som 401

Strength of Materials
W ORK -B OOK
RM Nkgoeng
c 2013 Mashilo Nkgoeng

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First printing, December 2013
Contents
Deflection of Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1
What is a Beam?
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.1.5
1.1.6
Beam terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mathematical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Assumption of Classical Beam Theory .
Beam Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Support Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stresses, strains and bending moments
1.2
Notation
1.3
Second Order Method for Beam Deflections
1.4
Double Integration Using Bracket Functions
1.5
Examples
1.6
Exercises
16
Continuous Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1
Introduction
2.1.1
2.1.2
Point Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Uniformly Distributed Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2
Exercise
22
2.3
Examples
23
2.4
Exercises
23
Energy Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1
Introduction
25
3.2
Strain Energy of Bars
26
3.3
Castiglianos Theorem
26
3.4
Structures
27
3.5
Castiglianos theorem applied to Curved Beams
27
3.6
Castiglianos theorem applied to Beams
27
3.6.1
3.6.2
Cantilever beam with a Point Load at the free end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

S/S beam with a Point Load at mid-point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.7
Examples
29
3.8
Exercises
34
5
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5
5
6
6
6
6
19
Unsymmetrical Bending of Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.1
Symmetric Member in Pure Bending
39
4.2
Unsymmetrical Bending
40
4.3
Alternative procedure for stress determination
42
4.4
Deflection
44
4.5
Notation
44
4.6
xxx
44
4.6.1
4.6.2
Point Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Uniformly Distributed Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.7
Examples
44
4.8
Exercises
47
Inelastic Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1
Plastic Bending of Rectangular Beams
49
5.2
Plastic Bending of Symmetrical (I-Section) Beam
52
5.3
Partially plastic Bending of Unsymmetrical Sections
53
5.4
Limit Analysis-Bending
56
5.4.1
5.4.2
Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
The principle of Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.5
Solid Shaft
65
5.6
Hollow shaft
67
5.7
Exercises
69
What is a Beam?
Beam terminology
Mathematical Models
Assumption of Classical Beam Theory
Beam Loading
Support Conditions
Notation
Double
Integration
Using
Bracket
Functions
Examples
Exercises
1 Deflection of Beams
Introduction
This lecture notes starts the presentation of methods for computed lateral deflections of plane
beams undergoing symmetric bending. The workbook just summarises the topic, but the
textbook1 covers in detail this topic in chapter 9 and 10. We assume that as a student you are
familiar with the following:
1. integration of Ordinary Differential Equations
2. Statics of plane beams under symmetric bending. This is also covered in Chapter 5 and 6
of the prescribed textbook.
1.1
What is a Beam?
Beams are the most common type of structural component, particularly in Civil and Mechanical
Engineering. A beam is a bar-like structural member whose primary function is to support
transverse loading and carry it to the supports. By bar-like, we mean that one of the dimensions
is considered larger than the other two. This dimension is called the longitudinal dimension
or beam axis. The intersection of planes normal to the longitudinal dimension with the beam
member are called cross sections. A longitudinal plane is one that passes through the beam axis.
A beam resist transverse loads mainly through bending action. Bending produces compressive
longitudinal stresses in one side of the beam and tensile stresses in the other. the two regions
are separated by a neutral surface of zero stress. The combination of tensile and compressive
stresses produces an internal bending moment. This moment is the primary mechanism that
transports loads to the supports. This is illustrated by Fig. #
1.1.1
Beam terminology
General Beam it is a bar like member designed to resist a combination of loading actions such
as biaxial bending, transverse shears, axial stretching or compression, possibly torsion. If
the internal axial force is compressive, the beam has also to be designed to resist buckling.
If the beam is subject primarily to bending and axial forces, it is called a beam-column. If
it is subjected primarily to bending forces, it is called simply a beam. A beam is straight if
its longitudinal axis is straight. It is prismatic if its cross section is constant.
Spatial Beam it supports transverse loads that can act on arbitrary directions along the cross
section.
Plane Beam it resists primarily transverse loading on a preferred longitudinal plane.
1.1.2
Mathematical Models
One-dimensional mathematical models of structural beams are constructed on the basis of beam
theories. Since beams are actually three-dimensional bodies, all models necessarily involve
some form of approximation to the underlying physics. The simplest and best known model for
straight, prismatic beams are based on the Bernoulli-Euler theory as well as the Timoshenko
1 Mechanics
of Materials by Gere and Goodno
Deflection of Beams
beam theory. The B-E theory is the one that is taught in SOM3602 and is the only one that we
will be dealing with in SOM401M. The Timoshenko model incorporates a first order kinematic
correction for transverse shear effects. This model assumes additional importance in dynamics
and vibration.
1.1.3
Assumption of Classical Beam Theory

The classical beam theory for plane beams rests on the following assumptions:
1. Planar symmetry: The longitudinal axis is straight and the cross section of the beam has
a longitudinal plane of symmetry. The resultant of the transverse loads acting on each
section lies on that plane. The support conditions are also symmetric about this plane.
2. Cross section variation: The cross section is either constant or varies smoothly.
3. Normality: Plane sections originally normal to the longitudinal axis of the beam remain
plane and normal to the deformed longitudinal axis upon bending.
4. Strain energy: The internal strain energy of the member accounts only for bending
moment deformations. All other contributions, notably transverse shear and axial force,
are ignored.
5. Linearisation: Transverse deflections, rotations and deformations are considered so small
that the assumptions of infinitesimal deformations apply.
6. Material model: The material is assumed to be elastic and isotropic. Heterogeneous
beams fabricated with several isotropic materials, such as reinforced concrete, are not
excluded.
1.1.4
Beam Loading
The transverse force per unit length that acts on the beam in the y+ direction is denoted by
f (x) as shown in Figure #Point loads and moments acting on isolated beam sections can be
represented with Discontinuity Functions (DFs).
1.1.5
Support Conditions
Support conditions for beams exhibit far more variety than for bar members. Two cases are often
encountered in engineering practice: simple support and cantilever support. These are shown
in Figs. # and # respectively. Beams often appear as components of skeletal structures called
frameworks, in which case the support conditions are of more complex type. Easily solved using
finite element methods.
1.1.6

The Bernoulli-Euler model assumes that the internal energy of beam member is entirely due to
bending strains and stresses. Bending produces axial stresses x which is just abbreviated and
axial strains x which is just . The strains can be linked to the displacements by differentiating
the axial displacement u(x):
=
u
d2v
= y 2 = yv = y
x
dx
(1.1)
where denotes the deformed beam axis curvature. The bending stress is linked to e through
one-dimensional Hookes law
= Ee = Ey
d2v
= Ey
dx2
(1.2)
1.2 Notation
The most important stress resultant in classical beam theory is the bending moment Mx , which is
defined as the cross sectional integral
Mx =
y dA = E
d2v
dx2
y2 dA = EIxx
(1.3)
The bending moment is considered positive if it compresses the upper portion: y > 0. the product
EIxx is called the bending rigidity of the beam with respect to flexure about the x axis.
1.2
Notation
Quantity
Generic load for ODE Work
Transverse Shear Force
Bending Moment
Slope of deflection curve
Deflection Curve
Symbol
f (x)
V (x)
M(x)
dv(x)
dx = v (x)
v(x)
Table 1.1: Notation
1.3

The second-order method to find beam deflections gets its name from the order of the ODE to be
integrated: EIxx v (x) = M(x) is a second order ODE. The procedure can be broken down into
the following steps:
2
1. Find the bending moment M(x) = d dxv(x)
directly. i.e. by cutting the beam at distance x
2
and taking moments about x.
2. Integrate M(x) once to get the slope v (x) = dv(x)
dx
3. Integrate the slope v (x) once to get the deflection v(x)
4. If there are no continuity conditions, the above steps will produce two integration constants
C1 and C2 . Apply kinematics boundary conditions to determine the values of the integration
constants. If there are continuity conditions, more than two constants of integration may
appear and are solved the same way, i.e. by using boundary conditions.
5. Substitute the constants of integration into the deflection function to get v(x)
6. Evaluate v(x) at points of interest on the beam.
1.4
Double Integration Using Bracket Functions

When the loads on a beam do not conform to standard cases, the solution for slope and deflection
may be found from first principles. Macaulay developed a method for making the integration
simpler. The basic equation governing the slope and deflection of beams is:
EI
d2y
= M : Where M is a function of x
dx2
(1.4)
When a beam has a variety of loads it is difficult to apply this theory because some loads may
be within the limits of x during the derivation but not during the solution of a particular point.
Macaluays method makes it possible to do the integration necessary by placing all the terms
containing x within a square bracket and integrating the bracket, not x. During evaluation, any
Deflection of Beams
bracket with a negative value is ignored because a negative means that the load it refers to is
not within the limit of x. The general method of solution is conducted as follows. Refer to Fig.
#. In a real example, the loads and reactions would have numerical values but for the sake of
demonstrating the general method we will use algebraic symbols. This has only point loads.
1. Write down the bending moment equation placing x on the extreme right hand end of the
beam so that it contains all the loads. Write all terms containing x in a square bracket.
EI
d2y
= M = RA [x] P1 [x a] P2 [x b] P3 [x c]
dx2
2. Integrate once treating the square bracket as the variable.

EI
dy
[x]2
[x a]2
[x b]2
[x c]2
= RA
P1
P2
P3
+C1
dx
2
2
2
2
3. Integrate again using the same rules.

EIy = RA
[x a]3
[x b]3
[x c]3
[x]3
P1
P2
P3
+C1 x +C2
6
6
6
6
4. Use boundary conditions to solve constants C1 and C2 .

