1.

In the first chapter need to keep introduction of spread spectrum objective of the project,
motivation of the project
2. Literature survey on the project
3. Second chapter should contain the the fhss and DSSs techniques with block diagrams
4. Third chapter contains the list of algorithms use for finding the range with more detailed
manner
5. Fourth chapter should contains the results u have got
6. Fifth chapter should contains the conclusion and futer scope
7. Appendix should contain the code

CROSS CORRELATION
In signal processing, cross-correlation is a measure of similarity of two waveforms as a function
of a time-lag applied to one of them. This is also known as asliding dot product or sliding innerproduct. It is commonly used for searching a long signal for a shorter, known feature. It has
applications in pattern recognition,single particle analysis, electron
tomography, averaging, cryptanalysis, and neurophysiology.
For continuous functions f and g, the cross-correlation is defined as:

where f* denotes the complex conjugate of f and

is the time lag.

Similarly, for discrete functions, the cross-correlation is defined as:

Visual comparison of convolution, cross-correlation and autocorrelation.

The cross-correlation is similar in nature to the convolution of two functions.
In an autocorrelation, which is the cross-correlation of a signal with itself, there will
always be a peak at a lag of zero unless the signal is a trivial zero signal.
In probability and statistics, the term cross-correlations is used for referring to
the correlations between the entries of two random vectors X and Y, while
the autocorrelations of a random vector X are considered to be the correlations between
the entries of X itself, those forming the correlation matrix (matrix of correlations) ofX.
This is analogous to the distinction between autocovariance of a random vector
and cross-covariance of two random vectors. One more distinction to point out is that
in probability and statistics the definition ofcorrelation always includes a standardising
factor in such a way that correlations have values between 1 and +1.
If
and are two independent random variables with probability density
functions f and g, respectively, then the probability density of the difference
is
formally given by the cross-correlation (in the signal-processing sense)
; however
this terminology is not used in probability and statistics. In contrast,
theconvolution
(equivalent to the cross-correlation of f(t) and g(t) ) gives the
probability density function of the sum
.
Explanation[edit]
As an example, consider two real valued functions and differing only by an unknown shift
along the x-axis. One can use the cross-correlation to find how much must be shifted along the
x-axis to make it identical to . The formula essentially slides the function along the x-axis,
calculating the integral of their product at each position. When the functions match, the value
of
is maximized. This is because when peaks (positive areas) are aligned, they make a
large contribution to the integral. Similarly, when troughs (negative areas) align, they also make
a positive contribution to the integral because the product of two negative numbers is positive.
With complex-valued functions and , taking the conjugate of ensures that aligned peaks (or
aligned troughs) with imaginary components will contribute positively to the integral.
In econometrics, lagged cross-correlation is sometimes referred to as cross-autocorrelation.[1]
Properties[edit]

The cross-correlation of functions f(t) and g(t) is equivalent to the convolution of f*(t)
and g(t). I.e.:

If f is Hermitian, then

Analogous to the convolution theorem, the cross-correlation satisfies:

where
denotes the Fourier transform, and an asterisk again indicates the complex
conjugate. Coupled with fast Fourier transform algorithms, this property is often
exploited for the efficient numerical computation of cross-correlations. (see circular
cross-correlation)

The cross-correlation is related to the spectral density. (see WienerKhinchin

theorem)

The cross correlation of a convolution of f and h with a function g is the convolution

of the cross-correlation of f and g with the kernel h:

Time series analysis[edit]

In time series analysis, as applied in statistics and signal processing, the cross-correlation
between two time series describes the normalized cross-covariance function.
Let
represent a pair of stochastic processes that are jointly wide sense stationary. Then
the cross-covariance and the cross-correlation are given by
cross-covariance
cross-correlation
where

and

are the mean and variance of the process

due to stationarity; and similarly for

, which are constant over time

, respectively.

The cross-correlation of a pair of jointly wide sense stationary stochastic process can be
estimated by averaging the product of samples measured from one process and samples
measured from the other (and its time shifts). The samples included in the average can be an
arbitrary subset of all the samples in the signal (e.g., samples within a finite time window or

a sub-sampling of one of the signals). For a large number of samples, the average converges to
the true cross-correlation.
Time delay analysis[edit]
Cross-correlations are useful for determining the time delay between two signals, e.g. for
determining time delays for the propagation of acoustic signals across a microphone array.[2]
[3]
After calculating the cross-correlation between the two signals, the maximum (or minimum if
the signals are negatively correlated) of the cross-correlation function indicates the point in time
where the signals are best aligned, i.e. the time delay between the two signals is determined by
the argument of the maximum, or arg max of the cross-correlation, as in

Normalized cross-correlation[edit]
For image-processing applications in which the brightness of the image and template can vary
due to lighting and exposure conditions, the images can be first normalized. This is typically
done at every step by subtracting the mean and dividing by the standard deviation. That is, the
cross-correlation of a template,

with a subimage

is

.
where is the number of pixels in
and
, is the average of f and
is standard
deviation of f. In functional analysis terms, this can be thought of as the dot product of
two normalized vectors. That is, if

and
then the above sum is equal to

where
is the inner product and
is the L norm. Thus, if f and t are real matrices, their
normalized cross-correlation equals the cosine of the angle between the unit vectors F and T,
being thus 1 if and only if F equals T multiplied by a positive scalar.
Normalized correlation is one of the methods used for template matching, a process used for
finding incidences of a pattern or object within an image. It is also the 2-dimensional version
of Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient.
Nonlinear systems[edit]

Caution must be applied when using cross correlation for nonlinear systems. In certain
circumstances, which depend on the properties of the input, cross correlation between the input
and output of a system with nonlinear dynamics can be completely blind to certain nonlinear
effects.[4] This problem arises because some moments can go to zero and this can incorrectly
suggest that there is little correlation between two signals when in fact the two signals are
strongly related by nonlinear dynamics.

An Introduction to Spread-Spectrum Communications

Introduction
As spread-spectrum techniques become increasingly popular, electrical engineers outside the
field are eager for understandable explanations of the technology. There are books and websites
on the subject, but many are hard to understand or describe some aspects while ignoring others
(e.g., the DSSS technique with extensive focus on PRN-code generation).
The following discussion covers the full spectrum (pun intended).

