Biol Trace Elem Res (2010) 136:337354

DOI 10.1007/s12011-009-8553-0

Prophylactic Efficacy of Coriandrum sativum (Coriander)

on Testis of Lead-Exposed Mice
Veena Sharma & Leena Kansal & Arti Sharma

Received: 5 September 2009 / Accepted: 14 October 2009 /

Published online: 10 November 2009
# Humana Press Inc. 2009

Abstract Lead poisoning is a worldwide health problem, and its treatment is under
investigation. The aim of this study was to access the efficacy of Coriandrum sativum
(coriander) in reducing lead-induced changes in mice testis. Animal exposed to lead nitrate
showed significant decrease in testicular SOD, CAT, GSH, total protein, and tissue lead
level. This was accompanied by simultaneous increase in the activities of LPO, AST, ALT,
ACP, ALP, and cholesterol level. Serum testosterone level and sperm density were
suppressed in lead-treated group compared with the control. These influences of lead were
prevented by concurrent daily administration of C. sativum extracts to some extent. Treating
albino mice with lead-induced various histological changes in the testis and treatment with
coriander led to an improvement in the histological testis picture. The results thus led us to
conclude that administration of C. sativum significantly protects against lead-induced
oxidative stress. Further work need to be done to isolate and purify the active principle
involved in the antioxidant activity of this plant.
Keywords Coriandrum sativum . Testis . Lead nitrate . Histology . Mice

Introduction
Coriandrum sativum (common name: coriander), belonging to family Umbelliferae, is an
herb that is widely cultivated in India and is recognized for its carminative and cooling
properties [1]. Both the leaves and seeds of the plant are used for medicinal purpose.
Coriander contains many active principles, primarily isocoumarines [2], and the most
important one is coriandrin. In the field of alternative medicine, coriander has immense
value for the treatment of abdominal problems, especially stomach ulcers. The
hypotensive [3] and hypoglycemic [4] properties of coriander have already been
recognized. The ability of coriander to increase levels of antioxidant enzymes and to
V. Sharma (*) : L. Kansal : A. Sharma
Bioscience and Biotechnology Department, Banasthali University, District Tonk, Banasthali 304022
Rajasthan, India
e-mail: [email protected]

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Sharma et al.

manipulate lipid metabolism have also been reported [5, 6]. In Ayurvedic literature, the
regular use of the decotation of the seeds of coriander is considered to be effective in
lowering blood lipid levels [1]. It has also been speculated that Chinese parsley may
enhance the excretion of heavy metals in the urine of patients with various infections and
augments the efficacy of antibiotics [7, 8].
Of all the heavy metals that contaminate the environment and pose hazards to public
health, lead has been of major concern. Lead is an environmental pollutant and metabolic
poison with a variety of toxic effects, among which is its adverse influence on reproduction
[9]. Numerous studies [913] over the year have investigated the detrimental effects of lead
on reproductive function. Many studies have shown that reproductive toxicity is an
important feature of lead toxicity [1416]. During lead exposure, it accumulates in testis in
a dose-dependent manner [14, 15]. Lead toxicity induces a significant increase in apoptotic
cell death in seminiferous tubules of young growing rats [14]. It is also associated with
disruption of spermatogenesis and histoarchitecture and lowered enzyme activities in testis
[15]. A direct testicular toxicity may occur via the hypothalamicpituitarytesticular axis
[17, 18].
Recent studies have proposed that one possible mechanism of lead toxicity is the
disturbance of prooxidant and antioxidant balance by generation of reactive oxygen species
(ROS) [19, 20]. This can evoke the oxidative damage of critical biomolecules such as
lipids, proteins, and DNA. It has been also reported that lead exposure has a dose-response
relationship with changes in antioxidant enzyme levels and their activities [21]. These
enzymes include superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase
(GPx), expressions of which were found to be changed in animals and in workers exposed
to lead [2224].
Present investigation attempts to reveal the efficacy of the extracts of C. sativum if any,
in the regulation of lead toxicity.

