Family Acceptance in Adolescence and the Health

of LGBT Young Adults

jcap_246

205..213

Caitlin Ryan, PhD, ACSW, Stephen T. Russell, PhD, David Huebner, PhD, MPH, Rafael Diaz, PhD, MSW,
and Jorge Sanchez, BA

The role of family acceptance as a

protective factor for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and
transgender (LGBT) adolescents and young
adults has not been established.
METHODS: A quantitative measure with items
derived from prior qualitative work
retrospectively assessed family accepting
behaviors in response to LGBT adolescents
sexual orientation and gender expression and
their relationship to mental health, substance
abuse, and sexual risk in young adults
(N = 245).
FINDINGS: Family acceptance predicts greater
self-esteem, social support, and general health
status; it also protects against depression,
substance abuse, and suicidal ideation and
behaviors.
CONCLUSIONS: Family acceptance of LGBT
adolescents is associated with positive young
adult mental and physical health. Interventions
that promote parental and caregiver acceptance
of LGBT adolescents are needed to reduce health
disparities.
Search terms: Gender identity, homosexuality,
LGBT adolescent, protective factors, sexual
orientation, transgender
ISSUE:

doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6171.2010.00246.x
2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, Volume 23,
Number 4, pp. 205213
JCAPN Volume 23, Number 4, November, 2010

Caitlin Ryan, PhD, ACSW, is Director, Family

Acceptance Project and Distinguished Adjunct Professor,
Marian Wright Edelman Institute, San Francisco State
University; Stephen T. Russell, PhD, is Fitch Nesbitt
Endowed Chair and Director, Frances McClelland
Institute, University of Arizona; David Huebner, PhD,
MPH, is Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of
Utah; Rafael Diaz, PhD, MSW, is Professor of Ethnic
Studies, San Francisco State University; Jorge Sanchez,
BA, is Project Coordinator, Family Acceptance Project,
San Francisco State University, USA.

xtensive research has focused on the nurturing and protective role of families, in general, and connections to family
have been shown to be protective against major health risk
behaviors (e.g., Resnick et al., 1997). Although family relationships are understood to be a primary context for adolescent development, only a small number of studies have
focused on the role of parentadolescent relationships for
lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) youth and young adults.
Literature addressing the family relationships for transgender adolescents and young people is miniscule. Given the
crucial role of parents in promoting adolescent well-being, it
is surprising that so little attention has focused on the parenting of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) adolescents. Most existing research has focused on negativity in the
relationships between LGB youth and their parents; no
known research has considered the possible developmental
benefits of family acceptance and supportive behaviors
for LGBT youth. One study has assessed the relationship
between LGB young adults perceived family support
(e.g., general closeness, warmth, and enjoying time together)
and depression, substance use, and suicidality (Needham &
Austin, 2010).
The lack of literature on family support is particularly
surprising because LGB youth and adults (Cochran, Sullivan,
& Mays, 2003; DAugelli, 2002; Meyer, 2003) and youth with
same-gender attractions (Russell & Joyner, 2001) are known
to be at risk for compromised physical and emotional health.
Research over the past decade has begun to trace the origins
of health disparities associated with sexual identity; these
studies have focused largely on the role of victimization and
negative peer relationships during adolescence and associated health risks in adolescence and young adulthood
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Family Acceptance in Adolescence and the Health of LGBT Young Adults