A Short History
Spread-spectrum communications technology was first described on paper by an actress and a
musician! In 1941 Hollywood actress Hedy Lamarr and pianist George Antheil described a
secure radio link to control torpedos. They received U.S. Patent #2.292.387. The technology was
not taken seriously at that time by the U.S. Army and was forgotten until the 1980s, when it
became active. Since then the technology has become increasingly popular for applications that
involve radio links in hostile environments.
Typical applications for the resulting short-range data transceivers include satellite-positioning
systems (GPS), 3G mobile telecommunications, W-LAN (IEEE 802.11a, IEEE 802.11b, IEEE
802.11g), and Bluetooth. Spread-spectrum techniques also aid in the endless race between
communication needs and radio-frequency availabilitysituations where the radio spectrum is
limited and is, therefore, an expensive resource.

Theoretical Justification for Spread Spectrum

Spread-spectrum is apparent in the Shannon and Hartley channel-capacity theorem:
C = B log2 (1 + S/N)

(Eq. 1)

In this equation, C is the channel capacity in bits per second (bps), which is the maximum data
rate for a theoretical bit-error rate (BER). B is the required channel bandwidth in Hz, and S/N is
the signal-to-noise power ratio. To be more explicit, one assumes that C, which represents the
amount of information allowed by the communication channel, also represents the desired
performance. Bandwidth (B) is the price to be paid, because frequency is a limited resource. The
S/N ratio expresses the environmental conditions or the physical characteristics (i.e., obstacles,
presence of jammers, interferences, etc.).
There is an elegant interpretation of this equation, applicable for difficult environments, for
example, when a low S/N ratio is caused by noise and interference. This approach says that one
can maintain or even increase communication performance (high C) by allowing or injecting
more bandwidth (high B), even when signal power is below the noise floor. (The equation does
not forbid that condition!)
Modify Equation 1 by changing the log base from 2 to e (the Napierian number) and by noting
that ln = loge. Therefore:
C/B = (1/ln2) ln(1 + S/N) = 1.443 ln(1 + S/N)

(Eq. 2)

Applying the MacLaurin series development for

ln(1 + x) = x - x/2 + x/3 - x4/4 + ... + (-1)k+1xk/k + ...:
C/B = 1.443 (S/N - 1/2 (S/N) + 1/3 (S/N) - ...)

(Eq. 3)

S/N is usually low for spread-spectrum applications. (As just mentioned, the signal power
density can even be below the noise level.) Assuming a noise level such that S/N << 1, Shannon's

expression becomes simply:

C/B 1.433 S/N

(Eq. 4)

Very roughly:
C/B S/N

(Eq. 5)

Or:
N/S B/C

(Eq. 6)

To send error-free information for a given noise-to-signal ratio in the channel, therefore, one
need only perform the fundamental spread-spectrum signal-spreading operation: increase the
transmitted bandwidth. That principle seems simple and evident. Nonetheless, implementation is
complex, mainly because spreading the baseband (by a factor that can be several orders of
magnitude) forces the electronics to act and react accordingly, which, in turn, makes the
spreading and despreading operations necessary.

Definitions
Different spread-spectrum techniques are available, but all have one idea in common: the key
(also called the code or sequence) attached to the communication channel. The manner of
inserting this code defines precisely the spread-spectrum technique. The term "spread spectrum"
refers to the expansion of signal bandwidth, by several orders of magnitude in some cases, which
occurs when a key is attached to the communication channel.
The formal definition of spread spectrum is more precise: an RF communications system in
which the baseband signal bandwidth is intentionally spread over a larger bandwidth by injecting
a higher frequency signal (Figure 1). As a direct consequence, energy used in transmitting the
signal is spread over a wider bandwidth, and appears as noise. The ratio (in dB) between the
spread baseband and the original signal is called processing gain. Typical spread-spectrum
processing gains run from 10dB to 60dB.
To apply a spread-spectrum technique, simply inject the corresponding spread-spectrum code

somewhere in the transmitting chain before the antenna (receiver). (That injection is called the
spreading operation.) The effect is to diffuse the information in a larger bandwidth. Conversely,
you can remove the spread-spectrum code (called a despreading operation) at a point in the
receive chain before data retrieval. A despreading operation reconstitutes the information into its
original bandwidth. Obviously, the same code must be known in advance at both ends of the
transmission channel. (In some circumstances, the code should be known only by those two
parties.)

Figure 1. Spread-spectrum communication system.

Bandwidth Effects of the Spreading Operation

Figure 2 illustrates the evaluation of signal bandwidths in a communication link.

Figure 2. Spreading operation spreads the signal energy over a wider frequency bandwidth.
Spread-spectrum modulation is applied on top of a conventional modulation such as BPSK or
direct conversion. One can demonstrate that all other signals not receiving the spread-spectrum
code will remain as they are, that is, unspread.

Bandwidth Effects of the Despreading Operation

Similarly, despreading can be seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3. The despreading operation recovers the original signal.

Here a spread-spectrum demodulation has been made on top of the normal demodulation
operations. One can also demonstrate that signals such as an interferer or jammer added during
the transmission will be spread during the despreading operation!

Waste of Bandwidth Due to Spreading Is Offset by Multiple Users

Spreading results directly in the use of a wider frequency band by a factor that corresponds
exactly to the "processing gain" mentioned earlier. Therefore spreading does not spare the
limited frequency resource. That overuse is well compensated, however, by the possibility that
many users will share the enlarged frequency band (Figure 4).

Figure 4. The same frequency band can be shared by multiple users with spread-spectrum
techniques.

Spread Spectrum Is a Wideband Technology

In contrast to regular narrowband technology, the spread-spectrum process is a wideband
technology. W-CDMA and UMTS, for example, are wideband technologies that require a
relatively large frequency bandwidth, compared to narrowband radio.