5. Solve slope and deflection by putting in appropriate value of x. IGNORE any brackets
containing negative values.
Evaluating the constants of integration that arise in the double-integration method can become
very involved if more than two beam segments must be analysed. We can simplify the calculations
by expressing the bending moment in terms of discontinuity functions, also known as Macaulay
bracket functions. Discontinuity functions enable us to write a single expression for the bending
moment that is valid for the entire length of the beam, even if the loading is discontinuous. By
integrating a single, continuous expression for the bending moment, we obtain equations for
slopes and deflections that are also continuous everywhere. As an illustration let us consider a
simply supported beam with three segments as shown in Fig. 1.1. I have already determined the
reactions. All we need to do is to segment it nicely and take moments about X X as follows:
Mxx = 480x 500hx 2i
450
hx 3i2 Nm
2
(1.5)
Note that a bracket function is zero by definition if the expression in the bracketsnamely (x a)
X
500N
q0 = 450N/m
2m
1m
X
920N
480N
x
5m
Figure 1.1: Macaulays Method
1.5 Examples
is negative; otherwise, it is evaluated as written. A bracket function can be integrated by the

same rule as an ordinary functionnamely,
Z
hx ain =
hx ain+1
+C
n+1
(1.6)
This is called the global bending moment equation and it can be integrated to obtain the slope
and the deflection equations for the entire beam. The two constants of integration as mentioned
before can be computed from the boundary conditions. When you use this method ensure that
you include every load on the beam and leave the last reaction if the beam is simply supported.
If the beam is a cantilever, you can obtain the global bending moment equation by starting from
the free end or by starting from the fixed end. If you choose to start from the fixed end, calculate
the reaction first so that you can be able to include it in the global bending moment equation. At
the end of the day, you have the choice to use any method that you feel comfortable with. We
have not included other methods, simply because in practice we have found that we hardly use
the other methods in solving deflection of beam problems.
1.5
Examples
Example 1.1 Determine the equation for the deflection curve as well as the slope in Fig. 1.2.
q N/m
L
Figure 1.2: Cantilever Beam with UDL
Solution 1.1 Still to be done

Example 1.2 Determine the equation for the deflection curve as well as the slope in Fig. 5.25.
L
Figure 1.3: Cantilever Beam with UDL

Example 1.3 Determine the equation for the deflection curve as well as the slope in Fig.1.4 .
Deflection of Beams
10
P
L/2
L
Figure 1.4: SS Beam with Point Load

Example 1.4 For the cantilever beam, Fig. 1.5 under triangular distributed loading or variably
distributed loading, determine the equation for the deflection curve as well as the slope.
X
q0
D
x
L
Figure 1.5: Cantilever with VDL
Solution 1.4 We will use the same figure, Fig. 1.5 as the free-body diagram. Let the height
CD = q and use the law of triangles to get the expression of q in terms of the maximum height
or intensity q0 , i.e.
q q0
=
x
L
q=
q0 x
L
The moment about X X is as follows:

x
q0 x3
1
EIv (x) = q x =
2
3
6L
We need to integrate the above twice to get two constants of integration
q0 x 4
+C1
24L
q0 x 5
+C1 x +C2
EIv(x) =
120L
EIv (x) =
1.5 Examples
11
The kinematic boundary conditions are v (L) = 0 and v(L) = 0

q0 L 4
+C1 ;
24L
q0 L 5 q0 L 4
EIv(L) = 0 =
+
+C2 ;
120L
24
The equation of interest are:

q0 x5 q0 L3 x q0 L4
1
v(x) =
EI
120L
24
30
EIv (L) = 0 =
q0 L3
24
q0 L4
C2 =
30
C1 =
(1.7)
and

1
q0 x4 q0 L3
v (x) =
+
EI
24L
24
(1.8)
Example 1.5 For a given beam shown below:
1. derive the equation of the elastic curve

2. determine the point of maximum deflection
3. determine ymax
Before one could jump in and provide a solution, it is advisable to do the following:
Develop an expression for M(x) and derive a differential equation for the elastic curve.
Integrate the differential equation twice and apply boundary conditions to obtain the elastic
curve equation
Locate a point of zero slope or point of maximum deflection
Evaluate corresponding maximum deflection
P
L
Figure 1.6: SS Beam with an Overhang
Solution 1.5 The reactions are found to be RA =
X X we get
M(x) =
Pax
L
(0 < x < L)
Pax
d2y
=
2
dx
L
dy
Pax2
EI =
+C1
dx
2L
Pax3
+C1 x +C2
EIy =
6L
EI
Pa
L
a
L

and RB = P 1 + . Taking moments about
Deflection of Beams
12
The boundary conditions are simply: x = 0 : y = 0 and x = L : y = 0. The first boundary condition
leads to C2 = 0 and the second boundary condition leads to C1 = PaL
6 . The resulting equations
are therefore
dy
Pax2 PaL
EI =
+
(1.9)
dx
2L
6
and
Pax3 PaL
+
x
(1.10)
EIy =
6L
6
Determining the position of maximum deflection is relatively easy, set y (x) = 0

x 2
dy
PaL
m
13
=0=
dx
6EI
L
L
xm = = 0.577L
3
0.0642PaL2
PaL2
ymax =
0.577 0.5773 =
6EI
6EI
Example 1.6 For the uniform beam shown below,
1. Determine the reaction at A
2. Derive the equation for the elastic curve
3. Determine the slope at A (Note that the beam is statically indeterminate to the first degree)
L
Figure 1.7: LHS SS and RHS Fixed
Solution 1.6 The solution will include the following:
develop differential equation for the elastic curve. (this will be functionally dependent on
reaction A)
Integrate twice and apply boundary conditions to solve for the reaction at A and to obtain
the equation for the elastic curve.
Evaluate slope at A
Taking moments about D, i.e. MD = 0

1 w0 x2 x
M = RA x
2
L
3
3
w0 x
d2y
M = RA x
= EI 2
6L
dx
1.5 Examples
13
2
d y
We need to integrate EI dx
2 twice to get the equation for the elastic curve.
d2y
w0 x3
=
R
x
A
dx2
6L
2
w0 x 4
dy RA x
EI =
+C1
dx
2
24L
RA x3 w0 x5
+C1 x +C2
EIy =
6
120L
EI
The boundary conditions are as follows:

x=0:
x=L:
x=L:
y=0
dy
=0
dx
dy
=0
dx
C2 = 0
w0 L 3 RA L 2
24
2
3
w0 L
RA L 2
C1 =
120
6
C1 =
From the above we find that the reaction at A is

RA =
w0 L
10
The resulting two equations were:

w0
x5 + 2L2 x3 L4 x
120EI

w0
5x4 + 6L2 x2 L4
=
120EI
y=
(1.11)
(1.12)
Example 1.7 A cantilever beam is 4m long with a flexural stiffness of 20MNm2 . It has a point
load of 1kN at the free end and a u.d.l of 300N/m along its entire length. Calculate the slope and
deflection at the free end.

P
q N/m
L
Figure 1.8: Cantilever Beam with UDL and Point Load
Solution 1.7 This problem can be solved by using various method. The first one that will be
used is Theory of Superposition for Combined loads and the second one is double integration
method from first principles.For the point load only we will use the following equations to
determine the slope as well as the deflection:
1. Superposition Method for Combined Loads
y=
PL3
3EI
(1.13)
Deflection of Beams
14
dy PL2
=
dx 2EI
(1.14)
1000 43
= 1.06mm
3 20 106
dy
1000 42
=
= 400 106
dx 2 20 106
y=
For the U.D.L we will use the following equations:

y=
qL4
48EI
(1.15)
dy qL3
=
dx 6EI
(1.16)
300 44
= 0.48mm
48 20 106
dy
300 43
= 160 106 rad
=
dx 6 20 106
y=
The total deflection and slope are y = 1.54mm and

2. Double Integration Method from 1st Principles
dy
dx
= 560 106 rad
Example 1.8 The beam shown in Fig. 1.9 is 7m long with EI = 200MNm2 . Determine the
slope and deflection in the middle of the beam.
x
2m
30kN
4.5m
40kN
7m
Figure 1.9: SS Beam with Point Load loads
Solution 1.8 The first thing that we need to solve is the reaction on either side of interest and
this is done by taking moments about either A or B. If we take moments about B then our solution
will be:
0 = 7RA 30 5 40 2.5
RA = 35.71kN
The bending moment equation is as follows:

Mxx = RA [x] 30[x 2] 40[x 4.5]
(1.17)
1.5 Examples
15
d2y
= 35.71[x] 30[x 2] 40[x 4.5]
dx2
dy
[x]2
[x 2]2
[x 4.5]2
EI = 35.71
30
40
+C1
dx
2
2
2
[x 2]3
[x 4.5]3
[x]3
30
40
+C1 x +C2
EIy = 35.71
6
6
6
The boundary conditions are at x = 0 we have y = 0 and this leads to C2 = 0. At x = L we have
y = 0 and C1 needs to be worked out
EI
[7 2]3
[7 4.5]3
[7]3
30
40
+C1 (7)
6
6
6
C1 = 187.4
0 = 35.71
We are now able to write the required expressions as

dy
[x]2
[x 2]2
[x 4.5]2
= 35.71
30
40
187.4
dx
2
2
2
[x]3
[x 2]3
[x 4.5]3
EIy = 35.71
30
40
187.4x
6
6
6
From the above, it becomes easy to determine the deflection and rotation at the distance x = 3.5m.
EI
Example 1.9 The beam shown in Fig. 1.10 is 6m long with EI = 300MNm2 . Determine the
slope at the left hand end and the deflection at the middle of the beam.
x
2m
30kN
2kN/m
7m
Figure 1.10: SS Beam with UDL and Point Load
Solution 1.9 The reaction is determine by first taking moments about the right hand support.
0 = 6RA 30 4 2 62 /2
RA = 26kN
qx2
2
2
2[x]
EIy = 26[x] 30[x 2]
2
2
2
30[x
2]
2[x]3
26[x]
+C1
EIy =
2
2
6
26[x]3 30[x 2]3 2[x]4
EIy =
+C1 x +C2
6
6
24
Mxx = RA [x] 30[x 2]
Deflection of Beams
16
1.6
Exercises
Exercise 1.1 The simply supported beam ABC carries a distributed load of maximum
intensity q0 over its span of length L. Determine the maximum displacement of the beam.
q0
A
L/2
L
Exercise 1.2 The intensity of the distributed load on the cantilever beam varies linearly from
zero to q0 . Derive the equation of the elastic curve as well as the slope.
q0
L/2
L
Exercise 1.3 The intensity of the distributed load on the simply supported beam varies
linearly from zero to q0 .

a. Derive the equation of the elastic curve
b. Find the location of the maximum deflection
1.6 Exercises
17
q0
A
L/2
L
Exercise 1.4 Determine the maximum displacement of the simply supported beam due to
the distributed loading shown below. (Hint: Utilize symmetry and analyse the right of the
beam only.)

