International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, Vol.

5 : 3 2 4 - 3 3 8 (1 9 9 5 )

Activity-induced Musculoskeletal Stress

Markers (MSM) and Subsistence
Strategy Changes among Ancient
Hudson Bay Eskimos
DIANE E. HAWKEY7 AND CHARLES F. MERBS
Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, Box 872402, Tempe,
AZ 85287-2402, USA

ABSTRACT

Although archaeological evidence may express the results of several seasons of activity, the
human skeleton, when correlated with archaeological and ethnographic data, provides
information concerning daily activities performed throughout an individuals lifetime. Studies in
occupational and sports medicine, along with electromyographic analysis of movement, have
shown that different activities place different amounts of stress on human bone. In the present
study, analysis of upper extremity musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) has been used to
clarify habitual activity patterns of two ancient Thule Eskimo groups from northwest Hudson
Bay, Canada. Distinct pattern differences in muscle use occurred between Thule adult males
and females and suggest possible gender-specific activity patterns that are not always
discernible from the archaeological record alone. Temporal applications of the MSM data for
Early and Late Period Thule support McCartneys theory of a substantial change in
subsistence strategies through time, particularly among the adult males.
Keywords: activity-induced stress markers; Eskimo; northwest Hudson Bay; subsistence

strategies.

Introduction
The daily life of ancient populations continues to
be of immense interest t o researchers. Although
demographic data can supply information on who
the people were and what they looked like, and
palaeopathological analysis can indicate what
went awry in a population, skeletal markers of
occupational stress (MOS) can clarify daily
activity patterns. More importantly, analysis of
activity-induced markers offers a unique way to
use osteological remains to independently test
hypotheses generated from archaeological data.
Although the term MOS includes a variety of
activity-induced changes produced by stress on
human bone, we use the term musculoskeletal
stress markers (MSM) to refer specifically to a
distinct skeletal mark that occurs where a muscle,
tendon or ligament inserts onto the periosteum
and into the underlying bony cortex. In general,
the periosteum is well vascularized, and the

ccc l047-482X/95/040324-15

0 1995 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

number of capillaries that supply the periosteum

increases when the muscle/tendon/ligament-bone
junctions are regularly subjected t o minor stress.
Osteon remodelling is stimulated by this
increased blood flow, and develops where there
is greatest muscular activity. Hypertrophy of
bone, in the form of a robust muscle attachment,
is the direct result of this increased stress, and
continual stress of a muscle in daily, repetitive
tasks creates a well-preserved skeletal record of an
individuals habitual activity patterns.
T h e use of MSM for habitual activity analysis
operates under the assumption that degree and
type of marker are related directly to the amount
and duration of habitual stress placed on a specific
muscle. The assumption that the data are
correlated with specific activities is based on a
wide variety of kinematic and electromyographic
studies performed in the past 50 years. Although
these studies have concentrated on the effect of
stress on muscle, more recent research in sports
Received $ 2 September 1994
Accepted $ 1 March $995

Musculoskeletal Stress Markers

medicine has examined the resultant stress pattern

left on the skeleton.2-4
Studies of activity-induced markers have been
well-documented
in
the
anthropological
literature. Kennedy' has chronicled more than
80 research studies that have used skeletal and
dental markers to determine habitual activities in
a variety of contexts, from fossil hominids to
modern forensic cases. Recent years have seen an
increase in the use of MSM analysis in historic
population^,^-'^ in which activities can be
correlated with written records. Another
promising area of research is the correlation of
the internal architecture of bone with musculoskeletal stress marker data; Berget and ChurchillI6
examined the robusticity and internal geometry
of Aleut humeri and found the results t o be
consistent with habitual behaviour patterns
reflected in MSM data.17,'8
Application of MSM data to test specific
archaeologically derived hypotheses in prehistory has been a relatively recent deve1 0 p m e n t . ' ~ -A
~ ~degreee of caution should be
exercised when attempting to test hypotheses
using small sample size skeletal series, particularly
because artefactual and modern ethnographic
information may not always correlate accurately
with the skeletal record.14 Ideal criteria for a
study of activity-induced changes in a population
must include not only a relatively large sample
size with good skeletal preservation, but also
three other factors: (i) a relatively narrow time
span, (ii) cultural and genetic isolation, and (iii) a
limited number of specialized, but known,
activities.22 The Thule culture/early historic
skeletal series from the sites of Silumiut and
Kamarvik, northwest Hudson Bay, meet these
minimum criteria.
Analysis of the upper extremity MSM of these
two Thule groups can clarify possible subsistence
strategy adjustments made as a result of increased
climatic deterioration in the Canadian Arctic after
AD 1200. Although Mathiassen28 identified
whale-hunting initially as the major subsistence
strategy
of the Classic Thule culture
(ca. AD 1000-historic contact), the degree of
whaling
activities
practised
by
specific
populations appears strongly correlated with
local environmental ~ o n d i t i o n s . ~ ~A- ~reduction
2
o f pack ice during a major climatic warming trend

