International Migration Theories

The article provides with a theoretical framework for understanding migration phenomenon. It
appraises both the micro- and macro- levels theories.
Since the article is more of a descriptive character than all others coming in the nearest future, I shall
do my best to focus on primary assumptions of the most popular theories of international migration
and present them as synthetic as possible :-)
There is no single theory widely accepted by social scientists when it comes to migration
phenomenon as research of migration is intrinsically interdisciplinary. It involves sociology, political
science, law, economics, demography, geography, psychology and cultural studies (Brettel C. and
Hollified J. F., 2000)
Ernest Ravenstein is regarded as the earliest migration theorist. Ravenstein used census data from
England and Wales and examined them. The conclusions were presented in chapter Laws of
Migration in Coming to America. He assumed that migration is closely connected with "push-pull"
factors. Both push factors such as low wages, high unemployment rates, lack of health care and pull
factors such as: high wages, low unemployment incline people towards leaving their countries of
residence. In other words, the primary cause for migration is better external economic opportunities
(Daugherty H. G and Kammeyer K. W.1995, Bodvarsson ,Van den Berg H. 2009).
Many theorists as Allen Jones in American Immigration, Alan Kraut in The Huddled Masses and
Thomas Archdeacon in Becoming American followed Ravensteins conviction of new era in
immigration history and started dealing with the question of how people came to the United States
and how it influenced the population and society in the United States (Brettell C.B and Hollifield J. F.,
2000).
The most important of current theories explaining why international migration begins are: the
neoclassical economics theory, the new economics of migration theory, segmented labor market
theory, historical-structural theory and the world system theory. Social Capital Theory is a theoretical
model explaining perpetuation of International Movement.
Neoclassical Economics: Macro-Theory is probably the best-known approach presenting sources of
international migration. It arose from the theoretical model explaining internal labor migration in the
face of economic development (Corry 1996, Harris and Todaro 1970). According to the theory
assumptions:
1) The main cause of labor migration are differences in wages between a sending-country and a
receiving country. In other words, wage differentials elimination will end international migration of
workers and migrants will not migrate if such differentials do not exist.
2) International labor migration is influenced by labor market mechanisms. It means that other kinds
of markets (insurance market, capital market) do not have an important effect on the international
flows of workers
3) The international labor migration can be controlled by the government through regulating labor
markets in both sending and receiving countries ( D. S Massey, 2005)
Neoclassical Economics: Micro-Theory arose in response to a macroeconomic model.Following
assumptions are characteristic of the above-mentioned theoretical model:
1) Rational individuals migrate because having calculated costs and benefits they come to the
conclusion that they receive the positive net return from movement. In other words migrants estimate
the cost and the benefit of moving and migrate to that country where expected net returns are
greater than in the country of origin (Borjas, 1990).
2) Migrants estimate net returns in each future period by taking the observed earnings and
multiplying them by probability of obtaining a job in the destination country to obtain expected
destination earnings