Exercise 1.5 Determine the deflection at the free end for the cantilever beam below with a
variably distributed loaded. EI = 10MNm2
Exercise 1.6 A 203mm 133mm 25kg/m I-section (parallel flange) is used as a cantilever with a span of 6m. It carries a point load of 6kN at 2m from the fixed end and a
uniformly distributed load of 2kN/m from the free end to a point 1m from the fixed end. The
cantilever is propped at a point 2m from the free end, such that the load in the prop is 9.7kN.
Calculate the deflection at the free end and under the 6kN load. Neglect the mass of the beam.
Exercise 1.7 A cantilever 3m long carries a point load of 22kN at 1m from the fixed end as
well as a uniformly distributed load of 12kN/m from the free end to a point 1m from the free
end. If the deflection at the free end is limited to 16mm, calculate the minimum necessary
value of I for the cross-section, neglecting the mass of the beam. A prop is now introduced
1m from the free end to reduce the deflection at the free end by half. What is the magnitude
of the load in the prop.
Exercise 1.8 Calculate the deflection 2m from the left-hand end and the slope at the left-hand
support of the beam shown below. EI = 10MNm2
Exercise 1.9 Calculate the slope and deflection 1m from the left-hand support of the beam
shown below. EI = 10MNm2
Exercise 1.10 Calculate the slope and deflection 1m from the left-hand support of the beam
shown below. EI = 10MNm2
18
Deflection of Beams
Exercise 1.11 A beam AB of constant section, depth 400mm and Imax = 250 106 m4 , is
hinged at A and simply supported on a non-yielding support at C. The beam is subjected to

the given loading as shown in the figure. Determine:
a. The vertical deflection of B
b. The slope of the tangent to the bent centre line at C

E = 80GPa
Exercise 1.12 #
Exercise 1.13 #
Introduction
Point Load
Uniformly Distributed Load
Exercise
Examples
Exercises
2 Continuous Beams
2.1
Introduction
Definition 2.1.1 Continuous Beams. -are beams that are supported on more than two
supports. These beams are statically indeterminate.

We will not dwell much on the derivation of the Three Moment Theorem also known as Clapeyrons theorem. The following equations is what you will be using when dealing with continuous
beams.
A1 x1 A2 x2
+
MA L1 2MB (L1 + L2 ) MC L2 = 6
L1
L2
(2.1)
A highway bridge shown in Fig. 2.1 is a clear example of a continuous beam
Figure 2.1: A continuous beam acting as a highway bridge
2.1.1
Point Load
Let us take a look at the span AB in Fig. 2.2 and tackle the two triangles ACD and CDB.
Continuous Beams
20
P
b
L
MAB =
Pab
L
A
x=
a
3
x = a + 2b
3
Figure 2.2: Span with Point Load
6Ax
L
6Ax
L
6Ax
L
6Ax
L
=
=
=
=
=
=

2a
b
1
6
Pab
Pab
1
+
a+
a
b
L
2
L
3
2
L
3
3

2
b
6 Pa b Pab
a+
+
L 3L
2L
3
3

2
2
6 Pa b Pa b
Pab3
+
+
L 3L
2L
6L
Pab2
(2a + b)(a + b) BUT a + b = L
6L2
Pab
(2a + b) BUT b = L a
L
Pa
Pa
(L a)(2a + L a) = (L2 a2 )
L
L
2.1 Introduction
2.1.2
21

We take a look at Fig. #. The centroid of the parabola is at the centre of the semi-circle and it is
x = L/2.
6Ax 6 2L qL2 L
=
L
L
3
8
2
3
6Ax qL
=
L
4
Example 2.1 The uniform beam shown in fig. 2.3 carries the loads as indicated. Determine
the B.M at B and hence draw the S.F. and the B.M diagrams for the beam.
20kN
0.5m
30 kN/m
B
2m
2m
Figure 2.3:

Example 2.2 A beam ABCDE is continuous over four supports and carries the loads as shown
in fig 2.4. Determine the values of the fixing moment at each support and hence draw the S.F.
and B.M. diagrams for the beam.

20kN
2m
10 kN/m
10 kN/m
B
5m
4m
5m
2m
Figure 2.4:

Example 2.3 A beam ABCDE is continuous over four supports (A, B, C and D) and fixed at
one the other end E. Span AB carries a point of 10kN at 0.5m from A, Span CD carries a point
load 20kN at 0.5m from C. Span BC carries a udl of 30kN/m while span DE carries a 20kN/m
udl. Determine the values of the fixing moment at each support and hence draw the S.F. and B.M.
diagrams for the beam.

Continuous Beams
22
Example 2.4 A uniform continuous beam ABC is built-in at support C and simply supported
at A and B. AB is loaded with a udl of 20kN/m magnitude and BC has a point load of 10kN
located at 1m from point B. Distance for AB = 2m and BC = 2m. Determine the reactions at the
supports and draw the bending moment diagrams as well as the shear force diagrams.

Example 2.5 Still to be done
2.2
Exercise
Exercise 2.1 A uniform continuous beam is built-in at one end.
a. Determine the moments as well as reactions forces.

b. Sketch the shear force and bending moment (True moment and correcting moment)
diagrams.
c. Determine the position of the point of contra-flexure nearest to the free end.
Exercise 2.2 For the continuous beam shown below, calculate the reactions at the supports.
IxxAB = 20 106 m4 = IxxBC and IxxCD = 40 106 m4 . Also, calculate the moments and sketch
shear force as well as bending moment diagrams.

Exercise 2.3 A continuous beam ABCD is simply supported over three spans AB = 1m,
BC = 2m and CD = 2m. The first span carries a central load of 20kN and the third span a
uniformly distributed load of 30kN/m. The central span remains unloaded. Calculate the
bending moments at B and C; draw S.F. and B.M. diagrams. The supports remain at the same
level when the beam is loaded.

Exercise 2.4 Calculate the magnitude of the reactions at the supports of the continuous beam
shown below as well as the true bending moment and and correcting moment diagrams.
Exercise 2.5 Calculate the magnitude of the reactions at the supports of the continuous
beam shown below as well as the true bending moment and and correcting moment diagrams.
20 kN
2kN/m
2m
4m
4m
1m
2m
2.3 Examples
2.3
23
Examples
Example 2.6 #
Solution 2.6 #
Example 2.7 #
Solution 2.7 #
Example 2.8 #
Solution 2.8 #
Example 2.9 #
Solution 2.9 #
2.4
Exercises
Exercise 2.6 #
Exercise 2.7 A beam is continuous over four supports and are loaded as shown in Fig. ??.
1. Calculate the magnitude of the forces in the supports

2. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams.
20kN
1m
30kN
10 kN/m
A
4m
3m
4m
1m
Exercise 2.8 A beam is continuous over four supports and are loaded as shown in Fig. ??.
1. Calculate the magnitude of the forces in the supports

2. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams.
30kN
8 kN/m
A
5 kN/m
B
4m
10kN
3m
1m
4m
1m
24
Continuous Beams
Exercise 2.9 #
Exercise 2.10 #
Exercise 2.11 #
Exercise 2.12 #
Introduction
Structures
Castiglianos theorem applied to Curved
Beams
Cantilever beam with a Point Load at the free
end
S/S beam with a Point Load at mid-point
Examples
Exercises
3 Energy Methods
3.1
Introduction
The energy stored within a material when work has been done is called the strain energy. Energy
is normally defined as the capacity to do work and it may exist in many forms such as mechanical,
thermal, nuclear, electrical, etc. The potential energy of a body is the form of energy which
is stored by virtue of the work which has previously been done on that body. Strain energy
is a particular form of potential energy (PE) which is stored within materials which has been
subjected to strain, i.e. to some change in dimension.
Definition 3.1.1 Strain energy is defined as the energy which is stored within a material
when work has been done on the material.
Strain Energy U = Work Done
(3.1)
When an axial force P is applied gradually to an elastic body that is rigidly fixed (no
displacement, rotation permitted), the force does work as the body deforms. We can see this
clearly in Fig. 3.1
P
L
Figure 3.1: Elastic Bar
P
B
Area=U
C
O
Figure 3.2: Load vs Displacement
Energy Methods
26
This work can be calculated from U =
of the application of the load.
R
0
P d , where is the work absorbing displacement
1
U = P
2
(3.2)
where U is the area under the force-displacement diagram. The work of several loads, i.e. P1 ,
P2 , P3 ,..., Pn acting on an elastic body is independent of the order in which the loads are applied.
The work is thus
U=
1
Pi i
2
(3.3)
where the same U is actually the energy (strain) stored in an elastic body. The unshaded area
above the line OB is called the complimentary energy, a quantity which is utilised in some
advanced energy methods of solution, [dro]. [dro]
3.2

Let us consider a bar of constant cross-sectional area A, length L and Youngs modulus E as
shown in Fig. #. If the axial load P is applied gradually to result in displacement , the strain
energy of the bar is
1
P2 L
U = P =
2
2AE
(3.4)
This can be better expressed as follows:

U=
3.3
Z L 2
P
1
2
2AE
dx
(3.5)
Theorem 3.3.1 Castiglianos First Theorem. Castiglianos theorem states that if an
elastic body is in equilibrium under the external loads P1 , P2 , P3 ,..., Pn then

i =
U
Pi
(3.6)
where i is the displacement associated with load Pi and U is the strain energy of the body.
The other way of writing Castiglianos first theorem is as follows:
Theorem 3.3.2 Castiglianos First Theorem. If the total strain energy expressed in terms
of the external loads is partially differentiated with respect to one of the loads the result is the
deflection of the point of application of that load and in the direction of that load. Deflection
in direction of Pi will be
U
Pi
Pi =
(3.7)
In applications where bending provided practially all of the strain energy,

Pi =
M M
dA
EI
Pi
A
Castiglianos theorem for angular movements states:
(3.8)
3.4 Structures
27
Theorem 3.3.3 Castiglianos theorem for angular movements. If the total strain energy
expressed in terms of the external moments be partially differentiated with respect to one of
the moments, the result is the angular deflection in radians of the point of application of that
moment and in its direction
=
M M
dA
A EI Mi
(3.9)
where Mi is the actual or dummy moment at the point where is required.
3.4
Structures
Displacement in the direction of the applied load is found using the following equation:
n
Fi Li Fi
i=1 Ai Ei P
(3.10)
There would be plenty of examples for trusses/structures in the example section

Statically Indeterminate/determinate
Pin jointed structures can either be statically determinate or indeterminate. The challenge is
when the structure is indeterminate. The following steps should be followed when approaching a
pin jointed structure:
Count the number of joints, members and reactions. m + r 2 j = 1. If 2 j < m + r, the
structure is indeterminate. There is one redundant member on the structure.
The number of redundant members is equal to the degree of indeterminacy of the structure.
Release the redundant members to render the structure statically determinate.
Calculate the forces in the statically determinate structure, subjected to any external loads
plus the redundant reaction forces, using methods of joints of sections.
Use Castiglianos method to calculate the required deflections and also slopes.
3.5
Castiglianos theorem applied to Curved Beams