Benefits of Spread Spectrum

Resistance to Interference and Antijamming Effects

There are many benefits to spread-spectrum technology. Resistance to interference is the most
important advantage. Intentional or unintentional interference and jamming signals are rejected
because they do not contain the spread-spectrum key. Only the desired signal, which has the key,
will be seen at the receiver when the despreading operation is exercised. See Figure 5.

Figure 5. A spread-spectrum communication system. Note that the interferer's energy is spread
while the data signal is despread in the receive chain.
You can practically ignore the interference, narrowband or wideband, if it does not include the
key used in the despreading operation. That rejection also applies to other spread-spectrum
signals that do not have the right key. Thus different spread-spectrum communications can be
active simultaneously in the same band, such as CDMA. Note that spread spectrum is a
wideband technology, but the reverse is not true: wideband techniques need not involve spreadspectrum technology.

Resistance to Interception
Resistance to interception is the second advantage provided by spread-spectrum techniques.
Because nonauthorized listeners do not have the key used to spread the original signal, those
listeners cannot decode it. Without the right key, the spread-spectrum signal appears as noise or
as an interferer. (Scanning methods can break the code, however, if the key is short.) Even better,
signal levels can be below the noise floor, because the spreading operation reduces the spectral
density. See Figure 6. (Total energy is the same, but it is widely spread in frequency.) The
message is thus made invisible, an effect that is particularly strong with the direct-sequence
spread-spectrum (DSSS) technique. (DSSS is discussed in greater detail below.) Other receivers
cannot "see" the transmission; they only register a slight increase in the overall noise level!

Figure 6. Spread-spectrum signal is buried under the noise level. The receiver cannot "see" the
transmission without the right spread-spectrum keys.

Resistance to Fading (Multipath Effects)

Wireless channels often include multiple-path propagation in which the signal has more than one
path from the transmitter to the receiver (Figure 7). Such multipaths can be caused by
atmospheric reflection or refraction, and by reflection from the ground or from objects such as
buildings.

Figure 7. Illustration of how the signal can reach the receiver over multiple paths.
The reflected path (R) can interfere with the direct path (D) in a phenomenon called fading.
Because the despreading process synchronizes to signal D, signal R is rejected even though it
contains the same key. Methods are available to use the reflected-path signals by despreading
them and adding the extracted results to the main one.

Spread Spectrum Allows CDMA

Note that spread spectrum is not a modulation scheme, and should not be confused with other
types of modulation. One can, for example, use spread-spectrum techniques to transmit a signal
modulated by FSK or BPSK. Thanks to the coding basis, spread spectrum can also be used as
another method for implementing multiple access (i.e., the real or apparent coexistence of
multiple and simultaneous communication links on the same physical media). So far, three main
methods are available.

FDMAFrequency Division Multiple Access

FDMA allocates a specific carrier frequency to a communication channel. The number of

different users is limited to the number of "slices" in the frequency spectrum (Figure 8). Of the
three methods for enabling multiple access, FDMA is the least efficient in term of frequencyband usage. Methods of FDMA access include radio broadcasting, TV, AMPS, and
TETRAPOLE.

Figure 8. Carrier-frequency allocations among different users in a FDMA system.

TDMATime Division Multiple Access

With TDMA the different users speak and listen to each other according to a defined allocation
of time slots (Figure 9). Different communication channels can then be established for a unique
carrier frequency. Examples of TDMA are GSM, DECT, TETRA, and IS-136.

Figure 9. Time-slot allocations among different users in a TDMA system.

CDMACode Division Multiple Access

CDMA access to the air is determined by a key or code (Figure 10). In that sense, spread
spectrum is a CDMA access. The key must be defined and known in advance at the transmitter
and receiver ends. Growing examples are IS-95 (DS), IS-98, Bluetooth, and WLAN.

Figure 10. CDMA systems access the same frequency band with unique keys or codes.
One can, of course, combine the above access methods. GSM, for instance, combines TDMA and
FDMA. GSM defines the topological areas (cells) with different carrier frequencies, and sets
time slots within each cell.

Spread Spectrum and (De)coding "Keys"

At this point, it is worth restating that the main characteristic of spread spectrum is the presence
of a code or key, which must be known in advance by the transmitter and receiver(s). In modern
communications the codes are digital sequences that must be as long and as random as possible
to appear as "noise-like" as possible. But in any case, the codes must remain reproducible, or the
receiver cannot extract the message that has been sent. Thus, the sequence is "nearly random."
Such a code is called a pseudo-random number (PRN) or sequence. The method most frequently
used to generate pseudo-random codes is based on a feedback shift register.
One example of a PRN is shown in Figure 11. The shift register contains eight data flip-flops
(FF). At the rising edge of the clock, the contents of the shift register are shifted one bit to the
left. The data clocked in by FF1 depends on the contents fed back from FF8 and FF7. The PRN
is read out from FF8. The contents of the FFs are reset at the beginning of each sequence length.

Figure 11. Block diagram of a sample PRN generator.

Many books are available on the generation of PRNs and their characteristics, but that
development is outside the scope of this basic tutorial. Simply note that the construction or
selection of proper sequences, or sets of sequences, is not trivial. To guarantee efficient spreadspectrum communications, the PRN sequences must respect certain rules, such as length,
autocorrelation, cross-correlation, orthogonality, and bits balancing. The more popular PRN
sequences have names: Barker, M-Sequence, Gold, Hadamard-Walsh, etc. Keep in mind that a
more complex sequence set provides a more robust spread-spectrum link. But there is a cost to
this: more complex electronics both in speed and behavior, mainly for the spread-spectrum
despreading operations. Purely digital spread-spectrum despreading chips can contain more than
several million equivalent 2-input NAND gates, switching at several tens of megahertz.