(Diamond & Lucas, 2004; Lasser & Tharinger, 2003; Russell,

2005; Russell, Seif, & Truong, 2001; Ryan & Rivers, 2003; van
Wormer & McKinney, 2003).
Studies show that LGB adolescents relationships with
their parents are often challenged, particularly around
the time of disclosure of sexual identity or coming out
(DAugelli, Grossman, & Starks, 2005; Patterson, 2000;
Savin-Williams, 1998a, 1998b; Savin-Williams & Dub, 1998;
Tharinger & Wells, 2000) or when parents learn that their
children are LGBT. Researchers in one study (Rosario,
Schrimshaw, & Hunter, 2009) examined substance use
among LGB youth and asked youth whether they perceived
reactions to their LGB identity from a range of people
(including family members, coaches, teachers, therapists,
neighbors, and friends) to be accepting, neutral, or rejecting.
The number of perceived rejecting reactions were reported to
predict substance use; although accepting reactions did not
directly reduce substance use, such reactions buffered the
link between rejections and substance use.
Another recent study assessed the relationship between
family rejection in adolescence and the health of LGB young
adults (Ryan, Huebner, Diaz, & Sanchez, 2009). That study
showed clear associations between parental rejecting behaviors during adolescence and the use of illegal drugs, depression, attempted suicide, and sexual health risk by LGB young
adults. Prior research clearly points to the role of family rejection in predicting health and mental health problems among
LGB adolescents and adults, yet at the same time, while it is
known that initial parental reactions to the disclosure of LGB
identity may be negativesometimes including ejection from
the homeresearch has also shown that after parents become
sensitized to the needs and well-being of their LGB children,
many family relationships improve (DAugelli et al., 2005).
Reports about researchers who study family reactions to
their childrens LGBT identity indicate that parental acceptance and rejection are different constructs (e.g., Perrin et al.,
2004); thus, accepting and rejecting behaviors can co-occur as
families adjust to learning about their childs LGBT identity.
Nevertheless, the focus of prior research has been largely
on compromised parentadolescent relationships for LGB
young people. Yet given the changes in public visibility and
attitudes about LGBT people and issues over the course of
past decades (Savin-Williams, 2005), some families react to
learning about their childs LGBT identity with acceptance
(Ryan, 2009a).
Further, given the links between parental rejection and
negative health outcomes (Ryan et al., 2009), we expect that
affirmation or acceptance of LGBT adolescents will be associated with positive adjustment and decreased mental health
and behavioral health risks in young adulthood: higher selfesteem, increased social support, and better general health
status, along with decreased depression, substance abuse,
sexual risk behavior, suicidal ideation, and behaviors.
206

This article presents findings related to family acceptance

from the Family Acceptance Project (FAP), a research and
intervention initiative to study the influence of family reactions on the health and mental health of LGBT adolescents
and young adults. To our knowledge, no prior studies have
examined the relationship between specific family reactions
to their childrens sexual orientation and gender expression
with health and mental health status in emerging adulthood.

Methods
Sampling and Procedures
This study used a participatory research approach that
was advised at all stages by individuals who will use and
apply the findingsLGBT adolescents, young adults, and
familiesas well as health and mental health providers,
teachers, social workers, and advocates. Providers, youth,
and family members provided guidance on all aspects of the
research, including methods, recruitment, instrumentation,
analysis, coding, materials development, and dissemination
and application of findings. This type of participatory
research has been shown to increase the representativeness
and cultural competence of sampling and research strategies
(Viswanathan et al., 2004).
We recruited a sample of 245 LGBT Latino and non-Latino
white young adults from 249 LGBT venues within a 100-mile
radius of our office. Half of the sites were community, social,
and recreational agencies and organizations that serve LGBT
young adults, and half were from clubs and bars serving this
group. Bilingual recruiters (English and Spanish) conducted
venue-based recruitment from bars and clubs and contacted
program directors at each agency to access all young adults
who use their services.
Preliminary screening procedures were used to select participants who matched the study criteria. Inclusion criteria
were age (2125), self-identified ethnicity (non-Latino white,
Latino, or Latino mixed), self-identification as LGBT, homosexual, or nonheterosexual (e.g., queer) during adolescence,
knowledge of their LGBT identity by at least one parent or
guardian during adolescence, and having lived with at least
one parent or guardian during adolescence at least part of the
time. The survey was available in computer-assisted and
pencil and paper formats. The study protocol was approved
by the universitys IRB.