325
during AD400-120033 originally led t o an
abundance of whales in Hudson Bay, and it is
believed 29,34-36 that the presence of bowhead
whales (Balaena mysticetus) first attracted Thule
populations into the region. But M ~ C a r t n e yhas
~~
suggested that the later climatic conditions of the
'Little Ice Age' (beginning after AD 1200) initiated
a major and abrupt change in subsistence
strategies among the later Thule people of the
area. Because Hudson Bay probably froze very
early in the season, summer pack ice would have
taken longer t o melt and whale migration into the
Bay region would have been limited. However,
the ringed seal (Pboca bispida), which breeds on
ice, is thought to have increased significantly
with the abundance of sea ice in the area.37 A
noticeable shift away from the active hunting and
utilization of the bowhead whale may then have
occurred because this strategy was no longer
economically advantageous.
Use of faunal data to interpret the earlier
utilization of bowhead whales may be somewhat
unreliable at eastern Canadian Arctic sites.3',38
Large mammalian fauna, such as whales, were
probably butchered at (or near) kill sites, with the
meat, blubber and skins transported back to
camp. Unfortunately, it is unlikely that these
items would be preserved in the archaeological
record. The whalebone and baleen found in Early
Period Thule sites were often removed and
reutilized by later Eskimo, also leading to an
underrepresentation of whale remains in earlier
northwest Hudson Bay sites.3'
McCartney, therefore, has based his view
primarily on settlement pattern evidence,
particularly the absence (after AD 1200) of semisubterranean winter houses composed of whale
bone, sod and stone. The possible lack of
bowhead whales, along with the abandonment
of the relatively large and stable winter base
camps, led McCartney to suggest that whale
hunting was no longer a reliable subsistence
strategy. Instead, he proposed that an increased
dependency on smaiIer sea mammals as the
primary subsistence source had occurred.
Cold temperatures appear t o have reached the
extreme in the area by the sixteenth century,37
along with an abundance of the sea-icedependent ringed seal. Maintenance of domed
snow houses on the ice during the winter months

D. E. Hawkey and C. F. Merbs

326

Table 1. Site, sex, and temporal breakdown of 136 Thule adults utilized for statistical analysis.
Silumiut

Early Thule (Classic Period)

Later Thule (TransitionallHistoric)
Total

Karnarvik

Total

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

39
5
44

39

25
6
31

22
0
22

64
11
75

61
0
61

39

would have enabled a more efficient exploitation

of the ringed seal when they surfaced at their
breathing hole ( a h ) locations. During the
summer, the Thule may have moved inland,
relying on migratory caribou, fish, birds and small
game.

Materials and methods

Our study utilized human skeletal material
recovered by the Northwest Hudson Bay Thule
Project ( 1967-1 969), and represents the most
extensive collection of human remains (n=318)
from the Thule culture currently available. T h e
remains were obtained from two large winter base
camp sites, Silumiut (KkJg-t), a small island
attached t o the mainland at low tide north of
Chesterfield Inlet (63'41'N, 9O0O5'W), and
Kamarvik (LeHv-t), a coastal site south of
Wager Bay on Roes Welcome Sound (64"45'N,
87" 1O'W). Both sites have an initial radiocarbon
corrected date of ca. AD 1205,29 and show
continued occupation into historic times.
A total of 318 skeletons from these two sites
were examined initially, but only 136 individuals
(43 per cent) were chosen for descriptive
statistical comparison (Table 1). A variety of
factors led to the exclusion of many of the
skeletal remains. T h e acidity of the soil ( p H 5.06.3) at the two sites affected skeletal preservation,
and those skeletons that were incomplete or
poorly preserved were excluded from our study.
Individuals with evidence of healed fractures or
severe degenerative joint disease were not
included, because these conditions could
increase the amount of stress placed on the
non-pathological side. Also excluded were adult
skeletons that could not be aged or sexed reliably.
Children and subadults were not considered for
analysis because the presence of secondary

