DATOS TILES

HEAT TRANSFER

10 / 450

REBOILERS

Table 10.2 Recommended Fouling Factors for Reboiler Design

Boiling-side stream

Fouling factor (h ft2 F/Btu)

C1 C8 normal hydrocarbons
Heavier normal hydrocarbons
Diolefins and polymerizing hydrocarbons

00.001
0.0010.003
0.0030.005

Heating-side stream
Condensing steam
Condensing organic
Organic liquid
Source: Ref. [5]

00.0005
0.00050.001
0.00050.002

21

Heat Exchangers

Table 1 Heat Exchanger Selection Criteria [5]

Criteria

Air
cooled

Plate

Spiral
plate

Lamella

Pressure psi

6000

300 (4)

250 (7) 600

Temperature O F

(1)

500 (4)

750

Max ft2/unit

none

16OOO/frame 3000

loo00

Compactness
Mech. cleaning
Chem.
C0st/ft2
Maintenance ease
Corrosion risk
Fouling risk
Fouling effect
Leakage risk
Duty changes after
installation
Temp. cross
Viscous flow

*(2)

**
**
**
**
***
**
* (3)
**

****
*****
****
**** ( 5 )
*****
****
*****
****
* (6)

**
**
***
** (10)
***
****
***

**
*
*

****
****
****

****
****
****
*** (8)
****
****
****
****
* (9)
*
****
****

**
*
****
****
***

****
**
*
*
***

****
****
***
****

Heat sensitive fluids

Solids flowing
Gases
Phase change
Multi fluid exchange

1000

Plate
fin

Coiled
tube

Double
pipe

Graphite

loo0
1000
600
150
150 (11)
150 (12)
900
1000
(16)
750 (13)
1
m (12) 200000 300 (14) (17)
500 (13)

Scraped
surface
600 (18)

8000

600

loo0

10

30000/shell

*****
*
*
*****
***
**
*

*
***
****
*
**
***
***** (18)
**** (18)
**

*
***
***
**
**
**
*
**
** (22)
*
**

****
*
***
****

**
**

*****
*
**
*****
*
***
**
*
****

*
****
***
**
***

*
***
***
**
***
****
***
***
*** (15)

*
***
**

***
*****
*****

**
*****
**

*
***
**

***
***
****

*
***
***

**
**
***
***
**

***
*
****
****
*****

**
*

**
***
****
****
*

***
*
***
***
***

***** (19)
***** (20)
*
***** (21)
*

****
****
****

Shell
and tube

***

*** (23)
*

****
****
**

*Very poor; **poor; ***fair; ****good; *****very good.

Notes: ( I ) use restricted to temperatures from ambient to around 300F; (2) often mounted high or above pipe racks; (3) fouling on outside can reduce air
flow and diminish MTD; (4) depends on gasket material; (5) low relative cost applies to non-ferrous materials; (6)plate edges can be seal welded but
dismantling then very difficult; (7) for diameters up to 1 meter. For larger diameters the pressure limit is lower; (8) in all metals; (9) see (6); (10) available
only in nonferrous materials; ( I 1 ) applies to reversing service in aluminum; (12) in aluminum; ( 1 3) in nonferrous, nonaluminum materials; (14) above 300
ft' shell and tube exchangers are usually cheaper; (15) if all welded; (16) 400F for liquids, up to 1500F for some gases; (17) 300 ft' for cubic block;
2000 ft' for modular block; (18) applies to scraped inside; (19) high speed rotor; (20) low speed rotor; (21) liquid to solid. or liquid to vapor; (22) depends
on TEMA type; and (23) applies to viscous fluids being heated on shellside.

248

Chapter 5

Pa
&-A

(--J

.Pass

A-A .Fro& view

0 - 0 .Rear vtew

A-A

8-8

A- A

A-A

p u sS

Pu

8-8

A-A

PASS

B- 8

8-8

Figure 19 Typical tubeside partitions for multipass arrangement. (a) U-tube; and (b) straight tubes.

9.1

Drains and Vents

All exchangers need to be drained and vented; therefore, care should be taken to properly
locate and size drains and vents. Additional openings may be required for instruments such as
pressure gages and thermocouples.

B.W.G. Chart
This chart provides a cross reference between B.W.G. (Birmingham Wire Gauge),
imperial sizes and metric equivalents, in terms of tube wall thickness.
B.W.G. inches
0
0.340
1
0.300
2
0.284
3
0.259
4
0.238
5
0.220
6
0.203
7
0.180
8
0.165

mm
8.636
7.620
7.214
6.579
6.045
5.588
5.156
4.572
4.191

.W.G. inches
B
9
0.148
10 0.134
11 0.120
12 0.109
13 0.095
14 0.083
15 0.072
16 0.065
17 0.058

mm
3.759
3.404
3.048
2.769
2.413
2.108
1.829
1.651
1.473

.W.G. inches
B
18 0.049
19 0.042
20 0.035
21 0.032
22 0.028
23 0.025
24 0.022
25 0.020

mm
1.245
1.067
0.889
0.813
0.711
0.635
0.559
0.508

Tweelingenlaan 142 7324 BP Apeldoorn The Netherlands

Tel: +31 - (0)55 58 22 370 Fax: +31 - (0)55 58 22 380
[email protected] www.wolverine-tube.nl

H E AT E X C H A N G E R S

3 / 95

Table 3.3 Typical Values of Fouling Factors (h ft2 F/Btu)