3) The policies that affect expected earnings in sending and receiving countries can influence the
size of migration flows (D.S Massey 2005)
The New Economics of Migration is a theoretical model that has arisen in response to the
neoclassical theory (Stark and Boom, 1985). According to that model:
1) Families, households and other culturally defined units of production and consumption are those
who count in analysis for migration research (not individuals)
2) A wage differential is not a necessary condition for making a decision about migration to other
country
3) International migration does not necessarily stop when differences in wages disappear. Conviction
of migration rightness will exist if other markets in the country of origin such as: insurance market,
capital market, consumer credit market ect. are absent or imperfect
4) Governments are able to change the size of migration flows through regulating labor markets and,
in case they do not exist or are imperfect, all markets mention above.
Dual (or Segmented) Labor Market Theory shows the importance of institutional factors as well as
race and gender in occurring labor market segmentation (Castle and Miller 2009). According to
Michael Piores conclusions presented in the Birds of Passage: Migrant Labour and Industrial
Societies the main cause of international migration is a structural demand within advanced
economies for both highly skilled and lower skilled workers. Ipso facto migration is not caused by
push factors in sending countries but by pull factors in receiving countries (Piore, 1979). According to
the theorists:
1) International labor migration is largely demanded-based and takes its beginning from recruitment
by employers in developed societies or by governments acting on their behalf
2) Because the demand for workers from other countries is structurally built into needs of the
economy and is expressed through recruitment practice rather than wage offers, differences in
international wages are neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for arising and existing
migration of labor workers.
3) Governments are able to influence international migration but only through major changes in
economic organization (Castles and Miller, 2009)
Alternative models of explanation international migration phenomenon are called HistoricalStructural Theory and World System Theory respectively.
History-Structural theorists claim that international migration is caused by unequal distribution of
political and economic power in the world economy (Castles and Miller).
The Worlds System Theory argues that penetration of capitalist economic relations into noncapitalist or pre-capitalist societies creates a mobile population that can easily make a decision to
migrate (D.S. Massey, 2009).
The last theory to present is called the Social Capital Theory. It is a theoretical model explaining
international migration through presenting a concept of migrant networks. According to this
approach:
1) International migration expands until network connections are wide enough that all people who
wish to migrate to that country can do so without difficulties
2) The correlations between wage differentials or employment rates and migration flows hardly exist
3) Controlling migration in the light of that approach is very difficult as migrants network are created
outside the country and occurs irrespective of policies pursued (Casles and Miller, 2009).
In my articles I dont adopt one theoretical model. I try to analyze international migration taking under
consideration all above-mentioned perspectives as in my opinion, despite different assumptions and
hypotheses, international migration theories are not contradictory.

Bibliography:
1) Bilsborrow R. E., Oberai A. S., Standing G.,1984, World Employment Programme, Migration
surveys in low income countries: guidelines for survey and questionnaire design.
2) Bodvarsson .,Van den Berg H., 2009,The Economics of Immigration: Theory and Policy.
3) Brettel C. B, Hollified J. F, 2000, Migration Theory: Talking Across Discpiplines.
4) Borjas G.J. 1990, Friends and Starnrers: The Impact of Immigration on the Economy
5) Corry D., 1996, Economics and European Union migration Policy.
6) Daugherty H. G., Kammeyer K. W.,1995, An introduction to population.
7) Harris J. R. , Todaro M. P, 1970, Migration, Unemployment and Developement: a two-sector
analysis.
8) Piore M., 1979, Birds of Passage: Migrant Labour and Industrial Societies, Cambridge University
Press.
9) Stalker P, 1994, The Work of Strangers: A Survey of International Labour Migration, International
Labour Office, Geneva.
10) Stark O. , Bloom D. E. The new economics of labour migration, American Economics Review,
75:173-8.

Theories for migration for work in the 21st century[edit source | editbeta]
Overview[edit source | editbeta]
Migration for work in the 21st century has become a popular way for individuals from impoverished
developing countries to obtain sufficient income for survival. This income is sent home to family members
in the form of remittances and has become an economic staple in a number of developing countries.
[24]
There are a number of theories to explain the international flow of capital and people from one country
to another.[25]

Neoclassical economic theory[edit source | editbeta]

This is the newest theory of migration and states that the main reason for labor migration is wage
difference between two geographic locations. These wage differences are usually linked to geographic
labor demand and supply. It can be said that areas with a shortage of labor but an excess of capital have
a high relative wage while areas with a high labor supply and a dearth of capital have a low relative wage.
Labor tends to flow from low-wage areas to high-wage areas. Often, with this flow of labor comes
changes in the sending as well as the receiving country. Neoclassical economic theory is best used to
describe transnational migration, because it is not confined by international immigration laws and similar
governmental regulations.[25]

Dual labor market theory[edit source | editbeta]