osteons at subadult insertion sites appears t o

be independent of localized stress on the bone,
and may actually indicate continuity of musclebone attachment in a rapidly growing
skeleton.39
All upper extremity bones (clavicles, scapulae,
humeri, radii, ulnae) from the remaining
individuals were examined visually and scored
for MSM type and severity. T h e sample was then
subdivided by age, sex, and geographic location,
with individuals assigned a temporal category
based on McCartney's analysis of burial
artefacts.40 Dental morphological features and
craniometric evidence suggest a close phenetic
similarity between Kamarvik and S i l ~ m i u t , ~ ' , ~ ~
and because preliminary analysis indicated no
statistically significant differences between MSM
scores from either site (p<0.5),the samples were
combined. Although a gradual increase in
attachment robusticity was noted from young t o
middle to old adult, the differences were not
significant statistically, and all adult samples were
pooled. Bilateral expressions were scored and used
for analysis when possible, but the majority of
analysis focused on the right side, because intact
skeletons were not always recovered. Although
use of whichever side is available enables
maximum utilization of data, it would also
inadvertently skew the results.
For the Early Period Thule (Classic to
Transitional),
the
sample
size
(n= 125)
represented by a specific muscle attachment site
ranged from seven to 48 individuals, with an
average of 22 skeletons per site category. The
Later Period Thule (Transitional to Historic) were
represented by a considerably smaller sample
(n= 1 1), ranging from three t o eight males within
a specific muscle site category. N o Later Period
Thule females were available for MSM analysis.
Because MSM can vary in expression, a visual
reference system devised by the first author

Musculoskeletal Stress Markers

327

Figure 1. Robusticity category at the pectoralis majorinsertion site. Scores from left to right are: Absent 0, Rl=faint. The cortex
is only slightly rounded, and often not visible without viewing under a strong light. The elevation is, however, apparent to the
touch, although no distinct crests or ridges have formed. RS=rnoderate. The cortical surface is uneven, with a mound-shaped
elevation that is easily observable. No sharp ridges or crests have formed. RS=strong. Distinct, sharp crests or ridges have
formed. Often there may be a slight depression between two crests (especially noticeable between pecforalis major and feres
major insertions), but the depression does not extend into the coltex.

Figure 2. Robusticity category (tendinous attachment type) at the biceps brachii insertion site. Scores from left to right are:
R1=faint. There is a slight indentation at the site of attachment, but no well-defined sourrounding margin of bone. RP=moderate.
Roughening of the attachment site occurs, most often with well-defined surrounding margin of bone. R3=strong. Deep
indentation occurs with a clearly defined margin of bone. Usually the roughened area has developed crests of bone.

(DEH)ZOwas used for our study. Standardization

of the gross morphological expressions provided a
simple, consistent way t o score MSM type and
severity while using categories that were broad
enough t o account for individual variation in
tnuscle a t t ~ h m e n t . T h e ~ ~ ~ t hnot
o d only
establishes an identifiable threshold for each

score, but also eliminates total reliance on

observer experience. Inter- and intra-observer
error have proven negligible (p<0.5) in a variety
of studies'7,18,20,25,26utilizing this particular
method of scoring skeletal remains.
Three main categories were scored for MSM
expression, and within each category there are

D. E. Hawkey and C. F. Merbs

328

Figure 3. Stresss lesion category at the pectoralis majorinsertion site. Scores from left to right are: Sl=faint. There is a shallow
'furrow', a pitting into the cortex that has a lytic-like appearance. It is less than 1 mm in depth. SP=moderate. The pitting is
deeper and covers more surface area. It is greater than 1 mm, but less than 3 mm in depth. It may vary in length, but not longer
than 5 rnm. SS=strong. The pitting is marked, and greater than 3 rnm in depth, or more than 5 mm in length.

Figure 4. Ossification category on the humerus (various attachment sites). Scores from left to right are: OSl=faint. A slight
exostosis occurs, usually rounded in appearance, and extends less than 2 mm from the cortical surface. OSP=moderate. There
is a distinct exostosis, varied in shape, that extends more than 2 rnm, but less than 5 mm from the surface of the cortex. Two
examples of OSS=strong. The exostosis extends more than 5 mm from the surface of the bone, or else covers an extensive
amount of cortical surface.

four specific grades (see Figures 1-4). Absence of

expression is noted as grade=O.

Robusticity marker (Figure

1)

This category describes the normal reaction of

the skeleton to habitual muscle usage and reflects

daily activities that produce rugged markings at

the musculoskeletal site of attachment. It is seen
in its most extreme expression as sharp ridges, or
crests, of bone. A variation of the robusticity
category is seen at sites of tendinous attachment
to bone. A mesenchymal cell barrier (layers of
calcified and uncalcified hyaline cartilage)
between the tendon and bone prevents