Material and Methods

Chemicals
Lead nitrate was purchased from Central Drug House (India). All other chemicals used in
the study were of analytical reagent and obtained from Sisco Research Laboratories (India),
Qualigens (India/ Germany), SD fine chemicals (India), HIMEDIA (India), and Central
Drug House (India).
Experimental Plant
The plant C. sativum (seeds) was collected from Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Banasthali
University, Rajasthan, India, and was identified as an RCR 435 variety. Coriander seeds
contain moisture (6.3%), protein (1117%), volatile oil (0.3%), nonvolatile ether extract
(22%), ether extract (19.6%), crude fiber (31.5%), carbohydrates (24%), ash (5.3%),
calcium (0.08%), phosphorus (0.44%), sodium (0.02%), potassium (1.2%), vitamin B1
(0.26 mg/100 g), vitamin B2 (0.23 mg/100 mg), niacin (3.2 mg/100 g), vitamin C (ascorbic
acid; 12 mg/ 100 g), vitamin A (175 IU/100 g), flavonoid glycosides (26%) [25], and
essential oil linalool (6080%), alpha-pinene (0.28.5%), gamma-terpinene (18%),
geranylacetate (0.14.7%), camphor (1.4%), and geraniol (1.24.6%) [3]. Aqueous and
alcoholic coriander extracts were prepared for the experimental purpose.

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339

Preparation of Aqueous Extract of C. sativum

Dried coriander seeds were ground to a fine powder, of which 100 g were added to 500 ml
distilled water. After 24 h, maceration was done at room temperature (37C); the mixture
was then heated for 30 min in the water bath at 65C. The extract was filtered, concentrated
by heating over the water bath (65C) and dried under vacuum [26] with the yield of 5.9%
(w/w). The extract was stored at 4C and used to treat animals as needed.
Preparation of Alcoholic Extraction of C. sativum
The dried and powered seeds (200 g) were extracted successively with ethanol (800 ml) in a
soxhlet extractor for 48 h at 60C. After extraction, the solvent was evaporated to dryness at
5055C by using a rotary evaporator, and the extract left behind (yield was 9.8%) was
stored at 4C. It was dissolved in distilled water whenever needed for experiments.
Animals and Treatment
Male Swiss albino mice (Mus musculus) weighing 1530 g (22.5 months old) were
obtained from Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar (India), for experimental purpose.
The animals were acclimatized for 1525 days prior to experiment. The Institutional
Animal Ethical Committee has approved the animal studies. Colony-bred adult male albino
mice were maintained under standard laboratory conditions at a temperature of 25C3C,
relative humidity of 50%15%, and photoperiod of 12 h (12 h-light and 12 h-dark cycle).
The mice were housed in polypropylene cages. Animals had free access to standard food
pellet diet (Hindustan Lever Limited; metal contents in parts per million dry weight: Cu
10.0, Zn 45.0, Mn 55.0, Co 5.0, Fe 75.0) and drinking water ad libitum throughout the
study. Essential cleanliness and, to the best extent, sterile conditions were also adopted
according to SPF facilities.
Experimental Design
Adult Swiss albino male mice were divided into six groups of 12 mice each and treated by
oral gavage as follows:
Group I- Control (normal, untreated), received distilled water;
Group II- Lead nitrate treated group, received freshly dissolved Pb(NO3)2 in 1 ml distilled
water at a dose of 40 mg/kg body weight per day for 40 days;
Group III- After exposure to lead nitrate (40 mg/kg body weight per day for 7 days),
the animals received 1 ml of aqueous coriander extract at a dose of
300 mg/kg body weight per day and lead nitrate simultaneously for
33 days;
Group IV- After exposure to lead nitrate (40 mg/kg body weight per day for 7 days),
the animals received 1 ml of aqueous coriander extract at a dose of
600 mg/kg body weight per day and lead nitrate simultaneously for
33 days;
Group V- After exposure to lead nitrate (40 mg/kg body weight per day for 7 days),
the animals received 1 ml of ethanolic coriander extract at a dose of
250 mg/kg body weight per day and lead nitrate simultaneously for
33 days;

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Sharma et al.

Group VI- After exposure to lead nitrate (40 mg/kg body weight per day for 7 days), the
animals received 1 ml of ethanolic coriander extract at a dose of 500 mg/kg
body weight per day and lead nitrate simultaneously for 33 days;