Cooling water streamsa
Seawater
Brackish water
Treated cooling tower water
Municipal water supply
River water
Engine jacket water
Distilled or demineralized water
Treated boiler feedwater
Boiler blowdown

0.00050.001
0.0010.002
0.0010.002
0.0010.002
0.0010.003
0.001
0.0005
0.00050.001
0.002

Service gas streams

Ambient air (in air-cooled units)
Compressed air
Steam (clean)
Steam (with oil traces)
Refrigerants (with oil traces)
Ammonia
Carbon dioxide
Flue gases

00.0005
0.0010.002
00.0005
0.0010.002
0.002
0.001
0.002
0.0050.01

Service liquid streams

Fuel oil
Lubrication oil
Transformer oil
Hydraulic fluid
Organic heat-transfer fluids
Refrigerants
Brine

0.0020.005
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.0010.002
0.001
0.003

Process gas streams

Hydrogen
Organic solvent vapors
Acid gases
Stable distillation overhead products

0.001
0.001
0.0020.003
0.001

Process liquid streams

Amine solutions
Glycol solutions
Caustic solutions
Alcohol solutions
Ammonia
Vegetable oils
Stable distillation side-draw and bottom products

0.002
0.002
0.002
0.002
0.001
0.003
0.0010.002

Natural gas processing streams

Natural gas
Overhead vapor products
C3 or C4 vapor (condensing)
Lean oil
Rich oil
LNG and LPG

0.001
0.0010.002
0.001
0.002
0.001
0.001
(Continued)

3 / 96

H E AT E X C H A N G E R S

Table 3.3 (Continued)

Oil refinery streams
Crude oilb
Temperature less than 250 F
Temperature between 250 F and 350 F
Temperature between 350 F and 450 F
Temperature greater than 450 F
Liquid product streams
Gasoline
Naphtha and light distillates
Kerosene
Light gas oil
Heavy gas oil
Heavy fuel oils
Asphalt and residuum
Other oil streams
Refined lube oil
Cycle oil
Coker gas oil
Absorption oils

0.0020.003
0.0030.004
0.0040.005
0.0050.006
0.0010.002
0.0010.003
0.0010.003
0.0020.003
0.0030.005
0.0030.007
0.0070.01
0.001
0.0020.004
0.0030.005
0.002

Assumes water velocity greater than 3 ft/s. Lower values of ranges correspond to water temperature below about 120 F
and hot stream temperature below about 250 F.
b
Assumes desalting at approximately 250 F and a minimum oil velocity of 2 ft/s.
Source: Refs. [7,8] and www.engineeringpage.com.

Decomposition

Some organic compounds may decompose when they are heated or come in contact with a
hot surface, forming carbonaceous deposits such as coke and tar. In cracking furnaces, partial
decomposition of the hydrocarbon feedstock is the objective and coke formation is an undesired
but unavoidable result.
Polymerization
Polymerization reactions can be initiated when certain unsaturated organic compounds are
heated or come in contact with a hot metal tube wall. The resulting reaction products can
form a very tough plastic-like layer that can be extremely difficult to remove from heat-transfer
surfaces.
Sedimentation
Sedimentation fouling results from the deposition of suspended solids entrained in many process streams such as cooling water and flue gases. High fluid velocities tend to minimize the
accumulation of deposits on heat-transfer surfaces.
Biological activity
Biological fouling is most commonly caused by micro-organisms, although macroscopic marine
organisms can sometimes cause problems as well. Cooling water and some other process
streams may contain algae or bacteria that can attach and grow on heat-transfer surfaces, forming slimes that are very poor heat conductors. Metabolic products of these organisms can also
cause corrosion of metal surfaces. Biocides and copper-nickel alloy tubing can be used to inhibit
the growth of micro-organisms and mitigate this type of fouling.
It can be seen from Table 3.3 that the range of values of fouling factors spans more than an order of
magnitude. For very clean streams, values of 0.0005 h ft 2 F /Btu or less are appropriate, whereas
very dirty streams require values of 0.0050.01 h ft 2 F /Btu. However, values in the range 0.001
0.003 h ft 2 F /Btu are appropriate for the majority of cases.

H E AT E X C H A N G E R S

3 / 107

Table 3.5 Typical Values of Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficients in Tubular Heat Exchangers.
U = Btu/h ft 2 F
Shell side
Liquidliquid media
Aroclor 1248
Cutback asphalt
Demineralized water
Ethanol amine (MEA or
DEA) 1025% solutions
Fuel oil
Fuel oil
Gasoline
Heavy oils
Heavy oils
Hydrogen-rich reformer
stream
Kerosene or gas oil
Kerosene or gas oil
Kerosene or jet fuels
Jacket water
Lube oil (low viscosity)
Lube oil (high viscosity)
Lube oil
Naphtha
Naphtha
Organic solvents
Organic solvents
Organic solvents
Tall oil derivatives,
vegetable oil, etc.
Water
Water
Wax distillate
Wax distillate
Condensing vaporliquid media
Alcohol vapor
Asphalt (450 F.)
Dowtherm vapor
Dowtherm vapor
Gas-plant tar
High-boiling hydrocarbons V
Low-boiling hydrocarbons A
Hydrocarbon vapors
(partial condenser)
Organic solvents A
Organic solvents high NC, A
Organic solvents low NC, V
Kerosene
Kerosene
Naphtha

Tube side

Design U

Includes total dirt

Jet fuels
Water
Water
Water or DEA, or
MEA solutions
Water
Oil
Water
Heavy oils
Water
Hydrogen-rich reformer
stream
Water
Oil
Trichloroethylene
Water
Water
Water
Oil
Water
Oil
Water
Brine
Organic solvents
Water