The theorem can be applied to all types of beams, cantilever with point load or udl, simply
supported beam with point load or udl, etc. I will leave you to derive the rest of the beams. You
can confirm your answer by using first principles.
3.6
3.6.1

Cantilever beam with a Point Load at the free end
When given any type of beam, follow this procedure:
1. Cut an elemental strip of width dx
2. Measure distance x from the free-end or the fixed-end. If it is from the fixed end, make
sure that you calculate the reaction first
3. Take moments about X X line, i.e. distance from free-end to where the strip starts, Mxx
4. Determine partial derivative of moment with respect to the load applied, i.e. Mxx / P
For a cantilever given, Fig. 3.6.1, this is what you do:
Energy Methods
28
P
dx
x
L
Figure 3.3: Cantilever Beam with a Point Load
Mxx
=x
P
Z L
1
Mxx
=
dx
Mxx
EI 0
P
Z
1 L
Px xdx
=
EI 0
L
PL3
Px3
=
=
3EI
3EI
Mxx = Px;
BP
BP
BP
3.6.2
S/S beam with a Point Load at mid-point

The simply supported beam, Fig. 3.6.2 is tackled a bit differently from the cantilever. In this
example the beam has constant cross-sectional area A, length L and Youngs modulus E In this
P
a
b
B
C
A
Pb
L
dx dz
Pa
L
L
Figure 3.4: Simply Supported Beam with a Point Load
problem all we need to do is to take moments about X X and Z Z as follows:

Pb
x;
L
Pa
MCB = z;
L
MAC =
bx
MAC
=
P
L
MCB az
=
P
L
3.7 Examples
29
The deflection is thus

1
=
EI
Z a
Pb
bx
1
x dx +
L
L
EI
0
a
b
2
Pb x3
Pa2 z3
= 2
+
L EI 3
L2 EI 3
0
Pb2 a3
Z b
Pa
0
az
dz
L
Pa2 b3
+
3L2 EI 3L2 EI
Pb2 a2 (a + L)
=
3L2 EI
But since a = L/2 = b then

=
3.7
PL3
48EI
Examples
Example 3.1 Calculate the vertical displacement at point B on the pin-jointed structure shown
in Fig. #. The cross-sectional area of both members is 2000mm2 and E = 200GPa
Solution 3.1 We start by determining what the length of AB and BC is, i.e. LAB = 2m and
LBC = 2m. The only joint that we will deal with is Joint B.
R
The structure is statically determinate. j = 3, m = 2 and r = 4. 2 j = m + r
F = 0 = FAB sin 30 FBC sin 30 Q

FBC = FBA 2Q
. . . Eq. 1
F = 0 = R FAB cos 30 FBC cos 30

FBC = 1.155R FBA
FAB = Q + 0.577R
FBC = 0.577R Q
. . . Eq. 2
FBA
FBA
= 1;
= 0.577
with
Q
R
FBC
FBC
with
= 1;
= 0.577
Q
R
Member
Length (m)
Load
F
Q
F
R
FL F
AE Q
FL F
AE R
AB
BC
2m
2m
Q + 0.577R
Q + 0.577R
1
-1
0.577
0.577
50 106
50 106
100m
28 106
28 106
0
Table 3.1: Table caption
Example 3.2 A Plate 5mm thick and 30mm wide is bent into the shape shown below.
Energy Methods
30
Solution 3.2 Taking moments about z z
Mzz
= r sin
P
Mzz = Fr sin ;
1
=
EI
Fr3
=
EI
=
3
2
(Fr sin )(r sin )rd
3
sin 2 2

2
4
0
3Fr3 (200)(0.2)3 (3)

=
= 60.3mm
4EI
4 62.5
Example 3.3 The structure shown below is made from a pipe with inner and outer diameters
of 80mm and 100mm respectively. Calculate the resultant deflection at A due to bending.
E = 200GPa.

Solution 3.3 #
Example 3.4 Determine the vertical deflection of point A on the bent cantilever as shown
below, Fig. 3.5, when loaded at A with a vertical load of 25N. The cantilever is built-in at B and
EI is constant throughout and is equal to 450Nm2 . What would be the horizontal deflection at
point A?
B
r=
m
5m
12
A
200mm
P = 25N
Figure 3.5: Castigliano-Semicircular
Solution 3.4 We now look at Fig. 3.6 and we let R become a dummy load.
Mxx = Px
Mxx
= xXX
P
Mzz = (0.2 + r sin )P + Rr(1 cos ),
Mzz
Mzz
= (0.2 + r sin ),
= r(1 cos )XX
P
R
3.7 Examples
31
B
r=
12
r cos
5m
x
A
r sin
200mm
R = 0N
X
P = 25N
Figure 3.6: Castigliano-Semicircular
The deflections are calculated as follows:

1
1 0.2
Px xdx +
(0.2 + r sin )P(0.2 + r sin )rd
P =
EI 0
EI 0
3 0.2
P
Px
+ (0.04r + 0.4r2 sin + r3 sin2 )d
P =
3EI 0
EI

P
sin 2
0.0667
2
3
0.04r 0.4r cos + r
+
P =
X
EI
EI
2
4
0
P
0.0667
P =
+ (0.0157 + 0.0125 + 0.003068)
EI
EI
0.8484
P =
XX
EI
Z
R =
R =
R =
R =
R =
1
(0.2 + r sin )Pr(1 cos )rd
EI 0
Z
Pr2
(0.2 0.2 cos + r sin r sin cos )d X
EI 0

r cos2
Pr2
0.2 0.2 sin r cos +
EI
2
0

2
r
Pr
0.2 r(2) + (0)
EI
2
0.3431
XX
EI
Z
Example 3.5 The steel truss (Fig. 3.7) supports the load P = 30kN. Determine the horizontal
and vertical displacements of joint E. Use E = 200GPa. The cross-sectional area for all members
is 500mm2 .

Solution 3.5 Referring to Fig. 3.8 We are given A = 500mm2 , P = 30kN and E = 200GPa. We
will use a JOINT method starting with Joint E, D and C. Let us introduce a dummy load R at
point E.
Joint E
Energy Methods
32
2m
2m
2m
Figure 3.7: Castigliano Truss Structure
2m
2m
2m
Figure 3.8: Solution Castigliano Truss Structure
Fv = 0 = P + 0.707FEC
FEC = 1.414PXX
FEC
= 1.414
P
FH = FED + 0.707FEC R
FED = P + RXX
FED
FED
=1
=1
P
R
R(Dummy)
3.7 Examples
33
Joint D
FV = 0 = FDC XX
FH = FDE FDB + R
FDB = P + RXX
FDB
FDB
=1
=1
P
R
Joint C
Fv = 0.707FCE + 0.707FCB
Fv = P + 0.707FCB
FCB = 1.414PXX
FCB
= 1.414
P
FH = 0 = 0.707FCE 0.707FCB FCA
FH = P P FCA
FCA = 2PXX
FCA
=2
P
Member
AC
BC
BD
CD
DE
CE
L(mm)
2000
2828
2000
2000
2000
2828
Load
2P
1.414P
P+R
0
P+R
-1.414P
F
P
F
R
FL F
AE P
FL F
AE R
2
1.414
1
0
1
-1.414
0
0
1
0
1
0
1.2
1.696
0.6
0
0.6
-1.696
P = 2.4mm
0
0
0.6
0
0.6
0
R = 1.2mm
Example 3.6 For the simply supported beam (Fig. 3.9) loaded with a uniformly distributed
load, determine the maximum deflection in the middle of the beam. Let the udl be q N/m.

Solution 3.6 We can solve this problem by concentrating on half the length of the beam. Since
we need to calculate the maximum deflection which occurs in the middle, we need to place a
dummy load at the middle of the beam. We then need to cut the beam at distance x from the left
hand support and take moments about X X section as follows:
qL P
+ = RB
2
2
qx2 qLx Px qx2
Mxx = RA x
=
+
2
2
2
2
x
Mxx
=
P
2
RA =
Since deflection is determined using the following

1
P =
EI
M
dA
P
(3.11)
Energy Methods
34
q N/m
A
L/2
L
Figure 3.9: SS Beam with UDL
P =
=
=
=
=
=
3.8

Z
2 L/2 qLx Px qx2 x
+
dx
EI 0
2
2
2 2

Z
1 L/2 qLx2 Px2 qx3
+
dx
EI 0
2
2
2

L/2
1 qLx3 Px3 qx4
+
EI
6
6
8 0
"
3
3
4 #
P L2
q L2
1 qL L2
+
EI
6
6
8
3

1 PL
qL4 qL4
+
EI 48
48
128
3

4
1 PL
5qL
+
EI 48
384
Exercises
Exercise 3.1 Calculate the vertical displacement as well as the horizontal displacement at
point B on the pin jointed structure shown in the figure below. The cross-sectional area of
both members is 2000 mm2 and E = 200GPa.
3.8 Exercises
35
A
2m
2m
2m
B
10 kN
C
Exercise 3.2 Calculate the magnitude of the force R on the pin-jointed structure, shown in
the figure below, if the vertical deflection at node E is zero. The cross-sectional area of all the
members is the same.
R
E
4m
B
10 kN
3m
3m
Exercise 3.3 Calculate the resultant displacement at point E on the pin-jointed structure
shown in the figure below. The cross-sectional area for all members is 200mm2 and E =
200GPa.
Energy Methods
36
20 kN
60
60
2m
90
60
Exercise 3.4 Calculate the vertical displacement at point D and the horizontal displacement
at C on the pin-jointed structure shown in the figure below. The cross-sectional area for all
members is 1200mm2 and E = 200GPa.
3m
20 kN
4m
4m
Exercise 3.5 Calculate the resultant deflection at point A on the pin-jointed structure shown
in the figure below.