The concentration of lead nitrate used in the experiment was 1/56 of LD50 [27]. The dose for
lead nitrate was decided on the basis of previously performed experiments in our own
laboratory. The plant doses were selected on the basis of experiments conducted in our own
laboratory and on the basis of earlier published reports [28]. After the administration of the
last dose, the animals were given a 1-day rest and killed under light chloroform anesthesia.
Blood was collected for serum. The testis tissue was excised and divided into two parts; half a
portion of the testis from each animal was processed for biochemical variables and
histological analysis and the other half portion of testis was stored at 20C before wet acid
digestion with HNO3 for lead estimation.
Preparation of Testis Homogenate
Testes were sliced into pieces and homogenized with a blender in ice-cold 0.1 M sodium
phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) at 14C to give 10% homogenate (w/v). The homogenates were
centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 1520 min at 4C twice to get enzyme fraction. The resulting
supernatants were separated and used for various biochemical estimations as depicted below:
Biochemical Assays
Lipid peroxidation (LPO) was estimated by thiobarbituric acid reaction with malondialdehyde (MDA), a product formed due to the peroxidation of membrane lipids as described
earlier by Nwanjo and Ojiako [29]. The testicular SOD activity was assayed according to
the method of Marklund and Marklund [30]. CAT activity was assayed following the
procedure of Aebi [31]. Glutathione (GSH) content was determined by the method of
Ellman [32]. Activities of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase
(ALT) were assayed by the method of Reitman and Frankel [33]. Activities of acid
phosphatase (ACP) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were determined according to the
protocol described in the laboratory practical manual by Sadashivam [34]. The protein
content was determined by using bovine serum albumin as a standard by the method of
Lowry et al. [35]. The cholesterol level was determined by using cholesterol as a standard
by the method of Zak's [36].
Determination of Testosterone Level
Serum level of testosterone was assayed following the standard protocol as supplied
through the respective ELISA kit.
Sperm Density
Sperm density was determined in testis according to the method given in modern
experimental Zoology book of Gupta and Chaturvedi [37]. To 100 mg of the tissue (testis),
2 ml of normal saline was added. Then it was teased with a needle. In brief, 0.05 ml of this
tissue was taken and diluted with NaHCO3 up to 11 marks on WBC pipette. Then, one drop
was put on the already focused slide, and sperms were counted in 16 squares.

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341

Metal Estimation
Lead concentration in testis was measured after wet acid digestion. Lead was estimated
using a hydride vapor generation system (model MHS-10, Perkin Elmer) fitted with an
atomic absorption spectrophotometer (model A Analyst 100, Perkin Elmer).
Histological Analysis
Testes were removed, washed in saline, and fixed in 10% formalin at room temperature for
72 h. After fixing the tissue, it was thoroughly washed under running water and dehydrated
in ascending grades of ethyl alcohol, cleared, and then embedded in soft paraffin. Tissue
sections of about 6m were obtained, stained by hematoxylin and eosin, and examined
under light microscope.
Statistical Analysis
Data are expressed as the meanSEM. The data were analyzed using the Statistical Package
for Social Science program (SPSS 11). Statistical analysis was done using analysis of
variance followed by Tukey's test, and the level of significance was set at p<0.05.

Results
Lipid Peroxidation, Antioxidant Enzymes and GSH Level
Table 1 illustrates the effect of lead nitrate alone, and effect of treatment with C. sativum
extracts individually during lead nitrate exposure on lipid peroxidation, activity of
antioxidant enzymes (SOD and CAT), and level of nonantioxidant enzyme (GSH) in
control and experimental groups of animals.
The level of lipid peroxidation was significantly higher (p<0.001) in lead-treated
animals (group II) than that of normal untreated mice. Whereas, significant decrease (p<
0.001) in testis SOD, CAT activity, and GSH content of mice were observed in lead nitratetreated animals as compared with control group. After the treatment with aqueous coriander
extract, a significant decrease (p<0.001 for both low- and high-dose groups) in the level of
LPO was observed in comparison to lead nitrate-treated group. Administration of ethanolic
extract of plant to animals also improved LPO level as compared with lead group (p<0.001
for both low- and high-dose groups).
In comparison to lead-exposed group, administration of aqueous and ethanolic coriander
extract at low and high doses improved SOD and GSH content insignificantly (p>0.05).
However, at a high dose of aqueous coriander extract, CAT activity increased significantly
(p<0.05), but, in low-dose treated group, it increased insignificantly (p>0.05) in
comparison to the lead-treated group. With ethanolic extract of coriander, CAT activity
was also recovered in animal groups V and VI when compared with group II (p<0.001 for
both low and high doses).
Biochemical Parameters
Table 2 represents the effect of lead nitrate alone and effect of treatment with C. sativum
extracts individually during lead nitrate exposure on some biochemical parameters such as

37.210.81

2.550.15

CAT, moles of
H2O2
degraded/min/
mg protein

GSH, mg/g
tissue

1.760.15* (30.98%)

24.940.36* (32.97%)

0.890.02 (20.53%)