Different Modulation Spreading Techniques for Spread Spectrum

Different spread-spectrum techniques are distinguished according to the point in the system at
which a PRN is inserted in the communication channel. This is very basically illustrated in the
RF front-end schematic in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Several spreading techniques are applied at different stages of the transmit chain.
If the PRN is inserted at the data level, this is the direct-sequence form of spread spectrum
(DSSS). (In practice, the pseudo-random sequence is mixed or multiplied with the information
signal, giving an impression that the original data flow was "hashed" by the PRN.) If the PRN
acts at the carrier-frequency level, this is the frequency-hopping form of spread spectrum
(FHSS). Applied at the LO stage, FHSS PRN codes force the carrier to change or "hop"
according to the pseudo-random sequence. If the PRN acts as an on/off gate to the transmitted
signal, this is a time-hopping spread-spectrum technique (THSS). There is also the "chirp"
technique, which linearly sweeps the carrier frequency in time.
One can mix all the above techniques to form a hybrid spread-spectrum technique, such as DSSS
+ FHSS. DSSS and FHSS are the two techniques most in use today.

Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

With the DSSS technique, the PRN is applied directly to data entering the carrier modulator. The
modulator, therefore, sees a much larger bit rate, which corresponds to the chip rate of the PRN
sequence. Modulating an RF carrier with such a code sequence produces a direct-sequencemodulated spread spectrum with ((sin x)/x) frequency spectrum, centered at the carrier

frequency.
The main lobe of this spectrum (null to null) has a bandwidth twice the clock rate of the
modulating code, and the side lobes have null-to-null bandwidths equal to the code's clock rate.
Illustrated in Figure 13 is the most common type of direct-sequence-modulated spread-spectrum
signal. Direct-sequence spectra vary somewhat in spectral shape, depending on the actual carrier
and data modulation used. Below is a binary phase shift keyed (BPSK) signal, which is the most
common modulation type used in direct-sequence systems.

Figure 13. Spectrum-analyzer photo of a DSSS signal. Note the original signal (nonspread)
would only occupy half of the central lobe.

Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

The FHSS method does exactly what its name impliesit causes the carrier to hop from
frequency to frequency over a wide band according to a sequence defined by the PRN. The speed
at which the hops are executed depends on the data rate of the original information. One can,
however, distinguish between fast frequency hopping (FFHSS) and low frequency hopping

(LFHSS). The latter method, the most common, allows several consecutive data bits to modulate
the same frequency. FFHSS is characterized by several hops within each data bit.
The transmitted spectrum of a frequency-hopping signal is quite different from that of a directsequence system. Instead of a ((sin x)/x)-shaped envelope, the frequency hopper's output is flat
over the band of frequencies used (see Figure 14). The bandwidth of a frequency-hopping signal
is simply N times the number of frequency slots available, where N is the bandwidth of each hop
channel.

Figure 14. Spectrum-analyzer photo of a FHSS signal.

Time-Hopping Spread Spectrum (THSS)

Figure 15. THSS block diagram.

Figure 15 illustrates THSS, a method not well developed today. Here the on and off sequences
applied to the PA are dictated according to the PRN sequence.
Minimum-variance unbiased estimator
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In statistics a uniformly minimum-variance unbiased estimator or minimum-variance
unbiased estimator (UMVUE or MVUE) is an unbiased estimator that has lower
variance than any other unbiased estimator for all possible values of the parameter.
For practical statistics problems, it is important to determine the UMVUE if one exists, since
less-than-optimal procedures would naturally be avoided, other things being equal. This has led
to substantial development of statistical theory related to the problem of optimal estimation.
While the particular specification of "optimal" here requiring unbiasedness and measuring
"goodness" using the variance may not always be what is wanted for any given practical
situation, it is one where useful and generally applicable results can be found.

Definition[edit]
Consider estimation of
family of densities
estimator

based on data
i.i.d. from some member of a
, where is the parameter space. An unbiased
of

is UMVUE if

for any other unbiased estimator

If an unbiased estimator of
exists, then one can prove there is an essentially unique MVUE.
Using the RaoBlackwell theorem one can also prove that determining the MVUE is simply a
matter of finding a complete sufficient statistic for the family
and
conditioning any unbiased estimator on it.

Further, by the LehmannScheff theorem, an unbiased estimator that is a function of a

complete, sufficient statistic is the UMVUE estimator.
Put formally, suppose
is unbiased for
sufficient statistic for the family of densities. Then

, and that

is a complete

is the MVUE for

A Bayesian analog is a Bayes estimator, particularly with minimum mean square error (MMSE).
Estimator selection[edit]
An efficient estimator need not exist, but if it does and if it is unbiased, it is the MVUE. Since
the mean squared error (MSE) of an estimator is

the MVUE minimizes MSE among unbiased estimators. In some cases biased estimators have
lower MSE because they have a smaller variance than does any unbiased estimator; see estimator
bias.
Example[edit]
Consider the data to be a single observation from an absolutely continuous distribution on
with density

and we wish to find the UMVU estimator of

First we recognize that the density can be written as

Which is an exponential family with sufficient statistic

. In fact this is a
full rank exponential family, and therefore is complete sufficient. See exponential family for a
derivation which shows

Therefore

Clearly

is unbiased, thus the UMVU estimator is

This example illustrates that an unbiased function of the complete sufficient statistic will be
UMVU.
Other examples[edit]
For a normal distribution with unknown mean and variance, the sample mean and
(unbiased) sample variance are the MVUEs for the population mean and population variance.
However, the sample standard deviation is not unbiased for the population standard deviation
see unbiased estimation of standard deviation.
Further, for other distributions the sample mean and sample variance are not in general MVUEs
for a uniform distribution with unknown upper and lower bounds, the mid-range is the MVUE
for the population mean.
If k exemplars are chosen (without replacement) from a discrete uniform distribution over the set
{1, 2, ..., N} with unknown upper bound N, the MVUE for N is

where m is the sample maximum. This is a scaled and shifted (so unbiased) transform of the
sample maximum, which is a sufficient and complete statistic. See German tank problem for
details.
Phase Shift Method for Distance Measurements
Laser range finders are often based on the phase shift method, a technique for measuring
distances in the following way. A laser beam with sinusoidally modulated optical power is sent to
a target. Some reflected light (from diffuse or specular reflections) is monitored, and the phase of
the power modulation is compared with that of the sent light. The phase shift obtained is 2times
the time of flight times the modulation frequency. This shows that higher modulation frequencies
can result in a higher spatial resolution.
Although the phase shift is directly proportional to the time of flight, the term time-of-flight
method should be reserved to case where one really measures a delay time more directly.
As for an interferometer, the phase shift method involves an ambiguity regarding the measured
distance, because with increasing distance the phase will vary periodically. However, the
periodicity is much larger than in an interferometer, since the modulation frequency is much
lower than the optical frequency. Also, the ambiguity can easily be removed, e.g. by measuring
with two different modulation frequencies.