100150
1020
300500
140200

0.0015
0.01
0.001
0.003

1525
1015
60100
1040
1550
90120

0.007
0.008
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.002

2550
2035
4050
230300
2550
4080
1120
5070
2535
50150
3590
2060
2050

0.005
0.005
0.0015
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.006
0.005
0.005
0.003
0.003
0.002
0.004

Caustic soda
solutions (1030%)
Water
Water
Oil

100250

0.003

200250
1525
1323

0.003
0.005
0.005

Water
Dowtherm vapor
Tall oil and derivatives
Dowtherm liquid
Steam
Water
Water
Oil

100200
4060
6080
80120
4050
2050
80200
2540

0.002
0.006
0.004
0.0015
0.0055
0.003
0.003
0.004

Water
Water or brine
Water or brine
Water
Oil
Water

100200
2060
50120
3065
2030
5075

0.003
0.003
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.005
(Continued)

3 / 108

H E AT E X C H A N G E R S

Table 3.5 (Continued)

Shell side

Tube side

Design U

Includes total dirt

Naphtha
Stabilizer reflux vapors
Steam
Steam
Steam
Sulfur dioxide
Tall-oil derivatives, vegetable
oils (vapor)
Water

Oil
Water
Feed water
No. 6 fuel oil
No. 2 fuel oil
Water
Water

2030
80120
4001000
1525
6090
150200
2050

0.005
0.003
0.0005
0.0055
0.0025
0.003
0.004

Aromatic vapor-stream
azeotrope

4080

0.005

Water or brine
Water or brine
Air, N2 (compressed)
Air, N2 , etc., A
Hydrogen containing
naturalgas mixtures

4080
1050
2040
520
80125

0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.003

Steam condensing
Steam condensing
Light heat-transfer oil
Steam condensing
Steam condensing

150300
150300
4060
200300
250400

0.0015
0.0015
0.0015
0.0015
0.0015

Gasliquid media
Air, N2 , etc. (compressed)
Air, N2 , etc., A
Water or brine
Water or brine
Water
Vaporizers
Anhydrous ammonia
Chlorine
Chlorine
Propane, butane, etc.
Water

NC: non-condensable gas present; V: vacuum; A: atmospheric pressure.

Dirt (or fouling factor) units are (h)(ft2 )( F)/Btu
Source: Ref. [1].

For the purpose of making a preliminary cost estimate, determine the required heat-transfer area
of the exchanger.

Solution
(a) Calculate the heat load and outlet oil temperature by energy balances on the two streams.
CP
T )K = 30, 000 0.6 (400 250)
q = (m

q = 2.7 106 Btu/h

CP
T )oil = 75, 000 0.05 (T 110)

q = 2.7 106 = ( m

T = 182 F
(b) Calculate the LMTD.

T = 140 F

110 F 182 F

250 F 400 F

(
T1n )cf =

218 140
= 176 F
ln (218/140)

T = 218 F

3 / 100

H E AT E X C H A N G E R S

Solution

R=

Ta Tb
100 160
=
= 0.75
tb ta
150 230

P=

150 230
tb ta
=
= 0.615
Ta t a
100 230

0.72. Since F is less than 0.8, a 1-2 exchanger should

From Figure 3.9 (or Equation (3.15)), F =
not be used. However, with two shell passes, it is found from Figure 3.10 that F
= 0.94. Hence,
an exchanger with two shell passes and a multiple of four tube passes will be suitable. Such an
exchanger is called a 24 exchanger. The mean temperature difference in the exchanger is easily

1.0

0.9

0.1

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.9

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.6

1.4

2.0

1.8

2.5

3.0

4.0

6.0

15.0
20.0

8.0
R 10.0

0.2

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

P
Ta

tb
ta

Tb

Figure 3.9 LMTD correction factor for 12 exchangers (Source: Ref. [8]).

0.8

0.9

1.0

10 / 448

REBOILERS

For reliable design and operation, the vapor weight fraction in thermosyphon reboilers should
be limited to about 2530% for organic compounds and about 10% for water and aqueous solutions
[1,2]. If these limits cannot be attained with once-through operation, then a recirculating system
should be used.

10.2.7 Reboiler selection

In some applications the choice of reboiler type is clear-cut. For example, severely fouling or very
viscous liquids dictate a forced flow reboiler. Similarly, a dirty or corrosive heating medium together
with a moderately fouling process stream favors a horizontal thermosyphon reboiler. In most applications, however, more than one type of reboiler will be suitable. In these situations the selection is
usually based on considerations of economics, reliability, controllability, and experience with similar services. The guidelines presented by Palen [1] and reproduced in Table 10.1 provide useful
information in this regard. Kister [3] also gives a good concise comparison of reboiler types and
the applications in which each is preferred.
Sloley [2] surveyed the use of vertical versus horizontal thermosyphon reboilers in the petroleum
refining, petrochemical and chemical industries. Of the thermosyphons used in petroleum refining,
95% are horizontal units; in the petrochemical industry, 70% are vertical units; and in the chemical
industry, nearly 100% are vertical units. He attributes this distribution to two factors, size and
fouling tendency. For the relatively small, clean services typical of the chemical industry, vertical
thermosyphons are favored, whereas the large and relatively dirty services common in petroleum
refining dictate horizontal thermosyphons. Services in the petrochemical industry also tend to be
Table 10.1 Guidelines for Reboiler Selection
Process conditions

