04 1964
04 1964
04 1964
Easton
President of the A m e r i c a n Society
of Sugar Beet Technologists for t h e
b i e n n i u m 1964-65 is M r . B. E. Easton.
M r . Easton is A g r i c u l t u r a l Superint e n d e n t , C a n a d a a n d D o m i n i o n Sugar
Company Limited, Chatham, Ontario,
Canada.
JOURNAL
of the
American Society of Sugar
Beet Technologists
Volume 13
Number 1
April 1964
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JOURNAL
of the
American Society of Sugar
Beet Technologists
Volume 13
Number 1
April 1964
Published
quarterly
by
Subscription
$4.50
$5.00
$1.25
$1.40
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Author
Page
Presidential Address
Guy Rorabaugh
C. F. MacLeod
G. D. Manuel
Agriculture's
responsibility
in
growing
economy
Eric Thor
13
L. D. Baver
21
C. TV. Bennett
27
C. TV. Bennett
33
Jay L. Haddock
Darrel M. Stuart
42
R. F. Olson
59
Dale Fullerton
62
Myron Stout
68
G. A. Wicks
F. N. Anderson
81
routine
factory
and
its
Effectiveness of PEBC, D A T C , a n d E n d o t h a l l
for controlling weeds in sugar beets in
Western Nebraska
Minutes of the T h i r t e e n t h General Meeting
of the American Society of Sugar Beet
Technologists
Meritorious Service Awards
_ 96
101
Presidential Address
GUY RORABAUGH 1
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13, No.
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1964
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Francisco.
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
the sun. Once started on its way that is the end of it and no
man will ever see it again. Instead he'll have its stored energy
in bowl, in cube and in envelope. This is fuel for life.
In fact, this is a prime reason for saying that agriculture is
basic. T h e production of new, annual wealth from the soil, sun
and air gives man his sustenance and the nation economic
strength from which to draw the military posture necessary to
maintain our way of life. For every dollars worth of agricultural
commodity produced, ten dollars in ancillary jobs are generated.
These are the reasons why everyone has, or should have, an
interest in agriculture. This is the reason we can feel, each of
us, that our job is an important one. This is why we must give
thought to our agriculture in which the production of sugar beets
is a most important, basic business.
Every informed source readily admits a rapidly expanding;
population. Sugar consumption reflects it. We may have reached
a plateau in our per capita consumption, but there are a lot
more mouths to feed. It took from the beginning of recorded
history to 1887 to populate the world with 1.3 billion people.
In my lifetime, plus ten years, another billion were produced.
There will be 4 billion more produced in the rest of the century.
They all have to eat. We'll be fighting for standing room and
sugar if we do not meet this challenge.
Individual farms grow fewer and larger, but the total land
available for food production grows smaller in extent as the
battle for standing room and playing room grows hotter. T h e
youngster born today faces a world with three acres of tillable
land per person. When he is 36 years old there will be less than
half an acre of tillable land per person. Our current surpluses
can vanish in seven months if ever we come to a sudden stop.
This is a real and immediate challenge to every technologist
and it is one of great urgency to you.
These large farms are faced with the need for increased
efficiency. Capital with which to operate is concentrating in a
few great sources. Spurred on by a price-cost squeeze automation
is fast reducing labor's place in agriculture. In 1900 we used
37 percent of our work force in agriculture, but in 1960 less
than 9 percent produced much more food. Even with our present
rate of mechanical replacement there may be less than 100
days of work in a year's time for agricultural workers in the
near future.
You are a part of a rapidly expanding technology. New
approaches to biological problems are engendered by a new
sophistication in research. T h e advent of new techniques in
chemistry, physics, genetics, the whole sub-cellular approach to
VOL.
13, No.
1, APRIL
1964
the secrets of living things will make for rapid changes in biology
and agriculture. The quest for two pounds of sugar where one
is now will lead to rapid changes in hybridization, mechanization
and chemicalization. It is from groups such as this that men
expect to obtain the technical knowledge for survival in a
crowded world. Let us hope that we may find a public policy
which will understand the need and create a climate in which
our studies may flourish rather than be stunted by emotional or
political unrealities.
There can be no question of the need for changing legislation
and regulation in a rapidly expanding, technological agriculture.
The very fact that agriculture has a direct impact upon the health
of the people, their economy and their social problems are proofs
of its basicity in our society. To deal with the dynamic changes
involved there will be many new laws, rules and regulations.
It will require constant watchfulness on the part of those well
informed about agricultural problems lest political expediency
or opportunistic, bureaucratic empire builders delay our progress
unnecessarily. This, too, is our task. The technical fields in
which we spend our days will serve men better if each endeavor
is motivated by an understanding of the socio-economic impact
of our efforts.
If, as some leaders believe, the second half of our century
belongs to biology as the first has to mathematics, physics and
chemistry, then we have yet another task before us. There is
currently a demand for 15,000 new young technologists in agriculture each year. We are producing about half that number.
Each of us in his own circle should try to enthuse these brilliant
youngsters with the desire to prepare themselves for opportunities in the fields of biology and agriculture. If we ourselves can
be enthusiastic about our own work, we can better enlist the
interest of fast on-coming geniuses. If we do not enlist them in
the glamour of living things to study then other groups will and
all mankind may suffer. It is not prudent to leave this job to
counsellors less familiar with the field than we who are working in it.
The basic requirement in research is imagination. While
this characteristic is not the exclusive property of the young,
it is most abundantly evident in youth. True, it may need the
guidance and control of more experienced heads but the fresh,
imaginative attack upon our unsolved problems in agriculture
needs tender loving care and encouragement. We can hardly
hope to stimulate the enthusiasm of a youngster by regaling him
with our own adversities and defeats. Their interest lies in the
challenges and opportunities our studies disclose.
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
MANUEL 1
10
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VOL. 13, N o .
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will reach 12.5 million tons. In just 25 years our American consumers will annually require 14 million tons of sugar.
With this increased consumption in this country, we also
look for even more rapid increases in consumption in other
parts of the world. Some of the countries which are now, for
the first time emerging economically are demanding of the world
sugar market needs such as we have never known. Average free
world per capita consumption in 1961 was only 43 pounds per
person as compared to about 100 pounds in the United States.
In some of the underdeveloped countries the consumption is
now less than 10 pounds per person. As these countries develop,
the potential for increased consumption of sugar appears almost
unlimited.
Authorities generally agree that we should expect consumption to increase at the rate of approximately 3 per cent per year
if supplies are available. At this rate, a conservative estimate of
world sugar consumption in only 25 years will be between 100
and 125 million tons. This means, by 1989, the world sugar
industry, if it is to meet minimum world sugar demand must
produce at least 100 per cent more sugar than is being produced
today.
This increase in world sugar needs will keep some of
our foreign suppliers busy, meaning that the beet industry certainly must prepare to meet its share of requirements.
This is, indeed, a real challenge to the entire sugar industry,
and management, reflecting on that challenge, must turn to you
people to point the way.
I should point out that the straight line projections on which
to base consumption estimates may not be valid unless your
technical skills can keep the cost-price ratio to our advantage.
Indeed, the price increases of the past year actually slowed down
the expected increase in sugar usage and, at the same time,
opened the door for other types of sweeteners. In 1963 the
corn sweeteners and other types of sweeteners scored impressive
gains at our expense. Last year, for instance, the expected normal
marketing increase for all sweeteners was 175,000 tons. Of this
expected increase the deliveries of corn sweeteners showed an
overall gain of 90,000 tons during the first three quarters of
1963.
Such growth by competitors cannot and should not be overlooked by our industry. Our prices must be competitive or certainly there will be adverse effects on our long-term growth.
I should also mention that with the higher prices realized
in 1963, many people have become interested in beet sugar pro-
12
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
I am glad to have the opportunity to discuss with you agriculture's responsibility in our nation's economy because I know
many of you are thinking seriously about the future of agriculture
and how you, your associations and other agricultural organizations will fit into the changing scene. Today, I would therefore
like to do some thinking with you about the kind of history the
sugar industry and other segments of agriculture are going to
write.
Last spring, at the University of California, we held a symposium on "The Future of California Agriculture." We did
some looking ahead to the 1970's and even to the 1980's and
beyond. First, however, we looked back. We reviewed what had
been done before we discussed the future.
Here, too, I would like to take a quick look at agriculture
today and what is happening to it. We might say that the most
important feature in the agricultural scene is change itself. Our
friends in other fields of endeavor find present-day farming, with
its airplanes, chemicals and great machines, baffling enough
without peering ahead into the vague future of the 1970's and
1980's.
We know that American agriculture today is feeding and
clothing 180 million people in this country alone. In addition,
the production of one out of every six acres of our land is exported to feed and clothe people in foreign lands. In 1963, our
farmers set a new high level of total food and fiber production on
the smallest number of acres harvested at any time in the twentieth
century. We also know that consumers are spending the smallest
share of their income on food in the history of our nation, and
that this share is the smallest of any nation in the world.
Our agriculture has already entered the domain of science,
engineering and business management. The fruit and vegetable
packer, the canner, the freezer, the miller, the creamery operator,
the feed manufacturer, the rice dryer, and the cotton ginner
are all part of agriculture. So are the shippers who send produce
to market and the merchandisers who sell it from the market
shelf, even though most of them do not realize it. Agriculture
also embraces the suppliers who provide feeds, seeds, fertilizers,
farm machinery, petroleum, hardware, lumber, cans and processing equipment, and the bankers who provide credit and
financial guidance to farmers. It includes research scientists and
1
Agricultural Economist. Giannini Foundation of Agricultural Economics, University
of California, Berkeley.
14
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15
part of their income for products and services other than food.
U. S. consumers are today spending approximately 20 per cent
of their income for food while consumers in England spend 41
per cent, in Norway 44 per cent, in France 38 per cent, and in
the Soviet Union 53 per cent.
Although agriculture is perhaps the nation's most important
single industry and has contributed greatly to the growth of
the nation and to the well-being of our citizens, it is an industry
that has had and is having problems. Its major problem during
the greater portion of the past four decades has been income.
Right now average per capita farm income on a nation wide
basis is barely half that earned by comparable people in other
industries. Moreover, incomes earned in agriculture are far
more variable and unstable than those earned in other industries.
The low per capita income reflects the status of the many underemployed people in agriculture. It also reflects the fact that
farmers and ranchers have not been able to increase their income
or even to keep the savings made possible by the development
and adoption of new technological innovations.
Many people fail to understand how an industry that has so
greatly increased its efficiency has been unable to increase its
per capita income. Farmers have not been able to increase their
income despite greatly improved efficiency because of the competitive structure of agriculture. The agricultural improvements
adopted during the past 40 years have been primarily capitalusing, labor-saving, and output-increasing. When demand does
not increase to offset the increased output, such improvements
initiate a three-stage economic reaction.
Stage 1 is the adoption of new techniques by early innovators.
Once a new technology is developed, it attracts the attention of
a small number of farmers who always keep their eyes and ears
open for anything that will reduce their per unit costs. Once
these farmers find an innovation they think will help them make
a profit, they generally adopt it. Since these early adopters expect
the innovation to increase profit, they also tend to increase their
crop acreage or livestock numbers associated with the new technology. But since few farmers are involved at this stage, their
increase in output is relatively small and has little effect upon
market prices.
Stage 2 is general adoption of the new technique by other
farmers, who have observed the success achieved by the early
adopters. As many more farmers adopt the innovation, output
is increased considerably and prices fall. Sometimes the price
falls to the point where the farmer may actually have less net
16
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the domestic markets, production costs must be continually reduced. This means continual development and adoption of new
output-increasing technologies.
Two factors are primarily responsible for the great advances
we have made in agriculture during the past few decades. First,
millions of farmers, spurred by the incentive and pride of ownership inherent in the American family-farm economy, have applied
new discoveries and new methods to their own operation. Second,
a tremendous amount of research and development has been
carried on, primarily by the land-grant colleges, the United States
Department of Agriculture, and private industry.
It is estimated that if agriculture were still using the methods
of 20 years ago for producing crops and raising and feeding livestock, it would have cost an extra $13 billion to produce the
nation's food and fiber. To offset this, the average consumer
family in the United States would have had to spend approximately $240 more to obtain the food they purchased last year.
It is agriculture's responsibility, and particularly the responsibility of organizations such as yours, to see that both the familyfarm concept and public research are continued. In fact, if it
were not for public supported research and the dissemination
of its findings to farmers, we probably would not have the familytype agriculture we have today. Without public supported research and the results made available to all farmers, large and
small alike, large corporations would have been able to develop
and capitalize on private research. This would have put the
family farmer at an economic disadvantage and encouraged tremendously huge land holdings.
T h e third opportunity for agriculture is to free itself from
many of the government programs that exist today. This will
not be an easy task, nor can it be done overnight. In fact, if
agriculture frees itself from federal price support and production
control programs by 1970, it will have accomplished a Herculean
task.
T h e major problem in removing government programs is
that we have a much larger production base of agricultural lands
than is needed to meet the demand of domestic and foreign
markets at prices satisfactory to farmers. Many of these lands
were put into production as a result of government programs
starting back as earlv as World War I and reemnhasized during
World War II. During the two wars, food and fiber needs dictated that all effort be made to increase agricultural production.
After World War II. government policy has not encouraged
withdrawal of farm lands from production.
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JOURNAL
I COMPOSITION
OF
THE
A.
S.
S.
B.
T.
Before seeding | 4 Q # N 9 5 # N 7 0
After thinning
45HN 35
14 days after
35
thinnina
#N
*N
#N
Figure 4.The effect of the a m o u n t a n d timing of nitrogen applications upon the stalk population of sugarcane (Stanford).
JOURNAL OF T H E A. S. S. B. X.
Figure 5.Xhe effect of the a m o u n t a n d timing of nitrogen applications u p o n the juice quality of sugarcane (Stanford).
W.
BENNETT1
for publication
June
24,
1963
Introduction
Beet mosaic has b e e n r e p o r t e d from all c o u n t r i e s w h e r e sugar
beets are g r o w n commercially.
It is t h e most c o m m o n a n d
widespread of t h e virus diseases of this crop. It occurs in all the
c o m m e r c i a l b e e t a r e a s o f C a l i f o r n i a a n d m a n y fields h a v e h i g h
percentages of infection at harvest.
Symptoms usually are mild
a n d t e n d to be m a s k e d d u r i n g the w a r m e r part of the season.
In general, the disease has n o t b e e n considered a highly i m p o r t a n t
28
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VOL.
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30
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. X
2 leaf
6-leaf
12-leaf
Plants infected
of 40 inoculated with
indicated isolate
(Number)
38
39
40
22
29
36
7.3
13.6
13.3
9.3
16.3
17.1
VOL.
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1964
Table 2.Reduction in weight of sugar beet plants caused by severe (S) and common
i (C) mosaic virus isolates under greenhouse conditions.
Xest No.
T i m e from
inoculation
to harvest
(Days)
Plants
with each
treatment 1
(Number)
2
3
4
5
6
7
I
f
73
62
70
49
64
82
io
20
20
20
20
20
48
V7A~
24.1
62.4
65.3
137.2
76.0
259.9
_ _
18^6
26.4
68.5
68.4
149.2
90.5
269.8
Check
26.6
37.2
79.2
81.5
164.7
103.3
277.0
* All plants were in 6-inch pots: 1 p l a n t per pot in test 7, 2 plants per pot in test 5,
and 4 plants per pot in all other tests.
$2
J O U R N A L OF T H E A.
S. S.
B. T.
MARX, R U T H , and U. BEISS. 1962. Nachweis von Stammen beim Mosaikvirus der Beta-Ruben. Phytopath. Z. 4 4 ( 1 ) : 94-100.
M a r b l e L e a f of Sugar Beet, C a u s e d by a
Juice Transmissible Virus
C.
W.
BENNETT1
196}
Introduction
In S e p t e m b e r 1959, s u g a r b e e t p l a n t s {Beta vulgaris L.) w e r e
received f r o m a field in e a s t e r n O r e g o n for d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
t h e cause o f y e l l o w i n g o f o l d e r leaves. T h e y e l l o w i n g p r o d u c e d
o n leaves o f t h e s e p l a n t s r e s e m b l e d t h a t p r o d u c e d b y b e e t
y e l l o w s a n d b e e t w e s t e r n yellows i n c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s , b u t t h e r e
was a type of m o t t l i n g n o t characteristic of symptoms of e i t h e r
o f these diseases. T e s t s s h o w e d t h a t t h e p l a n t s w e r e i n f e c t e d
with a juice-transmissible virus, a p p a r e n t l y n o t previously des c r i b e d o n s u g a r b e e t . T h e disease a n d its causal v i r u s w e r e
studied further a n d the results are presented herein. Because of
the type of d i s c o l o r a t i o n on m a t u r e leaves of affected p l a n t s t h e
name b e e t m a r b l e leaf is suggested as a c o m m o n n a m e for thedisease.
Symptoms and Host R a n g e
G r e e n h o u s e s y m p t o m s o f m a r b l e leaf h a v e b e e n s t u d i e d o n
s e v e r a 1 species o f p l a n t s i n o c u l a t e d w i t h j u i c e f r o m diseased b e e t
P l a n t s . T h e v i r u s m a y p r o d u c e b o t h local lesions a n d systemic
infection.