Measures
Family Acceptance

The measure of family acceptance was developed based

on individual in-depth interviews of 24 hr each with 53
socioeconomically diverse Latino and non-Latino white
self-identified LGBT adolescents and their families in urban,
JCAPN Volume 23, Number 4, November, 2010

suburban, and rural communities across California. Interviews were conducted in English and Spanish, audio-taped,
translated, and transcribed. Each participant provided narrative descriptions of family interaction and experiences
related to gender identity and expression, sexual orientation,
cultural and religious beliefs, family, school and community
life, and sources of support and described instances or
examples of times when parents, foster parents, caregivers,
and guardians had shown acceptance and support of the
adolescents LGBT identity.
From these transcripts, a list of 55 positive family experiences (comments, behaviors, and interactions) was generated.
We created 55 close-ended items that assessed the presence
and frequency of each accepting parental or caregiver reaction
to participants sexual orientation and gender expression
when they were teenagers (ages 1319). At least three closeended items were generated for each type of outwardly
observable accepting reaction documented in the transcripts.
Additional information on constructing and scoring the
items is included in a previous article (Ryan et al., 2009).
Participants indicated the frequency with which they
experienced each positive reaction using a 4-point scale
(0 = never, 3 = many times). Reliability analyses indicate
high consistency in participants responses across items
(Cronbachs a = 0.88). Family acceptance scale scores were
calculated as the sum of whether each event occurred
(dichotomized as never versus ever). For example, survey
items include:
How often did any of your parents/caregivers talk openly
about your sexual orientation?
How often were your openly LGBT friends invited to join
family activities?
How often did any of your parents/caregivers bring you
to an LGBT youth organization or event?
How often did any of your parents/caregivers appreciate
your clothing or hairstyle, even though it might not have
been typical for your gender?
In addition to this scale, we calculated a categorical indicator of family acceptance, dividing the distribution into
even thirds. The measure is used to illustrate differences
between adolescents who reported low (n = 81, range = 015,
mean = 7.13), moderate (n = 83, range = 1630, mean = 22.60),
or high (n = 81, range = 3155, mean = 42.00) levels of family
acceptance.

Demographic Measures

The measure of sexual identity includes categories for

those who self-identified as gay/lesbian, bisexual, or other
sexual identity (including homosexual or other). We also
included measures of immigrant status (1 = born outside the
United States, 0 = born in the United States), childhood reli-

JCAPN Volume 23, Number 4, November, 2010

gious affiliation (1 = any religious affiliation, 0 = no religious

affiliation), and childhood family religiosity (How religious
or spiritual was your family while you were growing up?
0 = not at all; 3 = extremely). Parents occupational status was
measured by coding written responses for the primary
occupation of each parent or caregiver (1 = unskilled manual
labor, 2 = semiskilled labor, 3 = skilled labor, 4 = professional)
and multiplying the score for mothers and fathers (in the
small number of cases with missing data, the mean maternal
or paternal occupation code was used to calculate the total
parental occupation status score).

Young Adult Adjustment and Health

We report on three indicators of positive adjustment and

health, and five negative indicators. The indicators of positive
adjustment include the 10-item Rosenberg (1965) self-esteem
scale. Social support was based on the average of 12 items,
including: There is a special person who is around when
I am in need, I get the emotional help and support I need
from my family, My friends really try to help me (1 =
strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree; Cronbachs a = 0.89).
General health is assessed with one item: How is your
health in general? (1 = poor; 5 = excellent).
We assessed negative health outcomes with five measures. For depression we used the 20-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale, originally developed to
measure somatic and affective symptoms of depression in
community samples of adults (Radloff, 1977). Substance abuse
was measured as the sum of four items that asked about
substance use problems: [I]n the past five years: . . . have
you had problems with the law because of your alcohol or
drug use? . . . have you lost a job because of your alcohol
or drug use? . . . have you passed out or lost consciousness
because of your alcohol or drug use? . . . have you had
conflicts with family, lovers, or friends because of your
alcohol or drug use? (0 = no; 1 = somewhat yes/yes). Sexual
behavior risk was defined as reporting any unprotected anal or
vaginal intercourse within the past 6 months with a casual
partner or a steady partner who was nonmonogamous or
serodiscordant for HIV (0 = no; 1 = yes). Suicidal thoughts
or behaviors were measured as follows: During the past
six months did you have any thoughts of ending your life?
(0 = no; 1 = yes); Have you ever, at any point in your life,
attempted to take your own life? (0 = no; 1 = yes).