Operating pressure
Moderate
Near critical
Deep vacuum
Design
T
Moderate
Large
Small (mixture)
Very small (pure component)
Fouling
Clean
Moderate
Heavy
Very heavy
Mixture boiling range
Pure component
Narrow
Wide
Very wide, with viscous liquid

Reboiler type
Kettle or
internal

Horizontal
shell-side
thermosyphon

Vertical
tube-side
thermosyphon

Forced
flow

E
B-E
B

G
R
R

B
Rd
Rd

E
E
E

E
B
F
B

G
R
F
F

B
G-Rd
Rd
P

E
E
P
P

G
Rd
P
P

G
G
Rd
P

G
B
B
Rd

E
E
G
B

G
G
F
F-P

G
G
G
G-Rd

G
B
B
P

E
E
E
B

Category abbreviations: B: best; G: good operation; F: fair operation, but better choice is possible; Rd: risky unless carefully
designed, but could be best choice in some cases; R: risky because of insufficient data; P: poor operation; and E: operable
but unnecessarily expensive.
Source: Ref. [1]

10 / 528

Appendix 10.A Areas of Circular Segments.

A

h/D

h/D

h/D

h/D

h/D

h/D

h/D

h/D

h/D

0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008

0.00012
0.00034
0.00062
0.00095

0.050
0.052
0.054
0.056
0.058

0.01468
0.01556
0.01646
0.01737
0.01830

0.100
0.102
0.104
0.106
0.108

0.04087
0.04208
0.04330
0.04452
0.04576

0.150
0.152
0.154
0.156
0.158

0.07387
0.07531
0.07675
0.07819
0.07965

0.200
0.202
0.204
0.206
0.208

0.11182
0.11343
0.11504
0.11665
0.11827

0.250
0.252
0.254
0.256
0.258

0.15355
0.15528
0.15702
0.15876
0.16051

0.300
0.302
0.304
0.306
0.308

0.19817
0.20000
0.20184
0.20368
0.20553

0.350
0.352
0.354
0.356
0.358

0.24498
0.24689
0.24880
0.25071
0.25263

0.400
0.402
0.404
0.406
0.408

0.29337
0.29533
0.29729
0.29926
0.30122

0.450
0.452
0.454
0.456
0.458

0.34278
0.34477
0.34676
0.34876
0.35075

0.010
0.012
0.014
0.016
0.018

0.00133
0.00175
0.00220
0.00268
0.00320

0.060
0.062
0.064
0.066
0.068

0.01924
0.02020
0.02117
0.02215
0.02315

0.110
0.112
0.114
0.116
0.118

0.04701
0.04826
0.04953
0.05080
0.05209

0.160
0.162
0.164
0.166
0.168

0.08111
0.08258
0.08406
0.08554
0.08704

0.210
0.212
0.214
0.216
0.218

0.11990
0.12153
0.12317
0.12481
0.12646

0.260
0.262
0.264
0.266
0.268

0.16226
0.16402
0.16578
0.16755
0.16932

0.310
0.312
0.314
0.316
0.318

0.20738
0.20923
0.21108
0.21294
0.21480

0.360
0.362
0.364
0.366
0.368

0.25455
0.25647
0.25839
0.26032
0.26225

0.410
0.412
0.414
0.416
0.418

0.30319
0.30516
0.30712
0.30910
0.31107

0.460
0.462
0.464
0.466
0.468

0.35274
0.35474
0.35673
0.35873
0.36072

0.020
0.022
0.024
0.026
0.028

0.00375
0.00432
0.00492
0.00555
0.00619

0.070
0.072
0.074
0.076
0.078

0.02417
0.02520
0.02624
0.02729
0.02836

0.120
0.122
0.124
0.126
0.128

0.05338
0.05469
0.05600
0.05733
0.05866

0.170
0.172
0.174
0.176
0.178

0.08854
0.09004
0.09155
0.09307
0.09460

0.220
0.222
0.224
0.226
0.228

0.12811
0.12977
0.13144
0.13311
0.13478

0.270
0.272
0.274
0.276
0.278

0.17109
0.17287
0.17465
0.17644
0.17823

0.320
0.322
0.324
0.326
0.328

0.21667
0.21853
0.22040
0.22228
0.22415

0.370
0.372
0.374
0.376
0.378

0.26418
0.26611
0.26805
0.26998
0.27192

0.420
0.422
0.424
0.426
0.428

0.31304
0.31502
0.31699
0.31897
0.32095

0.470
0.472
0.474
0.476
0.478

0.36272
0.36471
0.36671
0.36871
0.37071

0.030
0.032
0.034
0.036
0.038

0.00687
0.00756
0.00827
0.00901
0.00976

0.080
0.082
0.084
0.086
0.088

0.02943
0.03053
0.03163
0.03275
0.03387

0.130
0.132
0.134
0.136
0.138

0.06000
0.06135
0.06271
0.06407
0.06545

0.180
0.182
0.184
0.186
0.188

0.09613
0.09767
0.09922
0.10077
0.10233

0.230
0.232
0.234
0.236
0.238

0.13646
0.13815
0.13984
0.14154
0.14324

0.280
0.282
0.284
0.286
0.288

0.18002
0.18182
0.18362
0.18542
0.18723

0.330
0.332
0.334
0.336
0.338

0.22603
0.22792
0.22980
0.23169
0.23358

0.380
0.382
0.384
0.386
0.388

0.27386
0.27580
0.27775
0.27969
0.28164

0.430
0.432
0.434
0.436
0.438

0.32293
0.32491
0.32689
0.32887
0.33086

0.480
0.482
0.484
0.486
0.488

0.37270
0.37470
0.37670
0.37870
0.38070

0.040
0.042
0.044
0.046
0.048
0.050

0.01054
0.01133
0.01214
0.01297
0.01382
0.01468

0.090
0.092
0.094
0.096
0.098
0.100

0.03501
0.03616
0.03732
0.03850
0.03968
0.04087

0.140
0.142
0.144
0.146
0.148
0.150

0.06683
0.06822
0.06963
0.07103
0.07245
0.07387

0.190
0.192
0.194
0.196
0.198
0.200

0.10390
0.10547
0.10705
0.10864
0.11023
0.11182

0.240
0.242
0.244
0.246
0.248
0.250

0.14494
0.14666
0.14837
0.15009
0.15182
0.15355

0.290
0.292
0.294
0.296
0.298
0.300

0.18905
0.19086
0.19268
0.19451
0.19634
0.19817

0.340
0.342