***

p<0.05 compared with lead-exposed animals

p<0.001 compared with lead-exposed animals

p<0.001 compared with normal animals

**

Values are MeanSEM; n=12

1.120.03

SOD, unit/ml of
tissue extract

110.394.44

LPO (MDA
formed
nmole/g

Group III Lead

Nitrate+aqueous
Coriander Extract,
Low Dose

Group IV Lead
Nitrate+aqueous
Coriander Extract,
High Dose

Group V Lead
Nitrate+ethanolic
Coriander Extract,
Low Dose

Group VI Lead
Nitrate+ethanolic
Coriander Extract,
High Dose

1.570.11 (+10.79%)

25.060.47 (+0.48%)

0.910.005 (+2.24%)

1.850.05 (+5.11%)

26.510.41*** (+6.29%)

0.930.007 (+4.49%)

2.040.05 (+15.90%)

30.340.36** (+21.65%)

0.960.006 (+7.86%)

2.100.04 (+19.31%)

31.430.32** (+26.02%)

1.060.15 (+19.10%)

153.860.84* (+39.37%) 140.770.63** (8.50%) 135.040.38** (12.23%) 125.160.62** (18.65%) 121.350.67** (21.12%)

Control Mice Treated Mice Groups

Group
(Normal,
Untreated)
Group I
Group II Lead Nitrate
Distilled Water

Parameters

Table 1 Prophylactic Efficacy of C. sativum Extracts on Lipid Peroxidation and Antioxidant-Related Variables in Testis Tissue of Lead Nitrate-Exposed Mice

342
Sharma et al.

Treated Mice Groups

31.371.95

****p<0.05 compared with lead-exposed animals

***p<0.01 compared with lead-exposed animals

**p<0.001 compared with lead-exposed animals

Values are meanSEM; n=12

*p<0.001 compared with normal animals

36.291.78 (+15.68%)

35.970.29 (0.88%)

35.810.36 (1.32%)

32.870.51 (9.42%)

2.880.04*** (+174.28%)

Cholesterol,
mg/g

1.770.05 (+68.57%)

4.830.27

Protein,
g/100 ml

1.640.05 (+56.19%)

26.500.15* (+139.16%) 22.290.09** (15.88%) 19.460.13** (26.56%) 21.280.23** (19.69%)

11.080.04

ALP, moles of
PNP formed/
min/g tissue

1.050.05 (78.26%)

31.020.03* (+181.74%) 26.300.16** (15.21%) 19.970.06** (35.62%) 28.090.18** (9.44%)

11.010.02

ACP, moles
of PNP
formed/min/g
tissue

52.220.92* (+239.31%) 35.141.06** (32.70%) 32.191.03** (38.35%) 28.780.48** (45.51%)

34.110.79* (+181.66%) 25.350.45** (-25.68%) 22.500.47** (-34.03%) 21.040.40** (-38.31%)

Group V Lead
Nitrate+ethanolic
Coriander Extract,
Low Dose

15.390.50

Group IV Lead
Nitrate+aqueous
Coriander Extract,
High Dose

12.110.43

Group III Lead

Nitrate+aqueous
Coriander Extract,
Low Dose

AST (IU/L)

Group I
Group II Lead Nitrate
Distilled Water

Control Mice
Group
(Normal,
Untreated)

ALT (IU/L)

Parameters

Table 2 Prophylactic Efficacy of C. sativum Extracts on Some Biochemical Parameters in Testes Tissue of Lead Nitrate-Exposed Mice

31.090.56**** (14.32%)

3.190.08*** (+203.80%)

17.750.13** (33.01%)

18.940.04** (38.94%)

18.720.61** (-45.11%)

26.860.55** (48.56%)

Group VI Lead
Nitrate+ethanolic
Coriander Extract,
High Dose

Prophylactic Efficacy of Coriandrum sativum (Coriander)

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Sharma et al.