2m
3m
10 kN
3.8 Exercises
37
Exercise 3.6 Calculate the vertical deflection at point B on the pin-jointed structure shown
below. The cross-sectional are of the members in tension is 30mm2 and for those in compression is 200mm2 . E = 200GPa
0 .6
m
0.5m
0.8
m
1m
10 kN
Exercise 3.7 Calculate the resultant deflection at point D on the pin-jointed structure shown
below. The cross-sectional area of the members in tension is 1000mm2 and for those in
compression is 2000mm2 . E = 200GPa
0.6m
8 kN
1m

Alternative
procedure
for
stress
determination
Deflection
Notation
xxx
Point Load
Examples
Exercises
4 Unsymmetrical Bending of Beams
Introduction
The most common type of structural member is a beam. I actual structures beams can be found
in an infinite variety of:
sizes
shapes
orientations
Definition 4.0.1 Beam. A beam may be defined as a member whose length is relatively
large in comparison with its thickness and depth, and which is loaded with transverse loads
that produce significant bending effects as oppose to twisting or axial effects.
Beams are generally classified according to their geometry and the manner in which they are
supported. Geometrical classification includes such features as the shape of the cross section
whether the beam is straight, curved, tapered or has constant cross-section.
Beams can also be classified according to the manner in which they are supported. Some
types that occur in ordinary practice are shown in the figures below, Fig. 4.1 and 4.2. There are
many other types not shown.
Figure 4.1: Cantilever Beam
4.1

Internal forces in any cross section are equivalent to a couple. The moment of the couple
is the section bending moment.
From statics, a couple M consist of two equal and opposite forces.
The sum of the components of the forces in any direction is zero.
The moment is the same about any axis perpendicular to the plane of the couple and zero
about any axis contained in the plane.
Unsymmetrical Bending of Beams
40
Figure 4.2: Continuous Beam-Bridge Support

These requirements may be applied to the sums of the components and moments of the
statically indeterminate elementary internal forces
4.2
Simple bending theory applies when bending takes place about an axis which is perpendicular
to a plane of symmetry. If such an axis is drawn through the centroid of a section, and another
mutually perpendicular to it also through the centroid, then these axes are principal axes. Thus a
plane of symmetry is automatically a principal axis. Second moments of area of a cross-section
about its principalRaxes are found to be maximum and minimum values, while the product second
moment of area, xy dA, is found to be zero. All plane sections, whether they have an axis of
symmetry or not, have two perpendicular axes about which the product second moment of area
is zero. Principal axes are thus defined as the axes about which the product second moment of
area is zero. Simple bending can then be taken as bending which takes place about a principal
axis, moments are being applied in a plane parallel to one such axis.
In general, however, moments are applied about a convenient axis in the cross-section; the
plane containing the applied moment may not then be parallel to a principal axis. Such cases are
termed unsymmetrical bending1 .
The most simple type of unsymmetrical bending problem is that of skew loading of the
sections containing at least one axis of symmetry as shown in Fig. #. This axis and the axis
perpendicular to it are then principal axes and the term skew loading implies load applied at
some angle to these principal axes. The method of solution in this case is to resolve the applied
moment MA into Muu and Mvv
How to approach an Unsymmetrical Bending problem:
1. Determine the position of the centroid (if not already known)
2. Calculate values of Ixx , Iyy and Ixy
3. Calculate angle p using
tan 2 =
1 Mechanics
2Ixy
Ixx Iyy
of Materials, EJ Hearn
(4.1)
4.2 Unsymmetrical Bending
41
4. Calculate principal second moments of area

Ixx + Iyy
I11,22 =
2
s
Ixx Iyy
2
2
2
+ Ixy
(4.2)
5. Calculate the moment M and resolve it into components of Muu = M cos and Mvv =
M sin
6. Calculate combined bending stress
=
Muu v Mvv u
+
Iuu
Ivv
(4.3)
Figure 4.3: Asymmetrical Bending

7. Find position of neutral axis on cross-section (through centroid): = 0
8. Identify points on cross-section which are greatest distance from the neutral axis(one
tensile and one compressive) and determine x, y coordinates of each point.
9. Use the following two equations to determine the distances u and v which are both positive
in the quadrant UGV.
u = x cos + y sin
(4.4)
v = y cos x cos
(4.5)
10. Determine the maximum bending stress using Eqn. 4.3

Moment applied along the principal axis
The conditions that one should consider when working with this type of a problem are:
Stress distribution acting over entire cross-sectional area to be a zero force resultant.
Resultant internal moment about y- axis to be zero.
Resultant internal moment about z- axis to be equal to M.
42
Express the three conditions mathematically by considering forces acting on differential

element dA located at (0, y, z). Force is dF = dA, therefore
FR = Fy ;
0=
dA
AZ
(MR )y = My ;
0=
(MR )z = Mz ;
0=
ZA
A
z dA
y dA
Figure 4.4: Asymmetrical Bending

If
material has linear-elastic behaviour, Rthen we can substitute =
R
A y dA and after integrating, we get A yz dA = 0
The resultant general normal stress at any point on the cross section is
=
Mz y My z
+
Izz
Iyy
y
c max
into 0 =
(4.6)
BUT in out notation we will use x instead of z. You will not be penalized if you decide to
use what the book says you must use. The direction is important, so make sure that z is
pointing the right direction for a positive/ negative sense. Mz = M cos and My = M sin
Orientation of neutral axis
Angle of the neutral axis can be determined by applying the stress equation with = 0,
since normal stress acts on neutral axis. The resulting equation is thus:
tan =
Izz
tan
Iyy
(4.7)
For unsymmetrical bending, the angle defining direction of moment M is not equal to
angle , angle defining inclination of neutral axis unless Izz = Iyy
4.3
Alternative procedure for stress determination

I prefer this method over the other methods.
Let us consider any unsymmetrical section as shown in Fig. 4.5. The assumption that we make
4.3 Alternative procedure for stress determination
43
Figure 4.5: Alternative Procedure

as we start this is that the stress at any point on the unsymmetrical section us given by
= Px + Qy
(4.8)
where P and Q are constants; in other words it is assumed that bending takes place about the X
and Y axes at the same time, stresses resulting from each effect being proportional to the distance
from the respective axis of bending. Let there be a tensile stress on the element of area dA.
Then the force F acting on the element is F = dA. The moment of this force about the X axis
is then dAy
Mxx =
=
dAy
(Px + Qy)ydA =
PxydA +
Qy2 dA
but we know from statics that

Ixx =
Iyy =
Ixy =
y2 dA
x2 dA
xydA
therefore substituting the above in the moment equation, we get

Mxx = PIxy + QIxx
(4.9)
In a similar manner the moments about the Y axis is

Myy =
Myy =
dAx
(Px + Qy)xdA =
Myy = PIyy QIxy
PxydA
Qy2 dA
(4.10)
Since the stresses resulting from bending are zero on the neutral axis, the equation of the neutral
axis is derived by setting the stress to zero, i.e.
0 = Px + Qy
P
y
= = tan N.A
x
Q
44
4.4
Deflection
The deflections of unsymmetrical sections in the directions of the principal axes may always be
determined by application of the standard deflection formulae, i.e.
=
FL3
3EI
(4.11)
and this we know because it is the maximum deflection of a cantilever with a point load F at the
free end. The vertical deflection is determined as follows:
v =
(Fyy )L3
3EIxx
(4.12)
and the horizontal deflection

h =
4.5
(Fxx )L3
3EIyy
(4.13)
Notation
Quantity
Generic load for ODE Work
Transverse Shear Force
Bending Moment
Deflection Curve
Symbol
f (x)
V (x)
M(x)
dv(x)
dx = v (x)
v(x)
Table 4.1: Notation
4.6
xxx
#
4.6.1
Point Load
#
4.6.2
4.7
Examples
Example 4.1 A z-section shown in Fig.# is subjected to bending moment of M = 20kNm. The
principal axes y and z are oriented as shown such that they represent the maximum and minimum
principal moments of inertia, Iyy = 900 106 mm4 and Izz = 7540 106 mm4 respectively.
Determine the normal stress at point P and orientation of the neutral axis.
Solution 4.1 #
Example 4.2 Due to load misalignment, the bending moment acting on the channel sections
is inclined at an angle of 3 with respect to the y axis. If the allowable flexural stress for this
beam is al = 150MPa, what is the maximum moment, Mmax that may be applied.
4.7 Examples
45
Solution 4.2 We start the solution by determining the components of the moment
Myy = M sin 3
Mxx = M cos 3
The normal stresses due to the moment components are

Myy x
(M sin 3 ) x
=
Iyy
Iyy
Mxx y (M cos 3 ) y
=
=
Ixx
Ixx
zz1 =
zz2
The combines stress is

zz = zz1 + zz2
(M sin 3 ) x (M cos 3 ) x
=
+
Iyy
Ixx
A1 = A3 = 500mm2
A2 = 800mm2
AT = 1800mm2

10 503
80 103
2
2
Ixx = 2
+ 500(8.9) +
+ 800(11.1) = 0.3927 106 mm4
12
12

10 803
50 103
2
Iyy = 2
+ 500(45) +
= 2.46 106 mm4
12
12
(M sin 3 ) (50) (M cos 3 ) (33.9)
+
2.46 106
0.3927 106
M = 1.17MNm
100 106 =
NB: I am not quite happy with the answer.

Example 4.3 A rectangular-section beam 80 mm 50 mm is arranged as a cantilever 1.3m
long and loaded at its free end with a point load of 5kN inclined at an angle of 60 to the
horizontal axis as shown in Fig. #. Determine the position and magnitude of the greatest tensile
stress in the section. What would be the vertical deflection at the end? E = 210GPa
Solution 4.3 The moments of inertia are simple to calculate and are as follows:
50 803
= 2.133 106 mm4
12
80 503
Iyy =
= 0.833 106 mm4
12
Mxx = 5000 1300 cos 30 = 5629 103 Nmm
Ixx =
Myy = 5000 1300 sin 30 = 3250 103 Nmm
Using the general method of determining stress at any point, i.e.

=
Mxx y Myy x
Ixx
Iyy
46
Y P
A
80mm
C
50mm
Figure 4.6: Rectangular section
We will determine the stresses at points A(25, 40), B(25, 40), C(25, 40) and D(25, 40)
Mxx y Myy x (5629)(40)(1000) (3250)(25)(1000)
= 203.1MPa
=
Ixx
Iyy
2.133 106
0.833 106
Mxx y Myy x (5629)(40)(1000) (3250)(25)(1000)
B =
= 8.021MPa
=
Ixx
Iyy
2.133 106
0.833 106
A =
Using the alternative method, we must determine the constants P and Q. Since the section is
symmetric about both axes, we know that Ixy = 0.
Mxx = 5629 106 = 2.133Q
Q = 2639 106
Myy = 3250 106 = 0.833Q
P = 3901.56 106 106
The stresses at various points are

A = 3901.56(25) + 2639(40) = 203.1MPa
B = 3901.56(25) + 2639(40) = 8.021MPa
C = 3901.56(25) + 2639(40) = 203.1MPa
D = 3901.56(25) + 2639(40) = 8.021MPa
Example 4.4 A cantilever if length 1.2m and of the cross-section shown in Fig. 4.7 carries a
vertical load of 10kN at its outer end, the line of action being parallel with the longer leg and
arranged to pass through the shear centre of the section (i.e. there is no twisting of the section).
Working from first principles, find the stress set up in the section at points A, B and C, given that
the centroid is located as shown. Determine also the angle of inclination of the neutral axis NA .
Given: Ixx = 4 106 m4 and Iyy = 1.08 106 m4
Solution 4.4 #
Example 4.5 #
Solution 4.5 #
Example 4.6
4.8 Exercises
47
Figure 4.7: Unequal Leg subjected to vertical load

Solution 4.6 #
Example 4.7 #
Solution 4.7 #
Example 4.8 #
Solution 4.8 #
4.8
Exercises
Exercise 4.1 #
Exercise 4.2 #
Exercise 4.3 #
Exercise 4.4 A T-section shown below has two loads acting on it. It is supported as a
cantilever of length 3m and P = 500N is acting at 2m from the fixed end and P2 = 707N.
Exercise 4.5 A beam of 3m length has a cross-section as shown below and is subjected to a
constamt bending moment of 600Nm about the X-axis. Calculate:

1. the maximum stress induced in the section
2. the magnitude and the direction of the maximum deflection of the beam.
The following is given Ixx = 363.05 109 m4 , Iyy = 49.72 109 m4 , x = 9.45mm, y =
27.22mm and E = 200GPa.