Compared with interferometers, devices based on the phase shift technique are less accurate, but
they allow unambiguous measurements over larger distances. Also, they are suitable for targets
with diffuse reflection from a rough surface.
Different Realizations
The power modulation may be obtained with an electro-optic modulator, acting on a continuouswave laser beam. Modulation frequencies of many megahertz or even multiple gigahertz are
easily obtained. A resonant type of modulator can be operated with relatively low input voltage,
but only with a small range of modulation frequencies, making the removal of the mentioned
ambiguity more difficult.
Some kinds of lasers, particularly laser diodes, can be modulated directly via the drive current at
frequencies in the megahertz domain or even higher.
A special kind of power modulation is achieved by using a mode-locked laser. Advantages are
the high modulation frequency (allowing for high accuracy) and (for passive mode locking) that
no optical modulator is required.
The use of a laser beam allows to realize a laser radar, where an image is formed by scanning
the laser beam direction in two dimensions. However, imaging systems can also be made with
one or several current-modulated light-emitting diodes (LEDs) illuminating the whole object
area. The spatial resolution is then obtained via imaging detection. There are optoelectronic chips
with two-dimensional sensor arrays, being able to measure the phase shift for each pixel.

FHSS: Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by

rapidly switching a carrier among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom sequence
known to both transmitter and receiver. It is used as a multiple access method in the frequencyhopping code division multiple access (FH-CDMA) scheme.
Frequency

hopping

is

one

of

two

basic modulation techniques

used

inspread

spectrum signal transmission. It is the repeated switching of frequencies during radio

transmission, often to minimize the effectiveness of "electronic warfare" - that is, the
unauthorized interception or jamming of telecommunications. It also is known as frequencyhopping code division multiple access (FH-CDMA).

Spread spectrum modulation techniques have become more common in recent years. Spread
spectrum enables a signal to be transmitted across a frequency band that is much wider than the
minimum bandwidth required by the information signal. The transmitter "spreads" the energy,
originally concentrated in narrowband, across a number of frequency band channels on a wider
electromagnetic spectrum. Benefits include improved privacy, decreased narrowband
interference, and increased signal capacity.
In an FH-CDMA system, a transmitter "hops" between available frequencies according to a
specified algorithm, which can be either random or preplanned. The transmitter operates in
synchronization with a receiver, which remains tuned to the same center frequency as the
transmitter. A short burst of data is transmitted on a narrowband. Then, the transmitter tunes to
another frequency and transmits again. The receiver thus is capable of hopping its frequency over
a given bandwidth several times a second, transmitting on one frequency for a certain period of
time, then hopping to another frequency and transmitting again. Frequency hopping requires a
much wider bandwidth than is needed to transmit the same information using only one carrier
frequency.
The spread spectrum approach that is an alternative to FH-CDMA is direct sequence code
division multiple access (DS-CDMA), which chops the data into small pieces and spreads them
across the frequency domain. FH-CDMA devices use less power and are generally cheaper, but
the performance of DS-CDMA systems is usually better and more reliable. The biggest
advantage of frequency hopping lies in the coexistence of several access points in the same area,
something not possible with direct sequence.
Certain rules govern how frequency-hopping devices are used. In North America, the Industrial,
Scientific, and Medial (ISM) waveband is divided into 75 hopping channels, with power
transmission not to exceed 1 watt on each channel. These restrictions ensure that a single device
does not consume too much bandwidth or linger too long on a single frequency.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has amended rules to allow frequency hopping
spread spectrum systems in the unregulated 2.4 GHz band. The rule change is designed to allow

wider bandwidths, thus enabling Internet devices to operate at higher speeds and fostering
development of wireless LANs and wireless cable modems.
Movie star Hedy Lamarr is generally credited as co-originator of the idea of spread spectrum
transmission. She and her pianist were issued a patent for the technique during World War II.
They discovered the technique using a player piano to control the frequency hops, and
envisioned it as a way to provide secure communications during wartime. The pair never made
any money off the invention and their patent eventually expired. Sylvania introduced a similar
concept in the 1950s and coined the term "spread spectrum."

A spread-spectrum transmission offers three main advantages over a fixed-frequency

transmission:
1. Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to narrowband interference. The process of
re-collecting a spread signal spreads out the interfering signal, causing it to recede into
the background.
2. Spread-spectrum signals are difficult to intercept. A spread-spectrum signal may simply
appear as an increase in the background noise to a narrowband receiver. An eavesdropper
may have difficulty intercepting a transmission in real time if the pseudorandom
sequence is not known.
3. Spread-spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with many types of
conventional transmissions with minimal interference. The spread-spectrum signals add
minimal noise to the narrow-frequency communications, and vice versa. As a result,
bandwidth can be used more efficiently.

Military use
Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to deliberate jamming, unless the adversary has
knowledge of the spreading characteristics. Military radios use cryptographictechniques to
generate the channel sequence under the control of a secret Transmission Security
Key (TRANSEC) that the sender and receiver share in advance.
By itself, frequency hopping provides only limited protection against eavesdropping and
jamming. Most modern military frequency hopping radios also employ separate encryption
devices such as the KY-57. U.S. military radios that use frequency hopping include the
JTIDS/MIDS family, HAVE QUICK and SINCGARS.

Civilian use
In the US, since the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) amended rules to allow
frequency hopping spread spectrum systems in the unregulated 2.4 GHz band, many consumer
devices in that band have employed various spread-spectrum modes.
Some walkie-talkies that employ frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology have been
developed for unlicensed use on the 900 MHz band. Several such radios are marketed under the
name eXtreme Radio Service (eXRS). Despite the name's similarity to the FRS allocation, the
system is a proprietary design, rather than an official U.S. Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) allocated service.
Motorola has deployed a business banded, license free digital radio that uses FHSS technology:
the DTR series, models 410, 550 and 650.