AST, ALT, ACP, and ALP and total protein and total cholesterol levels in testicular tissue of
control and experimental groups of animals.
It is also clear from the results that treatment with lead nitrate showed a significant
increase in parameters which include AST, ALT, ACP, ALP, and total cholesterol level
as compared with the control group (p<0.001). Total protein concentration was
significantly lower in lead group than in control.
Administration of aqueous extract of coriander showed significant decrease (p<
0.001 for both low and high doses) in AST, ALT, ACP, and ALP when compared with
lead nitrate-treated group. On the other hand, treatment with ethanolic coriander extract
also increased these values significantly as compared with group II (p<0.001).
Whereas, cholesterol level diminished insignificantly in testis tissue (p>0.05), after
the administration of aqueous plant extract in both low- and high-dose groups.
Supplementation of ethanolic coriander extract decreased cholesterol level significantly
in the high-dose group (p<0.05) but insignificantly in low-dose group (p>0.05), when
compared with lead-induced group (II).
On administration of aqueous coriander extract along with lead nitrate, total protein
increased insignificantly (p>0.05 for both low- and high-dose groups) as compared with
the lead-treated group. Supplementation with ethanolic coriander extract significantly
increased (p<0.01 for both low and high doses) total protein content as compared with
group II.
Table 3 represents the effect of lead nitrate alone and effect of treatment with C. sativum
extracts individually during lead nitrate exposure on serum testosterone level, sperm
density, and lead nitrate concentration in testes of control and experimental group of
animals.
Serum Testosterone
Testosterone level was significantly (p<0.001) lower in lead group than in control group.
Whereas, administration of plant extracts individually in combination with lead nitrate to
groups III and IV increased testosterone level, but results were insignificant (p>0.05).
However, upon treatment with ethanolic coriander extract at low and high doses,
insignificant increase (p>0.05) in testosterone level was observed, as compared with
group II.
Sperm Density
The sperm density of mice treated with lead nitrate was significantly lower than that of
control animals (p<0.001). Supplementation of aqueous coriander extract provoked
increase in sperm density, in both aqueous plant extract-treated groups, compared with
lead group. Elevation in sperm density persisted on treatment with ethanolic coriander
extract, compared with lead nitrate-treated group.
Lead Concentration in Testis Tissue
A significant increase (p<0.001) in lead content was observed in testis tissue of lead
nitrate-treated group when compared with control group. Administration of aqueous and
alcoholic extracts of coriander during the experiment resulted in Pb excretion from the
tissues, in comparison to lead-treated group. But decrease in lead content was found to be
insignificant (p>0.05) in testis tissue after the treatment with both plant extracts.

0.710.014

Lead level, ppm

2.250.01* (+216.90%)

1.550.13* (81.37%)

**p<0.01 compared with lead-exposed animals

Values are meanSEM; n=12

*p<0.001 compared with normal animals

8.320.19

Sperm density,
million/ml

28.180.13* (31.58%)

Group II Lead Nitrate

Group I Distilled Water

41.190.26

Treated Mice Groups

Control Mice Group

(Normal, Untreated)

Testosterone,
ng/ml

Parameters

2.100.08 (6.66%)

1.950.22 (+25.80%)

28.860.14 (+2.41%)

Group III Lead

Nitrate+aqueous
Coriander Extract,
Low Dose

2.000.10 (11.11%)

2.100.15 (+35.48%)

2.580.14b (+66.45%)
1.960.10 (12.88%)

29.240.10 (+3.76%)

Group V Lead
Nitrate+ethanolic
Coriander Extract,
Low Dose

29.290.11 (+3.93%)

Group IV Lead
Nitrate+aqueous
Coriander Extract,
High Dose

1.900.14 (15.55%)

2.600.14** (+67.74%)

29.780.11 (+5.67%)

Group VI Lead
Nitrate+ethanolic
Coriander Extract,
High Dose

Table 3 Prophylactic Efficacy of C. sativum Extracts on Testosterone Level, Sperm Density, and Tissue Lead Burden in Testes of Lead-Intoxicated Mice

Prophylactic Efficacy of Coriandrum sativum (Coriander)

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Histological Results
Histological evaluations of testis tissue in different groups were done in the sections stained
with hematoxylin and eosin.
In group I, tunica albugenia and blood vessels were normal; seminiferous tubules were
richly populated and gave healthy appearance (Fig. 1). There is thin basement membrane.
All the cells of the spermatogenic series such as spermatogonia, spermatocyte, spermatids,
and spermatozoa, even Sertoli cells, could be identified in the tubules. Lumen could easily
be delineated in almost all the tubules, and majority of them were occupied by mature
spermatozoa. Interstitial cells of Leydig were present in between the tubules.
In group II animals, which were poisoned with lead, tunica albugenia of their testes was
thickened and blood vessels were sparse and collapsed (Fig. 2). A majority of seminiferous
tubules were shrunken and had a wavy outline. The basement membrane was thickened and
hyalinized. Debris of shed cells occupied most of the lumen of the seminiferous tubules.
Most of the tubules contained spermatogonia and spermatocytes, which were large in size
and contained darkly stained nuclei. In some cells, the nuclear membranes had been
ruptured and were accompanied by fragmentation of nucleus (karyorrhexis). Some of the
tubules contained only spermatogonia, which were scanty in number, bigger in size, and
had eccentrically placed dark nuclei. The Sertoli had gained more prominence due to
disappearance of other cells populating their neighborhood. The blood vessels in the
interstitium were sparse and collapsed. The interstitial cells of Leydig were also reduced in
number and their characteristic tendency of clumping together to form groups was also
reduced. All these features were suggestive of atrophy of the testes.
In groups III, IV, V, VI, which were treated with lead plus C. sativum, the partial recovery
was shown when compared with lead-treated group (Fig. 3a, b). Recovery includes an
accumulation of increased spermatozoa in the luminal areas, normal seminiferous tubules, and
thin basement membrane along with partial amelioration of lead-induced changes.