Exercise 4.6 #
Exercise 4.7 #
Exercise 4.8 #
48
Exercise 4.9 #
Exercise 4.10 #
Exercise 4.11 #
Exercise 4.12 #
Exercise 4.13 #
Exercise 4.14 #
Exercise 4.15 #
Exercise 4.16 #

Plastic Bending of Symmetrical (I-Section)
Beam
Partially plastic Bending of Unsymmetrical
Sections
Bending
The principle of Virtual Work
Solid Shaft
Hollow shaft
Exercises
5 Inelastic Bending
Introduction
When the design of components is based upon the elastic theory, i.e. the simple bending or
torsion theory, the dimensions of the components are arranged in such a way that the maximum
stresses which are likely to result do not exceed the allowable working stress. This is obtained
by taking the yield stress and dividing it by the applicable safety factor.
Under normal service conditions, we want to present yielding because the resulting permanent
deformation is generally undesirable. However, permanent deformation does not necessarily lead
to catastrophic failure; it may only make the structure or component undesirable and considered
unsafe or unfit for further use. At the outer fibres yield stress may have been exceeded but some
portion of the component may be found to be still elastic and capable of carrying the load. The
strength of a component will normally be much greater than that assumed on the basis of initial
yielding at any position. To take advantage of the inherent additional strength, a different design
procedure is used which is often referred to as plastic limit design.
Definition 5.0.1 Inelastic Bending. Inelastic materials are materials which follow
Hookes law up to the yield stress Y and then yield plastically under constant stress (see Fig.
5.1).
The figure below, Fig. 5.1, assumes material behaviour which:
1. Ignores the presence of upper and lower yields and suggests only a single yield point
2. takes the yield stress in tension and compression to be equal
3. When a plastic hinge has developed at one point, the moment of resistance at that point
remains constant until collapse of the whole structure takes place due to the formation of
the required number of plastic hinges at other points.
4. transverse sections of beams in bending remain in plane throughout the loading process,
i.e. strain is proportional to distance from the neutral axis.
It is now possible on the basis of assumption (4) to determine the moment which must be applied
to produce:
maximum or limiting elastic condition in the beam material with yielding just initiated at
the outer fibres.
yielding to a specific depth.
yielding across the complete section, i.e. fully plastic state or plastic hinge. Depending
on the support and loading conditions, one or more plastic hinges may be required before
complete collapse of the beam or structure occurs and the load required to produce this
situation is called the collapse load.
5.1

Let us consider a cantilever beam loaded at the tip with a point load P which is large enough
to cause yielding in the shaded area. At section a-a, the stresses on the outer fibres have just
reached yield stress, but the distribution is elastic as shown in Fig. 5.3. Applying the flexure
Inelastic Bending
50
Figure 5.1: Idealized Stress-Strain Diagram
Figure 5.2: Cantilever Beam subjected to load P

formula
Mmax = max S
bh2
6
we find that the magnitude of the bending moment at this section is
= max
bh2
Y
(5.1)
6
This moment is called yield moment because it is the moment responsible for yielding.
At section b-b, the cross section is elastic over the depth of 2yi but plastic outside this depth as
shown in Fig. 5.4 The stress is constant at Y over the plastic portion and varies linearly over
the elastic region. The bending moment carried by this elastic region is given by the following
formula
Ii
Mpp =
(5.2)
yi
MY =
5.1 Plastic Bending of Rectangular Beams
51
Figure 5.3: Rectangular section-Elastic
Figure 5.4: Rectangular section Partially Plastic

where Ii is the moment of inertia of the elastic region of the cross section about the neutral axis.
For the plastic region, which is symmetrical about the neutral axis, the bending moment is
Mpp = moment of elastic portion + total moment of the plastic region

h
1 h
b(2yi )2 Y
+ 2 Y b
yi
yi + yi
=
6
2
2 2
2Y by2i Y bh2
=
+
Y by2i
2
4

Y b
3h2 4y2i
Mpp =
12
This moment is referred to as partial plastic moment. Instead of the stress at the outside increasing
due to an increase in loading, more and more of the section reaches the yield stress.
At section c-c, the beam is fully plastic. The stress is constant at Y over the tensile and
compressive portion of the cross section. The bending moment that causes this stress distribution
is called the fully plastic moment M f p . When the loading has been continues until the stress
distribution is as shown in Fig. 5.5, the beam will collapse. We note that yi = 0, all that remains
is h/2. The fully plastic moment is determined as follows:
M f p = 2Y yA

bh h
= 2Y
2 4
2
bh
=
4
Inelastic Bending
52
Figure 5.5: Rectangular section Fully plastic

It is worth noticing that M f p = 2/3MY and this is valid for beams of rectangular cross-section.
This ratio is also called the shape factor. Other shape factors for various cross sections are shown
in the table below, Tab. 5.1 For a rectangular section, this shape factor means that the beam can
Cross Section
Solid Rectangle
Solid Circle
Thin-walled Circular Tube
Thin-walled Wide-flange Beam
M f p /MY
1.5
1.7
1.27
1.1
Table 5.1: Shape factors of different sections

carry 50% additional moment to that which is required to produce initial yielding at the edge of
the beam section before a fully plastic hinge is formed.
5.2
Plastic Bending of Symmetrical (I-Section) Beam
Figure 5.6: I-section Elastic and Fully Plastic
5.3 Partially plastic Bending of Unsymmetrical Sections
53
The elastic moment or yield moment MY is determined as follows

I
MY = Y
y
I=
BH 3 2 b2 h3
12
12
BH 3 bh3
12
12
H
2

BH 3 bh3 2
MY = Y
12
12 H

Y
=
BH 3 bh3
6H
y=
The fully plastic moment is found to be:

Y
BH 2 bh2
Mf p =
4
(5.3)
The value of the shape factor is 1.18 for the I-beam indicating that only an 18% increase in
strength capacity using plastic design procedures.
5.3
Partially plastic Bending of Unsymmetrical Sections

Let us consider a T-section beam shown below in Fig. 5.7 and 5.8. Whilst stresses remain within
the elastic limit the position of the neutral axis can be obtained by taking moment of are about
the neutral axis.
Figure 5.7: T section-Elastic

It does not matter what state this section is in, i.e. elastic, partially plastic or fully plastic,
equilibrium of forces must always be maintained. At any section the tensile forces on one side of
the neutral axis must equal the compressive forces on the other side of the neutral axis.
Summation of stresses area above the N.A = Summation of stresses area below the N.A
In the fully plastic condition, the stresses Y will be equal throughout the section, the equation
then becomes:
Aabove = Abelow =
Atotal
2
For partially plastic condition we will have

F1 + F2 = F3 + F4
Inelastic Bending
54
Figure 5.8: T section Fully Plastic

The sum of the moments of these forces about the N.A yields that partially plastic moment Mpp .
This is best explained with an example, Eg. 5.1.
Example 5.1 Determine the shape factor of a T-section of dimensions 100mm 170mm
20mm as shown in Fig. 5.9
Figure 5.9: T Section Elastic and Fully Plastic

Solution 5.1 With reference to Fig. 5.9,
Ai yi 100 20 160 + 20 150 75

=
= 109mm
Ai
100 20 + 20 150

100 203
20 1503
2
2
INA =
+ 2000(160 109) +
+ 3000(75 109) = 14.362 106 mm4
12
12
y=
Yielding will start at the bottom of the cross-section when bending moment reaches MY , i.e.
Y I 14.362 106
Y
=
y
109
= 131.761 103 Y mm3
MY =
When the section becomes fully plastic the N.A is positioned such that the area below NA=half
5.3 Partially plastic Bending of Unsymmetrical Sections
55
the total area. We now must locate the plastic neutral axis, i.e. y p above the base
20 y p = 100 20 + 20(150 y p )
20 y p = 2000 + 3000 20 y p
40 y p = 5000
y p = 125mm
The fully plastic moment is then obtained by considering the moments of forces on convenient
rectangular parts of the section, each being subjected to a uniform stress Y
125
1
M f p = Y (100 20)(45 10) + Y (45 20)(20) (45 20) + (125 20)(
)
2
2
= 70000Y + 6250Y + 156250Y
= 232.5 103 Y mm3
232.5 103
131.761 103
= 1.765
f=
Example 5.2 A cantilever is to be constructed from a T-section beam of Example 5.1 and
is designed to carry a udl over its entire length of 2m. Determine the maximum udl that the
cantilever beam can carry if yielding is permitted over the lower part of the web to a depth of

25mm. The yield stress of the material is Y = 225MPa.
Figure 5.10: T-section Fully Plastic
Inelastic Bending
56
Solution 5.2
Y
Yi
Y
=
Yi =
(145 y)
y
145 y
y
F1 = Y (20 25) = 500Y
Y
i.e. Average stress for the triangle
F2 =
(20 y) = 10yY
2