Local
Symptoms
local lesions a r e p r o d u c e d on j u i c e - i n o c u l a t e d leaves of Beta
vulgaris
L. (sugar b e e t ) , B. macrocarpa Guss., Chenopodium
amaranticolor C o s t e & R e y n . , a n d C. murale L. ( s o w b a n e ) . L e s i o n s
a r e s i m i l a r o n all o f t h e s e hosts. T h e y b e g i n t o a p p e a r o n s u g a r
b e e t leaves a s c h l o r o t i c s p o t s a b o u t 1 m m i n d i a m e t e r a b o u t 9
d a y s a f t e r i n o c u l a t i o n . L e s i o n s i n c r e a s e i n size slowly a n d m a y
attain a d i a m e t e r of 2-3 mm ( F i g u r e 1A a n d B ) . A s m a l l n e c r o t i c
s p o t m a y d e v e l o p i n t h e c e n t e r o f t h e lesion, s o m e t i m e s surrounded by o n e or m o r e rings r a n g i n g in color from yellow to
green. If lesions a r e n u m e r o u s , i n o c u l a t e d leaves of C. amaranticolor and C. murale often y e l l o w a n d d r o p . In s u c h leaves t h e
l e s i o n s m a y b e s u r r o u n d e d b y a r i n g o f g r e e n tissue.
Systemic
Effects
T h e m a r b l e leaf disease h a s b e e n f o u n d o n l y o n s u g a r b e e t .
Its effects have been studied on sugar beet a n d other host plants
under greenhouse conditions.
1
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
W.
BENNETT1
1963
Introduction
In S e p t e m b e r 1959, sugar beet plants (Beta vulgaris? JL.) w e r e
received from a field in eastern O r e g o n for d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
t h e cause of yellowing of o l d e r leaves. T h e yellowing p r o d u c e d
on leaves of these plants r e s e m b l e d t h a t p r o d u c e d by beet
yellows a n d b e e t western yellows in c e r t a i n respects, b u t t h e r e
was a type of m o t t l i n g n o t characteristic of s y m p t o m s of e i t h e r
of these diseases. T e s t s showed t h a t t h e p l a n t s w e r e infected
with a juice-transmissible virus, a p p a r e n t l y n o t previously described o n sugar beet. T h e disease a n d its causal v i r u s w e r e
studied further a n d t h e results a r e p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n . Because of
the type of discoloration on m a t u r e leaves of affected plants t h e
n a m e beet m a r b l e leaf is suggested as a c o m m o n n a m e for t h e
disease.
Symptoms a n d Host R a n g e
G r e e n h o u s e symptoms of m a r b l e leaf have b e e n studied on
several species of p l a n t s i n o c u l a t e d w i t h j u i c e from diseased b e e t
plants. T h e virus may p r o d u c e b o t h local lesions a n d systemic
infection.
Local
Symptoms
Local lesions are p r o d u c e d on juice-inoculated leaves of Beta
vulgaris L.
(sugar beet), B. macrocarpa Guss., Chenopodium
amaranticolor Coste 8c Reyn., a n d C. murale L. (sowbane). Lesions
are similar on all of these hosts. T h e y b e g i n to a p p e a r on sugar
beet leaves as chlorotic spots a b o u t 1 mm in d i a m e t e r a b o u t 9
days after i n o c u l a t i o n . Lesions increase in size slowly a n d m a y
a t t a i n a d i a m e t e r of 2-3 mm ( F i g u r e 1A a n d B). A small n e c r o t i c
spot m a y d e v e l o p in t h e c e n t e r of t h e lesion, sometimes surr o u n d e d b y o n e o r m o r e r i n g s r a n g i n g i n color from yellow t o
green. If lesions are n u m e r o u s , i n o c u l a t e d leaves of C. amaranticolor a n d C. murale often yellow a n d d r o p . In such leaves t h e
lesions m a y be s u r r o u n d e d by a r i n g of green tissue.
Systemic
Effects
T h e m a r b l e leaf disease has b e e n f o u n d only o n sugar b e e t .
Its effects h a v e b e e n studied on sugar b e e t a n d o t h e r host p l a n t s
under greenhouse conditions.
1
Plant Pathologist, Crops Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S.
Department of Agriculture.
34
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1964
Figure 2.A, young sugar beet leaf showing vein chlorosis and mottle;
|B, leaf approaching maturity, showing marbled type of mottling.
and
necrosis
produced
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40
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
Test number
2
3
4
5
on weight
Time from
inoculation
to harvest
of
sugar
beet
plants
(US
75)
under
Diseased
Days
Grams
Grams
60
60
60
78
60
90
120
150
28
33
30
54
994
1331
1690
1861
24
24
25
48
848
1230
1401
1595
1
In tests 1 to 4, inclusive, 40 plants in 6-inch pots (4 plants per p o t ) were inoculated
in the 4 to 6-leaf stage; in test 5, plants (singles) in 3-gallon crocks were inoculated in
the 10 to 14-leaf stage and 10 plants were harvested after each indicated time interval.
Inoculated plants were compared with equal numbers of check (non-inoculated) plants in
each test.
w o u l d b e c a p a b l e o f c a u s i n g m e a s u r a b l e yield r e d u c t i o n s i n t h e
field if v e c t o r s w e r e a v a i l a b l e to p r o d u c e w i d e s p r e a d d i s s e m i n a t i o n of t h e causal v i r u s in early stage of d e v e l o p m e n t of b e e t
plants.
T e s t s w e r e m a d e also t o d e t e r m i n e t h e effects o f m a r b l e leaf
on seed p r o d u c t i o n in Beta macrocarpa. P l a n t s w e r e i n o c u l a t e d
i n a b o u t t h e 6-leaf stage a n d r e t a i n e d for seed p r o d u c t i o n a l o n g
w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e h e a l t h y c h e c k p l a n t s . I n 2 tests ( T a b l e 2 ) t h e r e
w e r e r e d u c t i o n s i n seed yield a n d w e i g h t o f m o r e t h a n 5 0 p e r c e n t . T h e effect of t h e disease on yield of seed of s u g a r b e e t has
not been determined.
Table 2.Effect of marble leaf on seed production and seed size in Beta macrocarpa.
Test
number
Healthy
plants
Diseased
plants
Healthy
plants
Diseased
plants
Grams
Grams
Grams
Grams
68.5
31.2
3.0
1.3
82.4
36.2
3.5
1.2
VOL.
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1964
Summary
A juice-transmissible virus which causes vein-yellowing a n d
m o t t l i n g of i m m a t u r e leaves a n d distinct yellowing of m a t u r e
leaves of sugar beet p l a n t s was isolated from beets from O r e g o n .
T h e virus p r o d u c e s local lesions on i n o c u l a t e d leaves of Beta
vulgaris, B.
macrocarpa^
Chenopodiurn
amaranticolor, a n d
C.
murale. Systemic infection was o b t a i n e d in 6 species of Beta, 4
species of Chenopodiurn a n d 2 species of Atriplex.
T h e virus
appears to have a l i m i t e d host r a n g e .
Myzus persicae, Aphis
fabae, a n d Macrosiphum euphorbiae a r e inefficient vectors of t h e
virus. No evidence of seed transmission was found. T h e virus
has a t h e r m a l inactivation p o i n t b e t w e e n 60 a n d 65 C, a d i l u t i o n
e n d p o i n t of a b o u t 1-1,000, a n d it r e m a i n s active in e x t r a c t e d
juice at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e for 24 h o u r s , or less. U n d e r greenhouse conditions t h e disease caused a b o u t a 10 p e r c e n t r e d u c t i o n
in p l a n t g r o w t h . Yield a n d size of seeds of Beta macrocarpa w e r e
greatly reduced. T h e disease a p p a r e n t l y has a very l i m i t e d dist r i b u t i o n a n d is n o t k n o w n to be c a u s i n g m e a s u r a b l e loss to
the sugar beet c r o p in t h e areas w h e r e it was f o u n d .
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
4. If t h e r e is a well-defined m i n i m u m p e r c e n t a g e of m i n e r a l
e l e m e n t i n p l a n t tissue t h e r e m u s t also b e a n o p t i m u m p e r centage.
A study of t h e available l i t e r a t u r e led t h e a u t h o r s to select
t h e U l r i c h (17) t e c h n i q u e a n d a modification of t h e T h o m a s
(13) p r o c e d u r e as t h e most fruitful m e t h o d s for d i a g n o s i n g n u t r i tional status of sugar beet plants.
T h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n this p a p e r are t h e r e s u l t o f a n
a t t e m p t t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h o f t h e t w o m e t h o d s u n d e r observat i o n was m o r e s u i t a b l e as a basis for d i a g n o s i n g significant n u t r i tional d i s t u r b a n c e s in sugar beets. A second closely r e l a t e d objective was t o observe t h e o p t i m u m n u t r i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d
balance o f t h e t h r e e p r i m a r y p l a n t n u t r i e n t s , n i t r o g e n , p h o s p h o r u s , a n d potassium, i n sugar beet petioles c o n d u c i v e t o h i g h
yields of roots a n d sugar.
Methods and Procedure
W h i l e ten n u t r i e n t solutions w e r e used i n this study, o n l y
six of these are referred to in this p a p e r in o r d e r to simplify prese n t a t i o n of data ( T a b l e 1). All of these w e r e modifications of H o a g land's (6) n u t r i e n t s o l u t i o n N o . 1 . T h e n u t r i e n t s o l u t i o n s w e r e
m a d e w i t h t a p water which c o n t a i n e d 0, 2, 16, 44 p p m of K, N a ,
M g a n d Ca, respectively, a n d f u r t h e r modified b y t h e v e r m i c u l i t e
s u b s t r a t u m w h i c h at e q u i l i b r u m w i t h t h e w a t e r p r o v i d e d 18, 5,
19, a n d 46 p p m of K, N a , Mg a n d Ca, respectively. T h e s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w e r e constantly b e i n g modified b y n u t r i e n t s o l u t i o n
additions, unequal water and plant nutrient withdrawal, a n d
chemical p r e c i p i t a t i o n . T e n - g a l l o n cans filled w i t h N o . 2 v e r m i c u l i t e were b u r i e d in soil to w i t h i n 1 inch of t h e t o p r i m in
o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n r o o t t e m p e r a t u r e s c o m p a r a b l e t o n o r m a l soil
t e m p e r a t u r e s . Five holes w e r e p u n c h e d i n t h e b o t t o m o f each
c a n t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e d r a i n a g e . T w e n t y sugar b e e t seeds o f
a c o m m e r c i a l m o n o g e r m variety, S L C 126, w e r e p l a n t e d A p r i l
15, 1960. T h e s e w e r e t h i n n e d J u n e 29, to leave a final s t a n d of
t h r e e p l a n t s p e r can. T h e r e w e r e t e n cans i n each t r e a t m e n t
w h i c h w e r e r a n d o m i z e d i n each row. T h e cans w e r e spaced o n
40-inch centers so t h a t each p o t h a d 11 sq ft of surface. T h e
n u t r i e n t s o l u t i o n s w e r e p r e p a r e d similarly all season e x c e p t for
t r e a t m e n t Check-N w h i c h was r e d u c e d i n n i t r o g e n t o one-half
n o r m a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n S e p t e m b e r 1 a n d t o zero n i t r o g e n
O c t o b e r I . O n e gallon o f each n u t r i e n t s o l u t i o n was a p p l i e d t o
its respective can daily, except d u r i n g h o t w e a t h e r i n m i d - J u l y
a n d m i d - A u g u s t w h e n o n e a n d one-half gallons w e r e used.
T h o m a s (14) b e l i e v e d i t i n c o n g r u o u s t o u s e p l a n t tissue
o t h e r t h a n w h o l e leaf tissue as a basis for c h a r a c t e r i z i n g n u t r i -
VOL.
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45
tional status of plants. Nevertheless, in o r d e r to e x t e n d t h e comparison of the U l r i c h a n d T h o m a s t e c h n i q u e s t h e a u t h o r s m o d i fied t h e T h o m a s p r o c e d u r e to i n c l u d e soluble extract of beet
leaf petioles as well as total composition of leaf blades.
Q u a n t i t y a n d q u a l i t y factors are expressed in this p a p e r in
terms of m i l l i e q u i v a l e n t s p e r 100 grams of oven-dry p l a n t tissue.
To express the intensity of n u t r i t i o n on a q u a n t i t a t i v e basis, the
milliequivalents p e r 100 grams of N + P . + K are s u m m e d . T h e
quality n i t r o g e n value is expressed as a percentage of the
and
4
Duncan's multiple range test for a comparison of six means at the .05 level of significance is used throughout this paper.
46
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Figure 2.Yield of sugar beet tops as affected by nutritional environment 1960. (Fresh weight.)
VOL.
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48
J O U R N A L OF T H E A.
S. S.
B.T.
in
sugar
beet
in
sugar
beet
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JOURNAL OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
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1964
of
sugar beet
leaf-blades
as
Figure 12.Seasonal quality factor for nitrogen in sugar beet leafblades as affected by nutritional environment 1960.
52
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
Figure 13.Seasonal quality factor for p h o s p h o r u s in sugar beet leafblades as affected by n u t r i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t 1960.
Figure 14.Seasonal quality factor for potassium in sugar beet leafblades as affected by n u t r i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t 1960.
VOL.
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53
54
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. X.
Table 1.Nutrient concentration in various nutrient solutions, 1960.
Parts per million of various nutrients 1
No.
Description
Check-N
1/2 N S e p t . 1 to O c t . 1
N o N O c t . 1 t o O c t . 15
1/2 K
LowK
1/2N
1/4 N
NH4
2
3
4
5
6
NO3-N
NH4-N
Ca
Mg
Na
pH
75
15
15
15
15
15
15
110
55
15
110
110
110
145
165
205
145
145
145
50
50
50
50
50
50
18
18
18
18
18
18
7.6-8.0
7.7-8.0
7.6-8.1
7.8-8.1
7.7-8.0
7.4-6.0
105
105
105
70
30
B = 0.25, Mn
0.25, Zn =
.028,
Table 2.Nutrient quantity and quality values for sugar beet leaf blades a n d leafpetioles which resulted in maximum sugar yields.
Factors
Quantity Factor
med/100g
Quality Factors
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
N:K ratio
Leaf blades
Range
400 500
62-68
4.8-8.0
28-32
1.9-2.4
Ideal
450
65
6.4
30
2.15
Leaf petioles
Range
Ideal
300-500
45-55
3-7
40-56
0.9-1.4
410
50
5
45
1.1
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J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
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57
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
ALEXANDER, J.
X.,
C.
C.
SCHMER,
L.
P.
ORLEANS,
and R.
H.
COTTON.
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
HILLEBRAND,
W.
F.,
H.
A.
BRIGHT,
J.
K.
HOFFMAN,
and
G.
E.
F.
1942.
Foliar diag-
U L R I C H , A., D.
RIRIE,
F. J.
HILLS,
A.
G.
GEORGE,
and
M.
D.
MORSE.
Univ.
60
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
Lactic Acid, p p m
G.W. Colorimetric A.C.S. C h r o m a t o g r a p h i c
27
33
64
58
72
66
85
83
75
100
89
108
93
95
77
116
79
71
88
71
63
47
T h e t i m e r e q u i r e d for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c h r o m a t o g r a m s
enables the worker to make evaluations t h r o u g h o u t the entire
day a n d t h e d a t a will reflect a large n u m b e r of samples. T h e
simplicity o f t h e p a p e r c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c m e t h o d h a s l e d t o t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e a p p a r a t u s i n t o r o u t i n e factory analysis. T e c h n i c i a n s a r e easily t r a i n e d t o spot a n d e v a l u a t e t h e c h r o m a t o g r a m s .
Certain precautions have to be taken in order to provide
adequate chromatograms. T h e room in which the chromatog r a m s a r e s p o t t e d a n d d e v e l o p e d s h o u l d be free of e x t r a n e o u s
VOL.
13, N o .
61
1, A P R I L 1964
N O R M A N , LLOYD W . a n d G U Y O. RORABAUGH.
1954.
Studies of lactic
Paper chromato-
2 3 ( 3 ) : 413-415.
1952.
Composition of
certain beet diffusion juices from the 1950 campaign. Proc. Am. Soc.
Sugar Beet T e c h n o l . V I I : 688-691.
(5)
VERHART, M. L. A. a n d N . H . M . DE VISSER.
Zucherindustries, p 446.
1959.
FULLERTON2
Sugar beets i n W a s h a k i e C o u n t y o f N o r t h e r n W y o m i n g h a v e
b e e n seriously d a m a g e d by curly t o p of sugar beets each y e a r
since 1960. Yield losses h a v e b e e n h i g h to growers in an a r e a
t h a t has b e e n a n d still is e c o n o m i c a l l y d e p e n d e n t on sugar beets.
Losses of 2 tons p e r acre in 1960, 4 to 5 tons in 1961, a n d 2 to 3
tons in 1962 h a v e b e e n e s t i m a t e d by c o u n t y a g r i c u l t u r a l officials.
W a s h a k i e C o u n t y is w i t h i n t h e t e r r i t o r y of H o l l y Sugar C o r p o r a t i o n , o n e o f t h e i r factories b e i n g located a t W o r l a n d , W y o m i n g . Resistant sugar beet seed h a s b e e n u s e d i n this c o u n t y
for m a n y years a n d u n t i l 1960 a p p e a r e d to be a d e q u a t e in w i t h s t a n d i n g curly t o p disease.