Discussion
We investigated the efficacy of C. sativum, which is considered both a traditional natural
medicine and an edible vegetable, against the toxicological disorders induced by lead
Fig. 1 Transverse section of testis
of control group showing normal
seminiferous tubules (40)

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347

Fig. 2 Transverse section of testis

of lead-treated group IIA mice,
showing narrow seminiferous
tubules, thickened basement
membrane, degenerating spermatogonia, big spermatocyte undergoing karyolysis, relatively
spared Sertoli cells, lumen filled
with debris of degenerating cells,
scanty Leydig cells, and collapsed
blood vessels (40)

nitrate using a mice model. It is evident from the results of the present investigation that
supplementation of C. sativum aqueous and ethanolic extracts with lead nitrate protected
animals to some extent from toxic effects of lead in general and oxidative stress in
particular. This study is in confirmation with earlier reports that suggest the preventive
effects of C. sativum (Chinese parsley) on localized lead deposition in male ICR mice [38].
Mice administered with C. sativum significantly restored the altered levels to some
extent suggests that the active ingredients in the coriander possess antioxidant properties
and protects against lead-induced oxidative stress. Typically, such an aqueous and alcoholic
extract of coriander contains linalool and glucosides, such as various -D- glucopyranosides. Long-chain (C6-C10) alcohols and aldehydes are common, and they may also contain
phospholipids, phytosterols, flavonoids, and active phenols [39]. Such an extract can
function as a primary or secondary chelator for mercury, as well as can be used to prepare a
primary chelator blend. Positive correlations were already found between total phenolic
content in the extracts and antioxidant activity [40]. Phytonutrients, flavonoids, and active
phenolic acid compounds of coriander help to control blood sugar, lower cholesterol, and
fight inflammation and free radicals [41].
In the present study, increase in LPO and depletion of GSH content, and SOD and CAT
activities have been observed following lead exposure.
Lipid peroxidation, a basic cellular deteriorative change, is one of the primary effects
induced by oxidative stress and occurs readily in the tissues due to presence of membrane
rich in polyunsaturated, highly oxidizable fatty acids [42]. Although the source of
prooxidant during lead-induced oxidative stress is not known, it is suggested that
autooxidation of excessively accumulated aminolevulinic acid due to inhibition of amino
levulinic acid dehydratase may result in formation of highly reactive cytotoxic compounds
like oxidative free radicals like superoxide and hydrogen peroxide [43, 44]. The most
abundant oxidative free radicals generated in living cells are superoxide anions and
derivatives, particularly the highly reactive and damaging hydroxyl radical which induces
peroxidation of cell membrane lipids [45]. The improper balance between reactive oxygen
metabolites and antioxidant defense results in oxidative stress [46]. Participation of iron
in Fenton reaction in vivo, leading to production of more reactive hydroxyl radicals from
superoxide radicals and H2O2 [47] results in increased lipid peroxidation. This might be one
of the reasons for significant alteration in LPO and significant changes in the activity of
antioxidant enzymes observed in the present study.

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Sharma et al.