Dual labor market theory states that migration is mainly caused by pull factors in more developed
countries. This theory assumes that the labor markets in these developed countries consist of two
segments: primary, which requires high-skilled labor, and secondary, which is very labor-intensive but
requires low-skilled workers. This theory assumes that migration from less developed countries into more
developed countries is a result of a pull created by a need for labor in the developed countries in their
secondary market. Migrant workers are needed to fill the lowest rung of the labor market because the
native laborers do not want to do these jobs as they present a lack of mobility. This creates a need for
migrant workers. Furthermore, the initial dearth in available labor pushes wages up, making migration
even more enticing.[25]

The new economics of labor migration[edit source | editbeta]

This theory states that migration flows and patterns cannot be explained solely at the level of individual
workers and their economic incentives, but that wider social entities must be considered as well. One
such social entity is the household. Migration can be viewed as a result of risk aversion on the part of a
household that has insufficient income. The household, in this case, is in need of extra capital that can be
achieved through remittances sent back by family members who participate in migrant labor abroad.
These remittances can also have a broader effect on the economy of the sending country as a whole as
they bring in capital.[25] Recent research has examined a decline in U.S. interstate migration from 1991 to
2011, theorizing that the reduced interstate migration is due to a decline in the geographic specificity of
occupations and an increase in workers ability to learn about other locations before moving there,
through both information technology and inexpensive travel. [26] Other researchers find that the locationspecific nature of housing is more important than moving costs in determining labor reallocation. [27]

Relative deprivation theory[edit source | editbeta]

Relative deprivation theory states that awareness of the income difference between neighbors or other
households in the migrant-sending community is an important factor in migration. The incentive to migrate
is a lot higher in areas that have a high level of economic inequality. In the short run, remittances may
increase inequality, but in the long run, they may actually decrease it. There are two stages of migration
for a worker: first, they invest in human capital formation, and then they try to capitalize on their
investments. In this way, successful migrants may use their new capital to provide for better schooling for
their children and better homes for their families. Successful high-skilled emigrants may serve as an
example for neighbors and potential migrants who hope to achieve that level of success. [25]

World systems theory[edit source | editbeta]

World systems theory looks at migration from a global perspective. It explains that interaction between
different societies can be an important factor in social change within societies. Trade with one country,
which causes economic decline in another, may create incentive to migrate to a country with a more
vibrant economy. It can be argued that even after decolonization, the economic dependence of former
colonies still remains on mother countries. This view of international trade is controversial, however, and
some argue that free trade can actually reduce migration between developing and developed countries. It
can be argued that the developed countries import labor-intensive goods, which causes an increase in
employment of unskilled workers in the less developed countries, decreasing the outflow of migrant
workers. The export of capital-intensive goods from rich countries to poor countries also equalizes income
and employment conditions, thus also slowing migration. In either direction, this theory can be used to
explain migration between countries that are geographically far apart. [25]

Historical theories[edit source | editbeta]

Ravenstein[edit source | editbeta]
Certain laws of social science have been proposed to describe human migration. The following was a
standard list after Ravenstein's proposals during the time frame of 1834 to 1913 ( these are
Ravenstein's date of birth and death, not the time frame of his proposal).his proporsal of this was in
1880s. The laws are as follows:
1. every migration flow generates a return or countermigration.

2. the majority of migrants move a short distance.

3. migrants who move longer distances tend to choose big-city destinations.
4. urban residents are often less migratory than inhabitants of rural areas.
5. families are less likely to make international moves than young adults.
6. most migrants are adults.
7. large towns grow by migration rather than natural increase.
1. Migration stage by stage
2. Urban Rural difference
3. Migration and Technology
4. Economic condition
Lee's laws divides factors causing migrations into two groups of factors: push and pull factors. Push
factors are things that are unfavourable about the area that one lives in, and pull factors are things that
attract one to another area.[28]
Push Factors

Not enough jobs

Few opportunities

Primitive conditions

Desertification

Famine or drought

Political fear or persecution

Slavery or forced labour

Poor medical care

Loss of wealth

Natural disasters

Death threats

Lack of political or religious freedom

Pollution

Poor housing

Landlord/tenant issues

Bullying

Discrimination

Poor chances of marrying

Condemned housing (radon gas, etc.)