Variations of FHSS

Adaptive Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH) (as used in Bluetooth) improves resistance
to radio frequency interference by avoiding crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence. This
sort of adaptive transmission is easier to implement with FHSS than with DSSS.
The key idea behind AFH is to use only the good frequencies, by avoiding the "bad" frequency
channelsperhaps those "bad" frequency channels are experiencing frequency selective fading,
or perhaps some third party is trying to communicate on those bands, or perhaps those bands are
being actively jammed. Therefore, AFH should be complemented by a mechanism for detecting
good/bad channels.
However, if the radio frequency interference is itself dynamic, then the strategy of bad channel
removal, applied in AFH might not work well. For example, if there are several colocated
frequency-hopping networks (as Bluetooth Piconet), then they are mutually interfering and the
strategy of AFH fails to avoid this interference.
In this case, there is a need to use strategies for dynamic adaptation of the frequency hopping
pattern.[3] Such a situation can often happen in the scenarios that use unlicensed spectrum.
In addition, dynamic radio frequency interference is expected to occur in the scenarios related
to cognitive radio, where the networks and the devices should exhibit frequency-agileoperation.
Chirp modulation can be seen as a form of frequency-hopping that simply scans through the
available frequencies in consecutive order to communicate.

DSSS
In telecommunications, direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is a modulation technique. As
with other spread spectrumtechnologies, the transmitted signal takes up more bandwidth than the
information signal that modulates the carrier or broadcast frequency. The name 'spread spectrum'
comes from the fact that the carrier signals occur over the full bandwidth (spectrum) of a device's
transmitting frequency. Certain IEEE 802.11 standards use DSSS signaling.

Direct sequence spread spectrum, also known as direct sequence code division multiple access
(DS-CDMA), is one of two approaches to spread spectrum modulation for digital signal
transmission over the airwaves. In direct sequence spread spectrum, the stream of information to
be transmitted is divided into small pieces, each of which is allocated across to a frequency
channel across the spectrum. A data signal at the point of transmission is combined with a higher
data-rate bit sequence (also known as a chipping code) that divides the data according to a
spreading ratio. The redundant chipping code helps the signal resist interference and also enables
the original data to be recovered if data bits are damaged during transmission.
Direct sequence contrasts with the other spread spectrum process, known as frequency hopping
spread spectrum, or frequency hopping code division multiple access (FH-CDMA), in which a
broad slice of the bandwidth spectrum is divided into many possible broadcast frequencies. In
general, frequency-hopping devices use less power and are cheaper, but the performance of DSCDMA systems is usually better and more reliable.
Spread spectrum first was developed for use by the military because it uses wideband signals that
are difficult to detect and that resist attempts at jamming. In recent years, researchers have turned
their attention to applying spread spectrum processes for commercial purposes, especially in
local area wireless networks.

Features
1. DSSS phase-shifts a sine

wave pseudorandomly with

continuous string of pseudonoise (PN) code symbols called "chips", each of which has a
much shorter duration than an information bit. That is, each information bit is modulated
by a sequence of much faster chips. Therefore, the chip rate is much higher than
the information signal bit rate.
2. DSSS uses a signal structure in which the sequence of chips produced by the transmitter
is already known by the receiver. The receiver can then use the same PN sequence to

counteract the effect of the PN sequence on the received signal in order to reconstruct the
information signal.
Transmission method
Direct-sequence spread-spectrum transmissions multiply the data being transmitted by a "noise"
signal. This noise signal is a pseudorandom sequence of 1 and 1 values, at a frequency much
higher than that of the original signal.
The resulting signal resembles white noise, like an audio recording of "static". However, this
noise-like signal is used to exactly reconstruct the original data at the receiving end, by
multiplying it by the same pseudorandom sequence (because 1 1 = 1, and 1 1 = 1). This
process, known as "de-spreading", mathematically constitutes a correlation of the transmitted PN
sequence with the PN sequence that the receiver already knows the transmitter is using.
The resulting effect of enhancing signal to noise ratio on the channel is called process gain. This
effect can be made larger by employing a longer PN sequence and more chips per bit, but
physical devices used to generate the PN sequence impose practical limits on attainable
processing gain.
If an undesired transmitter transmits on the same channel but with a different PN sequence (or no
sequence at all), the de-spreading process has reduced processing gain for that signal. This effect
is the basis for the code division multiple access (CDMA) property of DSSS, which allows
multiple

transmitters

to

share

the

same

channel

within

the

limits

of

thecross-

correlation properties of their PN sequences.

As this description suggests, a plot of the transmitted waveform has a roughly bell-shaped
envelope centered on the carrier frequency, just like a normal AM transmission, except that the
added noise causes the distribution to be much wider than that of an AM transmission.
In contrast, frequency-hopping spread spectrum pseudo-randomly re-tunes the carrier, instead of
adding pseudo-random noise to the data, the latter process results in a uniform frequency
distribution whose width is determined by the output range of the pseudorandom number
generator.
Benefits

Resistance to intended or unintended jamming

Sharing of a single channel among multiple users

Reduced signal/background-noise level hampers interception

Determination of relative timing between transmitter and receiver

Uses

The

United

States GPS,

European Galileo and

Russian GLONASS satellite

navigation systems; earlier GLONASS used DSSS with a single PN code in conjunction
with FDMA, while latter GLONASS used DSSS to achieve CDMA with multiple PN codes.

DS-CDMA

(Direct-Sequence

Code

Division

Multiple

Access)

is

a multiple

access scheme based on DSSS, by spreading the signals from/to different users with different
codes. It is the most widely used type of CDMA.

Cordless phones operating in the 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz bands

IEEE

802.11b 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi,

and

its

predecessor 802.11-1999.