Analysis
We first examined the associations between our measure
of family acceptance and the background characteristics
of study participants. For the health outcome measures we
present average scores for the three categories of family
acceptance (to test for statistical differences across groups
using one-way ANOVA); for categorical measures we present
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Family Acceptance in Adolescence and the Health of LGBT Young Adults

lies reported low religiosity compared with the high religiosity among low accepting families. Finally, we find evidence
of a link between social class and family acceptance such that
highly accepting families had higher parental occupational
status compared with those that scored low on acceptance
(statistical analyses available from authors on request).
Associations between young adult health and the three
levels of family acceptance are presented in Table 1. There are
clear links between family acceptance in adolescence and
health status in young adulthood. Young adults who reported
high levels of family acceptance scored higher on all three
measures of positive adjustment and health: self-esteem,
social support, and general health. For the measures of negative health outcomes, young adults who reported low levels
of family acceptance had scores that were significantly worse
for depression, substance abuse, and suicidal ideation and
attempts. Half as many participants from highly accepting
families reported suicidal thoughts in the past 6 months compared with those who reported low acceptance (18.5% versus
38.3%). Similarly, the prevalence of suicide attempts among
participants who reported high levels of family acceptance
was nearly half (30.9% versus 56.8%) the rate of those who
reported family acceptance. Sexual risk behavior was the
only young adult health indicator for which there was no
strong association with family acceptance in adolescence; this
outcome was not examined in subsequent analyses.
The final analyses examined the degree to which associations between family acceptance and young adult well-being
were independent of the background characteristics of study
participants. Regression results are presented in Table 2.
For all health outcomes, the link between family acceptance
and young adult health is present regardless of background
characteristics. Table 2 shows that, consistent with prior
research on gay and lesbian youth and young adults, and in
contrast to studies of heterosexual women and men, females
reported higher self-esteem and social support and lower

proportions of the sample in each of the family acceptance

categories (differences tested with chi-square). Finally, we
use ordinary least squares and logistic regression analyses
to test the degree to which family acceptance predicts
young adult health outcomes, controlling for background
characteristics.

Results
Scores on family acceptance range from lowest to highest
possible: 055. The average score is 23.9, with a standard
deviation of 15.2. The distribution is remarkably flat (the
skewness is 0.25 and Kurtosis is -0.98): The participants in
this study included a wide range of family accepting experiences during adolescence.
The sample included roughly equal numbers of young
adults who self-identified as male and female; 9% of the
sample identified as transgender. Seventy percent identified
as gay or lesbian (42% gay; 28% lesbian), 13% identified as
bisexual, and 17% reported an alternative sexual identity
(among these, 35 participants wrote in queer). There were
no statistical differences in the average levels of family acceptance based on sexual identity (gay/lesbian, bisexual, versus
other sexual orientation), gender (male versus female), or
transgender identity.
The sample was evenly divided between Latino and nonLatino white participants; 19% were born outside the United
States. Whites reported higher average levels of family acceptance. Immigrant status was strongly associated with family
acceptance: Those born in the United States reported higher
family acceptance compared with immigrants. Childhood
religious affiliation was linked to family acceptance; participants who reported a childhood religious affiliation reported
lower family acceptance compared with those with no religious affiliation in childhood. Childhood family religiosity
was also linked to family acceptance; highly accepting fami-

Table 1. Family Acceptance as Predictors of Health Outcomes

Outcome variable

Family acceptance categories

Self-esteem
Social support
General health
Depression (CES-D)
Substance abuse (past 5 years)
Sexual behavior risk (past 6 months)
Suicidal thoughts (past 6 mos.)
Suicide attempts (lifetime)

Low acceptance
2.62
3.26
3.35
20.10
1.46
35.8%
38.3%
56.8%

Between-group
difference

Moderate acceptance
2.83
3.78
3.55
16.48
1.10
37.4%
22.9%
36.1%

High acceptance
2.95
4.10
3.96
10.37
.85
28.4%
18.5%
30.9%

F/c2 (df = 2)
F = 17.10***
F = 19.90***
F = 8.96**
F = 15.93***
F = 4.81**
c2 = 1.67
c2 = 8.96*
c2 = 12.57**

*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

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JCAPN Volume 23, Number 4, November, 2010