10Y
Y 125 y
20(125 y) =
(125625 250y + y2 )
F3 =
2
y
y

Y
270 2y
125 y
145 y
F4 =
+
(100 20) = 1000Y
2
y
y
y
F1 + F2 = F3 + F4

10Y
270 2y
(125625 250y + y2 ) + 1000Y
500Y + 10yY =
y
y
y = 85.25mm
We are now able to calculate the values for the forces and we find them to be F1 = 112.5kN,
F2 = 191.8kN, F3 = 41.7kN and F4 = 262.6kN. The moment of resistance MR that the beam
carry can now be obtained by taking moments about the neutral axis.
2
2
MR = F1 (y + 12.5) + F2 y + F3 (125 y) + F4 [(125 y) + 10]
3
3
191.8 2 85.25 41.7 2 (125 85.25)
+
+ 262.6 [(125 85.25 + 10)]
= 112.5(85.25 + 12.5) +
3
3
= 10996.875 + 10901.34 + 1105.05 + 12065
= 36068.265Nm
The maximum bending moment present on the beam will occur at the fixed end and it will be
calculated using the following formula
qL2
2
= 18.034kN/m
Mmax =
5.4
Limit analysis is a method of determining the loading that causes a statically indeterminate
structure to collapse. This method applies only to ductile materials, which in this simplified
discussion are assumed to be elastic, perfectly plastic. The method is straightforward, consisting
of two steps. The first step is a kinematic study of the structure to determine which parts must
become fully plastic to permit the structure as a whole to undergo large deformations. The
second step is an equilibrium analysis to determine the external loading that creates these fully
plastic parts. We will be presenting only bending in the form of examples.
5.4.1
Bending
Revisiting Fig. 5.2, as the load P is increased, section c-c at the fixed end goes through elastic and
partially plastic states until it becomes fully plastic, whereas the rest of the beam remains elastic.
The fully plastic section is called a plastic hinge because it allows the beam to rotate about the
support without an increase in the bending moment. The bending moment at the plastic hinge is
called the limiting moment MP . Once the plastic hinge has formed the beam will collapse.
5.4 Limit Analysis-Bending
57
The collapse mechanism of a beam depends on the supports. Each extra support constrain
requires an additional plastic hinge in the collapse mechanism. A plastic hinge on the beam is
shown by a solid circle. A simply supported beam requires only one plastic hinge whereas a
beam with built-in ends will require three plastic hinges, that is if there is only one point load
acting on the beam. See Figs. 5.11, 5.12 and 5.13.
W
2L/3
L/3
B
y
Figure 5.11: Simply Supported Beam
W
2L/3
L/3
Figure 5.12: Simply Supported and Fixed
W
2L/3
L/3
Figure 5.13: Fixed on both ends
In general, plastic hinges form where the bending moment is a maximum, which excludes
built-in supports and sections with zero shear force. The location is usually obvious for beams
subjected to concentrated loads. With statically indeterminate beams carrying distributed loads,
the task tends to become difficult. Sometimes there is more than one collapse mechanism in
Inelastic Bending
58
which case we must compute the collapse load for each mechanism and choose the smallest
collapse load as the actual limiting load.
The principle of Virtual Work
Virtual Displacement
Definition 5.4.1 Virtual Work: states that for a structure that is in equilibrium and that is
given a small virtual displacement, the sum of the work done by the internal forces is equal to
the work done by the external force.
Virtual displacement either linear or rotational is an imaginary or hypothetical displacement
given to a mechanism or a structure and has no relation to the actual displacements produced by
the real loads. The work done by the real loads acting through a virtual displacement is called
virtual work. If a structure or mechanism is to remain in equilibrium the work-done by the actual
loads acting through a virtual displacement must be zero. See more explanation in Examples, Eg.
5.3 and 5.4.
Virtual work method on Plastic Hinges
Let us consider the following simply supported loaded beam in Fig. 5.14 Let AB have a virtual
W
L/2
L/2
5.4.2
Figure 5.14: Simply Supported Beam-Collapse Mechanism
rotation of radians producing a virtual linear displacement of L/2 at B through which it acts.
The bending moment at B MP , just before a plastic hinge is formed is considered to be negative
since it opposes the work done by Wc which is the collapse load. This energy is then dissipated
through till a plastic hinge is formed. So in simple terms,
Work done by the load = Energy dissipated
59
L
= 2MP
2
4MP
4 f MY
Wc =
=
OR
L
L
Wc L
MP =
4
Wc
Example 5.3 The simply supported beam ABC shown in Fig. 5.15 has a cantilever overhang
and supports two loads 4W and W . Determine the value of W at collapse in terms of the plastic
moment, MP , of the beam.

W
4W
x
L/2
X
L/2
L/2
Figure 5.15: Simply Supported Beam with an overhang
Solution 5.3 Referring to Fig. 5.16 We start by taking moments about B, and we don this as
follows:
0 = RA L 4W
L WL
+
2
2
3W
2

L
3W x
4W x
Mxx =
2
2
RA =
At x = L/2 we have MD = 3W L/4 and at x = L we have MB = W L/2. This means that the
moment that will cause collapse is MP = MD = 3Wu L/4 because it is lowest of the two moments.
The bending moment diagram for the beam has been constructed. Clearly as W is increased, a
plastic hinge will form first at D, the point of application of the load 4W . Thus at collapse
3Wu L
4
4MP
Wu =
3L
MP =
where Wu is the value of W that will cause collapse.

The formation of a plastic hinge in a statically determinate beam produces large, increasing
deformation which ultimate result in failure with no increase in load. In this condition the beam
behaves as a mechanism with different lengths of beam rotating relative to each other about the
plastic hinge.
In a statically indeterminate system the formation of a single plastic hinge doesnt necessarily
mean collapse. We can demonstrate this by an example, in which a propped cantilever beam is
shown in example 5.4. The bending moment diagram may be drawn after the reaction at C has
been determined.
Inelastic Bending
60
WL
2
3W L
4
Figure 5.16: Bending Moment Diagram
Example 5.4 A propped cantilever beam shown in Figure 5.17 is loaded at mid-point with a
point load W . Determine the load that will cause the collapse.
L/2
L/2
Figure 5.17: Propped Cantilever with W
Solution 5.4 Using the virtual work method, let us refer to Fig. 5.18,
Wu y = MP ( ) + MP (2 )
Wu L
= 3MP
2
6MP
Wu =
L
As the value of W is increased a plastic hinge will form first at A where the bending moment
is greatest. This doesnt mean that the beam will collapse. Instead, it behaves as a statically
determinate beam with a point load at B and a moment MP at A. Further increases in W will
eventually result in the formation of a second plastic hinge at B when the bending moment B
reaches the value of MP . The beam now behaves as a mechanism and failure occurs with no
further increase in the load.
The elastic bending moment diagram has a maximum at point A. After the formation of
the plastic hinge at A, the bending moment remains constant while the bending moment at B
61
2
Figure 5.18: Virtual Work Method-Propped Cantilever
increases until the second plastic hinge forms. This distribution of moments tends to increase the
ultimate strength of statically indeterminate structures since failure at one section leads to other
portions of the structure supporting additional load.
It must be noted that in this example, it is unnecessary to determine the elastic bending
moment diagram to solve for the ultimate load which we obtained by using virtual work method.
Plastic hinges forms at beam sections where the bending moment diagram attains a peak value.
It then follows that for beams carrying a series of point loads, plastic hinges are located at the
load positions. This will be shown by a figure and subsequent figures showing mechanisms. A
propped cantilever that supports two point loads is shown in Fig. 5.19 below. Three possible
mechanisms (see Figs. 5.20, 5.21 and 5.22) are possible and each possible mechanism should be
analysed and the lowest ultimate load gets selected.
W1
L1
W2
L3
L2
Figure 5.19: Propped Cantilever with a series of loads
y1
y2
Figure 5.20: Possible Mechanism No. 1
Inelastic Bending
62
y2
y1
y1
Example 5.5 A propped cantilever beam of Fig. 5.4 is 10m long and is required to carry a
load of 100kN at mid-span. If the yield stress of mild steel is 300MPa, suggest a suitable section
using a load factor against failure of 1.5.
Solution 5.5 The required ultimate load of the beam is 1.5 100 = 150kN. The required plastic
moment, MP is calculated as follows

MP =
Wu L
= 250kN
6
The minimum plastic modulus of the beam section is

ZP =
MP
= 833, 300 mm3
Y
A universal beam 406 140 46kg/m is found to have a plastic modulus of 886.3cm3 > This
section therefore possesses the required ultimate strength and includes a margin to allow for its
self-weight. Note that unless some allowance has been made for self-weight in the estimate of
the working loads, the design should be rechecked to include this effect.
Example 5.6 Determine the force P required to maintain equilibrium on the following lever.
Solution 5.6 Let be a small virtual rotational displacement. Then will be a linear
displacement of A and 3 a linear displacement of B. The work done by real loads through these
displacements must be zero
0 = 400 3 P
P = 1200N
Example 5.7 The beam shown in the figure below, Fig. # is pin-jointed at point C. Determine
the value of P for equilibrium.
63
400N
1m
3m
Figure 5.23: Equilibrium-Lever
Solution 5.7 Let y be a virtual displacement at C. Then
0.5
1
and yE = y
4
0.8
0 = PyB 60yE
y
0.5y
0 = P 60
4
0.8
P = 150N
yB = y
Example 5.8 A double symmetric hollow box shown below in Fig. 5.24 has a yield stress
Y = 220MPa. It is subjected to a bending moment M of such magnitude that the flanges

yield but the webs remain linearly elastic. Determine the magnitude of the moment M if the
dimensions of the cross section are B = 150mm, b = 130mm, H = 200mm and h = 160mm.
B
Figure 5.24: Box Section
Solution 5.8 #
Example 5.9 A rectangular steel beam 120mm by 60mm is simply supported at its ends 2m
apart, and supports a central point load. If the 120mm side is vertical and the yield stress for the
material is 260MPa, determine:
Inelastic Bending
64
1.
2.
3.
4.
the load when yielding first occurs

the load which will cause yielding to a depth of 30mm
the length of the beam over which yielding had occurred
the load required to produce a plastic hinge
P
L
Figure 5.25: Cantilever Beam with a point load
Solution 5.9 The solution for this problem can actually be summed up by a diagram.
MP = Py = PL
MP
Pu =
L
Figure 5.26: Cantilever Beam with a point load-Solution
Example 5.10 A cantilever of a rectangular section 100mm by 50mm is mounted with the
100mm side vertical and supports a U.D.L of 12kN/m over its entire length. Determine the
maximum length for this cantilever before collapse occurs, if the yield stress for the material is
270MPa. For what length would yielding have occurred?
Solution 5.10 #
Example 5.11 #
Solution 5.11 #
5.5 Solid Shaft