T h e c u l t i v a t e d area of t h e c o u n t y is s i t u a t e d in an i r r i g a t e d
valley f o r m e d b y t h e Big H o r n R i v e r , t r a v e r s i n g t h e c o u n t y s o u t h
to n o r t h . C u l t i v a t e d lands on b o t h t h e west a n d east sides of
t h e r i v e r m e r g e w i t h a r i d r a n g e l a n d o n t h e west, east, a n d s o u t h
sides of t h e c o u n t y . T h e a r i d r a n g e l a n d is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by sparse
vegetation.
C u r l y t o p is a virus disease t h a t d a m a g e s sugar beets. T h e
only k n o w n m e t h o d of transmission is by t h e b e e t l e a f h o p p e r ,
Circulifer tenellus (Baker)
(l)3.
In o t h e r s u g a r - b e e t - g r o w i n g
regions t h e beet l e a f h o p p e r o v e r w i n t e r s in desert areas a n d migrates i n t o c u l t i v a t e d valleys in t h e s p r i n g (2). H o w e v e r , its
h a b i t s a n d b e h a v i o r a r e i n c o m p l e t e l y k n o w n , a n d this lack o f
i n f o r m a t i o n has c o n t r i b u t e d t o i n a d e q u a t e c o n t r o l a n d p r e v e n t i v e
measures. I n f o r m a t i o n a s t o w h e r e a n d h o w t h e b e e t l e a f h o p p e r
o v e r w i n t e r s a n d on t h e t i m e of m i g r a t i o n is necessary to i n i t i a t e
controls. L i m i t s of t h e insect's host r a n g e w o u l d also be of v a l u e .
T h i s survey was c o n d u c t e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t o f c u r l y
t o p infection a n d t o answer some o f t h e q u e s t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o
t h e h a b i t s of t h e b e e t leafhopper. It was h o p e d t h a t t h e survey
w o u l d p r o v i d e a c l u e or s t a r t i n g p o i n t in t h e search for a b e t t e r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e b e e t leaf h o p p e r - c u r l y t o p r e l a t i o n s h i p i n
Washakie County.
1
Published with approval of the Director, Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station
as Journal
Paper No. 207.
2
3 Instructor of Entomology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming.
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
63
1, APRIL 1964
Methods
Sugar beet fields in W a s h a k i e C o u n t y were surveyed for t h e
beet leafhopper on five occasionsApril 17, May 8, J u n e 16,
J u n e 21, a n d J u l y 11, 1962. T h i r t y - e i g h t fields were designated
as check fields a n d each of these fields was e x a m i n e d d u r i n g
every survey (Figure 1). Fifteen a d d i t i o n a l fields were e x a m i n e d
on each of t h e five surveys, using different fields each time. T h e
38 p e r m a n e n t fields were picked largely at r a n d o m ; however, a
few were picked on the basis of curly t o p infection in 1960 a n d
1961.
T w o m e t h o d s were used to survey each field: (a) a standard
insect n e t a n d (b) a square-foot sampler. T h e sampler is a m o d i fication of the Hills S q u a r e Foot Sampler (3). It is a cage con-
SUGAR
BEET
FIELDS
SUGAR
BEET
FIELDS
USED
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
64
sisting of a c i r c u l a r f r a m e w r a p p e d w i t h cheesecloth a n d is o p e n
at b o t h e n d s . W h e n a desired p l a n t is found, t h e o p e r a t o r places
t h e s a m p l e r over t h e p l a n t . T h e o p e r a t o r t h e n d i s t u r b s t h e p l a n t ,
c a u s i n g t h e leaf h o p p e r s to j u m p to t h e cheesecloth. The insects
c a n b e c o u n t e d o r p i c k e d off t h e sides w i t h a n a s p i r a t o r , w h i c h
c a n be a n y form of suction or v a c u u m p u m p . The insects a r e
t h e n r e m o v e d from t h e aspirator, c o u n t e d , a n d p r e s e r v e d .
Fifty square-foot samples w e r e t a k e n at r a n d o m locations in
each field w i t h t h e sampler, a n d 200 sweeps w e r e t a k e n in each
field w i t h t h e insect net. W e e d hosts of t h e b e e t l e a f h o p p e r t h a t
w e r e n e a r t o b e e t f i e l d s , o r b o r d e r e d t h e m , w e r e also e x a m i n e d ,
u s i n g b o t h m e t h o d s of survey.
X h e curly t o p survey was c o n d u c t e d i n W a s h a k i e C o u n t y
d u r i n g t h e week of A u g u s t 6 to 10, 1962, a n d was d e s i g n e d to
i n c l u d e t h e e n t i r e sugar b e e t acreage in t h e c o u n t y . A total of
187 fields was e x a m i n e d , a few fields m a y h a v e b e e n missed because of t h e i r h i d d e n or u n s e e n location.
A total of 1,000 plants was visually i n s p e c t e d by e x a m i n i n g
100 plants at each of 10 locations selected at r a n d o m in each
field. The infected p l a n t s from each of t h e l o c a t i o n s w e r e t h e n
c o u n t e d t o give t h e total n u m b e r o f infected p l a n t s , t h u s d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p e r c e n t a g e of infected plants. E a c h field was g i v e n
a degree of infection r a t i n g based on a scale of five r a t i n g s as
follows:
Percent infection
0
1-10
11-20
21-50
51-100
Degree of infection
none
light
moderate
severe
very severe
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STOUT2
Introduction
N i t r o g e n n u t r i t i o n has b e e n s h o w n t o b e a n i m p o r t a n t factor
in sugar beet yield a n d q u a l i t y (2,3,5,6,7,8) 3 . If n i t r o g t n is t o o
low, u n p r o f i t a b l e yields result, b u t if it is t o o h i g h at harvest,
beets are low i n sucrose a n d p u r i t y . T h u s t i m i n g o f n i t r o g e n
u p t a k e , as well as t h e total a m o u n t , is essential in successful
sugar beet p r o d u c t i o n .
N i t r a t e n u t r i t i o n is o n e of t h e m o r e difficult p r o d u c t i o n
variables to c o n t r o l because it is influenced by so m a n y e n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions. T h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o soil o f p r e v i o u s c r o p
residues, t i m e of a p p l i c a t i o n of o r g a n i c or i n o r g a n i c forms of
nitrogen, temperature, and the method and a m o u n t of water
application affect t h e availability of n i t r a t e to g r o w i n g c r o p
plants.
Table 1.Precipitation and Evaporation, Salt Lake Valley, 1959-1960 and Cache
Valley, 1961.
Evaporation (inches)
Precipitation (inches)
19613
19613
I960 4
19594
Month
19591
I9602
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
Total
1
2
3
4
1.61
2.05
1.38
0.19
1.76
1.66
0.22
8.87
0.40
1.09
0.30
0.10
0.66
0.70
1.23
4.48
0.69
0.66
0.59
0.53
0.72
1.89
1.64
6.72
7.34
8.71
12.95
14.12
12.94
8.09
4.94
69.09
7.42
10.31
13.65
16.16
13.11
9.76
5.37
75.81
3.96
5.65
6.59
7.53
6.65
3.87
no data
34.25
VOL.
13, N o .
1, A P R I L
1964
69
measures for m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e localization of high salt concentrations (1). Soluble p l a n t n u t r i e n t s , especially n i t r a t e , follow the
same general p a t t e r n s of m o v e m e n t a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n in soils.
T h e m o v e m e n t a n d localized p a t t e r n s of r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of n i t r a t e
strongly affect n u t r i t i o n of t h e sugar beet c r o p .
T h e p u r p o s e of this r e p o r t is to provide a d d i t i o n a l information on the e x t e n t of n i t r a t e m o v e m e n t in soils a n d to suggest
some c u l t u r a l practices that may alleviate some u n d e s i r a b l e effects
from excess n i t r a t e supply at t h e w r o n g t i m e .
Chemical and Soil-Sampling Methods
Chemical. T h e colorimetric p h e n o l d i s u l p h o n i c acid m e t h o d
described by M. L. Jackson (1958 edition) was used for soil
nitrate analyses. E i g h t grams of screened (20 Mesh), well-mixed
soil were leached for 20 m i n u t e s by end-over-end r o t a t i o n in
50-ml test tubes w i t h 40 ml of d i l u t e C u S O 4 solution a n d a small
a m o u n t of C a ( O H ) 2 . T h e soil suspension was t h e n filtered
through close-textured filter p a p e r a n d an a l i q u o t of filtrate used
for n i t r a t e estimation.
Soil sampling and preparation.
E x t r e m e gradients in concentration of n i t r a t e usually e n c o u n t e r e d in cultivated, a r i d soils
make s a m p l i n g a n d sample h a n d l i n g u n u s u a l l y subject to errors
(4,5). To r e d u c e errors, it was f o u n d c o n v e n i e n t to lightly press
irregular soil surfaces a n d t h e n to use a flat-bottom scoop with
sides 1/4 inch h i g h to take the 0 to 1/2-inch surface samples. T h e
soil t u b e was t h e n inserted to the 6-inch d e p t h a n d any dry surface soil scraped away w i t h t h e scoop. T h e soil t u b e was t h e n
rotated a n d pressed against t h e t o p sides of t h e hole to insure
a r a t h e r conical-shaped, firm t o p before w i t h d r a w i n g the t u b e .
If dry soil fell i n t o t h e hole, a n o t h e r 1/2-inch of core was removed a n d discarded before t a k i n g the n e x t sample.
T h e soil was m i x e d in pans (a separate p a n for each d e p t h
increment) a n d a sample of a b o u t 60 to 100 grams was sealed
in small, w i d e - m o u t h bottles w i t h 2 to 3 ml of toluene. Soil
samples were d r i e d in m e t a l dishes at 65 C overnight, t h e n
passed b e t w e e n steel surfaced rolls a n d lightly r u b b e d t h r o u g h
a 20-mesh screen by m e a n s of a large r u b b e r stopper. T h e
screened soil was t h e n rolled t h o r o u g h l y a n d stored in p a p e r
bags for analysis. T h e r a t h e r e x t r e m e p r e c a u t i o n s in sampling
and sample p r e p a r a t i o n were taken because m o r e t h a n t h o u s a n d fold differences in n i t r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s may be e n c o u n t e r e d
between surface 1/2-inch a n d lower layers of soil. F o r this reason,
similar d e p t h - i n c r e m e n t s of different soil samples were usually
grouped a n d processed. T h e e q u i p m e n t was t h o r o u g h l y cleaned
before p r e p a r a t i o n of a n o t h e r d e p t h - i n c r e m e n t g r o u p of samples.
Depth of samples was u n i f o r m in all tests. T h e r e f o r e , to simplify
presentation a d e p t h code is used in p r e s e n t i n g data. D e p t h in-
JOURNAL OF THE A.
70
S. S.
B.
T.
Date
S e p t . 10
13
14
15
0,03
0.60
0.19
19
20
21
23
0.19
0.05
0.18
0.03
25
26
27
28
0.27
0.01
0.29
0.05
30
Depth
code
14
20~
Nitrate N
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
525
1570
1800
A
B
C
D
E
3
10
9
7
4
2
1
2
2
4
8
88
25
11
7
6
57
29
12
8
A
B
C
D
E
22
22
11
5
4
188
19
1
2
4
460
66
15
10
6
1900
118
18
10
4
A
B
C
D
E
2
3
3
2
2
5
5
3
4
4
550
186
25
7
7
170
69
16
7
5
71
Date
Aug. 12
Aug. 19
Aug. 22
A u g . 23
Depth
code
10
20
Nitrate N
10
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
A
B
C
D
E
1
1
4
11
16
370
9
6
10
11
230
12
10
13
11
210
6
4
18
17
1
1
3
15
13
A
B
C
D
E
3
1
3
11
15
340
7
5
13
13
700
8
18
18
510
2
3
18
21
3
1
2
11
10
A
B
C
D
E
1
2
2
11
4
43
38
14
18
19
108
90
15
26
20
50
12
4
16
16
1
1
1
7
19
0.66
A u g . 28 F e r t i l i z e d i n b o t t o m o f f u r r o w s w i t h a m m o n i u m n i t r a t e ;; t h e n irr i g a t e d
Aug. 30
Sept. 1
3
6
12
0.13
0.39
0.01
0.04
A
B
C
D
E
5
32
27
19
13
368
7
10
17
14
464
37
11
20
16
504
4
5
18
15
3
11
5
6
10
A
B
C
D
E
21
12
32
20
16
350
9
19
24
12
1210
28
22
18
17
470
2
4
14
17
6
4
10
12
14
72
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
as m u c h as in t h e o t h e r . T h e rainfall of 0.66 i n c h , A u g u s t 22
o c c u r r e d d u r i n g a very short p e r i o d . T h i s heavy s h o w e r d i d
n o t leach n i t r a t e from t h e surface n e a r l y so c o m p l e t e l y as t h e
less r a p i d rainfall of S e p t e m b e r 13-15, 1959 ( T a b l e 2) or t h a t
of O c t o b e r 8-12, 1960 ( T a b l e 6). Studies r e p o r t e d in T a b l e 3
were t e r m i n a t e d by t h e accidental c u l t i v a t i o n of surface soil
after samples were t a k e n S e p t e m b e r 12.
Effect
of deep
vs.
shallow furrows on
yield and quality
nitrate
redistribution;,
73
the e v a p o r a t i o n rates a n d t e m p e r a t u r e s were lower. Surfacenitrate c o n c e n t r a t i o n was greater in deeply-furrowed strips. Average yield of sugar p e r acre, tons of beets p e r acre, sugar p e r c e n t age, a n d p u r i t y values were h i g h e r in deeply cultivated strips.
Table 4.Nitrate nitrogen content of soil on two farms, deep vs. shallow furrows.
All samples taken between beets in the beds between furrows, 1959.
LESLIE JONES FARM
*4
75
distribution
in
furrow-irrigated
fields
of
sugar beets,
Position
Depth
code
6/30
ppm
ppm
8/5
9/8
10/17
ppm
7/19
ppm
ppm
ppm
Beet row
A
B
C
D
E
340
81
82
17
6
840
36
133
51
39
3400
130
32
28
10
2700
312
71
30
12
4200
103
71
4
2
1720
137
38
4
4
Furrow
A
B
C
D
E
370
119
90
19
8
260
11
15
11
7
320
6
17
5
4
99
7
2
2
2
78
4
1
1
1
170
13
3
3
2
Beet row
A
B
C
D
E
260
88
68
16
7
290
34
76
46
16
1650
112
56
33
53
1900
24
107
6
7
1110
17
11
1
1
710
52
102
34
15
Furrow
A
B
C
D
E
620
107
65
17
14
160
10
10
5
4
33
5
3
4
2
81
8
3
2
25
94
14
1
1
1
32
13
2
2
1
ppm
ppm
8/5
9/8
ppm
7/19
ppm
ppm
Beet row
A
B
C
D
E
94
56
31
18
12
210
25
24
32
16
1250
25
19
10
4
1400
93
21
37
18
3650
55
6
9
6
Furrow
A
B
C
D
E
99
42
35
15
6
128
13
9
8
6
240
5
3
20
4
90
7
3
3
7
36
4
2
3
5
Beet R o w
A
B
C
D
E
55
52
28
15
5
84
69
36
32
32
1900
200
121
59
59
1700
43
88
23
28
1920
126
13
23
9
Furrow
A
B
C
D
E
188
48
26
14
12
91
20
12
14
11
57
7
4
4
6
118
10
4
4
7
290
13
S
6
2
JOURNAL OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
76
Position
Depth
code
5/31
7/1
7/29
8/11
10/16
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
1
1
1
Beet row
A
B
C
D
E
150
54
14
4
67
22
25
14
2
72
3
1
1
35
2
2
1
1
Furrow
A
B
C
D
E
130
94
21
4
2
41
69
47
3
1
11
2
1
1
1
10
1
11
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
7/27
8/11
W. F. SCHIFFMAN FARM
5/31
N . S . no sample
7/1
10/16
Soil
Nitrate
Studies on
Sugar
77
Sprinkler vs.
beet Fields
Furrow-irrigated
78
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
79
80
JOURNAL OF THE A.
S.
S.
B.
T.
A.
WICKS
AND F .
N.
ANDERSON2
Introduction
O n e of t h e first selective h e r b i c i d e s used on sugar beets was a
concentrated salt s o l u t i o n by B a k k e (3) 3 in 1947; since t h e n
many chemicals h a v e b e e n t r i e d to selectively r e m o v e weeds from
sugar beets (4,9,11). D a l a p o n (2,2-dichloropropronic acid) has
been consistently effective in t h e c o n t r o l of a n n u a l grasses in
sugar beets w h i l e 3 , 6 - e n d o x o h e x a h y d r o p h t h a l i c acid (endothall)
and trichloroacetic acid ( T C A ) h a v e given v a r i a b l e c o n t r o l o n
a n n u a l grasses a n d broadleaf weeds (1,4). P r o p y l ethyl-n-butylthiolcarbamate ( P E B C ) has given acceptable weed control in
California, C o l o r a d o , W y o m i n g a n d M o n t a n a (2,5,8). A n o t h e r
chemical 2,3-dichloroallyl d i i s o p r o p y l t h i o l c a r b a m a t e ( D A T C ) has
proven to be an excellent h e r b i c i d e for wild oat control (9).
E x p e r i m e n t s w e r e i n i t i a t e d in western N e b r a s k a at Hershey,
Mitchell, a n d N o r t h P l a t t e , N e b r a s k a , t o d e t e r m i n e suitable
herbicides for c o n t r o l l i n g weeds in sugar beets.