0.344
0.346
0.348
0.350

0.23547
0.23737
0.23927
0.24117
0.24307
0.24498

0.390
0.392
0.394
0.396
0.398
0.400

0.28359
0.28554
0.28750
0.28945
0.29141
0.29337

0.440
0.442
0.444
0.446
0.448
0.450

0.33284
0.33483
0.33682
0.33880
0.34079
0.34278

0.490
0.492
0.494
0.496
0.498
0.500

0.38270
0.38470
0.38670
0.38870
0.39070
0.39270

h: height; D: diameter; and A: area.

Rules for using table: (1) Divide height of segment by the diameter; multiply the area in the table corresponding to the quotient, height/diameter, by the diameter squared. When
segment exceeds a semicircle, its area is: area of circle minus the area of a segment whose height is the circle diameter minus the height of the given segment. (2) To find the
diameter when given the chord and the segment height: the diameter = [( chord)2 /height] + height.
Source: Ref. [18]

REBOILERS

h/D

REBOILERS

10 / 453

Table 10.3 Guidelines for Sizing Steam and Condensate Nozzles

Shell OD (in.)

Heat-transfer
area (ft2 )

16
20
24
30
36
42

130
215
330450
5251065
7351520
14002180

Nominal nozzle diameter (in.)

Steam

Condensate

4
4
6
68
8
8

1.5
2
3
34
4
4

Source: Ref. [8]

10.3.9 Two-phase density calculation

In order to calculate the static head in the reboiler, the density of the two-phase mixture in the
boiling region must be determined. For cross flow over tube bundles, this calculation is usually
made using either the homogeneous model, Equation (9.51), or one of the methods for separated
flow in tubes, such as the Chisholm correlation, Equation (9.63). Experimental data indicate that
neither approach is particularly accurate [9], but there is no entirely satisfactory alternative. The
homogeneous model is somewhat easier to use, but the Chisholm correlation will generally give a
more conservative (larger) result for the static head.
The following example illustrates the design procedure for kettle reboilers.

Example 10.2
96,000 lb/h of a distillation bottoms having the following composition will be partially vaporized in
a reboiler:
Component

Mole %

Critical pressure (psia)

Propane
i-butane
n-butane

15
25
60

616.3
529.0
551.1

The stream will enter the reboiler as a (nearly) saturated liquid at 250 psia. The dew-point temperature of the stream at 250 psia is 205.6 F. Saturated steam at a design pressure of 20 psia will
be used as the heating medium. The reboiler is to supply 48,000 lb/h of vapor to the distillation
column. The reboiler feed line will be approximately 23 ft long, while the vapor return line will have
a total length of approximately 20 ft. The available elevation difference between the liquid level in
the column sump and the reboiler inlet is 9 ft. Physical property data are given in the following table.
Design a kettle reboiler for this service.
Property

Reboiler feed

Liquid overflow

Vapor return

T ( F)
H (Btu/lbm)
CP (Btu/lbm F)
k(Btu/h ft F)
(cp)
(lbm/ft3 )
(dyne/cm)
Molecular weight

197.6
106.7
0.805
0.046
0.074
28.4
3.64
56.02

202.4
109.9
0.811
0.046
0.074
28.4
3.59
56.57

202.4
216.4
0.576
0.014
0.0095
2.76

55.48

D E S I G N O F S H E L L-A N D-T U B E H E A T E X C H A N G E R S

Pn = 1.5 103 Ns G2n /s

(laminar flow, Ren 100)

5 / 233

(5.A.4)

In these equations, Ns is the number of shells connected in series.

The shell-side pressure drop, excluding nozzle losses, is computed using the following equation:

Pf =

f G2 ds (nb + 1)
2000De s

(5.A.5)

where

Pf = pressure drop (Pa)
f = shell-side friction factor (dimensionless)
s (kg/s m2 )
G = mass flux = m/a
as = flow area across tube bundle (m2 )
= ds C B/PT
ds = shell ID (m)
C = clearance (m)
B = baffle spacing (m)

PT = tube pitch (m); replaced by PT / 2 for 45 tube layouts

nb = number of baffles
De = equivalent diameter from Fig. 3.12 (m)
s = fluid specific gravity (dimensionless)
= viscosity correction factor = (/w )0.14 (dimensionless)

Appendix 5.B Maximum Tube-Side Fluid Velocities

The data presented here are from Bell and Mueller [3]. The maximum velocities are based on
prevention of tube wall erosion and are material specific. They are intended to serve as a supplement
to the general guideline of Vmax = 8 ft/s for liquids given in Section 5.7.4.
Maximum velocities for water are given in Table 5.B.1. For liquids other than water, multiply the
values from the table by the factor (water /fluid )0.5 .