(Their

successor 802.11g uses both OFDM and DSSS)

Automatic meter reading

IEEE 802.15.4 (used, e.g., as PHY and MAC layer for ZigBee, or, as the physical layer
for WirelessHART)

Radio-controlled model Automotive vehicles

Early peak serrch:::::::::A peak-search method for high resolution gamma-ray spectroscopy,
based entirely on spectrum convolution, is presented. The detection of the peak and
determination of the peak position, width and area can be realized in successive steps,
independent of each other. To realize each of the steps, the spectrum is convoluted with an
appropriate near-optimal function. Analytical expressions for the uncertainties of positions, areas
and widths can be derived. For resolving doublets the standard least-square technique is used, but
on the convoluted spectra, avoiding the problems associated with the background component.
The performance of the software package based on the proposed method was successfully tested
against two standard sets of test spectra of the International Atomic Energy Agency and
intercomparison with other peak-search packages proves that the proposed approach is robust
and reliable.
Based on the preceding sections, an ``obvious'' method for deducing sinusoidal parameters from
data is to find the amplitude, phase, and frequency of each peak in a zero-padded FFT of the
data. We have considered so far the following issues:
1.

Make sure the data length (or window length) is long enough so that all sinusoids in the
data are resolved.

2.

Use enough zero padding so that the spectrum is heavily oversampled, making the peaks
easier to interpolate.

3.

Use quadratic interpolation of the three samples surrounding a dB-magnitude peak in the
heavily oversampled spectrum.

4.

Evaluate the fitted parabola at its extremum to obtain the interpolated amplitude and
frequency estimates for each sinusoidal component.

5.

Similarly compute a phase estimate at each peak frequency using quadratic or even linear
interpolation on the unwrappedphase samples about the peak.

Time of flight

Timeofflight (TOF) estimation is the process of determining the relative shift D between a
reference x(t) (or transmitted) signal and delayed s(t) (or received) signal:
x(t) = r(t)+ gx(t)
(1a)
s(t) = r(t . D)+ gs(t)
(1b)
where the x(t) consists of a reference signal r(t), and Gaussian noise gx(t), while the s(t) consists
of the time delayed version of the reference signal r(t-D), and Gaussian noise gs(t). Additionally
let us assume that the noise signals are uncorrelated with each other and with the reference
signal.
The TOF lies at the core of many modern signalprocessing algorithms. In medical ultrasound for
example, the TOF is employed in blood flow estimation, tissue motion measurement, tissue
elasticity estimation and a number of other algorithms. To these and numerous other algorithms
the TOF accuracy and computational cost are critical important.
The TOF has been widely and meticulously studied over the past forty years. Early work focused
on applications in radar and sonar. While efforts over the past two decades have broadened to
include speech processing, medical imaging, and a broad array of other applications, classical
TOF there are a few approaches depending on the reference signal and other conditions.
TOF measurement methods when the reference signal is random or when TOF measurement is
based on direct time-to-digital conversion have been analyzed in studied literature [12-16]. A
some kind of critical point inside the signal, where the signal energy have maximum value or
other conditions are detected, is applied to the signal for determining a point of measurement
(positive or negative slope zero crossing, maximum value, a special marker, etc.). The
disadvantage of the method is that a signal-tonoise ratio could be changed only by increasing the
power of used signals. There are physical and other limitations on a maximal energy used in the
measurement.
For the case of a deterministic reference signal, the classical methods are generally based on the
second order statistics [2], notably computing the lag for which the cross-correlation between the
reference and the delayed signal have a maximum value. Another popular method involves the
minimization of the squared error (a least squares approach) between the signals for different

lags. The advantage of the statistical methods is so called process gain means that the signalto-noise ratio could be increased by increasing the length (or bandwidth) of the reference signal
[1]. Up to 60 dB process gain is available in practical situations. The higher gain is limited by
a sampling jitter and clock stability. A popular method to estimate the time delay is to search for
the global extreme R(tm) of the crosscorrelation function [3]:

As the true value of D is not an integer, the estimate may be improved by the well-known
parabolic fit:

The similar is Fourier Transform-Phase-Slope determination method in TOF measurements [3].

The method makes use of the fact that the cross-spectral density estimate is P xs(w) = Prr(w)ejq,
where q = - wD and Prr (w) is power spectrum of the signal. Slope of the phase is determined by
linear regression of weighted data points within the signal bandwidth and a weighted y-intercept.
Other methods to determinate the TOF are based on system identification [4, 5]. The time delay
estimation is considered as a noisy inputoutput FIR/IIR system identification problem where the
task is to find the unknown transfer function h(n) using the adaptive filter. Most common
adoption algorithm is the least-mean square (LMS):
hi (n +1) = hi (n) + e(n)x(n)
(4)
where k is iteration number, is step-size parameter, which has a limited range of adjustment in
order to insure stability.

Fig. 1. System identification model

The LMS algorithm has many advantages (due to its computational simplicity), but its
convergence rate is slow. The improvements of the convergence [4, 5] are based on assumption
that hi (D. (k)) , then estimated delay is updated during iteration:

The biggest disadvantage of this method is a slow convergence rate. [5] Hundreds or even
thousands of iteration cycles are required to achieve a high TOF resolution.
Estimation of range is used in many applications like interactive games, discovery of resources,
tracking, navigation calculation. Some of the range measurement techniques have been
introduced in which different technologies are used such as lasers, infrared, radio frequency,
and ultrasonic signals. Many range measurement techniques have been proposed in the
literature[1]-[9]. A TOF method used in range measurement systems depends on measuring the
time taken for a signal to travel between a transmitter and a receiver and the distance between
the transmitter and the receiver is calculated by multiplying the estimated TOF and velocity. The
delay of the peak of the cross-correlation between the transmitted and received signals can be