Material and Methods
In 1961, e n d o t h a l at 2, 4, 6, a n d 8 l b / A , P E B C at 2, 4, a n d
8 l b / A tert-butyl d i - n - p r o p y l t h i o l c a r b a m a t e (R-1856) at 2.5, 5.0,
and 10.0 l b / A , a n d D A X C at 1, 2, a n d 4 l b / A were a p p l i e d preplant as broadcast t r e a t m e n t s a n d i m m e d i a t e l y i n c o r p o r a t e d on
April 12 a n d 13, A p r i l 14 a n d 15, a n d A p r i l 25 at Mitchell,
Hershey, a n d N o r t h P l a t t e , N e b r a s k a , respectively. Sugar beets
were p l a n t e d A p r i l 13, 15, a n d 26 at these p a r t i c u l a r locations.
In 1962, e n d o t h a l l at 2, 4, a n d 8 l b / A , P E B C at 2, 4, a n d 8 l b / A
and D A T C at 1, 2, a n d 4 l b / A w e r e a p p l i e d p r e p l a n t a n d soil
incorporated as b r o a d c a s t t r e a t m e n t s A p r i l 12 a n d 13 at Mitchell,
and A p r i l 31 a n d M a y 1 at N o r t h Platte. Sugar beets were
planted A p r i l 13 a n d M a y 4 at t h e respective locations. Incorporation to a d e p t h of 2 to 3 inches was accomplished w i t h i n
one m i n u t e after s p r a y i n g in 1961, a n d w i t h i n five m i n u t e s after
spraying in 1962, by a p o w e r - d r i v e n r o t a r y tiller m o u n t e d on a
Gravely g a r d e n tractor.
1
Published with the approval of the directors as paper No. 1423, Journal Series
Nebraska
Agricultural Experiment Station.
2
Assistant
Professors of Agronomy, University of Nebraska Experiment Station at
North
Platte Mitchell, Nebraska, respectively.
3
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
82
J O U R N A L OF T H E A.
S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13,
No.
1,
APRIL
1964
83
84
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
T h e average m i n i m u m a n d m a x i m u m a i r t e m p e r a t u r e s for
o n e a n d t w o weeks after p l a n t i n g , respectively, in 1961 w e r e
28-58F a n d 31-61F at M i t c h e l l , 33-65F a n d 34-63F at H e r s h e y ,
a n d 34-58F a n d 40-56F a t N o r t h P l a t t e . T h e average m i n i m u m
a n d m a x i m u m a i r t e m p e r a t u r e s i n 1962 for o n e a n d two weeks
after p l a n t i n g , respectively, w e r e 37-75F a n d 41-74F at M i t c h e l l
a n d 54-88F a n d 53-78F a t N o r t h P l a t t e .
The p r e c i p i t a t i o n data, from p l a n t i n g to 42 days later, a r e
p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 1 for 1961 a n d 1962.
Effect on prethinning sugar beet stands
In 1961 P E B C at 4 a n d 8 l b / A r e d u c e d sugar beet stands
b e l o w t h e check b y 2 0 a n d 3 9 % . D A T C a t 2 a n d 4 l b / A r e d u c e d
stands by 17 a n d 3 3 % . S t a n d losses on plots t r e a t e d with R-1856
at 5 a n d 10 l b / A w e r e 5 a n d 1 1 % . E n d o t h a l l a p p l i e d p r e p l a n t
at 4 a n d 8 l b / A r e d u c e d stands by 5 a n d 1 7 % ; all m e t h o d s of
a p p l i c a t i o n w e r e a b o u t t h e same. In 1962 plots t r e a t e d w i t h
P E B C at 4 a n d 8 l b / A lost 19 a n d 5 2 % of t h e p r e t h i n n i n g
stand, D A X C at 2 a n d 4 l b / A lost 11 a n d 2 7 % a n d stand loss
on t h e e n d o t h a l l at 8 l b / A plots was 1 0 % .
Annual
grass
control
X h e a n n u a l grasses i n 1961 a n d 1962 w e r e p r e d o m i n a t e l y
Setaria spp. Visual ratings t a k e n in 1961 a r e s h o w n in Table 2.
Visual c o n t r o l w i t h P E B C a t t h e t h r e e locations r a n g e d from
75 to 9 4 % w i t h 2 l b / A , 95 to 1 0 0 % w i t h 4 l b / A , a n d 1 0 0 % w i t h
8 l b / A . P e r c e n t control w i t h D A T C r a n g e d from 3 2 t o 8 2 %
w i t h 1 l b / A , 65 to 9 5 % for 2 l b / A , a n d 98 to 1 0 0 % for 4 l b / A .
C o n t r o l o b t a i n e d w i t h R-1856 was as follows: 35 to 6 8 % w i t h
2.5 l b / A , 7 2 t o 9 9 % w i t h 5.0 l b / A , a n d 9 2 t o 9 8 % for 10.0 l b / A .
Visual c o n t r o l w i t h e n d o t h a l l a p p l i e d p r e p l a n t was as follows: 0 to 9 2 % for 2 l b / A , 15 to 9 8 % for 4 l b / A , 28 to 9 8 %
for 6 l b / A , a n d 22 to 1 0 0 % for 8 l b / A . R e s u l t s at M i t c h e l l w e r e
excellent, at H e r s h e y c o n t r o l was fair; at N o r t h P l a t t e , it was
poor.
C o n t r o l w i t h e n d o t h a l l a p p l i e d p r e e m e r g e n c e r a n g e d from
0 t o 5 8 % for 2 l b / A , 15 to 7 4 % for 4 l b / A , a n d 70 to 8 8 % for
8 l b / A . X h e r e was little difference b e t w e e n c o n t r o l at M i t c h e l l
a n d H e r s h e y , at N o r t h P l a t t e it was p o o r , e x c l u d i n g t h e 8 l b / A
rate.
The p o s t e m e r g c n c e t r e a t m e n t of e n d o t h a l l gave c o n t r o l of
5 t o 5 5 % at 2 l b / A , 48 t o 8 0 % for 4 l b / A , a n d 70 t o 9 8 % for
8 l b / A . E x c e p t for t h e low rates at N o r t h P l a t t e , c o n t r o l was
a b o u t t h e s a m e for t h e t h r e e locations.
The grass yields at t h e t h r e e locations ( T a b l e 2) showed t h a t
several t r e a t m e n t s c o m p a r e d favorably to h a n d w e e d i n g at week-
Table 2.The effect of various herbicides on annual grasses as measured by visual estimations and oven dry weights at Mitchell, Hershey,
and North Platte, Nebraska in 1961.
1
2
86
J O U R N A L OF T H E A.
S. S.
B.
T.
ly intervals. T h e s e w e r e : 2, 4, a n d 8 l b / A of P E B C , 5.0 a n d
10.0 l b / A of R-1856, 2 a n d 4 l b / A of D A T C , a n d p o s t e m e r g e n c e
t r e a t m e n t of e n d o t h a l l at 8 l b / A .
Grass c o u n t s a n d yields for 1962 a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 3.
C o u n t s 36 days after p l a n t i n g at M i t c h e l l show t h a t t h e r e was
no significant r e d u c t i o n in t h e n u m b e r of a n n u a l grasses by
P E B C a n d D A T C t r e a t m e n t s . C o u n t s t a k e n 5 3 days after planti n g s h o w e d significantly fewer p l a n t s on t h e D A T C at 2 a n d 4
l b / A a n d 2, 4, a n d 8 l b / A of P E B C t h a n on t h e check. Grass
yields o n t h e D A T C a n d P E B C t r e a t m e n t s were e q u a l t o o r
lower t h a n t h e h a n d w e e d t r e a t m e n t .
A t N o r t h P l a t t e w h e n c o u n t s w e r e t a k e n 3 6 days after planti n g P E B C a n d D A T C h a d e l i m i n a t e d significantly m o r e a n n u a l
grasses t h a n t h e check. C o n t r o l was still effective 60 days after
planting.
Results w i t h e n d o t h a l l were o u t s t a n d i n g from t h e f i r s t readi n g a t Mitchell, b u t b y t h e second r e a d i n g t h e r e was a n increase
i n p l a n t n u m b e r s o t h a t t h e r e was n o significant difference bet w e e n e n d o t h a l l t r e a t m e n t s a n d t h e check. T h e N o r t h P l a t t e
c o u n t s show n o difference b e t w e e n check a n d a n y e n d o t h a l l
t r e a t m e n t . T h e r e was n o significant difference b e t w e e n check
a n d e n d o t h a l l t r e a t m e n t s in t h e grass yields harvested 83 to 60
days after p l a n t i n g a t M i t c h e l l a n d N o r t h P l a t t e , respectively.
Grass yields for locations show t h a t all rates of D A T C a n d
P E B C w e r e s i m i l a r t o t h e h a n d w e e d t r e a t m e n t . T h e r e was a
highly significant location X t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n caused by
b e t t e r p e r f o r m a n c e of e n d o t h a l l at M i t c h e l l .
Broadleaf
weed
control
P r i n c i p l e broadleaf species in 1961 w e r e : kochia (Kochia
scoparia L.)
a n d r o u g h pigweed
(Amaranthus retroflexus L.).
Kochia was p r e d o m i n a t e a t M i t c h e l l a n d N o r t h P l a t t e , a n d r o u g h
p i g w e e d a t Hershey. I n 1962, kochia a n d r o u g h pigweed w e r e
t h e p r e d o m i n a t e broadleaf weeds a t M i t c h e l l a n d N o r t h P l a t t e .
S e e d l i n g alfalfa was p r e s e n t in sufficient q u a n t i t y to c o u n t . Black
nightshade
(Solanum
nigraum L.) was p r e s e n t at t h e N o r t h
P l a t t e site.
Visual r a t i n g s w e r e t a k e n in 1961 a n d results a r e s h o w n in
T a b l e 4. P E B C at 2 l b / A c o n t r o l l e d 30 to 9 5 % , 4 l b / A controlled 8 8 t o 9 8 % , a n d 8 l b / A c o n t r o l l e d 9 2 t o 1 0 0 % . C o n t r o l
w i t h R-1856 r a n g e d from 0 to 1 8 % for 2.5 l b / A , 0 to 6 2 % for
5.0, a n d 2 5 a n d 8 1 % for 1 0 l b / A . C o n t r o l for D A T C r a n g e d
from 0 to 4 5 % for 1 l b / A , 20 to 6 5 % for 2 l b / A , a n d 52 to 9 4 %
for 4 l b / A . O n l y P E B C at 8 l b / A was e q u a l to h a n d - w e e d i n g
at weekly intervals for broadleaf w e e d c o n t r o l .
Table 3.The effect of various herbicides on annual grasses as measured by plant counts and oven-dry weights at Mitchell, and North Platte,
Nebraska in 1962.
1
A nine square foot area was harvested, counted and over-dried 83 days after planting at Mitchell and 60 days after at North Platte for the delayed
cultivation. Normal was counted 68 days after planting.
2
Numbers followed by the same letter do not differ significantly at the 5 percent level using Duncan's multiple range tests.
Table 4.The effect of various herbicides on broadleaf weeds as measured by visual estimations and oven-dry weights at Mitchell, Hershey, and
North Platte, Nebraska, in 1961.
1
2
89
E n d o t h a l l a p p l i e d p r e p l a n t a n d soil i n c o r p o r a t e d , c o n t r o l l e d
0 to 9 1 % for 2 l b / A , 12 to 9 8 % for 4 l b / A , 18 t o 1 0 0 % for 6
l b / A , a n d 38 to 9 8 % for 8 l b / A . P r e e m e r g e n c e applications of
e n d o t h a l l c o n t r o l l e d 10 to 4 9 % for 2 l b / A , 8 to 7 2 % for 4 l b / A ,
and 40 to 9 0 % for 8 l b / A . P o s t e m e r g e n c e applications of endothall c o n t r o l l e d 0 to 4 5 % for 2 l b / A , 0 to 6 0 % for 4 l b / A ,
a n d 1 2 t o 9 2 % for 8 l b / A . T h e p r e p l a n t soil i n c o r p o r a t e d a n d
the p r e e m e r g e n c e m e t h o d of a p p l y i n g e n d o t h a l l p e r f o r m e d best
a t M i t c h e l l b u t t h e p o s t e m e r g e n c e t r e a t m e n t was best a t Hershey.
T h e weed yields show t h a t t h e only s t r i k i n g results w i t h endothall w e r e w i t h t h e p o s t e m e r g e n c e t r e a t m e n t s a t Hershey.
T a b l e 5 shows t h e d a t a t a k e n on r o u g h pigweed at Mitchell
a n d N o r t h P l a t t e in 1962. P E B C was m o r e effective by the second
c o u n t i n g a n d all rates w e r e significantly b e t t e r t h a n any o t h e r
t r e a t m e n t . T h e t w o areas c o u n t e d over t h e row a t Mitchell 5 3
a n d 6 8 days after p l a n t i n g r e s p o n d e d similarly. T h e N o r t h
Platte c o u n t s s h o w e d P E B C t o b e t h e o u t s t a n d i n g herbicide
for c o n t r o l of r o u g h pigweed. W e e d yields were c o m p a r a b l e to
the h a n d w e e d t r e a t m e n t at b o t h locations. P E B C at 4 a n d 8
l b / A w e r e s u p e r i o r t o h a n d w e e d i n g a t weekly intervals measured
by D u n c a n ' s m u l t i p l e r a n g e tests on location means.
C o u n t s a n d w e e d weights t a k e n a t b o t h locations indicate
that D A T C was ineffective i n c o n t r o l l i n g r o u g h pigweed.
E n d o t h a l l at 8 l b / A was very effective in c o n t r o l l i n g r o u g h
pigweed at t h e first o b s e r v a t i o n at Mitchell. T h e r e was no significant difference by t h e second r e a d i n g b e t w e e n t h e check a n d
the e n d o t h a l l t r e a t m e n t s on t h e 12-inch w i d e area over t h e
row. T h e r e was a significant difference b e t w e e n t h e check a n d
e n d o t h a l l t r e a t m e n t s o n t h e 6-inch w i d e area. W e e d yields o n
the 4 l b / A plots w e r e significantly less t h a n t h e check. T h e
e n d o t h a l l t r e a t m e n t s at N o r t h P l a t t e w e r e n o t significantly different t h a n t h e check at any t i m e . Most of t h e highly significant
location X t r e a t m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n was caused by b e t t e r e n d o t h a l l
performance at Mitchell.
T a b l e 6 shows t h e d a t a t a k e n on kochia at Mitchell a n d
N o r t h P l a t t e i n 1962. P E B C a n d D A T C d i d n o t control kochia
at e i t h e r location. E n d o t h a l l gave g o o d c o n t r o l of kochia at
Mitchell as i n d i c a t e d by t h e first w e e d counts, a n d by t h e counts
a n d weed weights 8 3 days after p l a n t i n g . T h e second r e a d i n g
did n o t a p p e a r as g o o d as t h e first or t h a t t a k e n 15 days later
on the 6-inch area. C o n t r o l of kochia at N o r t h P l a t t e with
e n d o t h a l l was p o o r , a l t h o u g h t h e r e was a significant r e d u c t i o n
in weed weights b u t n o n e for c o u n t s . A g a i n t h e highly significant l o c a t i o n X treatment interaction was due to better endothall performance at Mitchell.
Table 5.Effect of various herbicides on rough pigweed as measured by plant counts and oven-dry weights at Mitchell and North Platte,
Nebraska in 1962.
1
A nine square foot area was harvested, counted and oven-dried 83 days after planting at Mitchell and 60 days after at North Platte for the delayed
cultivation. Normal was counted 68 days after planting.
2
Numbers followed by the same letter do not differ significantly at the 5 percent level using Duncan's multiple range tests.
Table 6.Effect of various herbicides on kochia as measured by plant counts and oven-dry weights at Mitchell and North Platte, Nebraska
in 1962.
1
A nine square foot area was harvested, counted and oven-dried 83 days after planting at Mitchell and 60 days after at North Platte for the delayed
cultivation. Normal was counted 68 days after planting.
2
Numbers followed by the same letter do not differ significantly at the 5 percent level using Duncan's multiple range tests.
92
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
1
Numbers followed by the same letter do not differ significantly at the 5 percent level
using Duncan's multiple range tests.
93
94
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S.
B.
T.
Summary
1. In western Nebraska endothall, D A T C , and P E B C were
a p p l i e d p r e p l a n t a n d soil i n c o r p o r a t e d to a d e p t h of 2 to
3 inches in 1961 a n d 1962; R-1856 was a p p l i e d in a similar
m a n n e r i n 1961. E n d o t h a l l was also a p p l i e d p r e e m e r g e n c e
a n d p o s t e m e r g e n c e i n 1961. R e s u l t s from t h r e e locations
in 1961 a n d t w o locations in 1962 a r e r e p o r t e d .
2. P E B C was t h e o u t s t a n d i n g h e r b i c i d e t r i e d in this study,
a l t h o u g h i t d i d n o t c o n t r o l kochia o r black n i g h t s h a d e .
T h e c o n t r o l o f a n n u a l grasses a n d r o u g h p i g w e e d b y P E B C
was c o m p a r a b l e t o h a n d w e e d i n g a t weekly intervals.
3. D A T C gave acceptable c o n t r o l of grass b u t n o t broadleaf
weeds.