Fig. 3 a b Transverse sections of

testis of group treated with lead
plus C. sativum, showing normal
seminiferous tubules more or less
as control (40). Abbreviations: a
spermatozoa, b basement membrane, c spermatids, d lumen of
seminiferous tubules, l Leydig
cells, p spermatocytes, s Sertoli
cells, v blood vessels, and z
mature spermatozoa

CAT and SOD are metalloproteins and accomplish their antioxidant functions by
enzymatically detoxifying the peroxides (OH, H2O2) and superoxide anion. CAT
decomposes H2O2 to H2O and O2 whereas superoxide dismutase dismutates superoxide
into H2O2 and needs copper and zinc for its activity. In our study, we observed a decrease in
CAT and SOD activities in group II compared with controls.
Superoxide anion (O2) itself directly affects the activities of catalase and peroxidase by
affecting intracellular enzyme [48], creatine phosphokinase [49]. Decreased activity of Cu
Zn SOD observed may be caused by the interaction between Pb and Cu, a metal necessary
for the proper functioning of the SOD cytosol enzyme [50]. A decrease in SOD was
explained by direct blocking action of the metal on SH group of the enzyme [51]. CAT
activity in testis tissue of lead-treated mice showed a dip compared with the control group.
This might be due to the inhibitory action of Pb on CAT [44].
GSH is one of the most important compounds, which helps in the detoxification and
excretion of heavy metals. The present study showed a marked decrease in the tissue GSH
level during lead toxicity. Similar observation was also noticed by earlier workers [52, 53].
Reduced GSH concentration in the present study suggests the utilization of glutathione by
glutathione peroxidase. The GPx catalyzes the oxidation of GSH to GSSG [48]. This
oxidation reaction occurs at the expense of (H2O2). Direct coupling of lead to GSH, which

Prophylactic Efficacy of Coriandrum sativum (Coriander)

349

results in the formation of a GSHlead complex that is subsequently excreted in the bile,
has been demonstrated in vivo [5456]. Indirect depletion of GSH may occur when lead
inhibits the enzyme and delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD) before it can
catalyze the condensation of two molecules of delta-aminolevulinic acid (-ALA) to
porphobilinogen [57]. When the activity of ALAD is impeded, an effect of lead exposure
that has been confirmed experimentally by several authors, the amount of -ALA increases
[58, 59]. Since -ALA itself is known to be a potent inducer of LPO and ROI formation
both in vivo and in vitro, its accumulation may facilitate the depletion of GSH from leadburdened cells [6063].
In the current study, we have seen that coriander extract treatment decreased the LPO
level in testis tissue of experimental animals. Thus, it appears that the orally administered
aqueous and ethanolic extract of C. sativum protects against lead nitrate-induced toxicity
possibly through the inhibition of increased LPO level in tissue. In contrast, plant extracts
elevated the SOD enzyme activity, which could explain the decrease in LPO levels.
Increase in SOD activity might accelerate the removal of the ROS. It is well known that
flavonoids and polyphenols are natural antioxidants [6471]. This compound acts as
promoter for SOD and catalase [68] and causes the expression of SOD and catalase [70].
The currently noted elevated levels of both SOD and CAT with C. sativum extracts could be
due to the influence of flavonoids and polyphenols. There is another class of bioactive
substances called phthalides, which possess anticarcinogenic potential. These are found in
umbelliferous plants like celery, parsley, cumin, dill, fennel, and coriander. The phthalides
are known to increase the glutathione-S-transferase level [72]. This could thus be attributed
to the possibility that coriander might be providing some recovery in GSH level.
In this study, administrations of lead showed elevation in tissue AST, ALT, ACP, ALP
activities, and cholesterol level and conversely decreased protein level. The present
available data suggest that lead exerts possible testicular toxic effect as the increase in ALT,
AST, ACP, and ALP suggests testis damage. Lead is known to bind to the sulfhydryl
groups of enzymes containing cysteine and found to form complexes with amino acids and
protein. Since AST and ALT is a tissue marker enzyme, lead will alter the level of AST and
ALT activities in the tissues by disrupting their membrane. Consequently, there will be a
discharge of the cell content into the bloodstream, and AST and ALT activities are known to
increase only in heavy metal poisoning [73]. This might be the reason for increase AST and
ALT activities in the tissue. Moreover, the increased activity of testicular acid phosphatase
and alkaline phosphatase in lead nitrate-treated mice reflects testicular degeneration, which
may likely be a consequence of suppressed testosterone and indicative of lytic activity [74].
The pathogenesis of lead toxicity is responsible for the depletion of protein observed in
the present study. Lead is multifactorial and directly interrupts enzyme activation,
competitively inhibits trace mineral absorption, binds to sulfhydryl proteins (interrupting
structural protein synthesis), alters calcium homeostasis, and lowers the level of available
sulfhydryl antioxidant reserves in the body.
In the present study, lead nitrate intake increased the mean values of cholesterol
significantly in testis. Lead nitrate-mediated development of hypercholesterolemia involves
the activation of cholesterol biosynthetic enzymes (i.e., 3-hydroxy-3-methyglutaryl-CoA
reductase, farnesyl diphosphate synthase, squalene synthase, CYP51) and the simultaneous
suppression of cholesterol-catabolic enzymes such as 7-hydroxylase [75]. The increase
concentration of cholesterol could result in relative molecular ordering of residual
phospholipids resulting in a decrease in membrane fluidity [76].
Treatment with C. sativum during lead nitrate exposure significantly reduced the
activities of ALT, AST, ACP, and ALP when compared with the mice treated with lead. The