Table 2. Family Acceptance and Health Outcomes Controlling for Background Characteristics. OLS Regression,
Standardized Estimates
Self-esteem
Family acceptance
Background characteristics:
Bisexual
Other sexual identity (reference group: gay/lesbian)
Female
Transgender (reference group: male)
White (reference group: Latino
Immigrant (reference group: U.S. born)
Parents occupation status
Childhood religious affiliation (reference group:
no affiliation)
Childhood family religiosity
Adjusted R2

0.33***

Social
support

General
health

0.44***

0.21***

Depression

Substance
abuse

-0.29***

-0.19**

-0.07
-0.06
0.17**
0.05
-0.17*
-0.07
0.08
-0.03

0.11
0.08
0.06*
-0.13+
-0.08
-0.06
0.20**
0.15

0.11+
-0.10
0.02
-0.22**
0.01
-0.04
0.17**
-0.08

-0.10+
-0.01
-0.10
0.08
0.10
0.10
-0.11+
0.00

0.04
0.10
-0.19**
-0.04
-0.01
-0.07
-0.07
-0.04

-0.08
0.16

-0.09*
0.30

0.05
0.17

0.04
0.14

0.08
0.06

+p < .10; *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

Table 3. Family Acceptance and Young Adult Health Outcomes Controlling for Background Characteristics. Logistic
Regression, Odds Ratios (95% Confidence Interval)

Family acceptance
Background characteristics:
Bisexual
Other sexual identity (reference group: gay/lesbian)
Female
Transgender (reference group: male)
White (reference group: Latino)
Immigrant (reference group: U.S. born)
Parents occupation status
Childhood religious affiliation (reference group: no affiliation)
Childhood family religiosity

Suicidal ideation
(past 6 months)

Suicide attempts
(ever)

0.98 (0.950.99)*

0.97 (0.950.98)**

1.12 (.442.81)
1.06 (.422.63)
0.60 (0.321.10)+
1.42 (0.484.22)
1.25 (0.612.54)
1.52 (0.693.33)
0.97 (0.901.04)
0.91 (0.382.14)
1.18 (0.831.70)

0.74 (0.311.78)
2.36 (0.995.58)+
0.52 (0.290.92)*
0.73 (0.252.14)
1.39 (0.732.67)
1.01 (1.012.19)
0.91 (0.850.97)**
0.81 (0.371.77)
1.17 (0.831.66)

+p < .10; *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

substance abuse. Transgender respondents reported lower

social support and general health; however, there were no
differences in their reports of self-esteem, depression, and
substance abuse. Bisexuals reported slightly better general
health and less depression. White respondents reported
lower self-esteem than Latinos. Family socioeconomic status
was associated with general health scores; it was also associated with higher social support and less depression.
It is noteworthy that family religious affiliation, although
linked to lower family acceptance, was positively associated
with young adult social support. Follow-up analyses showed
that the association between childhood religious affiliation
and social support was not significant; thus, childhood reliJCAPN Volume 23, Number 4, November, 2010

gious affiliation is positively linked to social support in young

adulthood after accounting for family acceptance. Religious
affiliation in adolescence is known to be a factor that promotes
well-being; these results indicate that this association is consistent for LGBT young adults only after differences between
low and high family acceptance are taken into account.
Logistic regression results for the two dichotomous health
outcomes (suicidal ideation and attempts) are presented in
Table 3; results are interpreted as odds ratios, for which a
number greater than one is interpreted as higher odds of the
risk outcome, and a number lower than one represents lower
odds. Table 3 shows that family acceptance is associated with
reduced odds of suicidal ideation and attempts. The odds
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Family Acceptance in Adolescence and the Health of LGBT Young Adults

ratios are deceptively small (suicidal thoughts: 0.98; suicide

attempts: 0.97) given the 50-point range of the measure of
family acceptance. To illustrate this point, we calculated the
odds ratios for suicidal ideation and attempts for those who
report low or no family acceptance compared with medium
or high. Participants who had low family acceptance as adolescents were more than three times as likely to report both
suicidal ideation and suicide attempts compared with those
who reported high levels of family acceptance. Consistent
with the results for depression, females are less likely than
males to report suicidal ideation or attempts. Finally, for
suicide attempts, family socioeconomic status was protective,
but identifying as queer rather than as lesbian, gay, or
bisexual was a strong risk factor.