4 . E n d o t h a l l d i d n o t give consistant w e e d c o n t r o l u n d e r t h e
c o n d i t i o n s of this study.
5. P E B C , R-1856 a n d D A T C were less affected by precipitat i o n t h a n e n d o t h a l l . Soil m o i s t u r e s b e t w e e n 9.8 a n d 1 9 . 7 %
at i n c o r p o r a t i o n t i m e h a d little affect on t h e c o n t r o l of
a n n u a l grasses a n d r o u g h pigweed o b t a i n e d b y P E B C i n
this study.
Acknowledgements
T h i s research was partially s u p p o r t e d by a g r a n t from the
G r e a t W e s t e r n Sugar C o m p a n y . T h e a u t h o r s wish t o t h a n k the
fieldmen a n d t h e m a n a g e r s of t h e factories of t h e G r e a t W e s t e r n
Sugar C o m p a n y a t M i t c h e l l , N e b r a s k a , a n d O v i d , C o l o r a d o , for
t h e i r h e l p i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t . T h a n k s are also e x t e n d e d t o the
c o o p e r a t i n g farmers: Kei M a t s u t a n i a t H e r s h e y ; a n d D e l b e r t
Nicholas a n d A m o s M e h l a t N o r t h P l a t t e , N e b r a s k a .
Literature Cited
(1) ANDERSON, R. N. 1962. Progress a n d problems in sugar beet weed
control. Crystalized Facts A b o u t Sugar Beets. 1 6 ( 1 ) : 13-20.
(2) ANTOGNINI, J. 1961. T i l l a m ( T M ) for weed control in sugar beets
in California. Holly Agricultural News. 9 (1) : 6-7.
(3) BAKKE, A. L. 1947. Spraying beets with salt solutions. N C W C C Rep o r t 4: 26.
(4)
1960.
F u r t h e r studies
95
COMES, R . D., D . W . B O H M O N T , a n d H . P . A L L E Y .
1961.
Movement
SULLIVAN, E. F.,
R . L. ABRAMS a n d R . R. W O O D .
1963.
W e e d control
1948.
Summary
of Proceedings p r i o r to 1946 is e x h a u s t e d a n d a l i m i t e d n u m b e r
of other Proceedings a n d e a r l i e r J o u r n a l s is available.
T h e increased n a t i o n a l interest in sugar beets a n d
creased Society m e m b e r s h i p has t r a n s f o r m e d t h e Office
Secretary i n t o a b e e h i v e of activity. A p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e
the business h o u r s of t h e Secretary is spent on Society
in a d d i t i o n to o n e full-time office assistant.
t h e inof t h e
half of
matters
H.
submitted,
FISCHER
Secretary-Treasurer
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
98
R e p o r t of the Treasurer
Balance Sheet
D e c e m b e r 3 1 , 1963
Cash Balance, J a n u a r y 1, 1962
Savings A c c o u n t Balance, J a n u a r y 1, 1962
1962 I n t e r e s t E a r n e d on Savings A c c o u n t
1962 Cash R e c e i p t s
1963 I n t e r e s t E a r n e d on Savings A c c o u n t
1963 Cash R e c e i p t s
895.21
5,328.09
242.46
12,855.83
162.99
9,175.41
$28,659.99
4.500.00
2.00
1962 Cash D i s b u r s e m e n t s
1963 Cash D i s b u r s e m e n t s
Savings A c c o u n t Balance, D e c e m b e r 3 1 , 1963
Cash Balance, D e c e m b e r 3 1 , 1963
$24,157.99
11,620.44
10,244.77
1,231.54
1,061.24
$24,157.99
NOTE:
$3,930.52
VOL.
13, N o .
1, A P R I L
1964
99
inating in the western beet-growing areas beginning approximately Monday, May 24, 1965 and ending approximately June
8, 1965.
Be It Further Resolved
that the Executive C o m m i t t e e and
Board of Directors be authorized to proceed immediately with
final plans, such plans to include a tour time schedule, sites and
manner of conducting demonstrations, meals and lodging, modes
of transportation and other details pertinent to an informative
and successful tour and meeting.
Be It Further Resolved
that the m a n a g e m e n t of all North
American Beet Sugar Companies be informed of the entire plan
and solicit their united cooperation in planning and hosting this
fine group of visitors.
100
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
results o f t h e tally w e r e n o t m a d e k n o w n u n t i l t h e b a n q u e t t h e
e v e n i n g of t h e day of this business m e e t i n g , t h e results a r e herewith duly recorded:
Executive Committee
President
B.
I m m e d i a t e Past P r e s i d e n t
Guy
Vice P r e s i d e n t
Lloyd
Secretary-Treasurer
James
E. Easton
Rorabaugh
X. Jensen
H . Fischer
B o a r d of D i r e c t o r s
Pacific Coast R e g i o n
E. M. D a n i e l s
Intermountain Region
Ronald C. Johnson
Eastern Rocky Mountain Region
J . L . Porterfield
North Central and Great
Lakes Region
Max C. Henderson
Canada
J. W. Hall
Processing a t L a r g e
R. A. McGinnis
Agricultural at Large
J. C. T a n n e r
On behalf of t h e R e s o l u t i o n s C o m m i t t e e , t h e Society Presid e n t a c k n o w l e d g e d w i t h t h a n k s t h e m a n y Society m e m b e r s a n d
c o n t r i b u t o r s w h o d e v o t e d t i m e a n d effort to t h e success of t h e
T h i r t e e n t h G e n e r a l M e e t i n g . H e specifically a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e
P r o g r a m C h a i r m a n , Russell T . J o h n s o n , his Section C h a i r m e n ,
J o h n T . A l e x a n d e r , R a l p h F i n k n e r , C h a r l e s Schneider, A u s t i n
A r m e r , R o b e r t S . G a d d i e , V a r o n J e n s e n a n d W h i t n e y Newton. I I .
H e a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e Local A r r a n g e m e n t s C o m m i t t e e , A l d e n
Stock, H u g h M e l v i n , C u r z o n Kay a n d R . J . T i n g l e y ; t h e N o m i n a t i n g C o m m i t t e e , R . S . G a d d i e , H . P . H . J o h n s o n , Dewey
Stewart, R . M . M c C r e a d y a n d E . F . Blackwelder; t h e A w a r d s
C o m m i t t e e ,J. S . M c F a r l a n e , L e R o y Powers, L l o y d T . J e n s e n ,
P. B. Smith and A. R. Downie; Publications Committee, James
H . Fischer, M . M . Afanasiev, J . L . H a d d o c k , J u l i a n J o h n s o n a n d
L e R o y Powers. H e t h a n k e d t h e speakers a t o u r g e n e r a l sessions
a n d a t all t h e sectional m e e t i n g s , t h e San Francisco C o n v e n t i o n
a n d Visitors B u r e a u , t h e staff of t h e Sheraton-Palace H o t e l , t h e
Silver E n g i n e e r i n g W o r k s , I n c o r p o r a t e d for p r o v i d i n g refreshm e n t s d u r i n g session breaks, t h e H o l l y Sugar C o r p o r a t i o n , U n i o n
Sugar Division of C o n s o l i d a t e d Foods C o r p o r a t i o n , Spreckels
Sugar C o m p a n y a n d t h e A m e r i c a n Crystal Sugar C o m p a n y for
s u p p l y i n g special e n t e r t a i n m e n t a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t for t h e ladies
attending the T h i r t e e n t h General Meeting.
T h e r e b e i n g n o f u r t h e r business t h e m e e t i n g was d e c l a r e d
a d j o u r n e d a t 11:40 a.m.
JAMES
H.
FISCHER
Secretary-Treasurer
101
Meritorious Service
A w a r d Presented
to
GUY
RORABAUGH
102
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
Meritorious Service
Award Presented
to
E. JACKSON M A Y N A R D
VOL. 13, N o .
1, A P R I L
103
1964
Meritorious Service
Award Presented
to
AUSTIN A. ARMER
Austin A. A r m e r received his B.S. degree in electric engineering in 1925 a n d his M.S. d e g r e e in physics in 1926, b o t h from
the University of California at Berkeley. F r o m 1926 he served
as design a n d sales e n g i n e e r for t h e M a g n a v o x C o m p a n y in
several m a j o r U. S. cities. In 1939 he s t a r t e d a c a r e e r in agriculture w i t h t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g d e p a r t m e n t o f t h e
University of California at Davis as a research associate. In t h i s
capacity he designed sugar beet h a r v e s t i n g m a c h i n e r y a n d contributed to t h e studies by t h e u n i v e r s i t y on b e e t seed processing
and treating. M a n y of his d e s i g n e d p r i n c i p l e s in b e e t h a r v e s t i n g
e q u i p m e n t are n o w i n general use. I n 1943 h e j o i n e d Spreckels
Sugar C o m p a n y as a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r a n d was i n s t r u m e n t a l
in establishing m e c h a n i c a l h a r v e s t i n g in California. He has contributed substantial e n g i n e e r i n g a n d design assistance t o m a n u facturers of e q u i p m e n t to i m p r o v e t h e m e c h a n i z e d p r o d u c t i o n
of sugar beets. In 1951 he served as a t e c h n i c a l c o n s u l t a n t in
Ireland w h e r e he d e v e l o p e d a sugar b e e t harvester to m e e t t h e
special needs of t h a t c o u n t r y . He h a s m o r e r e c e n t l y d e v o t e d his
efforts to i m p r o v e t h e design a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n of s u g a r b e e t
receiving e q u i p m e n t . H e has b e e n e d i t o r o f t h e Spreckels S u g a r
Beet B u l l e t i n since 1947, serves as a p h o t o g r a p h e r a n d a m o t i o n
picture p r o d u c e r , h a v i n g p r o d u c e d o v e r a dozen s o u n d films
relating to a g r i c u l t u r a l subjects. M r . A r m e r is c u r r e n t l y agricultural e n g i n e e r , Spreckels S u g a r C o m p a n y , is past p r e s i d e n t
of the A m e r i c a n Society of S u g a r Beet T e c h n o l o g i s t s a n d past
chairman of t h e Pacific Coast Section, A m e r i c a n Society of Agricultural E n g i n e e r s .
JOURNAL OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
104
Forty
Year
Veteran
Azvards
JOURNAL
of the
American Society of Sugar
Beet Xechnologists
Volume 13
Number 2
July 1964
Published
quarterly
by
Subscription
$4.50
S5.00
$1.25
$1.40
per
per
per
per
year,
year,
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copy,
prices:
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foreign
domestic
foreign
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Author
T h e fate
juices
of
formaldehyde
in
sugar
Page
beet
A. Carrtithers
J. F. T. Old
field
105
F. W. Snyder
G. J. Hogaboam
116
Merle G. Payne
L.eRoy Poivers
Grace W. Maag
127
LeRoy
Powers
Merle G. Payne
138
H. L. Bush
151
Allison S. Chang
153
Arnold E. Steele
170
D. IV. Robertson
Mildred L. Thornton
177
Associations of levels of
sium, a n d sodium in
juice with weight of
centage sucrose a n d
purity in sugar beets
Spiros
M.
Constantinides
C. L. Bedford
185
W. A. Harris
192
for publication
February
6, 1964
106
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S.
S. B. T.
E v e n a t t h e lowest dosage, 5 0 % o f t h e a p p l i e d f o r m a l d e h y d e
was recovered a n d t h e recovery rose r a p i d l y t o a l m o s t 9 0 % with
a f o r m a l d e h y d e a d d i t i o n o f . 0 2 % o n juice, a n d t o a b o u t 9 8 %
at h i g h e r dose rates. F o r m a l d e h y d e a p p l i e d d u r i n g diffusion is
in c o n t a c t w i t h a m i x t u r e of juice a n d partially e x h a u s t e d cossettes so t h a t t h e possibility arises of c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h p r o t e i n
or other p u l p constituents. On treating mixtures of juice and
p u l p with f o r m a l d e h y d e at a level of 0 . 0 1 % on total l i q u i d s however, t h e recoveries r a n g e d from 7 8 t o 8 3 % w h i c h a r e very similar t o those o b t a i n e d w i t h j u i c e a l o n e .
It is t h e r e b y c o n f i r m e d t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e formaldeh y d e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e diffuser r e m a i n s in a free or very
lightly b o u n d form.
T h i s c o n c l u s i o n is p e r h a p s r a t h e r u n e x p e c t e d in view of the
c o m m o n s u p p o s i t i o n that t h e bactericidal effect of f o r m a l d e h y d e
may b e d u e t o c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h b a c t e r i a l p r o t e i n . D e s p i t e the
large excess of p r o t e i n n i t r o g e n o v e r a d d e d f o r m a l d e h y d e , very
little if a n y of t h e f o r m a l d e h y d e r e a c t e d w i t h p u l p c o n s t i t u e n t s .
VOL.
13, No. 2, J I I Y
107
1964
N-methylene
derivative
1.8
5.1
H.2
17.9
21.4
23.7
26.5
28.1
29.0
Residual
formaldehyde
18.9
36.1
67.6
140.7
220
296
459
602
748
(Concentrations in m-moles
Residual
glycine
32.6
29.1
21.4
18.1
11.8
9.3
6.9
4.5
3.1
K
X 103
m-moles- 1
.litres
2.9
4.8
7.7
7.1
8.2
8.6
8.4
10.4
12.5
T o o b t a i n m e a s u r a b l e yields o f t h e m e t h y l e n e d e r i v a t i v e , t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f a m i n o acid a n d f o r m a l d e h y d e
were h i g h e r t h a n o c c u r i n factory p r a c t i c e a n d even so. t h e
a m o u n t of m e t h y l e n e d e r i v a t i v e f o r m e d was very low at t h e
lowest f o r m a l d e h y d e a d d i t i o n w h e r e a s very little free a m i n o
acid r e m a i n e d a t t h e highest f o r m a l d e h y d e level. C o n s e q u e n t l y
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t h e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n s t a n t s c a n n o t b e c a l c u l a t e d very precisely
at these two f o r m a l d e h y d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b u t nevertheless it
a p p e a r s that t h e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n s t a n t becomes s m a l l e r as t h e form a l d e h y d e c o n t e n t i s r e d u c e d . F o r a n average a m i n o acid conc e n t r a t i o n in j u i c e of 15 m m o l e s p e r litre a n d f o r m a l d e h y d e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of e i t h e r . 0 3 % or . 0 0 3 % a K v a l u e of 0.0029
w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d t o c o m b i n a t i o n o f only a b o u t 3 % o f t h e
i o r m a k l e h y d e a n d even if t h e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n s t a n t was as high
as 0.008, o n l y 1 0 % of t h e f o r m a l d e h y d e w o u l d be c o m b i n e d
with a m i n o acids.
It is therefore c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e formaldehyde i n t r o d u c e d i n t o the juice e n d of the diffuser will be carried
t h r o u g h as free f o r m a l d e h y d e i n t o t h e c a r b o n a t a t i o n system.
Degradation of formaldehyde in carbonatation
T h e effect of l i m i n g a n d c a r b o n a t a t i o n on f o r m a l d e h y d e in
r a w juice was e x a m i n e d by clarification of juice c o n t a i n i n g formaldehyde-C14.
P a r a f o r m a l d e h y d e - C 1 4 (1.16 mg = 100 .C) p l u s inactive
p a r a f o r m a l d e h y d e (4.8 mg) was s u s p e n d e d in 1.1 ml w a t e r a n d
c o n v e r t e d to f o r m a l d e h y d e - C 1 4 by h e a t i n g at 1 0 0 C in a sealed
t u b e for 5 h o u r s . A test e x p e r i m e n t w i t h i n a c t i v e p a r a f o r m a l d e hyde showed t h a t m o r e t h a n 90%, c o n v e r s i o n was o b t a i n e d in
30 minutes u n d e r the experimental conditions.
1 ml (91 c) of the r a d i o a c t i v e f o r m e l d e h y d e s o l u t i o n was
a d d e d to 30 ml of raw juice from t h e l a b o r a t o r y micro-battery
to give a total f o r m a l d e h y d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of a b o u t 0 . 0 2 % a n d
samples of t h e u n t r e a t e d m i x t u r e w e r e r e m o v e d for c o u n t i n g ,
Since f o r m a l d e h y d e is volatile, a p p r e c i a b l e losses o c c u r r e d if the
radioactive j u i c e was d r i e d directly for c o u n t i n g b u t this loss
was p r e v e n t e d b y c o n v e r t i n g t h e f o r m a l d e h y d e i n t o t h e nonvolatile d i m e d o n e d e r i v a t i v e o n t h e s a m p l e c o u n t i n g p a n . 2 5 l
a l i q u o t s of t h e r a d i o a c t i v e j u i c e w e r e t r a n s f e r r e d to a tared
s a m p l e p a n , 40 g of inactive f o r m a l d e h y d e was a d d e d together
with 100 l of a 1% s o l u t i o n of d i m e d o n e in m e t h a n o l . W a t e r
was a d d e d to give a total v o l u m e of 600 l to fill t h e source
area of t h e s a m p l e p a n a n d t h e s o l u t i o n was e v a p o r a t e d to dryness u n d e r a n infra r e d l a m p . T h e s a m p l e was r e w e i g h e d and
c o u n t e d u s i n g a P h i l i p s e n d w i n d o w G . M . t u b e type 18505 under c o n d i t i o n s of s t a n d a r d g e o m e t r y as r e p o r t e d previously (2)
T h e c o u n t r a t e was c o r r e c t e d for self a b s o r p t i o n to give a calc u l a t e d zero a b s o r p t i o n r a t e of 7580 c o u n t s m i n p e r 25 l of
juice.