Musculoskeletal Stress Markers

329

resorption o r formation of new bone at the Oss$cation exostosis (F$ure 4 )

attachment site.43 However, the areas immediately adjacent to the tendinous attachment do This particular type of MSM is due usually t o an
reflect the stress of muscular pull, as seen at the abrupt r n a c r ~ t r a u m a such
, ~ ~ as a muscle rupture
insertion of brucbialis on the radius (Figure 2). In that could result from a sudden fall on the ice.
part, the difference in MSM appearance reflects When a bone avulsion injury occurs, new bone
the larger area needed for muscle-to-bone formation may be incorporated into the ligament
attachment, because muscles have a lower or muscle tissue, and result in a exostosis, o r bony
tensile strength than tendons, and require a 'spur'.
more substantial attachment area t o prevent
rupture.44
Expression scores were assessed for statistical
analysis with the following numerical values:
O=no expression, 1 =robusticity grade 1 (faint),
2 =robusticity grade 2 (moderate), 3 =robusticity
grade 3 (strong), 4=stress lesion grade 1 (faint),
Stress lesion [Figure 3)
5=stress lesion grade 2 (moderate), and 6=stress
The stress lesion is defined here as a pitting, or lesion grade 3 (strong). Because ossification MSM
'furrow', into the cortex t o the degree that it are considered to be due t o abrupt macrotrauma,
superficially resembles a lytic lesion. There is and not to continual muscle use, they were
little in the literature to suggest the aetiology of analysed separately. Total weighted mean scores
this poorly understood MSM. Microscopic for both males and females were also calculated in
examination of the area affected reveals bone order to determine a statistical break-point
remodelling and is easily differentiated from post- between stronger and more moderate use of
mortem erosion. Because the stress lesion is also muscles within the specific samples. Those
isolated and non-random in nature (occurring muscles that were higher than the weighted
only at insertion sites), it is unlikely t o be disease- mean breakpoint were considered t o have been
related, such as seen in the inflammatory articular the most utilized; those below the breakpoint
lesions of ankylosing spondylitis.45 Instead, the were less utilized.
A total of 20 muscle insertion sites, three
stress lesion appears to be activity-induced as a
result of continual microtrauma at the attachment clavicular ligament insertion sites, and two
common muscle origin sites, were examined for
site.
A continuum often occurs between the each individual. Insertion sites were chosen
robusticity and stress lesion markers. Some because contraction of a muscle generalIy
individuals exhibit a combination of the produces the maximum amount of pull at its
strongest robusticity score (R3), and the faintest insertion.' Three ligaments (one sternoclavicular
stress lesion grade ( S l ) at a single insertion site, and two acromioclavicular) were of particular
suggesting a severe use pattern. When a muscle is interest in analysis of rotational shoulder
utilized beyond its intended capacity, it begins to movements. Because a total of four flexor
lose the ability to properly absorb stress.46 muscles originate from the medial epicondyle of
Histological evidence suggests further that the humerus, and four extensors from the lateral
prolonged and habitual tension can cause small epicondyle, both sites were considered t o be
muscle fibres to tear and reattach to the adequate, if not definitive, indicators of maximum
periosteum, disrupting the blood supply to the muscular pull.
bone.39,47,48 If the disruption is severe and
continuous, bone necrosis may occur.49 Bone
resorption also takes place at a much faster rate Results
than bone formation, and continual, daily
microtrauma would prevent the healing process Analyses of side use dominance within individuals
from successfully concluding, resulting in a deep who had more than ten bilateral attachment sites
pitting into the cortex.
present (n=25), indicate that 80 per cent of adults

D. E. Hawkey and C. F. Merbs

3 30
Table 2. MSM scores for 23 specific muscles, ranked from
most utilized to least utilized, for all Early Period adult Thule
males, right side.
MSM
score
4.24
3.44
3.17
2.41
2.10
2.09
2.07
2.00
2.00

Numberof
individuals Muscle/ligament utilized
17
40
36
16
44
17
29
32
24

Costoclavicular ligament
Teres major
Pectoralis major
Extensors, common origin
Deltoideus
Flexors, common origin
Brachialis
Biceps brachii
Subclavius

Location
Clavicle
Humerus
Humerus
Humerus
Humerus
Humerus
Ulna
Radius
Clavicle

..........................................
1.97
1.75
1.72
1.69
1.64
1.64
1.55
1.47
1.29
1.17
1.05
0.96
0.69
0.57

_ _ _ _

15
22
18
16
33
11
11
18
14
9
22
13
16
14

Trapezoid ligament
lnfraspinatus
Triceps brachii
Pronator teres
Latissimus dorsi
Supraspinatus
Conoid ligament
Anconeus
Supinator
Trapezius
Coracobrachialis
Pectoralis minor
Pronator quadratus
Teres minor

Clavicle
Humerus
Ulna
Radius
Humerus
Humerus
Clavicle
Ulna
Radius
Scapula
Humerus
Scapula
Radius
Humerus

=statistical break-point between stronger and more

moderate use of muscles.