Discussion
Until now, most thinking about LGBT adolescents and
families has focused on negative parentadolescent relationships or family rejection; our study is unique in pointing
out the lasting, dramatically protective influence of specific
family accepting behaviors related to an adolescents LGBT
identity on the health of LGBT young adults. These results
show clear associations even after accounting for individual
and background characteristics.
First, based on a sample of self-identified LGBT young
adults, our results indicate that family acceptance did not
vary based on gender, sexual identity, or transgender identity. Specifically, it does not appear that families are more
accepting of female than male LGBT adolescents, of bisexual
than gay/lesbian adolescents, or of transgender compared
with nontransgender adolescents. However, Latino, immigrant, religious, and low-socioeconomic status families
appear to be less accepting, on average, of LGBT adolescents.
It appears that it is not the sexual orientation or gender identity of the adolescents themselves but the characteristics of
their families (their ethnicity, immigration and occupation
status, and religious affiliation) that seem to make a difference in distinguishing between those that score high versus
low on acceptance of their LGBT children. This stands in
contrast to family rejection, which has been shown to be
higher among males and Latinos (Ryan et al., 2009).
Second, we find that family acceptance in adolescence is
associated with young adult positive health outcomes (selfesteem, social support, and general health) and is protective
for negative health outcomes (depression, substance abuse,
and suicidal ideation and attempts). The only exception to the
pattern was for sexual risk behavior during the past 6 months,
for which family acceptance had no clear association. A prior
study has shown a link between family LGBT rejection and
sexual risk behaviors with this sample (Ryan et al., 2009),
with parental rejection of their LGBT adolescent being associated with greater sexual health risk in young adulthood.
210

The lasting influence of accepting family comments, attitudes, behaviors, and interactions related to the adolescents
LGBT identity clearly applies to personal emotional and
physical states. It may be that intimate and sexual relationships are more strongly influenced by proximal interpersonal
factors such as peer relations or characteristics of intimate
relationships. These findings deserve further exploration in
future research.
Third, our results show that the influence of family acceptance persists, even after control for background characteristics. Further, we find associations between background
characteristics and young adult mental health and physical
health that warrant further investigation. Independent
of levels of family acceptance, transgender young adults
reported lower social support and general health. While
these specific findings have not been previously reported to
our knowledge, they are consistent with the limited existing
research that identifies transgender adolescents as a group at
high risk for compromised health (Garofalo, Deleon, Osmer,
Doll, & Harper, 2006). Young adults who did not ascribe to
gay, lesbian, or bisexual identities (those who selfidentified as queer) were more than twice as likely to
report lifetime suicide attempts but not recent suicidal
thoughts. Our results indicate that although they were not
at risk in young adulthood, they reported higher rates of
earlier suicide attempts. These may be adolescents who most
struggle to find an authentic, personal sexual identity or who
do not identify with gay and lesbian stereotypes, perceptions, or expectations. A lack of fit or identification with
the LGB community may be an important factor in their
earlier suicide attempts. We know of no existing research that
examines the implications for mental health of alternative
identities among sexual minority adolescents.
In the context of these novel findings, there are several
limitations to our study. LGBT individuals are a hidden population; thus, we cannot claim that this sample is representative
of the general population of LGBT individuals. However, in
order to maximize the broadest inclusion in our sample, we
mapped the universe of social, recreational and service organizations, bars, and clubs that serve LGBT young adults
within 100 miles of our office. We contacted each community
organization to notify each member or participant so all
would have an equal chance of participating in our study; and
we conducted venue-based recruitment at bars and clubs
within our recruitment area. In addition, the study focused on
LGBT non-Latino white and Latino young adults, the two
largest ethnic groups in California. The study did not include
persons from other ethnic groups because of funding constraints. Subsequent research should include greater ethnic
diversity to assess potential cultural differences in family
reactions to their childrens LGBT identity. Finally, the study is
retrospective; young adults provided information about experiences that happened during their teenage years which
JCAPN Volume 23, Number 4, November, 2010