109
A s a m p l e of t h e r a d i o a c t i v e j u i c e (15 m l ) was h e a t e d to 8 0 C
in a c e n t r i f u g e t u b e in a w a t e r b a t h a n d s t i r r e d w i t h a fine jet
of air. T h e juice was defecated u s i n g d r y l i m e ( 1 . 6 % ) for 5 m i n utes a n d gassed w i t h c a r b o n d i o x i d e from a low p r e s s u r e reservoir
to the first a n d t h e n to the second c a r b o n a t a t i o i i end p o i n t s . T h e
carbonatatioii p r e c i p i t a t e s w e r e r e m o v e d bv c e n t r i f u g a t i o n . A
sample of t h e second c a r b o n a t a t i o i i juice was d r i e d a n d c o u n t e d
as before a n d it was f o u n d t h a t 7 5 % of the initial r a d i o a c t i v i t y
had passed t h r o u g h i n t o t h e second c a r b o n a t a t i o i i juice.
A l i q u o t s o f t h e second c a r b o n a t a t i o n juice w e r e a p p l i e d
to a s t r i p of W h a t m a n X o . 1 filter p a p e r , 50 cm in l e n g t h , a n d
subjected to h i g h voltage e l e c t r o p h o r e s i s at 100 v / c m for 15 m i n utes i n 1 % a m m o n i u m c a r b o n a t e . T h e filter p a p e r was t h e n exposed for 24 h o u r s for a u t o r a d i o g r a p h y with Ilford X-ray I n d u s trial G film. T h e positions of t h e b a n d s of r a d i o a c t i v e p r o d u c t s
revealed on t h e film were r e m a r k e d l y s i m i l a r to those r e p o r t e d
previously (2) for t h e acidic p r o d u c t s p r o d u c e d by a l k a l i n e degradation of fructose or glucose: t h e e x p e r i m e n t was t h e r e f o r e
repeated w i t h o u t f o r m a l d e h y d e b u t s u b s t i t u t i n g u n i f o r m l y labelled fructose-C14 (4.9 mg == 100 c) p l u s i n a c t i v e fructose
(30 mg) . T h e two second c a r b o n a t a t i o i i juices w e r e a p p l i e d side
by side to t h e s a m e p a p e r s t r i p for electrophoresis, a n d a u t o r a d i o graphs o f t h e p r o d u c t s a r e r e p r o d u c e d i n F i g u r e 2 a n d 3 . T o
obtain clear s e p a r a t i o n of t h e p r o d u c t b a n d s , t h e a m o u n t of:
radioactive m a t e r i a l was r e d u c e d to 15 m c for t h e s e p a r a t i o n
shown in F i g u r e 2 w i t h an a u t o r a d i o g r a p h i c e x p o s u r e of 7 days,
while t h e a p p l i c a t i o n was d o u b l e d for F i g u r e 3 to show t h e less
intense p r o d u c t s at t h e e x p e n s e of s o m e o v e r l o a d i n g of t h e m o r e
active b a n d s .
During liming and carbonatatioii both the formaldehyde and
the fructose w e r e c o n v e r t e d a l m o s t exclusively i n t o a n i o n i c products. X o c a t o n i c c o m p o n e n t s c o u l d b e d e t e c t e d i n e i t h e r system
and t h e r e was no d e t e c t a b l e loss of activity from e i t h e r second
carbonatatioii juice on t r e a t m e n t with a s t r o n g c a t i o n e x c h a n g e
resin ( Z e o K a r b 225) w h e r e a s 9 2 % o f t h e activity a r i s i n g from
f o r m a l d e h y d e d e g r a d a t i o n a n d 9 5 % o f t h e activity a r i s i n g from
fructose d e g r a d a t i o n c o u l d be a b s o r b e d on a s t r o n g anion exchanger (De-Acidite F F ) . ^
T h e p r i n c i p a l p r o d u c t b a n d s h a v e b e e n l a b e l l e d 1 to 8, t h e
higher n u m b e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e m o s t m o b i l e o f t h e e l e c t r o p h o r e tic b a n d s . T h e e l e c t r o p h c r o g r a m s h o w n in Figure 3 was c u t i n t o
strips t o isolate t h e p r o d u c t b a n d s , i n c l u d i n g s o m e faint i n t e r m e diate b a n d s which were visible o n t h e o r i g i n a l a u t o r a d i o g r a p h .
The strips w e r e e l u t e d and counted to determine the r e l a t i v e
yields a n d these v a l u e s a r e also r e c o r d e d o n F i g u r e 3 .
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Figures 2 a n d 3.Autoradiographs following electrophoresis of deg r a d a t i o n products of formaldehyde C14 a n d fructose C14.
At t h e p r e s e n t stage of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e fructose degradation products have been examined in m o r e detail than the
p r o d u c t s from f o r m a l d e h y d e a n d only a few of t h e l a t t e r have
b e e n positively identified, b u t from e l e c t r o p h o r e t i c a n d c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c s e p a r a t i o n s it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e b a n d s
consist of t h e same acids, or closely r e l a t e d isomeric acids, regardless of w h e t h e r t h e source was f o r m a l d e h y d e or fructose. T h e
relative p r o p o r t i o n s of t h e p r o d u c t s a r e clearly different w i t h the
different sources a n d it is p r o b a b l e that, as w i t h fructose, the
p r o p o r t i o n s of t h e f o r m a l d e h y d e p r o d u c t s will vary a c c o r d i n g
t o t h e initial c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d t h e d e f e c a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s .
B a n d 8 consists of formic acid a n d was o b t a i n e d in h i g h e r
yield from f o r m a l d e h y d e t h a n from fructose. Most of t h e rem a i n i n g b a n d s do n o t consist of a single s u b s t a n c e a n d after elu-
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Figure 4.Degradation
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almost e q u i v a l e n t p r o d u c t i o n o f r e d u c i n g m a t e r i a l . T h e r e d u c i n g
material was n o t stable a n d color was p r o d u c e d soon after t h e
concentration o f r e d u c i n g m a t e r i a l b e c a m e significant. T h e s u b sequent d e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e r e d u c i n g m a t e r i a l followed a c u r v e
which was a p r o l o n g a t i o n of t h e i n i t i a l f o r m a l d e h y d e d e c o m p o s i tion.
T h e slope o f t h e f o r m a l d e h y d e d e c o m p o s i t i o n c u r v e does n o t
follow any s i m p l e 1st or 2 n d o r d e r r e a c t i o n a n d some o t h e r species
must be involved to i n i t i a t e t h e r a p i d stage of d e c o m p o s i t i o n .
Possibilities for such a " s t a r t e r " c o u l d i n c l u d e m a n y of t h e acidic
products d e t e c t e d in the r a d i o c h e m i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s b u t s o m e of
the m o r e reactive non-acidic p r o d u c t s of r e d u c i n g sugar degradation s e e m e d m o r e p r o b a b l e . T h e e x p e r i m e n t was t h e r e f o r e
repeated in t h e presence of a d d e d g l y c e r a l d e h y d e at an i n i t i a l
concentration of 0 . 0 0 S o . G l y c e r a l d e h y d e is n o t stable u n d e r alkaline c o n d i t i o n s a n d is in e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h d i h y r o x y a c e t o n e w h i c h
has been t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d in low yield as a p r o d u c t of hexose
degradation. T h e d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e f o r m a l d e h y d e , t h e production a n d s u b s e q u e n t d e g r a d a t i o n o f r e d u c i n g m a t e r i a l a n d
the color p r o d u c t i o n followed a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n w i t h glyceraldehyde a d d i t i o n , as shown in F i g u r e 5, b u t t h e r e a c t i o n rates w e r e
greatly increased; t h e f o r m a l d e h y d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n fell to zero
in a b o u t \l/2 m i n u t e s a n d t h e r e d u c i n g m a t e r i a l was d e c o m p o s e d
more rapidly.
T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f r e d u c i n g m a t e r i a l does n o t fall e x p o n entially to zero s h o w i n g that e i t h e r t h e initial r e d u c i n g m a t e r i a l
is a m i x t u r e of different substances, or t h a t s o m e of t h e p r o d u c t s
Figure 5.Degradation of
yccraldchyde starter 0,008%.
formaldehyde
during
liming
(effect of
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were d u e m a i n l y to t h e physical a n d chemical n a t u r e of t h e maternal tissues of t h e fruit which s u r r o u n d the t r u e seed (7, 8).
P o x t a t o r a n d H e l m e r i c k (1) observed that large-fruited p a r e n t s
produce p r o g e n i e s w i t h large fruits.
Before b r e e d i n g for u n i f o r m fruits t h e b r e e d e r s h o u l d k n o w
whether t h e r e is a most d e s i r a b l e size a n d w h a t o t h e r characteristics of fruit a n d seed may i n f l u e n c e his choice of size. Since previous work suggested that t h e size of fruit influences g e r m i n a t i o n
performance, this research was u n d e r t a k e n to s e p a r a t e t h e effect
of fruit size from t h e effect of seed size on g e r m i n a t i o n w h e n
the seed is g e r m i n a t e d w i t h i n t h e intact fruit.
Methods and Materials
T h e d a t a w e r e collected on an i n d i v i d u a l p l a n t basis as a
control on v a r i a b i l i t y that exists b e t w e e n p l a n t s for q u a l i t y a n d
concentration of i n h i b i t o r s in t h e i r f r u t s as well as t h e m e c h a n i cal p r o p e r t i e s of t h e fruit affecting g e r m i n a t i o n . S i m p l e a n d
partial c o r r e l a t i o n s were t h e n used to e v a l u a t e the d a t a for w i t h i n
plants, for b e t w e e n p l a n t s , a n d for t h e variety.
In the e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e s (3) e m p l o y e d to i m p r o v e
the m o n o g e r m variety SP 5832-0. each root of 141 selections was
planted in a soil b e d in t h e g r e e n h o u s e at East L a n s i n g . Michigan, in D e c e m b e r 1958. M a t u r e fruits w e r e h a r v e s t e d separately
from each of 131 p l a n t s . All fruits w e r e t r e a t e d w i t h fungicide b u t
received no o t h e r t r e a t m e n t . Eleven to 22 g r a m s of fruits from
each of 19 p l a n t s w e r e sized for d i a m e t e r a n d t h e n for thickness.
T h e p e r c e n t a g e s by w e i g h t of fruits w i t h a single o v a r i a n cavity
(multiple o v a r i a n cavities d i s c a r d e d ) in each of t h e size classes
were listed by p l a n t source. In this study, the 12/64-inch diameter class refers to fruits that passed t h r o u g h a 13 (54-inch r o u n d hole screen a n d r e m a i n e d o n a n l l / 6 4 - i n c h screen. T h e 9 / 6 4 - i n c h
thickness class refers to fruits t h a t passed t h r o u g h a 1 0 / 6 4 - i n c h
slotted screen a n d r e m a i n e d on an 8 64-inch screen.
An i n d e x of u n i f o r m i t y was c a l c u l a t e d b o t h for d i a m e t e r a n d
thickness of fruit. T h e i n d e x e s were c a l c u l a t e d from the fruitsize d i s t r i b u t i o n d a t a as follows: T h e m o d a l class was assigned a
value of zero, t h e class on e i t h e r side of t h e m o d e was assigned
a value of 0 . 1 , the second classes from t h e m o d e w e r e assigned
a value of 0.2, t h e t h i r d a' v a l u e of 0.4, a n d t h e f o u r t h a v a l u e
of 0.8. T h e assigned class v a l u e was m u l t i p l i e d by t h e p e r c e n t a g e
by weight of fruits in t h a t class a n d t h e s u m of these p r o d u c t s
is the i n d e x of u n i f o r m i t y . T h u s , t h e s m a l l e r t h e values of t h e
index, t h e m o r e u n i f o r m t h e size of fruits.
V o l u m e of fruit was c a l c u l a t e d since it offered t h e possibility
of b e t t e r r e l a t i n g fruit size to g e r m i n a t i o n response t h a n e i t h e r
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l e n d i n g d u e t o t h e h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n o f s e e d d i a m e t e r ( D ) with
f r u i t size c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( B , C , & F ) . P a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n s o f seed
d i a m e t e r w i t h g e r m i n a t i o n t i m e , b y r e m o v i n g t h e e f f e c t o f fruit
v o l u m e ( A D . F ) , r e v e a l e d f o u r s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s within
p l a n t s ( t h r e e w e r e n e g a t i v e a n d o n e p o s i t i v e ) . I n a l l c a s e s their
v a l u e s w e r e less t h a n + 0 . 2 9 . T h e b e t w e e n - p l a n t a n d w i t h i n - v a r i e t y
p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e s e t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s w e r e n o t significant.
T h e w i t h i n - p l a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r f r u i t d i a m e t e r v e r s u s seedsper-cavity (BE) were n o t o b t a i n e d from t h e electronic computer,
b u t f o r f r u i t t h i c k n e s s v e r s u s s e e d s - p e r - c a v i t y ( C E ) t h e values
r a n g e d f r o m 0 . 0 0 t o + O . 3 6 a n d f o r f r u i t v o l u m e v e r s u s seedsper-cavity ( F E ) f r o m +0.01 to +0.49. N o n e of t h e betweenp l a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s o f s e e d s - p e r - c a v i t y w i t h f r u i t d i a m e t e r (BE),
fruit thickness (CE), or fruit v o l u m e
(FE)
w e r e significant.
T h e w i t h i n - v a r i e t v c o r r e l a t i o n o f s e e d s - p e r - c a v i t y w i t h f r u i t volu m e ( F E ) was h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t + 0 . 2 2 .
Discussion
T h e d a t a c l e a r l v r e v e a l a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p bet w e e n f r u i t size ( d i a m e t e r , t h i c k n e s s , o r v o l u m e ) a n d t h e time
r e q u i r e d f o r g e r m i n a t i o n . O f t h e f r u i t size c h a r a c t e r s , volume
a p p e a r s r o b e t h e b e s t f o r c o r r e l a t i o n s t u d i e s b e c a u s e i t involves
b o t h d i a m e t e r a n d t h i c k n e s s . I n g e n e r a l , fruit, v o l u m e g a v e the
h i g h e s t c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r g e r m i n a t i o n . The
s i m p l e c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n g e r m i n a t i o n t i m e a n d seed diameter
g a v e v a l u e s v e r v s i m i l a r t o t h o s e b e t w e e n g e r m i n a t i o n t i m e and
f r u i t size d u e t o t h e h i g h p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n s e e d size
a n d t h e v a r i o u s f r u i t size a t t r i b u t e s .
W h e n t h e e f f e c t s o f f r u i t v o l u m e w e r e r e m o v e d b v a partial
c o r r e l a t i o n t h e n p l a n t s 4 8 . 59, 60. a n d 1 10 h a d rAD.F v a l u e s of
0 . 2 3 , 0 . 1 8 , 0 . 1 9 a n d + 0 . 2 8 r e s p e c t i v e l y . A l l o t h e r p l a n t had
n o n s i g n i f i c a n t v a l u e s . W h e n c o e f f i c i e n t s o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n were
c a l c u l a t e d , t h e m i n o r r o l e o f s e e d d i a m e t e r per s e i n g e r m i n a t i o n
t i m e was a p p a r e n t .
F r o m t h i s s t u d y i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t f r u i t size, w h e t h e r i t b e
d i a m e t e r , t h i c k n e s s , o r v o l u m e , i s a p o o r i n d i c a t o r o f t h e content
o f t h e o v a r i a n c a v i r y . M a n y f r u i t s 9 6 4 i n c h i n d i a m e t e r o r larger
w e r e f o u n d t o c o n t a i n a b o r t e d s e e d s . M u l t i p l e s e e d s w e r e found
i n b o t h s m a l l a n d l a r g e f r u i t s . C o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n f r u i t volume
a n d s e e d s - p e r - c a v i t y w e r e p o s s i b l e w i t h t h e d a t a f r o m a few o f
t h e p l a n t s . T h e r v a l u e s r a n g e d f r o m + 0 . 0 1 t o + 0 . 4 9 which
w o u l d m e a n t h a t for s o m e p l a n t s t h e r e i s a t e n d e n c y for t h e
l a r g e r f r u i t s t o h a v e m o r e s e e d s p e r c a v i t y b u t f o r o t h e r plants
this t e n d e n c y d o e s n o t exist. T h u s , if a b r e e d e r is g o i n g to se-
125
lect against m u l t i p l e seeds p e r cavity, he m u s t e x a m i n e a d e q u a t e ly all fruit sizes on a p l a n t r a t h e r t h a n just the larger fruits.
T h e shape of the w h o l e m o n o g e r m fruit was e x a m i n e d by
dividing the fruit thickness by the fruit d i a m e t e r ( T a b l e 2) a n d
by the c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n fruit d i a m e t e r a n d fruit thickness
( T a b l e 5). Since the e x t r e m e s in the thickness by d i a m e t e r r a t i o
only differed from the m e a n by 12.5% a n d since t h e b e t w e e n plant c o r r e l a t i o n for fruit d i a m e t e r versus fruit thickness was
+0.77, t h e r e a p p e a r s to be only a small c h a n c e to c h a n g e the
shape of fruit of this variety by b r e e d i n g .