Table 5.B.1 Maximum Recommended Velocities for

Water in Heat-Exchanger Tubes
Tube material

Vmax (ft/s)

Plain carbon steel

Stainless steel
Aluminum
Copper
90-10 cupronickel
70-30 cupronickel
Titanium

10
15
6
6
10
15
>50

For gases flowing in plain carbon steel tubing, the following equation can be used to estimate the
maximum velocity:
Vmax =

1800
(PM )0.5

(5.B.1)

5 / 234

D E S I G N O F S H E L L-A N D-T U B E H E A T E X C H A N G E R S

where
Vmax = maximum velocity (ft/s)
P = gas pressure (psia)
M = molecular weight of gas

For tubing materials other than plain carbon steel, assume the maximum velocities are in the same
ratio as given in Table 5.B.1 for water.
For example, to estimate the maximum velocity for air at 50 psia flowing in aluminum tubes, first
calculate the velocity for plain carbon steel tubing using Equation 5.B.1:
(Vmax )cs =

1800
= 43.7 ft/s
(50 29)0.5

Then multiply by the ratio (6/10) from Table 5.B.1 to obtain the velocity for aluminum tubing:
Vmax = 0.6 47.3 = 28.4
= 28 ft/s

Appendix 5.C Maximum Unsupported Tube Lengths

In order to prevent tube vibration and sagging, TEMA standards specify maximum unsupported
tube lengths for two groups of materials. Material group A consists of steel, steel alloys, nickel,
nickel-copper alloys and nickel-chromium-steel alloys. Material group B consists of aluminum and its
alloys, copper and its alloys, and titanium alloys at their upper temperature limit. For tube diameters
between 19 mm and 51 mm, the standards are well-approximated by the following equations [11]:
Group A: maximum unsupported length (mm) = 52 Do (mm) + 532
Group B: maximum unsupported length (mm) = 46 Do (mm) + 436

(5.C.1)
(5.C.2)

These equations apply to un-finned tubes. The standards for finned tubes are more complicated,
but can be estimated by using the above equations with the tube OD replaced by the root-tube
diameter. The standards also include temperature limits above which the unsupported length must
be reduced [12]. For convenience, values computed from Equations (5.C.1) and (5.C.2) are tabulated
below.
Table 5.C.1 Maximum Unsupported Straight Tube Lengths in Inches (mm)
Tube OD

Material group A

Material group B

0.75 (19.1)
0.875 (22.2)
1.0 (25.4)
1.25 (31.8)
1.5 (38.1)
2.0 (50.8)

60 (1525)
66 (1686)
73 (1853)
86 (2186)
99 (2513)
125 (3174)

52 (1315)
57 (1457)
63 (1604)
75 (1899)
86 (2189)
109 (2773)

The baffle spacing is generally restricted to be no greater than half the tabled values because
tubes in the baffle windows are supported by every other baffle. However, the inlet and outlet baffle
spacings are often larger than the central baffle spacing. In this case, the central spacing must
satisfy the following relation:
B tabled value max(Bin , Bout )

(5.C.3)

In practice, the actual unsupported tube length should be kept safely below (80% or less) the TEMA
limit.

D E S I G N O F S H E L L-A N D-T U B E H E A T E X C H A N G E R S

5 / 235

Appendix 5.D Comparison of Head Types for Shell-and-Tube Exchangers

Table 5.D.1 Comparison of Stationary Head Types
Head type

Advantages

Disadvantages

A, L

(1) Tubesheet easily accessible by removing

channel cover
(2) Head can be removed if unrestricted
access to tubesheet is required

(1) Most expensive type except for D

(2) Not well suited for high tube-side
pressures; tube-side fluid can leak to
environment through gasket at tubesheet
(3) Type L rear head used only with fixed
tubesheets

B, M

(1) Low cost

(2) Removal of head provides unrestricted
access to tubesheet
(3) Absence of channel cover eliminates
one external gasket where leakage to
environment can occur

(1) Head must be disconnected from

process piping and removed to access
tubesheet
(2) Not well suited for high tube-side
pressures; tube-side fluid can leak to
environment through gasket at
tubesheet
(3) Type M rear head used only with fixed
tubesheets

(1) Low cost

(2) Tubesheet easily accessed by removing
channel cover
(3) Suitable for high pressures; channel
cover seal is the only external gasket

(1) Head and tubesheet materials must be

compatible for welding
(2) All tube-side maintenance must be
done with channel in place
(3) Used only with removable tube bundles

(1) Least prone to leakage

(2) Best option when product of channel
diameter and tube-side pressure
exceeds about 86,000 in. psia

(1) Not cost effective unless tube-side

pressure is high

(1) Least expensive

(2) Tubesheet easily accessed by removing
channel cover
(3) Suitable for high pressures; channel
cover seal is the only external gasket

(1) Head, tubesheet and shell materials

must be compatible for welding
(2) Used only with fixed tubesheets
(3) All tube-side maintenance must be
done with channel in place