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Sharma et al.

reduced concentrations of AST and ALT as a result of plant extract administration observed
during the present study might probably be due to the presence of flavonoids in the extract.
It is well documented that flavonoids and glycosides are strong antioxidants [77]. The
increased activity of plasma LCAT enhanced hepatic bile acid synthesis, and the increased
degradation of cholesterol to fecal bile acids and neutral sterols appeared to account for its
hypocholesterolemic effect [78]. The observed decrease in these enzymes shows that
aqueous and alcoholic coriander extract preserve the structural integrity of the organs from
the toxic effect of lead.
The present study showed deterioration in sperm density in the lead-exposed group. This
observation was in collaboration with the earlier observations of Chowdhury et al. [79].
Furthermore, most of the testicular germ cells might have been destroyed either due to
membrane damage or macromolecular degradation incurred by ROS leading to a significant
decline in sperm count and ultimately, testicular weight loss. There was a decline in
testosterone level of the lead-treated group, which is in accordance with Sokol et al. [80].
The concentration of lead in tissues from mice exposed to lead was higher than it was in
tissues from mice of control. C. sativum suppresses the deposition of lead by chelating the
metal [38]. A sorbent prepared from coriander was found to have good efficiency in
removing organic and methyl mercury from aqueous solutions [81]. Phitic acid (PA), a
major phosphorus storage compound in most seeds and cereal grains, is known as a natural
chelating agent. PA has strong ability to chelate multivalent metal ions. The binding of
metals with PA can result in the formation of very water-insoluble salts that are poorly
absorbed from gastrointestinal tract and results in poor bioavailability [82]. It is possible
that coriander may contain a similar type of chelating agents.
Lead exposure produced pronounced testicular histopathology evidenced by histological
alternations in testis include degeneration of seminiferous tubules, thickening of basement
membrane, and condensation of the stroma. These findings correspond with the
observations made by some researchers that lead acts as a spermicidal agent in case of
high exposure [9, 11]. Seminiferous tubules decreased in size and had a wavy outline. The
Sertoli cells were relatively spared because of their resistance to various obnoxious agents
[83]. The number of blood vessels in the interstitial tissue was reduced, and most of them
were collapsed as was evident by their reduced diameter. The population of Leydig cells
had dispersed, and they were rarely seen in groups or clumps. The nucleoli in majority of
Leydig cells, rich in rRNA, had disappeared suggesting an atrophy of these cells. These
findings are agreed with that of some previous investigators [9, 8487]. All these scientists
described variety of toxic changes induced by lead in the testes depending upon dose and
duration of the treatment.
Lead causes lipid peroxidation by generation of ROS. This peroxidation may cause
rupture of cell as well as nuclear membrane. This might be responsible for the observed
necrosis and disarray in cellular organization in histological section Fig. 2. Evidence
suggests that lead induces free radical formation and thus the generated ROS react with the
polyunsaturated fatty acid-rich spermatozoa, specially the mid-spermatozoa and results in
peroxidation which finally leads to destruction in spermatozoa causing reduced motility and
viability [88]. Supplementation of coriander extract along with lead nitrate reveals that the
decrease in sperm count, motility, and viability due to toxic effects of lead is minimized to
some extent. As a possible mechanism, it could be stated that coriander extract have a
recovery role on lead nitrate-mediated toxicity by inducing an antioxidant effect against the
oxidative stress. The antioxidant properties of coriander have been established [40].
These findings of the present investigation support coriander seed to be an effective
agent in lead intoxication. But the mechanism of its effect is not clear. Further investigation

Prophylactic Efficacy of Coriandrum sativum (Coriander)

351

is required in order to clarify antioxidant potential of this plant. It is thus concluded that the
aqueous and ethanolic extracts of C. sativum may show prophylactic effect against lead
toxicity.
Acknowledgments The authors are thankful to the authorities of Banasthali University for providing
support to the study.
Conflict of Interest The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the
content and writing of the paper.

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