War

Pull Factors

Job opportunities

Better living conditions

Political and/or religious freedom

Enjoyment

Education

Better medical care

Attractive climates

Security

Family links

Industry

Better chances of marrying

See also article by Grkan elik, in Turkish Review: Turkey Pulls, The Netherlands Pushes? An
increasing number of Turks, the Netherlands largest ethnic minority, are beginning to return to Turkey,

taking with them the education and skills they have acquired abroad, as the Netherlands faces challenges
from economic difficulties, social tension and increasingly powerful far-right parties. At the same time
Turkeys political, social and economic conditions have been improving, making returning home all the
more appealing for Turks at large. (pp. 9499)

Climate cycles[edit source | editbeta]

The modern field of climate history suggests that the successive waves of Eurasian nomadic movement
throughout history have had their origins in climatic cycles, which have expanded or contracted
pastureland in Central Asia, especially Mongolia and the Altai. People were displaced from their home
ground by other tribes trying to find land that could be grazed by essential flocks, each group pushing the
next further to the south and west, into the highlands of Anatolia, the Pannonian Plain,
into Mesopotamia or southwards, into the rich pastures of China. Bogumil Terminski uses the term
"migratory domino effect" to describe this process in the context of Sea People invasion. [29]

Other models[edit source | editbeta]

Migration occurs because individuals search for food, sex and security outside their usual
habitation.[30] Idyorough is of the view that towns and cities are a creation of the human struggle to
obtain food, sex and security. To produce food, security and reproduction, human beings must, out of
necessity, move out of their usual habitation and enter into indispensable social relationships that are
cooperative or antagonistic. Human beings also develop the tools and equipment to enable them to
interact with nature to produce the desired food and security. The improved relationship (cooperative
relationships) among human beings and improved technology further conditioned by the push and
pull factors all interact together to cause or bring about migration and higher concentration of
individuals into towns and cities. The higher the technology of production of food and security and the
higher the cooperative relationship among human beings in the production of food and security and in
the reproduction of the human species, the higher would be the push and pull factors in the migration
and concentration of human beings in towns and cities. Countryside, towns and cities do not just exist
but they do so to meet the human basic needs of food, security and the reproduction of the human
species. Therefore, migration occurs because individuals search for food, sex and security outside
their usual habitation. Social services in the towns and cities are provided to meet these basic needs
for human survival and pleasure.

Zipf's Inverse distance law (1956)

Gravity model of migration and the friction of distance

Buffer Theory

Stouffer's theory of intervening opportunities (1940)

Zelinsky's mobility transition model (1971)

Bauder's regulation of labor markets (2006) "suggests that the international migration of workers
is necessary for the survival of industrialized economies...[It] turns the conventional view of

international migration on its head: it investigates how migration regulates labor markets, rather than
labor markets shaping migration flows."[31]

Return migration
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Return migration might refer to:

Repatriation, the voluntary or involuntary return of travellers and migrants to their place of origin

Circular migration, a phenomenon in human migration in which migrants repeatedly travel between
origin and destination countries

Reverse migration, a phenomenon in bird migration in which young birds travel exactly opposite to
their correct route

Remigration, see article by Grkan elik, in Turkish Review: Turkey Pulls, The Netherlands
Pushes. An increasing number of Turks, the Netherlands largest ethnic minority, are beginning to return to
Turkey, taking with them the education and skills they have acquired abroad, as the Netherlands faces
challenges from economic difficulties, social tension and increasingly powerful far-right parties. At the
same time Turkeys political, social and economic conditions have been improving, making returning home
all the more appealing for Turks at large (pp.94-99).

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-humansciences/resources/periodicals/diversities/past-issues/vol-6-no-2-2004/theorisingreturn-migration-the-conceptual-approach-to-return-migrants-revisited/