5 / 236

D E S I G N O F S H E L L-A N D-T U B E H E A T E X C H A N G E R S

Table 5.D.2 Comparison of Floating-Head Types

Head type

Advantages

Disadvantages

(1) No internal gaskets where leakage

and fluid mixing can occur

(1) Shell-side fluid can leak through packing

to environment
(2) Shell-side T (<600 F) and P (<300 psia)
are limited by packing

(1) Largest heat-transfer area per shell

for an internal floating-head design
(2) Leakage is contained within shell

(1) Floating head must be disassembled to

remove tube bundle
(2) Single tube pass requires special
construction
(3) Leakage at internal gasket can result in
mixing of fluids

(1) Bundle can be removed without

removing rear shell cover or
disassembling floating head
(2) Leakage is contained within shell
(3) Good option for kettle reboilers

(1) Smallest heat-transfer area per shell

(2) Most expensive design
(3) Single tube pass requires special
construction
(4) Leakage at internal gasket can result in
mixing of fluids

(1) Least expensive floating head design

(2) No internal gaskets where leakage
and fluid mixing can occur

(1) Both fluids can leak through packing to

environment
(2) Both tube-side and shell-side T (<375 F)
and P (<150300 psia depending on
shell size) are limited by packing
(3) Maximum of 2 tube passes

U-tubes provide a less expensive alternative to a floating head. In common with type P and W
floating heads (and all stationary heads), U-tube bundles have no internal gaskets where leakage
and fluid mixing can occur. The main disadvantages are:
(1) Cleaning interior tube surfaces is more difficult due to U-bends.
(2) Except for outermost tubes in bundle, individual tube replacement is not practical.
(3) Cannot be used if a single tube pass is required.

Notations
A
Afins
Ai
Aprime
Areq
ATot
as
B
Bc
Bin

Heat-transfer surface area

Surface area of fins
Di L = Internal surface area of tube
Prime surface area
Required heat-transfer surface area
Aprime + Afins = Total external surface area of a finned tube
Flow area across tube bundle
Baffle spacing
Baffle cut
Inlet baffle spacing

RECOMMENDED GOOD PRACTICE

SECTION 10

Fouling Resistances for Industrial Fluids

Oils:
Fuel Oil #2

0.002

Fuel Oil #6

0.005

Transformer Oil

0.001

Engine Lube Oil

0.001

Quench Oil

0.004

Gases And Vapors:

Manufactured Gas

0.010

Engine Exhaust Gas

0.010

Steam (Non-Oil Bearing)

0.0005

Exhaust Steam (Oil Bearing)

0.0015-0.002

Refrigerant Vapors (Oil Bearing)

0.002

Compressed Air

0.001

Ammonia Vapor

0.001

COPVapor

0.001

Chlorine Vapor

0.002

Coal Flue Gas

0.010

Natural Gas Flue Gas

0.005

Molten Heat Transfer Salts

0.0005

Refrigerant Liquids

0.001

Hydraulic Fluid

0.001

Industrial Organic Heat Transfer Media

0.002

Ammonia Liquid

0.001

Ammonia Liquid (Oil Bearing)

0.003

Calcium Chloride Solutions

0.003

Sodium Chloride Solutions

0.003

COPLiquid

0.001

Chlorine Liquid

0.002

Methanol Solutions

0.002

Ethanol Solutions

0.002

Ethylene Glycol Solutions

0.002

Liquids:

@TubularExchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc.

10-29

SECTION 10

RECOMMENDED GOOD PRACTICE

Fouling Resistances For Chemical Processing Streams

Gases And Vapors:
Acid Gases

0.002-0.003

Solvent Vapors

0.001

Stable Overhead Products

0.001

MEA And DEA Solutions

0.002

DEG And TEG Solutions

0.002

Stable Side Draw And Bottom Product

0.001-0.002

Caustic Solutions

0.002

Vegetable Oils

0.003

Liquids:

Fouling Resistances For Natural Gas-Gasoline Processing Streams

-

--

Gases And Vapors:

Natural Gas

0.001-0.002

Overhead Products

0.001-0.002

Lean Oil

0.002

Rich Oil

0.001-0.002

Natural Gasoline And Liquified Petroleum Gases

0.001-0.002

Liquids:

@TubularExchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc.

RECOMMENDED GOOD PRACTICE

SECTION 10

Fouling Resistances For Oil Refinery Streams

Crude And Vacuum Unit Gases And Vapors:

Atmospheric Tower Overhead Vapors

0.001

Light Naphthas

0.001

Vacuum Overhead Vapors

0.002

~
i

Crude And Vacuum Liquids:

Crude Oil
250 to 350 OF
VELOCITY FTISEC

Oto250F
VELOCITY FTJSEC

i
i

<2

2-4

>4

<2

2-4

>4

DRY

0.003

0.002

0.002

0.003

0.002

0.002

SALT*

0.003

0.002

0.002

0.005

0.004

0.004

350 to 450 " F

VELOCITY FTISEC

450 F and over

VELOCITY FTISEC

<2

2-4

>4

12

2-4

>4

DRY

0.004

0.003

0.003

0.005

0.004

0.004

SALT*

0.006

0.005

0.005

0.007

0.006

0.006

*Assumes desalting @ approx. 250 " F

Gasoline

0.002

Naphtha And Light Distillates

0.002-0.003

Kerosene

0.002-0.003

Light Gas Oil

0.002-0.003

Heavy Gas Oil

0.003-0.005

Heavy Fuel Oils

0.005-0.007

Asphalt And Residuum:

Vacuum Tower Bottoms

0.010

Atmosphere Tower Bottoms

0.007

Cracking And Coking Unit Streams:

Overhead Vapors

0.002

Light Cycle Oil

0.002-0.003

Heavy Cycle Oil

0.003-0.004

Light Coker Gas Oil

0.003-0.004

Heavy Coker Gas Oil

0.004-0.005

Bottoms Slurry Oil (4.5 FtJSec Minimum)

0.003

Light Liquid Products

0.002

@TubularExchanger ManufacturersAssociation, Inc.