If the c o m p o s i t e d a t a a r e considered as r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e variety, t h e n general r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n fruit size a n d seed d i a m e t e r
may be i n d i c a t e d . T h e larger t h e fruit, t h e slower t h e seed w i t h i n
it g e r m i n a t e d . Seed d i a m e t e r had no significant effect on speed
of g e r m i n a t i o n . F o r any given plant in which viable seeds of
different d i a m e t e r s w e r e c o n t a i n e d in fruits of fixed v o l u m e ,
differences in speed of g e r m i n a t i o n varied by as m u c h as 24
hours, b u t g e n e r a l l y t h e v a r i a t i o n averaged 12 h o u r s or less. In
c o m p a r i s o n , seeds of t h e s a m e d i a m e t e r in fruits of different
sizes, from the same p l a n t a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y from different p l a n t s
( p r e s u m a b l y differing in k i n d s a n d a m o u n t s of i n h i b i t o r s ) , differed in speed of g e r m i n a t i o n by as m u c h as 10 days. E x c e p t for
the m a r k e d l y slower g e r m i n a t i o n of t h e seeds in t h e t w o smallest
fruit v o l u m e classes ( T a b l e 4) which a p p e a r s to be c o n t r o l l e d internally by t h e seeds, speed of g e r m i n a t i o n of seeds in l a r g e r fruits
is r e g u l a t e d m a i n l y by t h e m a t e r n a l tissues of the fruit. G e n e r a l l y
because of c h e m i c a l i n h i b i t o r s in t h e fruit, seeds in situ in fruits
g e r m i n a t e m o r e slowly t h a n seeds r e m o v e d from t h e m . H o w e v e r ,
a s t i m u l a t o r y effect of t h e fruit on speed of g e r m i n a t i o n has b e e n
observed (7, 8 ) . If s a m p l e s of fruits h a v i n g only a s t i m u l a t i n g
action c o u l d b e isolated, t h e n larger fruits p r o b a b l y w o u l d b e
desired.
Summary
Samples of w h o l e fruits from 19 p l a n t s of t h e m o n o g e r m sugar
beet variety SP 5832-0 w e r e sized for d i a m e t e r a n d thickness i n t o
a n u m b e r of size classes. An X-ray t e c h n i q u e was used to e x a m i n e
the c o n t e n t s a n d to d e t e r m i n e the d i a m e t e r of t h e seed w i t h i n
each of 6,782 fruits. Seedless o v a r i a n cavities were f o u n d in 10.2%
of t h e fruits. T w o or m o r e seeds p e r cavity were f o u n d w i t h i n
some of t h e fruits from 1.5 of t h e plants. T h e fruits w e r e placed
on blotters a n d t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d for g e r m i n a t i o n was r e c o r d e d
(in 1/2-day i n c r e m e n t s ) for each seed t h a t g e r m i n a t e d w i t h i n 25
days.
126
JOURNAL OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
F r u i t size, as m e a s u r e d by d i a m e t e r , thickness, or v o l u m e , significantly influenced t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d for g e r m i n a t i o n . Generally seeds in the larger fruits g e r m i n a t e d m o r e slowly. F r u i t
size was a poor i n d i c a t o r of e i t h e r seedless fruits or m u l t i p l e seeded fruits.
Since fruit v o l u m e was highly c o r r e l a t e d w i t h seed diameter,
a partial correlation which r e m o v e d the effects of fruit volume
was used to d e t e r m i n e the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n seed d i am et er
a n d g e r m i n a t i o n t i m e . T h e r A D . F v a l u e for t h e variety of 0.03
indicated t h a t seed d i a m e t e r per se h a d little effect on t h e germ i n a t i o n rate. W i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l plants, however, t h e r A D . F
values r a n g e d from 0.23 to +0.28 w h i c h i n d i c a t e d t h a t certain
p o p u l a t i o n s c o u l d be isolated in w h i c h seed d i a m e t e r per se could
influence the g e r m i n a t i o n r a t e .
If g e r m i n a t i o n t i m e (speed of g e r m i n a t i o n ) is to be t h e criterion for selection of m o n o g e r m plants, then, in most cases, large
seeds w o u l d n o t be desirable because of t h e h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n between large seeds a n d large fruits.
Literature Cited
(1) . DOXTATOR, C. W. and R. H. H E L M E R I C K . 1962. Selection for seed size
in monogerm varieties. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet T e c h n o l . J. 12 (3):
268-272.
(2) HOGABOAM, G. J. 1961. R a d i o g r a p h i n g as a m e t h o d of observing some
seed characters in monogerm sugar beet fruits. Am. Soc. Sugar
Beet T e c h n o l . J. 11: 605-609.
(3)
HOGABOAM,
G.
J.,
F.
W.
SNYDER
and
H.
W.
BOCKSTAHLER.
1959.
Se-
SAVITSKY.
V.
F.,
G.
K.
RYSER.
G.
E.
RUSH
and
C.
P.
PARRISH.
1954.
Inter-relation between weight of seed a n d fruit and utilitarian characters in inbred lines and hybrids of monogerm sugar beets. Am. Soc.
Sugar Beet T e c h n o l . Proc. 8 (2) : 399-403.
(7) SEDLMAYR, T. E. 1960. Inheritance of speed of germination in sugar
beets (Beta vulgaris L.). Doctoral dissertation. Michigan State University.
(8) SNYDER. F. W. 1959. Influence of the seedball on speed of germination
of sugar beet seeds. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet T e c h n o l . J. 10: 513-520.
(9) U S T I M E N K O . S. P. 1957. Effect of pericarp on the sprouting energy of
seeds of monogerm sugar beet. (In Russian) Sakh. Svekla 2 (12) :
24-27.
PAYNE2,
Received
LEROY
for
POWERS3
publication
AND G R A C E
January
W.
MAAG2
16. 1964
128
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Vol.
13,
No.
2,
JULY
1961
129
130
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T
Potassium
Petioles
Thin
juice
Petioles
6.85
41.84
48.87
1.22
1.20
1.33
Thin
juice
19.43
1.59
Sodium
Value of F at:
Petioles
Thin
juice
5%
1%
9.62
1.99
1.45
9.36
7.80
1.08
1.60
4.46
1.42
1.92
8.63
1.64
x 52-407 F1
CMS x (52-430 X 52-407) F1
CMS X 52-430 F1
CMS x 52-407 F1
X 52-307 F1i
52-303
52-130
52-130
52-305
52-130
CMS x 52-307 F i ,
x 52-108 Ft
x 51 52D Fi
CMS x 51-520 Fi
x 51-505 Fi
52-305
52-305
52-130
52-305
52-305
CMS x 51-505 fi
C.MS x 51-453 Fi
y 51-310 Fi
CMS x 51-310 Fi
CMS x (52-130 X 54-346) Fi
52-305 CMS
52-305 CMS
52 305 CMS
51-505 x 52
A 50 -3
LSI) ai 5';;.
LSI) at 1";,
Awrajrc
x (52-130 x 54-520) Fi
x 3-1 Fi
x (54-458 X 34) Fi
407 Fi
nitrogen
Petioles
Thin
juice
Mg/100gm
Mg/100gm
Potassium
Sodium
Petioles
Thin
juice
Petioles
Thin
juice
Mg/100gm
Mg/100gm
Mg/100gm
Mg/100gm
1305.0
1370.7
1374.0
1345.0
3470.8
49.2
50.1
49.0
02.1
40.9
]0.2
24.2
20.5
17.0
18.0
00.3
09.!)
05.7
73.4
53.9
40.0
32.3
28.5
34.5
35.9
50.3
43.9
37.2
39.3
45.2
6
7
8
9
10
1489.8
113I.H
I-18S.7
1383.5
1330.8
52.3
44.8
57.0
05.0
41.0
27.8
21.1
13.8
17.9
18.1
02.2
00.4
00.0
05.2
44.7
32.2
30.9
35.3
31.3
32.9
41.8
30.8
30.5
37.8
30.9
11
12
13
14
15
1-131.7
1321.0
1278.2
1315.3
1310.2
45.0
04.9
37.4
42.0
44.5
21.1
10.4
14.2
20.7
20.5
48.2
71.9
41.9
53.1
53.0
30.9
32.0
32.3
32.7
30.4
30.0
39.4
38.0
35.9
37.3
10
17
18
19
20
14 42.0
1185.7
1401.5
1-I8H.2
1531.2
05.2
01.3
00.1
57.4
54.4
22.4
24.7
21.0
17.9
10.4
07.2
57.9
02.1
7'!.2
00.7
30.8
35.4
33.7
39.0
35.9
30.3
42.1
30.8
40.0
55.7
77.8
102.0
3.9
5.1
1.0
2.1
5.7
7.0
2.7
5.5
7.2
M03.5
52.0
20.0
00.0
33.7
39.0
1
2
3
4
1964
52-430
52-305
52-305
52-305
52-430
Entry
number
Total
Population, LSD
and average
VOL.
Tabic 2.Means and the least significant differences for levels of total nitrogen, potassium, and sodium in the petioles and in the thin juice.
131
132
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
n o t t r u e for dates of harvest (with t h e possible e x c e p t i o n of sod i u m in t h e t h i n juice) as the differences n o t e d b e t w e e n dates
of harvest can readily be e x p l a i n e d by chance. T h i s is also true
of the first o r d e r i n t e r a c t i o n of p o p u l a t i o n s X dates of harvest.
It may be c o n c l u d e d that t h e changes in levels of total nitrogen,
potassium a n d s o d i u m when harvested S e p t e m b e r 14, O c t o b e r 3,
a n d O c t o b e r 16 have little if any practical significance. F u r t h e r research is necessary to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r the c h a n g e in levels of
sodium for t h e different dates of harvest are o t h e r t h a n chance
deviations, as for the t h i n juice they were significant at the 5%
level, b u t just barely so. F o r that reason the different dates of
harvest will n o t be considered i n d i v i d u a l l y in this article.
T h e m e a n s a n d least significant differences for levels of total
n i t r o g e n , potassium, a n d s o d i u m in the petioles a n d in t h e thin
juice are listed in T a b l e 2. As has b e e n shown by P o w e r s et al.
(11) very little e n v i r o n m e n t a l variability is i n c l u d e d in the
differences b e t w e e n m e a n s of p o p u l a t i o n s , the differences noted
are p r e d o m i n a n t l y genetic. In this article the d a t a in T a b l e 2
have t h e i r greatest interest in the degrees of association between
lev els of a chemical in the petioles a n d the level of the same chemical in the t h i n j u i c e ; a n d the i n t e r a c t i o n s i n v o l v i n g levels of
the chemicals in the petioles as c o m p a r e d with levels of the chemicals in t h e t h i n j u i c e . T h e c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients will be considered first.
Associations
F r o m T a b l e 3 it can be seen that the genetic c o r r e l a t i o n between total n i t r o g e n in the petioles a n d in t h e t h i n j u i c e is 0.29,
b e t w e e n potassium in the petioles a n d in the t h i n j u i c e is 0.06,
a n d finally b e t w e e n s o d i u m in t h e petioles a n d in t h e t h i n juice
is 0.60. H e n c e the greatest p e r c e n t of the variability accounted
Table 3.Correlation coefficients for levels of
sodium in the petioles and in the thin juice.i
Total
nitrogen
Character and
material analysed
Total nitrogen
Petioles
T h i n juice
Potassium
Petioles
T h i n juice
Sodium
Petioles
T h i n juice
Thin
juice
0.29
Pot
total
nitrogen,
assium
potassium
Sodiu
Petioles
Thin
juice
Petioles
Thin
juice
0.20
0.03
0.22
0.77
0.38
_0.01
0.43
0.13
0.06
_0.44
0.21
_0.21
0.40
0.60
13, No.
2, JULY
133
1964
Population
52-430 x 51-340 Fi
52-305 C.MS x 54-458 Fi
52-t;50 x 52-307 F1
A56-3
LSD at 5%
LSD at l%
Petioles
Thin
juice
Mg/lOOgm
MglOOtm
1278.2
1321.0
1470.8
1531.2
37.4
64.9
40.9
54.4
77.8
102.6
3.9
5.1
134
JOURNAL, OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Population
52-4r.O x 51-3-46 Fi
52-303 CMS x 54-458 Fi
52-305 CMS x 34-565 Fi
Af.ii 3
LSD at 5%
LSD at 1%
Petioles
Thin
juice
Mg lOOgm
Mg. 100ml
14.2
16.4
24.1
16.4
41.9
71.9
48.2
60.7
1.6
2.1
57
7.6
Vol.
155
A g a i n t h e r e is an i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n g e n o t y p e s a n d levels
of p o t a s s i u m in t h e p e t i o l e s as c o m p a r e d w i t h levels of p o t a s s i u m
in the thin juice. It is a p p a r e n t that genotypes can be o b t a i n e d
having different levels of p o t a s s i u m in t h e petioles a n d in t h e
t h i n j u i c e . T h a t is, p o p u l a t i o n s c a n b e b r e d t h a t h a v e d e s i r a b l e
levels o f p o t a s s i u m i n t h e p e t i o l e s a n d d e s i r a b l e l e v e l s o f p o t a s sium i n t h e t h i n j u i c e .
M e a n s for levels of s o d i u m s h o w i n g i n t e r a c t i o n s of p o p u l a tions X m a t e r i a l a n a l y s e d a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e 6 . T h e F , h y b r i d
52-805 C M S X 5 4 - 5 0 5 i s l o w i n l e v e l s o f s o d i u m i n b o t h t h e p e t i oles a n d t h i n j u i c e . T h e l \ h y b r i d 5 2 - 3 0 5 C M S X 5 2 - 3 0 7 p o s s e s s e s a low l e v e l o f s o d i u m i n t h e p e t i o l e s a n d a h i g h l e v e l i n t h e
thin juice. T h e F 2 h y b r i d 52-430 X 52-408 h a s t h e h i g h e s t level
of s o d i u m in t h e petioles a n d a m o d e r a t e l y low level in t h e t h i n
juice. A5G-3 h a s a h i g h level o f s o d i u m i n b o t h t h e p e t i o l e s a n d
i n t h e t h i n j u i c e . I n fact i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r i n l e v e l o f sodium in the thin juice than any o t h e r p o p u l a t i o n listed in F a b l e
G. Also for s o d u m , as was t h e case for total n i t r o g e n a n d potassium, tliere i s a n i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n g e n o t y p e s a n d levels o f
sodium in t h e petioles as c o m p a r e d w i t h levels of s o d i u m in t h e
thin j u i c e . I t f o l l o w s t h a t d i f f e r e n t c o m b i n a t i o n s o f l e v e l s o f sodium in the petioles a n d in the thin juice can be o b t a i n e d by
proper b r e e d i n g p r o c e d u r e s .
Table 6.Means
material analyzed.
levels
of
sodium
of
showing
populations
S o d ium
Population
Petioles
Thin
juice
Mg/lOOgm
Mg/100ml
30.9
32.2
36.9
35.9
30.6
41. S
36.8
55.7
LSD at 5%
LSD at 1%
Discussion
T h e i n t e r a c t i o n s i n v o l v i n g g e n o t y p e s X m a t e r i a l analysed
(petioles a n d t h i n j u i c e ) h a v e s h o w n t h a t a t t i m e o f h a r v e s t
levels of t h e t h r e e c h e m i c a l s vary in t h e petioles a n d t h i n j u i c e
according to p o p t d a t i o n s . W h e n i n t e r p r e t i n g these findings it is
well to h a v e in m i n d t h a t t h e petioles a r e a p a r t of t h e tops of
the sugar b e e t a n d t h e t h i n j u i c e i s p r e p a r e d from t h e r o o t s .
Hence, it a p p e a r s t h a t at t i m e of harvest s o m e g e n o t y p e s h a v e t h e
higher levels of these c h e m i c a l s in t h e tops of t h e p l a n t , w h e r e a s
JOURNAL OF T H E A. S. S. B. T
136
1. P o p u l a t i o n s of sugar beets were f o u n d to differ in the relative levels of total n i t r o g e n , potassium, a n d s o d i u m in t h e petioles
as c o m p a r e d with levels of these same chemicals in the t h i n juice,
It is well to k e e p in m i n d that the petioles are p a r t of the tops
of t h e sugar beet p l a n t , whereas the t h i n j u i c e is p r e p a r e d from!
t h e roots.
2. T h e i n t e r a c t i o n s i n v o l v i n g g e n o t y p e s X m a t e r i a l s analysed;
(petioles or t h i n juice) have shown that, at t i m e of harvest,
h i g h e r levels of t h e t h r e e chemicals occur in e i t h e r the petioles,
or the thin juice, or in b o t h . Conversely, at t i m e of harvest, some
genotypes have h i g h e r levels of these t h r e e chemical characters
in t h e petioles associated w i t h lower levels in the t h i n juice.
3. T h i s latter finding is of e x t r e m e i m p o r t a n c e to the beet
sugar i n d u s t r y , because it shows t h a t p o p u l a t i o n s can be bred
t h a t will have t h e h i g h e r levels of these chemicals in t h e tops
(petioles) of t h e sugar beet r a t h e r t h a n in t h e roots ( t h i n juice)
T h e h i g h e r levels of these three chemicals in t h e t h i n j u i c e have
a decidedly adverse effect w i t h p e r c e n t a g e sucrose a n d on percentage a p p a r e n t p u r i t y (see Powers a n d Payne, 10).