allows the potential for recall bias in describing specific family

reactions to their LGBT identity. To minimize this concern,
we created measures that asked as objectively as possible
whether or not a specific family behavior or response related
to their LGBT identity actually occurred (e.g., did your parent
or caregiver connect you with an LGBT adult role model?).
Others have argued for the need for studies that identify
risk and protective factors that are unique to LGBT individuals (Russell, 2003). Given that positive parentadolescent
relationships are known to be a foundation for optimal
development, it is ironic that attention to LGBT adolescent
parent relationships has almost exclusively focused on negativity. Our approach to directly measuring LGBT-specific
behaviors that express family and caregiver acceptance
during adolescence is an important step toward better understanding LGBT health, and offers the opportunity for
focused prevention and intervention with diverse families
that have LGBT children. Practice approaches and programs
that specifically support families of LGBT children and
adolescents may have great potential for preventing the
well-documented LGBT health disparities.

Implications for Nursing Practice and Research

Nurses are uniquely positioned to provide assessment,
education, and support to LGBT youth and families and to
discuss the impact of family acceptance on their childrens
health and well-being. Family-oriented care is a cornerstone
of nursing practice (e.g., Bomar, 2004; Hanson & Boyd, 1996;
Wright & Leahey, 2000) and guides nursing intervention and
research in multiple care settings.
Although the focus of the research and relationships
between LGB youth (little has been published, to date, on
transgender youth) and families has been on disruption, conflict, and negative interactions, family support and connectedness are protective factors for adolescents, in general, and
have been shown to protect against suicidality in LGB youth
(Eisenberg & Resnick, 2006), in particular. Nurses can incorporate this emerging empirical understanding of the impact
of family response on LGBT childrens well-being into individual practice and interactions with youth and their families
in several ways:

Assessment
Nurses should routinely ask adolescents about their
sexual orientation and gender identity to provide appropriate assessment and care. A clinical protocol sponsored by the
Health Resources and Services Administration and developed by clinical care and practice experts on sexual minority
youth has been published on mental health assessment and
primary care (see Ryan & Futterman, 1997, 1998). (Download
from http://familyproject.sfsu.edu)
JCAPN Volume 23, Number 4, November, 2010

Table 4. Supportive Behaviors That Help Families

Promote Their LGBT Childs Well-Being
Talk with your child or foster child about their LGBT
identity
Express affection when your child tells you or when you
learn that your child is LGBT
Support your childs LGBT identity even though you may
feel uncomfortable
Advocate for your child when he or she is mistreated
because of their LGBT identity
Require that other family members respect your LGBT
child
Bring your child to LGBT organizations or events
Connect your child with an LGBT adult role model to
show them options for the future
Work to make your faith community supportive of LGBT
members or find a supportive faith community that
welcomes your family and LGBT child
Welcome your childs LGBT friends and partner to your
home and to family events and activities
Support your childs gender expression
Believe your child can have a happy future as an LGBT
adult
LGBT, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender.
From: Supportive Families, Healthy Children: Helping Families
with Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual & Transgender Children by Caitlin
Ryan, 2009, Family Acceptance Project, San Francisco State
University. Copyright 2009 by Caitlin Ryan. Reprinted with
permission.

Ask LGBT adolescents and youth who are questioning

their sexual orientation or gender identity about how their
family, caregivers, or foster family reacts to their identity.
Provide supportive counseling, as needed, and connect
youth with LGBT community resources and programs.

Parent/Family Education
Nurses should identify parents and caregivers, including
foster parents and guardians, in need of education and guidance to help support their LGBT children.
With the youths consent, help families identify supportive
behaviors that help protect against risk and help promote
their LGBT childs well-being. Table 4 includes a list of
some family behaviors included in this study that help
promote well-being for LGBT youth.
For LGBT youth who report negative family reactions, use
the FAPrisk assessment screener1 (Ryan & Diaz, 2009) to
identify the level of family rejection and related health
risks in LGBT youth. Discuss findings from the Family
1

(Download from http://familyproject.sfsu.edu/publications)

211

Family Acceptance in Adolescence and the Health of LGBT Young Adults

Acceptance Project (see Ryan, 2009b; Ryan et al., 2009) on

how educating families of LGBT youth can help them
understand the serious negative health impact of family
rejection on the adolescents health and mental health
(including depression, suicide, illegal drug use, and risk
for HIV). With the youths consent and participation,
contact the family to provide education, family counseling,
and support.