10-31

RECOMMENDED GOOD PRACTICE

SECTION 10

Fouling Resistances For Oil Refinery Streams- continued

r

Catalytic Reforming, HydrocrackingAnd Hydrodesulfurization Streams:

Reformer Charge

0.0015

Reformer Effluent

0.0015

Hydrocracker Charge And Effluent*

0.002

Recycle Gas

0.001

Hydrodesulfurization Charge And Effluent*

0.002

Overhead Vapors

0.001

Liquid Product Over 50 " A.P.I.

0.001

Liquid Product 30 50 " A.P.I.

0.002

*Depending on charge, characteristics and storage history, charge resistance may be many times this
value.
Light Ends Processing Streams:
Overhead Vapors And Gases

0.001

Liquid Products

0.001

Absorption Oils

0.002-0.003

Alkylation Trace Acid Streams

0.002

Reboiler Streams

0.002-0.003

Lube Oil Processing Streams:

Feed Stock

0.002

Solvent Feed Mix

0.002

Solvent

0.001

Extract*

0.003

Raffinate

0.001

Asphalt

0.005

Wax Slurries*

0.003

Refined Lube Oil

0.001

*Precautions must be taken to prevent wax deposition on cold tube walls.

Visbreaker:
Overhead Vapor

0.003

Visbreaker Bottoms

0.010

Naphtha Hydrotreater:
Feed

0.003

Effluent

0.002

Naphthas

0.002

Overhead Vapors

0.0015

@TubularExchanger Manufacturers Association, Inc.

RECOMMENDED GOOD PRACTICE

SECTION 10

Fouling Resistances for Oil Refinery Streams continued

Catalytic Hydro Desulfurizer:
Charge

0.004-0.005

Effluent

0.002

H.T. Sep. Overhead

0.002

Stripper Charge

0.003

Liquid Products

0.002

HF Alky Unit:
Alkylate, Deprop. Bottoms, Main Fract. Overhead Main Fract. Feed

0.003

All Other Process Streams

0.002

Fouling Resistances For Water

Temperature Of Heating Medium

I
Up To 240 " F

240 to 400 " F

125"F

Over 125 " F

Water Velocity FtJSec

Water Velocity Ft/Sec

Temperature Of Water

3 and Less

Over 3

3 and Less

Over 3

Sea Water

0.0005

0.0005

0.001

0.001

Brackish Water

0.002

0.001

0.003

0.002

Treated Make Up

0.001

0.001

0.002

0.002

Untreated

0.003

0.003

0.005

0.004

City Or Well Water

0.001

0.001

0.002

0.002

Minimum

0.002

0.001

0.003

0.002

Average

0.003

0.002

0.004

0.003

Muddy Or Silty

0.003

0.002

0.004

0.003

Hard (Over 15 GrainsIGal.)

0.003

0.003

0.005

0.005

Engine Jacket

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001

Condensate

0.0005

0.0005

0.0005

0.0005

Treated Boiler Feedwater

0.001

0.0005

0.001

0.001

Boiler Blowdown

0.002

0.002

0.002

0.002

Cooling Tower And Artificial

Spray Pond:

River Water:

Distilled Or Closed Cycle

If the heating medium temperature is over 400 " F and the cooling medium is known to scale, these ratings should
be modified accordingly.

@TubularExchanger Manufacturers Associatson, Inc.

10-33

3 / 88

H E AT E X C H A N G E R S

may be removable for ease of cleaning and replacement (floating-head or U-tube exchanger). In
addition, a number of different head and shell designs are commercially available as shown in
Figure 3.4.
The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) employs a three-letter code to specify
the front-end, shell, and rear-end types. For example, a fixed tube-sheet type BEM exchanger is

FRONT END
STATIONARY HEAD TYPES

REAR END
HEAD TYPES

SHELL TYPES

E
A

L
FIXED TUBESHEET
LIKE "A" STATIONARY HEAD

ONE PASS SHELL

CHANNEL
AND REMOVABLE COVER

M
FIXED TUBESHEET
LIKE "B" STATIONARY HEAD

TWO PASS SHELL

WITH LONGITUDINAL BAFFLE

B
N

FIXED TUBESHEET
LIKE "N" STATIONARY HEAD
SPLIT FLOW

BONNET (INTEGRAL COVER)

P
H
OUTSIDE PACKED FLOATING HEAD

REMOVABLE
TUBE
BUNDLE
ONLY

CHANNEL INTEGRAL WITH TUBESHEET AND REMOVABLE COVER

DOUBLE SPLIT FLOW

S
J

FLOATING HEAD
WITH BACKING DEVICE
DIVIDED FLOW

PULL THROUGH FLOATING HEAD

CHANNEL INTEGRAL WITH TUBESHEET AND REMOVABLE COVER

KETTLE TYPE REBOILER

U
U-TUBE BUNDLE

X
W
SPECIAL HGIH PRESSURE CLOSURE

CROSS FLOW

EXTERNALLY SEALED
FLOATING TUBE SHEET

Figure 3.4 TEMA designations for shell-and-tube exchangers (Source: Ref. [5]).