body
size
dimorphism
and
resultant
biomechanical advantages involved in lever arm
movement. Although a paired t-test revealed
statistically significant differences (p<O.OO 1) for
a division of labour between males and females, a
painvise comparison of the differences in rank
order (Table 4) is a more preferable assessment of
the degree of specific muscle use differences.
When the rank order differences are combined
with evidence of the most utilized muscle groups,
several gender-specific activity patterns occur in
the Early Period northwest Hudson Bay Thule.
Females tended to utilize muscles primarily
involved in flexion/extension of the wrist and
elbow (flexors, extensors), extension of the
forearm (brachialis), adduction and rotation of
the arm forward and backward (deltoideus, in
conjunction with supinator, pectoralis major and teres
major), adduction of the arm (pectoralis major and
teres major), and actions drawing the arm across the
front of the chest (pectoralis major). Two main

Table 3. MSM scores for 23 specific muscles, ranked from

most utilized to least utilized, for all Early Period adult Thule
females, right side.
MSM
score

Numberof
individuals Musclelliaament utilized

Location

utilized the right side more than the left, with 8 3.40
35
Teres major
Humerus
Pectoralis major
Humerus
33
per cent exhibiting left side dominance. T h e 2.65
Costoclavicular ligament
Clavicle
2.13
16
remaining 12 per cent of the subset sample did 2.00
Brachialis
Ulna
32
not have a clear side preference. A similar pattern 2.00
Extensors, common origin Humerus
13
Deltoideus
Humerus
48
is seen in modern population^,^' who exhibit a 1.94
Flexors, common origin
Humerus
1.79
14
high percentage of right-handedness (90 per 1.67
Trapezoid ligament
Clavicle
18
cent) when compared with left side frequencies - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
( 8 per cent). Activity-induced pathology studies
Supraspinatus
Humerus
18
have also found a high percentage of right side 1.50
Subclavius
Clavicle
1.46
24
dominance among the Sadlermiut Eskimo of 1.44
Conoid ligament
Clavicle
18
14
Triceps brachii
Ulna
Southampton
Island'O and among Late 1.43
Anconeus
Ulna
1.43
15
Pleistocene Asiatic
lnfraspinatus
Humerus
1.38
20
12
Trapezius
Scapula
T h e activity-induced stress patterns in 1.33
Radius
i a Biceps brachii
skeletons from Kamarvik and Silumiut (Tables 2 1.31
Latissimus dorsi
Humerus
1.13
30
and 3) show a dichotomy of labour between the 1.08
Coracobrachialis
Humerus
20
7
Pectoralis minor
Scapula
sexes, consistent with ethnographic information 1.oo
Pronator teres
Radius
1.oo
11
obtained from historic Central Canadian Inuit 0.80
Supinator
Radius
15
(Eskimos)52-55 and modern Labrador Inuit.56 0.33
Teres minor
Humerus
9
Pronator quadratus
Radius
15
However, male/female MSM scores are not 0.07
always directly comparable, and may be _ _ _ _ =statistical break-point between stronger and more
influenced by a variety of factors, including moderate use of muscles.

331

Musculoskeletal Stress Markers

Table 4. Largest degrees of difference in rank order score
between Early Period adult Thule males and females.
Rank scorea
Muscle/liaament

Male

Female

Rank
difference

Biceps brachii
Pronator teres
Supraspinatus
Conoid ligament
Anconeus
Trapezius
Supinator
lnfraspinatus

15.5
11.0
9.5
8.0
7.0
5.0
6.0
13.0

8.0
4.5
15.0
13.0
11.5
9.0
3.0
10.0

7.5
6.5
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.0
3.0

"Bold face type indicates higher ranked and stronger usage.

Table 5. MSM scores for 19 specific muscles, ranked from

most utilized to least utilized, for all Later Period adult Thule
males, right side.
MSM Number of
score individuals

MuscleAigament
utilized

Location

5.29
3.86
3.50
2.17
2.13
2.00
2.00

Pectoralis major
Teres major
Costoclavicular ligament
Flexors, common origin
Deltoideus
Trapezoid ligament
Pronator teres

Humerus
Humerus
Clavicle
Humerus
Humerus
Clavicle
Radius

7
7
4
6
8
6

...........................................
1.80
1.57
1.50
1.40
1.25
1.20
1.10
1.00
1.00
0.75
1.67
0.00

5
7
6
5

lnfraspinatus
Latissmus dorsi
Brachialis
Conoid ligament
Supraspinatus
Pronator quadratus
Pectoralis minor
Subclavius
Coracobrachialis
Supinator
Trapezius
Teres minor

Humerus
Humerus
Utna
Clavicle
Humerus
Radius
Scapula
Clavicle
Humerus
Radius
Scapula
Humerus