Support for Youth and Family

Some adolescents can use the support of their health professional to come out to parents and caregivers. Nurses can
offer to help the youth disclose their sexual orientation or
gender identity to the parent/caregiver. This includes providing education on sexual orientation and gender identity,
guidance to help parents and foster parents understand how
to support their LGBT child, and counseling to help families
reconcile values and beliefs that homosexuality is wrong
with their love for their LGBT child. While it is important to
offer this support, it is essential to respect the youths preferences and decisions about where, how, and when they
choose to disclose their LGBT identity to parents, caregivers,
and other family members. For LGBT youth who report
family rejection and are fearful of family involvement, individual counseling can help the adolescent deal with rejection,
and referral to LGBT youth programs, including school
diversity clubs, can provide access to peer support and positive LGBT adult role models.

Advocacy and Professional Education

Nurses can advocate in their agencies and institutions for
the importance of providing family-related care for LGBT
adolescents. This includes serving LGBT youth in the context
of their family (typically LGBT adolescents are served alone,
as if they were adults, and few providers routinely ask about
family reactions to the youths LGBT identity, gender expression, and behavior).

Early Intervention
Nurses (particularly in school settings) can identify children and adolescents in need of support, including those
who are gender variant, who may be perceived to be gay and
are harassed by peers, and who come out at younger ages
and may be more vulnerable to negative reactions from
family and peers. Researchers have observed that the average
age of sexual attraction is about age 10 for heterosexual and
homosexually identified youth (McClintock & Herdt, 1996),
and this finding has been reported in subsequent studies of
LGB adolescents (DAugelli & Hershberger, 1993; Herdt &
Boxer, 1993; Rosario et al., 1996).
212

Parents and many providers have limited information

about sexual orientation and gender identity development
in children and adolescents. Many parents see identifying as
gay during childhood and adolescence as a phase or a
reaction to outside influences. Others may see gender nonconforming behavior, especially in boys, as willful and disobedient. Their children experience parental denial and
minimization of their identity as rejection that can negatively
impact their relationship. Nurses can help parents and
caregivers understand that sexual orientation and gender
identity development are normative aspects of child development. They can work with young people and families to
provide counseling, family therapy, and access to family peer
support to help decrease family conflict and educate families
about rejecting behaviors that are associated with significantly elevated risk for their LGBT children.

Strengths-Based Approach
The increased focus on strengths in nursing (e.g., Feeley &
Gottlieb, 2000) provides an important framework for reinforcing supportive responses among families who seek
to affirm their LGBT children and helping other families
who see their childrens LGBT identity as deficit based. A
strengths-based approach helps families more readily identify with their competencies, skills, and resourcesall of
which can help motivate and empower parents, caregivers,
and other family members to adopt supportive behaviors
identified in this research that can help decrease their LGBT
childrens risk and promote their well-being.
Nursing has helped define the field of family-oriented
care, and nurses work with families in all settings. However,
surprisingly little literature in nursing journals has focused
on care related to families of LGBT patients. These findings
on the critical role of parents and caregivers in promoting
the well-being and decreasing risk of their LGBT children
warrant further investigation, intervention research, and
specific training in nursing education, particularly for psychiatric nurses who work with patients whose families are
struggling to adjust to their childs LGBT identity.
Acknowledgments. The authors gratefully acknowledge
the support of our funder, The California Endowment, and
the contribution of our community advisory groups and the
many adolescents, families, and young adults who shared
their lives and experiences with us. We also thank Theresa
Betancourt for her research support, Russell Toomey for his
assistance with manuscript preparation, and Erica Monasterio, RNC, MN, FNP, for her ongoing contributions and
insightful comments.
Author contact: [email protected], with a copy to the Editor:
[email protected]
JCAPN Volume 23, Number 4, November, 2010

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