Example 5.12 #
65
Solution 5.12 #
Example 5.13
Solution 5.13 #
Example 5.14 #
Solution 5.14 #
5.5
Solid Shaft
Let us consider a solid shaft shown in Fig. 5.27. Let us recap on the equations that are useful in
this section:
J=
d 4
32
(5.4)
J d 3
=
(5.5)
r
16
When the torque is applied in the elastic core, the shear stress reaches Y , then we will have
T=
TE =
dE3
Y
16
(5.6)
When the torque is beyond TE then plasticity will result and we will use the following equation
to calculate the plastic torque
TP =

Y 3
d dE3
12
(5.7)
The above was obtained as follows:

TP =
Z r
RE
r2 Y dr

2Y 3
r rE3 but note that: r = d/2
3

2Y d 3 dE3
=
3
8
8

Y 3
d dE3
=
12
=
The total torque is obtained by adding the elastic and plastic torques together

dE3
Y 3
Y +
d dE3
16
12
3
Y d
Y dE3
=
12
48
Y
d3
=
d3 E
12
4
T=
For a fully plastic condition, dE = 0 and the equation simplifies to

TFP =
Y d 3
12
(5.8)
Inelastic Bending
66
dE
d
Figure 5.27: Solid Shaft
The shape factor is obtained the same way we did with other cross-sections, which is simply a
ratio of the two torques
TFP 16Y d 3
=
TE
12Y d 3
4
=
3
f=
Example 5.15 A Steel shaft of = 100mm, 1m long is under 30kNm torque in the elastic
core. Determine the diameter of the elastic core of the shaft and the angle of twis. What is the
value of the fully plastic torque of the shaft. Given: Y = 120MPa and G = 80GPa

Solution 5.15 Let us start by determining the easiest part which is the diameter of the elastic
core

dE3
Y
3
d
T=
12
4

30, 000 12
3
3
dE = 4
0.1
(120 106 )
dE3 = 180.281 104
dE = 56.49mm
5.6 Hollow shaft
67
The polar moment of intertia

d 4
32
0.1
= 9.817 106 m4
=
32
J=
The elastic torque is therefore

Y dE3
16
(0.05649)3 (120 106 )
=
16
= 4, 247Nm
TE =
The plastic torque is determined as follows:

Y 3
d dE3
TP =
12
(120 106 )(0.13 0.056493 )
=
12
= 25, 753Nm
The total torque can be confirmed as follows
T = TE + TP
= 4, 247 + 25, 753
= 30, 000Nm
The fully plastic torque can be determined as follows:
Y d 3
12
(120 106 )(0.1)3
=
12
= 31, 416Nm
TFP =
How do we then determine the angle of twist? Its very easy
G
TL
=
JG
=
30, 000 1
(9.817 106 )(80 109 )
= 0.0382 rad
5.6
Hollow shaft
Let us consider a hollow shaft with an internal radius R1 and external radius R subjected to a
torque large enough to produce yielding to a radius R2 , see Fig. 5.28. Now if we ignore the
central hole

Y
T=
4R3 R32
(5.9)
6
Inelastic Bending
68
R1
R2
R
Figure 5.28: Hollow Shaft
Consider now an imaginary shaft of radius R1 . Now, the torque on it will be

T=
R31
2
(5.10)
From the law of triangles
Y
=
R1 R2
R1
= Y
R2
Therefore the torque on the imaginary shaft is given by
R31 R1
Y
2
R2
R41
=
Y
2R2
T=
T=
R41
Y
2R2
(5.11)
5.7 Exercises
69
Now, the partially plastic torque can be determined as follows

R4
Y
4R3 R32 1 Y
6
2R2

Y
3
4
=
4R R2 R2 3R41
6R2
TPP =
TPP =

Y
4R3 R2 R42 3R41
6R2
(5.12)
The fully plastic torque occurs when R2 = R1 , i.e.,

Y
4R3 R1 4R41
6

Y
=
4R3 4R31
6

2Y 3
R R31
=
3
TFP =
TFP =

2Y 3
R R31
3
(5.13)
Tips when Working with Shafts
Description
Total Torque
Torque in Elastic core
Torque in Plastic condition
Deflection Curve
Formula to Use
T=
Y d 3
3
dE
4
12
Y dE3
16
Y (d 3 dE3 )
TP =
12
dv(x)
(x)
=
v
dx
TE =
v(x)
Table 5.2: Tips when Working with Shafts
5.7
Exercises
Exercise 5.1 Determine the plastic moment and shape factor of a beam of solid circular
cross-section having a radius r and yield stress Y .
Exercise 5.2 Determine the plastic moment and shape factor for a thin-walled box girder
whose cross-section has a breadth b and depth d and a constant wall thickness t. Calculate
the shape factor f for b = 200mm and h = 300mm

Exercise 5.3 A beam having the cross section shown below is fabricated from mild steel
which has a yield stress of 300MPa. Determine the plastic moment of the section and its
shape factor. The cross-section has a common thickness of 15mm.
Inelastic Bending
70
300mm
75mm
250mm
Exercise 5.4 A cantilever beam of length 6m has an additional support at a distance of 2m
from its free end as shown in the figure below. Determine the minimum value of W at which
collapse occurs if the section of the beam is identical to the section above. State clearly the
form of the collapse mechanism corresponding to this ultimate load.
2W
2m
2m
2m
Exercise 5.5 A beam of length L is rigidly built-in t each end and carries a uniformly
distributed load of intensity w along its complete span. Determine the ultimate strength of the
beam in terms of the plastic moment, MP , of its cross- section.

Exercise 5.6 A simply supported beam has a cantilever overhang and supports loads as
shown below. Determine the collapse load of the beam, stating the position of the corresponding plastic hinge.
5.7 Exercises
71
2W
W
L/3
L/3
L/3
L/2
Exercise 5.7 Determine the ultimate strength of the propped cantilever shown below and
specify the corresponding collapse mechanism.

W
L/3
L/3
L/3
Exercise 5.8 A beam shown below has a length L = 3m, a load factor, L.F = 2, shape factor,
f = 1.16, elastic section modulus, ZE = 270.3 106 m3 and the yield stress of the material
is Y = 310MPa. N.B: MP = ZP Y .
1. Calculate the maximum value of the ultimate load responsible for collapse of the beam.
2. Calculate the maximum bending stress induced in the beam.
W
L/3
2L/3
Exercise 5.9 A T-section shown below is constructed as a cantilever beam of length 2m. The
yield stress, Y = 300MPa. Determine:

a) The position of the neutral axis if yielding is permitted over the lower part of the web
to a depth of 25mm.
b) The moment of resistance of the section if the plastic penetration is 25mm.
Inelastic Bending
72
c) The uniformly distributed load over the whole span that will cause a plastic penetration
of 25mm.
Exercise 5.10 For the beam shown in the figure below, determine the mode of collapse and
the value of the collapse load.

1m
3m
3m
Exercise 5.11 The two beams shown below both have a shape factor, f = 1.5, yield stress,
Y = 200MPa but different cross sections. The Beam AC has a rectangular cross-section
75mm 40mm with 75mm lying vertically while beam CD has a rectangular cross-section
100mm 60mm with 75mm lying vertically. Hint:
MP = f ME = f Y ZP = f Y
bd 2
6
Determine the value of the load Wu that will cause collapse of the beam
W
1m
C
2m
3m
Exercise 5.12 A mild steel coupling in a metal working process has a diameter of 40mm
and length L = 250mm. It is subjected to a torque of 1800Nm which is known to have caused
shear yielding in the shaft. Y = 120MPa and G = 80GPa

Exercise 5.13 A beam is fixed at both ends and loaded with a point load at B. The shape
factor is 1.18 and the load factor is 2.2. If the yield stress is 300MPa and ZE = 305 106 m4 ,
determine the permissible load as well as the maximum stress.
5.7 Exercises
73
Exercise 5.14 #
Exercise 5.15 #
Exercise 5.16 #
Bibliography
[1] D.L. Logan, "A First Course in Finite Element Method, 4th Ed.
[2] P. P. Chandrupatla and R. J. Belegundu, "Introduction to Finite Elements in engineering,
4th , Pearson-Prentice Hall."
[3] M.J. Fagan, "Finite Element Analysis, Theory and practice,Pearson-Prentice Hall."
[4] J. Drotsky, "Strength of Materials for Technologists, Self-published."
[5] P.P. Benham, et.al, "Mechanics of Engineering Materials, Prentice Hall."

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Strength of Materials

c 2013 Mashilo Nkgoeng

Second Order Method for Beam Deflections

Double Integration Using Bracket Functions

Strain Energy of Bars

Castiglianos theorem applied to Curved Beams

Castiglianos theorem applied to Beams

Cantilever beam with a Point Load at the free end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Unsymmetrical Bending of Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Symmetric Member in Pure Bending

Alternative procedure for stress determination

Plastic Bending of Rectangular Beams

Plastic Bending of Symmetrical (I-Section) Beam

Partially plastic Bending of Unsymmetrical Sections

of Materials by Gere and Goodno

Assumption of Classical Beam Theory

Stresses, strains and bending moments

Table 1.1: Notation

Second Order Method for Beam Deflections

Double Integration Using Bracket Functions

2. Integrate once treating the square bracket as the variable.

3. Integrate again using the same rules.

4. Use boundary conditions to solve constants C1 and C2 .

is negative; otherwise, it is evaluated as written. A bracket function can be integrated by the

Solution 1.1 Still to be done

Solution 1.2 Still to be done

Solution 1.3 Still to be done

Figure 1.5: Cantilever with VDL

The moment about X X is as follows:

The kinematic boundary conditions are v (L) = 0 and v(L) = 0

Example 1.5 For a given beam shown below:

1. derive the equation of the elastic curve

Solution 1.5 The reactions are found to be RA =

Solution 1.6 The solution will include the following:

The boundary conditions are as follows:

From the above we find that the reaction at A is

The resulting two equations were:

For the U.D.L we will use the following equations:

The total deflection and slope are y = 1.54mm and

= 560 106 rad

slope and deflection in the middle of the beam.

Figure 1.9: SS Beam with Point Load loads

The bending moment equation is as follows:

We are now able to write the required expressions as

Figure 1.10: SS Beam with UDL and Point Load

linearly from zero to q0 .

variably distributed loaded. EI = 10MNm2

support of the beam shown below. EI = 10MNm2

shown below. EI = 10MNm2

shown below. EI = 10MNm2

hinged at A and simply supported on a non-yielding support at C. The beam is subjected to

supports. These beams are statically indeterminate.

A highway bridge shown in Fig. 2.1 is a clear example of a continuous beam

Figure 2.1: A continuous beam acting as a highway bridge

Uniformly Distributed Load

Solution 2.1 Still to be done

Solution 2.2 Still to be done

Example 2.5 Still to be done

Solution 2.5 Still to be done