4
activities consistent with these patterns of muscle
5
usage are repetitive tasks involved in the
5
preparation of animal skins for clothing, and
6
4
habitual activities involving rowing a boat,
4
possibly an umiak, in which oars were usually
3
attached t o the g ~ n w a l e s . 5 ~Unfortunately,
4
relatively few individuals ( n = I 1 ) could be _ _ _ statistical
break-point between stronger and more
identified conclusively as Later Period Thule, moderate use of muscles.
and all were males.
Pectoralis major, teres major, the costoclavicular (supination of the forearm), and teres minor
ligaments, flexors, and deltoideus (Table 5) (rotation of the arm outward), muscles
remained among the most utilized muscles, in consistent with launching a harpoon. T h e use of
both Early and Later Period males. When mean the costoclavicular ligament (associated with
differences greater than 0.5 (the equivalent of an kayaking) was also found t o decrease through
intermediate grade on the severity scale of 1-6) time.
were determined (Table 6 ) , the Later Thule
scores increased for pectoralis major (adductor and
Discussion
rotator of the arm, drawing the arm across the
chest), and pronator quadratus (pronation of the
Early Period Thuk Eskimo
forearm), two muscles that would be utilized
heavily when harpooning at a downward angle. Clothing Preparation
Artefactual finds at S i l ~ m i u tincluded
~~
ulus
Decreases in use were found to occur with
brachialis (bending the elbow), subclaoius (women's knives) and a variety of scrapers and
(lowering
the
shoulder
blade), supinator scraper blades, confirming that clothing

Table 6. Mean MSM differences (greater than 0.5 points) between Early and Late Period Thule adult males
Early Thule males

Later Thule males

Muscle/ligament

Mean

Mean

Mean differences

Pectoralis major
Subclavius
Costoclavicular ligament
Brachialis
Teres minor
Supinator
Pronator quadratus

3.17
2.00
4.24
2.07
0.57
1.29
0.69

36
24
17
29
14
14
16

5.29
1.oo
3.50
1.50
0.00
0.75
1.20

7
6
4
6
4
4
5

2.12
1.oo
0.74
0.57
0.57
0.54
0.51

332

Figure 5. Stress lesion MSM at the pectoralis major and teres

major insertion site, right humerus. Both MSM are grade 53
(strong expression).

preparation was an important habitual activity at

the site. Females would have utilized mainly the
wrist flexor muscles when cutting animal skins
with an ulu, whereas repeated flexion and
extension of the elbow would have been the
primary movements used when scraping skins to
remove hair. T h e supra spinatus muscle would have
played a role in the abduction of the arm, and
would have helped t o fix the humeral head in the
glenoid fossa, an action that is instrumental in
lifting relatively heavy objects. When seen in
conjunction with both pectoralis major and teres major
muscles, the pattern is suggestive of a habitual
action in which the arm is regularly held below a
90" horizontal angle with the humerus held
anteriorly adducted toward the chest, perhaps
holding heavy animal skins during the clothing
preparation process.

Umiak utilization
A less common female activity may have
involved the retroversion and lowering of both
arms consistent with rowing a boat. Although
Lyon5' noted an absence of umiaks in this region

D. E. Hawkey and C. F. Merbs

at the time of European contact, this may be due
t o the depletion of whales prior t o the
introduction of European and U.S. whalers into
the region,58 and it seems unlikely that the people
of Silumiut and Kamarvik had not made use of
this craft. Although termed a 'women's boat' the
umiak undoubtedly was utilized by both sexes for
a variety of purposes, including transportation of
salvaged whale bones t o winter camp sites for
house construction.38 However, it is unknown if
whale-hunting umiak crews included women,30
because religious taboos may have forbidden
females from active participation in whale hunting.59
When modern Labrador lnuit females use
wooden umiaks,60 the boats are rowed with
oars; male whale-hunting umiak crews, however,
use single-bladed paddles. Adult Thule females
were found to have used the muscles involved in
rowing activities bilaterally (pectoralis major, teres
major, deltoideus, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, triceps
brachii, anconeus, coracobrachialis, biceps brachii,
flexors, bracbialis and brachioradialis). Also of
interest is the extremely strong use of both
teres major (mean=3.40) and pectoralis major
(mean=2.65), which often scored into the stress
lesion category (Figure 5). This severe degree of
muscle usage indicates that a substantial amount
of stress was placed bilaterally on both humeri, a
form of microtrauma that would have been caused
by more strenuous, continual activity than the
actions involved in the animal skin preparation
process alone.