used to estimate the TOF relative to a radio frequency. Similarly a phase-shift method is used to
estimate the distance between the transmitter and the receiver by measuring the phase difference
between the transmitted signals and received signals. The phase-shift method is typically more
accurate than the cross-correlation-based method. However, with the phase-shift method, the
maximum range that can be estimated is limited to one wavelength of the transmitted signal.
In this paper two signal generation techniques are used like frequency-hop spread
spectrum (FHSS) and direct sequence spread sequence (DSSS) which are robust to typical
signaling impairments, i.e., noise, multipath, and interference. The cross-correlation TOF
estimation with earliest peak search is also applied. A minimum variance search technique is
used to correct errors in the cross correlation to estimate within one wavelength of the carrier
before adding the phase shift for sub wavelength range refinement. The accuracy of the method
is assessed in simulation.
The rest of this paper is structured as follows: Section II discusses related work. Section
III explains the proposed method Section IV details Simulation and experimental results are
provided in Section V concludes this paper.
The phase-shift method is the basic technique used to estimate the range. However, the
maximum range that can be estimated using this technique alone is limited to one wavelength of
the carrier frequency. A frequency-change detection and phase-shift method using a binary
frequency-shift-keyed signal was proposed [4]. This technique uses a frequency-change detector
to estimate the TOF and refine the estimate by adding the phase shift measured by a digital phase
meter.
The cross-correlation is first used to estimate the TOF and a phase-shift method is applied
to refine the final result to gain better accuracy. This method gives good results when the
accuracy of the cross-correlation stage is within one wavelength of the carrier, but if the output
of the cross-correlation stage is in error by more than one wavelength of the carrier, then the
phase-shift refining stage cannot correct this error and it appears in the final estimate as a
significant range error.
Narrowband systems are not robust in-band noise and are highly affected by multipath
caused by reflections from walls and surrounding obstacles proposed the use of wideband
signaling with direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) modulation to improve performance

under the conditions of noise and reverberation. In [28], FHSS modulation was shown to provide
robustness to multipath and noise and was found to outperform both DSSS and impulsive
signaling.

Range estimation algorithms:

The method uses a wideband FHSS modulation and applies cross-correlation with earliest peak
search and a novel minimum variance search technique to correct errors in the cross-correlation
TOF estimate to within one wavelength of the carrier before adding a phase shift for sub
wavelength range
refinement. Compared to previous work on ranging accuracy, the proposed method has the
following novel features:
1. wideband signal with FHSS modulation to enhance robustness to multipath and noise;
2. simple cross-correlation with earliest peak search technique to extract the direct path
from multipath;
3. a minimum variance search technique to correct the error in the cross-correlation TOF
estimate to within one wavelength of the carrier;

1) Cross-Correlation: A coarse estimate of the signal TOF between the transmitter and the
receiver can be obtained by finding the delay of the earliest peak of the cross-correlation of the
received signal with respect to the reference transmitted signal. The TOF is the delay associated
with the peak in samples (ncross) multiplied by the sample period (1/Fs). The estimated distance
between the transmitter and the receiver can be calculated as
Lcross ncross c / Fs

where c is the propagation speed of sound in air and Fs is the sampling frequency used for signal
acquisition. The maximum range that can be estimated using cross correlation extends as far as
the received signal has reasonable signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The finest time resolution that can

be obtained using cross-correlation is limited to 0.5/Fs. For better resolution, higher sampling
rates are required. In addition, the delay of the cross-correlation peak can be in error by one or
more samples due to noise.
2) Earliest Peak Search: The peak associated with the correct delay is not always the highest
peak. In some cases, the direct path can experience attenuation, giving it a lower cross
correlation peak than indirect multipaths. In other cases, a number of indirect paths can combine
to produce a peak that is greater than the one associated with the direct path. Herein, a search
mechanism is applied to find the earliest arriving cross correlation peak above the noise floor
[30]. The earliest peak is assumed to belong to the direct path that gives the correct TOF. The
highest cross-correlation peak is first found, and then, a search back mechanism is applied to
search for the earliest peak with amplitude greater than 0.7 of the highest peak. The 0.7 ratio was
determined experimentally. It was found to be sufficiently high, so that early peaks are above the
noise floor, even at low SNRs, and sufficiently low to guarantee detection of the direct path peak,
even with strong reflections.
3) Phase-Shift Calculation: From the previous cross correlation stage, an estimate for the
distance Lcross is obtained. The phase shift is used to refine this distance estimate. An error
deltaL between the estimated distance Lcross and the true distance L is assumed. This error can
be written as
deltaL L Lcross

The phase-shift method is used to estimate! L with high accuracy and refine the final estimate of
the distance L. Consider that the received signal is
y (t ) s (t L / c ) n(t )

and the known transmitted signal delayed according to Lcross is

x(t ) s (t Lcross / c)

where s(t) is the transmitted signal, n(t) is random noise, and c is the sound propagation velocity.
The phase shift between y(t) and x(t) gives an estimate of deltaL. This estimated deltaLcap is
then used to refine the final range estimate as follows:
Lcap Lcross deltaLcap

Since the FHSS signals carrier frequency varies with time, a phase shift is calculated for each
hop. A cross-spectral density method is used to calculate the phase shift of the received signal

y(t) relative to x(t), which is the known transmitted signal delayed according to Lcross. The
following equations explain calculation of phase shift for each individual hop
G xy ( w) x ( w) y * ( w)

where Gxy is the cross-spectral density, $ is the radian frequency which is assumed to be
discrete, X(w) and Y(w) are the discrete Fourier transforms. Gxy(w) can be related to the
transmitted signal s(t) by
G xy ( w) G ss ( w)e jwt E

where Gss(w) is an estimate of the real cross-spectral density of the transmitted signal s(t). The
standard deviation of the phase estimate is approximated by
C xy ( w)

(G xy ( w)) 2
G xx ( w)G yy ( w)

the maximum refinement range that can be achieved by the phase shift without ambiguity is
limited to c/2Fc, i.e., half the wavelength of the carrier frequency.
4) Minimum Variance Analysis: Clearly, the phase-shift method fails when the error in the crosscorrelation range estimate is greater than the maximum refinement range.
Here in the proposed project we will be calculating the signal gain my making use of norm
method. Consider a signal s(t) and the received signal y(t) hence the L1norm can be defined as
L1norm=

s (t ) y (t )

Similarly we will be calculating the L2 norm which is nothing transmitted signal

L2norm= ( s (t )

y (t ) ) 2