Evidence for kayak use

Although no archaeological evidence of kayaks
has been found at either Silumiut or Kamarvik,
this is not unusual given the fragile nature of
these skin boats. However, ethnographic
evidence of kayak use among eastern Canadian
Inuit, the Sadlermiut of Southampton I ~ l a n d , ~ ~ , ~ ~
and Labrador Eskimo,60 along with eastern and
central Thule artefacts depicting single-man
kayaks,30 lends credence to the utilization of
kayaks by the Hudson Bay Thule. Furthermore, a
common
Thule
open-sea
whale-hunting
technique used several single-man kayaks to
chase and harpoon the whales, followed and
assisted by crews in the slower moving, but
sturdier, ~ m i a k s . ~ ~ , 5 9
The highest MSM scores for the Early Period

Musculoskeletal Stress Markers

adult males occurred at three sites, the

costoclavicular ligament, pectoralis major, and teres
major, attachment sites consistent with the distinct
alternating, rotary movements performed when
kayaking with a double-bladed paddle. Pulling on
the paddle t o propel the kayak forward would
also involve the strenuous contraction of both
pectoralis major and teres major, with the
costoclavicular ligament preventing excessive
displacement of the clavicle during rapid and
repetitive movement of both arms. Adult males
with both clavicles and humeri present (n= 1 1)
displayed signs of heavy stress placed bilaterally
at these attachment sites. Other muscles utilized
in this action would include deltoideus (lifting the
paddle out of the water), extensors, flexors, biceps
bracbii, and triceps bracbii (straightening and
bending the elbow), all of which scored in the
strong or moderate use categories.
A distinct ?'-shaped stress lesion at the
costoclavicular ligament site, termed 'kayaker's
clavicIe',2 was observed to occur bilateralIy
among the northwest Hudson Bay males (Figure
6). The ligament would be most stressed during
the distinct rotary movement associated with
using a double-bladed paddle. A costoclavicular
sulcus was first noted by Houghton6' in New
Zealand skeletons and was attributed to the
actions involved in canoe paddling. Since that
time, the occurrence of either a sulcus or robust
attachment at the costoclavicular site has been
observed in other maritime populations, including
prehistoric
and
historic
Hawaiians,62
M i c r o n e ~ i a n s , ~ancient
~
A l e ~ t s , ~historic
~,~~
Hudson Bay trappers,8 and mariners on the
Mary R0se.1~Although these markers of stress
occur predominately in males, and in most cases
are attributed to the actions involved in paddling
movements, none of the samples appear t o
exhibit the distinct bilateral ?'-shape stress
lesion found in all the Early Period Thule males.
Analysis of prehistoric adult male remains from
the eastern Aleutian Islands suggests another
distinct kayak-use difference between the Aleut
and T h ~ l e . ' ~ Lower
,~~
extremity
MSM
comparisons indicate that Aleut males sat with
their legs laterally rotated at the hip and in full
extension, placing considerable bilateral stress on
the obturator extemus muscles. Thule males lacked
this pattern and may have kayaked while in a

333
kneeling position, similar to historic Koniag
Eskimos.

Later Period

Tbule Eskimo

Methods of hunting the ringed seal

The change in muscle usage from Early t o Late
Thule males may be understood best in
conjunction with the Silumiut faunal record.
Although the minimum number of individual
(MNI) counts for whales are unreliable, there was
an abundance of ringed seal remains (MNI=247)
recovered from S i l ~ m i u t .Both
~ ~ the modern
Grise Fiord Inuit65 and the North Alaska
Eskimo66 hunt the ringed seal by a variety of
methods, which are determined by local ice
conditions. During winter months, allu hunting
through the ice is a common method of sealing.
Men in North Alaska who still practice the
traditional methods of allu sealing utilize the
toggle harpoon head,66 similar t o the harpoon
heads recovered from both Silumiut and
Kamarvik. The MSM data collected for the
Later Period Thule support evidence for
increased allu hunting, because actions involved
in the forceful downward thrust of the harpoon
through the allu when the seal surfaced, would
involve primarily the strenuous use of pectoralis
major. Moreover, the differences in pectoralis major
use between Early and Late Thule males were
found to be significant statistically (p<0.5)when
tested with a t-test of independent measures,
utilizing pooled variance t o account for the
sample size differences.
Use of the composite bow
Although the artefactual remains of a variety of
arrowhead types and shafts were recovered at
Silumiut and Kamarvik, a comparison of the adult
Thule male MSM scores did not support the idea
that archery was a major hunting method for
large land mammals. Long-term, habitual use of
the bow and arrow would be apparent in a
dichotomized use of right and left arms. T h e left
arm would be extended, with the elbow
straightened (using triceps bracbii, anconeus, and
extensors), while the right elbow was flexed
(using flexors, biceps bracbii, and bracbioradialis), and
the right shoulder drawn backward (using trapezius

3 34

D. E. Hawkey and C. F. Merbs

Figure 6. 'Kayaker's clavicle' (KA-15 XIV-C:545). Bilateral stress lesion MSM occurring at the costoclavicular ligament insertion
site.

and latissimus dorsi). This distinctive pattern was

not observed in the eight males with complete
upper extremities present. Although remains of at
least 1 18 caribou (Rangfer tarandus) were
recovered at S i l ~ m i u t , ~ ~
pointed out
that summer co-operative hunting with a bow and
arrow would not be particularly profitable,
because caribou could be hunted more
efficiently in the inland lakes and rivers by
hunters utilizing kayaks and lances.

Conclusions
T h e MSM data from this study suggest that
discernible differences in muscle use exist
between Early Period Thule adult males and
females of northwest Hudson Bay. Although both
sexes continued t o lead an active, strenuous life
into old age, severe macrotrauma to the upper
extremity (in the form of ossification MSM)
apparently did not occur. However, daily,
continuous microtrauma at the attachment sites
(in the form of robusticity markers and stress
lesions) helped clarify possible gender-specific
activity patterns that were not always apparent
from the archaeological record alone.
A very high prevalence of activity-induced
stress lesions occurred among the Early Thule

females at insertion sites that were consistent

with the actions involved in rowing an umiak.
Although in the past the presence of umiaks in
Hudson Bay has been questioned, the skeletal
evidence suggests that the tasks of females in
northwest Hudson Bay may have been
somewhat underestimated. While females were
unlikely t o have actively participated in umiak
hunting crews (due to religious taboos), they
may have been partially responsible for family
transportation by umiak, and quite possibly
scavenged for whale bones along the shoreline,
bringing the remains back t o camp via this
large, skin boat.
Similarly, although physical evidence for kayaks
has been lacking from the archaeological record,
distinctive skeletal stress markers (i.e, 'kayaker's
clavicle', strong bilateral use of the muscles utilized
in paddling with a double-bladed paddle) indicate
that Early Period Thule males may have used the
kayak extensively. The question of its use in opensea whale hunting may be impossible to determine
from the MSM data alone, although the presence
of whale remains at the Early Period winter camps
strongly supports this possibility. Also of interest is
the absence of statistically significant MSM
diferences between the Early Kamarvik and
Silumiut skeletal series. Because both are large
winter camp sites, consisting of relatively large

335

Musculoskeletal Stress Markers

groups involved in similar activities, communal

whale hunting is certainly a possibility.
Temporal applications of the MSM data
support McCartney's theory of a substantial
change in subsistence strategies among the
northwest Hudson Bay Thule males, suggesting
that a variety of hunting methods were utilized
through time. An increase in caribou hunting may
have been practised by the Late Period Thule,
probably utilizing the kayak and spear thrust kill,
because a variety of lance heads were recovered at
S i l ~ m i u t Use
. ~ ~ of the composite bow and arrow
does not appear to have been a major form of
hunting among the Late Thule males, and may
have been used primarily for birds and small
game. Differing temporal methods of harpoon
utilization, and a decrease in kayak use, as
indicated by the skeletal evidence, suggests that
if open-sea hunting of whales had once been
practised, it was abandoned after the Early Period,
when a shift towards the exploitation of an
increased ringed seal population occurred.
Finally, the high prevalence of the activityinduced stress lesion accounted for the high
MSM scores for many of the muscle attachment
sites in both males and females. Although the
prehistoric Aleut exhibited strong bilateral
robusticity scores at the costoclavicular ligament
attachment sites, they lacked the stress lesion
'kayaker's clavicle' condition seen among the
Thule males. Two factors may explain the
discrepancy in MSM type: (i) preconditioning
to the rigours of kayaking at an early age, and (ii)
temperature/climatic change. Modern ethnographic evidence67 indicates that physical
training of young Aleut boys is an important
part of conditioning for the rigours of adulthood,
and may have helped to prevent damage to
muscle attachment sites. T h e greater degree of
microtraumatic stress lesions in the Thule sample
suggests that early preconditioning may not have
been a common practice among Thule males.
In addition, cold temperatures have been found
to accelerate musculoskeletal trauma68 owing to
vasoconstriction of the capillaries, an action that
lessens the supply of blood to the periosteum.
T h e Thule lived in a region where the current
(1931-1960) temperature can drop as low as
- 60 O F ( - 5 1 "C), with an average January wind
chill factor (KgCal/m2hr) of 1950, well below

the 1400 point where exposed flesh freezes.29

Conditions during the 'Little Ice Age' would have
been considerably colder. The added environmental stress, especially when viewed in
conjunction with the long, cold wait and rapid,
sudden movements involved in harpooning seals
by the allu method, might well explain the
remarkably high MSM score for the pectoralis
major muscle found among the later Thule males.
Apparently, local climatic deterioration had a
significant effect not only on temporal subsistence strategies, but on the human skeleton as
well.

Acknowledgements
The authors thank Kenneth A. R. Kennedy, Mary W.
Marzke, Christy G. Turner 11, and the anonymous
reviewers, for their comments and suggestions. In
addition, we wish to thank the Archaeological Survey
of Canada, Canadian Museum of Civilization, O t t a w d
Hull, for the opportunity to study the skeletal series.

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