L i t e r a t u r e Cited
(1)
BROWN, R O B E R T J. a n d R O B E R T F. SERRO.
V O L 13, N o . 2, J r i . v 1961
137
ROBE.RTSON.
O w e n . F. V., M Y R O N STOUT. A. M. M U R P H Y . C. H . S M I T H a n d G. K.
1963. Chemical genetic and soils studies involving thirteen characters in sugar beets. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet T e c h n o l . 1 2 ( 5 ) :
393-118.
(10) POWERS. LE ROY and Merle. G. PAYNE.. 1964. Associations of levels
of total nitrogen, potassium, and sodium in petioles and thin
juice with weight of root per plot, percentage sucrose a n d percentage a p p a r e n t purity. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet T e c h n o ! . 1 3 ( 2 ) : 1383 50.
(11)
POWERS, L E R O Y , E. E. R E M M E N G A a n d
N.
S.
Urquhart.
In
process
DONAID
1958. A
L.
OldemeyeR.
C. P.
study a n d economic
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
POWERS-
Received
AND
MERLE
G.
PAYNE3
16, 1964
. i.s, N o . 2, J c i v 1904
130
140
J O U R N A L OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
al. ( 2 ) .
Materials and Design of the E x p e r i m e n t
T h e materials used in t h e study a r e as follows: T h e r e is a
total of 20 p o p u l a t i o n s in t h e e x p e r i m e n t . O n e is a commercial
variety. 4 are three-way h y b r i d s , each c o m p o s e d of 3 inbreds, and
15 a r e F 1 h y b r i d s each c o m p o s e d of 2 i n b r e d s . T h e dates of harvest are S e p t e m b e r 14, O c t o b e r 3. a n d O c t o b e r 16. T h e experim e n t was c o n d u c t e d in 1961. T h e characters studied are weight
of roots per plot, p e r c e n t a g e sucrose, p e r c e n t a g e a p p a r e n t purity,
a n d levels of total n i t r o g e n , potassium a n d s o d i u m in the petioles
a n d in the t h i n juice, a n d levels of p h o s p h o r u s in t h e petioles
W e i s h t of roots p e r plot is expressed as kilograms, sucrose and,
p u r i t y as percentages, the levels of t h e chemical characters are
expressed as m i l l i g r a m s p e r 100 g r a m s in the petioles, and the
levels of the chemical characters a r e expressed as milligrams per
100 milliliters of t h i n juice e q u a t e d to a refractive dry substance
of 10 in the t h i n juice. T h e t h i n juice was p r e p a r e d by The
G r e a t W e s t e r n Sugar C o m p a n y bv an o x a l a t e m e t h o d standard
with t h e m [see ( 1 ) ] . In this process t h e n i t r a t e n i t r o g e n is removed. Hence t h e total n i t r o g e n for t h e t h i n juice does not
i n c l u d e all t h e n i t r o g e n o u s c o m p o u n d s f o u n d in t h e total nitrogen
VoL.
13,
No.
2,
JULY
1964
141
144
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Associations
T h e simple c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients are listed i n T a b l e 3 .
W e i g h t p e r plot is positively associated with levels of total
n i t r o g e n a n d s o d i u m in the petioles a n d with levels of s o d i u m in
t h e thin juice. T h e association of weight p e r plot with levels of
potassium in the petioles is not statistically significant, only 4 percent of the variability b e i n g a c c o u n t e d for by covariation. The
association b e t w e e n p e r c e n t a g e sucrose a n d total n i t r o g e n in the
petioles is negative a n d 22 p e r c e n t of t h e v a r i a t i o n is covariation.
Likewise, t h e association b e t w e e n p e r c e n t a g e sucrose a n d level
of s o d i u m in th petioles is negative, a n d h e r e 18 p e r c e n t of the
v a r i a t i o n is covariation. In no case is t h e association b e t w e e n percentage a p p a r e n t p u r i t y a n d levels of total n i t r o g e n , potassium,
a n d s o d i u m in the petioles statistically significant.
W e i g h t p e r plot does n o t show any statistically significant association with levels of total n i t r o g e n or potassium in the thin
juice. H o w e v e r , levels of total n i t r o g e n in the thin juice and
p e r c e n t a g e a p p a r e n t p u r i t y are very closely associated and the
association is negative. Also levels of potassium in t h e thin juice
are r a t h e r closely associated with p e r c e n t a g e a p p a r e n t purity and
again the association is negative. W i t h this high a d e c r e e of association. it is n o t at all likely that the b r e e d e r can o b t a i n genotypes h a v i n g a high p u r i t y a n d a high level of total nitrogen in
t h e t h i n juice. T h e same associations h o l d for p e r c e n t a g e s u c r o s e
a n d levels of total n i t r o g e n a n d potassium in the t h i n juice but
t h e asociations are n o t nearly so p r o n o u n c e d . Likewise, percentage sucrose is r a t h e r strongly associated with levels of sodium in
t h e t h i n juice a n d t h e association is negative, 64 p e r c e n t of the|
variability b e i n g c o v a r i a t i o n .
i
VOL.
13,
No.
2,
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1964
145
146
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
h a v e a n a d v e r s e r e l a t i o n w i t h w e i g h t o f r o o t s p e r p l o t b u t i t does
h a v e d e c i d e d l y a d v e r s e r e l a t i o n s w i t h p e r c e n t a g e s u c r o s e and
p e r c e n t a g e a p p a r e n t p u r i t y . H e n c e , w e i g h t o f r o o t s p e r plot,
p e r c e n t a g e s u c r o s e , a n d p e r c e n t a g e a p p a r e n t p u r i t y i n s o m e popu l a t i o n s a r e f a v o r a b l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t o t a l n i t r o g e n i n t h e petioles
b u t n o t w i t h t o t a l n i t r o g e n i n t h e t h i n j u i c e . H e n c e , t h e breeder
s h o u l d b e a b l e t o i n c r e a s e t h e s e t h r e e d e s i r a b l e a g r o n o m i c chara c t e r s b y b r e e d i n g g e n o t y p e s h a v i n g h i g h l e v e l s o f t o t a l nitrogen
i n t h e p e t i o l e s a t t i m e o f h a r v e s t . T h e s e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e that!
h i g h e r levels of total n i t r o g e n in t h e petioles a r e associated with
147
percentage sucrose a n d p e r c e n t a g e a p p a r e n t p u r i t y , whereas inlicases in levels of potassium in the t h i n j u i c e show the reverse
associations. A g a i n , if h i g h e r levels of p o t a s s i u m a r e essential
to those metabolic, processes c o n d u c i v e to h i g h e r yields, it is
more desirable to have these h i g h e r levels in t h e petioles at t i m e
of harvest r a t h e r t h a n in the t h i n j u i c e .
T h e m e a n s s h o w i n g t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s of w e i g h t per plot, percentage sucrose, a n d p e r c e n t a g e a p p a r e n t p u r i t y w i t h levels of
sodium in t h e petioles a n d in the t h i n j u i c e a r e listed in T a b l e
6. C o m p a r i n g the F 1 h y b r i d s 52-305 C M S X 54-458 a n d 52-430
X 52-408 it can be seen that an increase in levels of s o d i u m in
the petioles a n d no m a t e r i a l c h a n g e in levels of s o d i u m in t h e
thin juice a r e a c c o m p a n i e d by increases in weight of roots p e r
plot, p e r c e n t a g e sucrose, a n d p e r c e n t a g e a p p a r e n t p u r i t y . Comparing 52-430 X 52-408 a n d A56-3 no m a t e r i a l c h a n g e in levels
of sodium in the petioles a n d an increase in levels of s o d i u m in
the thin j u i c e are associated with decided decreases in p e r c e n t a g e
sucrose a n d p e r c e n t a g e a p p a r e n t p u r i t y a n d a m o d e r a t e increase
in weight of roots p e r plot. A g a i n , if h i g h e r levels of s o d i u m
are conducive to favorable m e t a b o l i c processes in the sugar beet
plant, it is p r e f e r a b l e to have the h i g h e r levels in the petioles
rather t h a n h a v i n g t h e h i g h e r levels in t h e t h i n j u i c e at t i m e
of harvest.
148
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
and
Summary
149
sucrose a n d h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e a p p a r e n t p u r i t y . T h e r e l a t i o n i s
stronger for p e r c e n t a g e a p p a r e n t p u r i t y t h a n f o r p e r c e n t a g e
sucrose.
(D) F i n a l l y , t h e r e s e e m s t o b e n o r e a s o n w h y t h e m e t a b o l i c
r e q u i r e m e n t s for h i g h e r yields o f r o o t s , h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e sucrose, a n d h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e p u r i t y c a n n o t b e m e t b y p r o d u c i n g
and g r o w i n g g e n o t y p e s w h i c h , a t t h e t i m e o f h a r v e s t , t e n d t o
have t h e h i g h e r levels o f t o t a l n i t r o g e n , p o t a s s i u m , s o d i u m , a n d
phosphorus i n t h e p e t i o l e s r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e t h i n j u i c e .
Literature Cited
(1) BROWN, R O B E R T J . a n d R O B E R T F . SERRO.
1954.
A m e t h o d for d e t e r -
HELMERICK, R.
H.,
R.
E.
FINKNER
a n d C. W . D O X T A T O R . I n
process
DONALD
L.
and
GEORGE
E.
RUSH.
1960.
Evaluation
of
c o m b i n i n g ability in sell-fertile lines of sugar beets using malesterile testers. J. A m . Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 11 ( 2 ) : 175-185.
(5) O L D E M E Y E R , R. K. 1954. G e n e r a l c o m b i n i n g ability of sugar beet
inbreds as d e t e r m i n e d with two different t o p cross testers. Proc.
Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 8 (2) : 59-63.
(6) P A Y N E , M E R L E G., L E R O Y P O W E R S a n d E. E. R E M M E N G A .
1961.
Some
1959. P o p u -
1964.
Levels
150
(11)
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
POWERS, L E R O Y , D. W. ROBERTSON, R O B E R T S. W H I T N E Y , a n d
WILLARD
POWERS,
LEROY,
RALPH
E.
FINKNER,. GEORGE
E.
RUSH,
R.
R.
WOOD,
POWERS, L E R O Y , W. R. S C H M E H L , W. T. FEDERER a n d
M E R L E G. PAYM,.
POWERS, L E R O Y , E. E. R E M M E N G A a n d
N . S. U R Q L H A R T .
In
process of
L.
BUSH1
November
27,
1963
152
J O U R N A L OF THE A. S, S. B. T.
c o m m e r c i a l m a c h i n e s a r e u s e d a n d i n w h i c h s e e d l i n g c o u n t s are
i n v o l v e d . F o r t h e f a r m e r , i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t a l l p a r t s o f t h e drill
w h i c h m i g h t affect u n i f o r m i t y o f s t a n d s m u s t b e c a r e f u l l y calibrated a n d adjusted before the drill is taken to the field. It is
d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e , t o p r o d u c e a u n i f o r m f i n a l b e e t population by m e c h a n i c a l m e a n s w h e n such large differences as to
s t a n d e x i s t i n t h e d i f f e r e n t r o w s . A h i g h e r d e g r e e o f precision
i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e d r i l l , e s p e c i a l l y t h e m e t e r i n g device,
t o g e t h e r w i t h a n o v e r - a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n t o a c h i e v e a u n i f o r m sowi n g u n d e r v a r i a t i o n s i n s e e d b e d , i s i n d i c a t e d f o r d r i l l manufacturers.
S.
CHANG1
January
20,
1964
E v a p o r a t o n plays o n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t roles in t h e s u g a r
refineries. T h e existing d a t a a v a i l a b l e to give a f u n c t i o n a l relationship b e t w e e n heat transfer coefficients a n d operating: pressures are s o m e w h a t l i m i t e d . K e r r (2) 2 o b t a i n e d t h e h e a t transfer
coefficients for t h i r t y - n i n e different e v a p o r a t o r s , d o u b l e - , triple-,
and quadruple-effect i n actual o p e r a t i o n . H e p l o t t e d h e a t transfer
coefficients against o p e r a t i n g pressures in p o u n d s gage a n d in
inches o f m e r c u r y v a c u u m . T h e p o i n t s s c a t t e r e d s o b a d l y t h a t i t
requires a careful j u d g m e n t to use t h e m .
Several E u r o p e a n t e c h n o l o g i s t s h a v e w o r k e d o u t t h e f o r m u l a s
which take i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n b r i x of t h e juice a n d t h e t e m p e r a ture of the h e a t i n g v a p o r . H o w e v e r , t h e h e a t transfer coefficients
calculated b y t h e f o r m u l a s d o n o t a g r e e w i t h t h e a c t u a l v a l u e s
obtained by h e a t b a l a n c e in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
T h e d a t a r e p o r t e d h e r e w e r e o b t a i n e d from full size evaporators in actual o p e r a t i o n . H e a t transfer coefficients w e r e p l o t t e d
against solids i n s o l u t i o n r a t h e r t h a n o p e r a t i n g pressures. T h e
result showed a b e t t e r c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n h e a t transfer coefficients a n d solids i n s o l u t i o n . T h e c u r v e s h o w n o n F i g u r e 1 i s
applicable t o b o t h s t a n d a r d s h o r t v e r t i c a l - t u b e e v a p o r a t o r s a n d
standard h o r i z o n t a l - t u b e e v a p o r a t o r s w i t h t u b e s i n n o r m a l cleanliness.
A f o r m u l a based on t h e c u r v e s h o w n on F i g u r e 1 was proposed to e s t i m a t e t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r coefficients for b e e t s u g a r
juice in t h e e v a p o r a t o r .
Apparatus
T h e a p p a r a t u s used i n this i n v e s t i g a t i o n w e r e q u i n t u p l e effect full size e v a p o r a t o r s a t F a c t o r i e s # 1 t o # 4 . T h e y w e r e
standard s h o r t v e r t i c a l - t u b e e v a p o r a t o r s w i t h c e n t e r d o w n t a k e .
Evaporators a t F a c t o r y # 5 w e r e h o r i z o n t a l - t u b e e v a p o r a t o r s except the first effect w h i c h was a s t a n d a r d v e r t i c a l - t u b e e v a p o r a t o r
with a c e n t e r d o w n t a k e .
T h e sizes of e v a p o r a t o r u s e d in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w e r e as
follows:
1
Chemical
Engineer, Engineering Department, T h e Amalgamated Sugar Company,
Ogden, Utah.
2
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
154
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
Factory
1st
#1
Effect: T w o bodies
25,176 sq.ft., 1 1/4" O D , 14 ga. c o p p e r tubes,
11'-1/4" long.
10,750 sq.ft., 1 1/4" O D , 0.049" steel o u t s i d e , 0.035"
c o p p e r inside, bi-metal t u b e s , 9'-6 1/4" l o n g .
2 n d Effect: T h r e e bodies
16,300 sq.ft., 1 1/4" O D , 15 ga. c o p p e r tubes, 9'3/8" long.
15,400 sq.ft., 1 1/4" O D , 15 ga. c o p p e r tubes, 8'6 3/8" l o n g .
10,730 sq.ft., 1 1/4" O D , bi-metal t u b e s , 9'- 6 1/4"
long.
3 r d Effect: 6,900 sq.ft., 1 1/4" O D , 15 ga. c o p p e r tubes, 6'2 3/8" l o n g .
4 t h Effect: 6,630 sq.ft., 1 1/4" O D , 14 ga. c o p p e r tubes, 6'2 3/8" long.
5 t h Effect: 6,200 sq.ft., 1 1/4" O D , 14 ga. c o p p e r tubes, 5'6 3/8" l o n g .
Factory
#2
1st Effect: 16,744 sq.ft., 1 1/4" O D , 14 ga. c o p p e r tubes, 9'-
14" long.
2 n d Effect: T w o b o d i e s
15.217 sq.ft., 44 1 1/4" O D , 7 / 3 2 wall, steel tubes.
9' 1 4 " long.
5914 1 1/4" O D , 14 ga. c o p p e r t u b e s , 9'- 14" long.
6,385 sq. ft., 1 1/2" O D , 14 ga. c o p p e r tubes, 5'6 1/4" long.
155
3rd Effect: 10,032 sq.ft., 26 1 1/4" OD, 7/32" wall, steel tubes,
8'- 1/4" long.
4440 1 1/4" OD, 14 ga. copper tubes, 8'- 1/4" long.
4th Effect: 6,854 sq.ft., 1 1/4" OD, 14 ga. copper tubes, 6'1/4 " long.
5th Effect: 7,231 sq.ft., 1 1/4" OD, 14 ga. copper tubes, 6'4 1/4" long.
Factory #3
1st Effect: 16,744 sq.ft., 1 1/4" OD, 14 ga. copper tubes, 9'1/4" long.
2nd Effect: T w o bodies
11,132 sq.ft., 1 1/4" OD, 15 ga. copper tubes, 6'7 3/4" long.
3,300 sq.ft., 2" OD, 14 ga. copper tubes, 4'- 1 1/4"
long.
3rd Effect: 8,614 sq.ft., 1 1/4" OD, 15 ga. copper tubes, 6'7 3/4" long.
4th Effect: 6,058 sq.ft., 1 1/2" OD, 14 ga. copper tubes, 5'9 1/4" long.
5th Effect: 6,854 sq.ft., 1 1/4" OD, 14 ga. copper tubes, 6'1/4" long.
Factory #4
1st Effect: 15,843 sq.ft., 2,640 1 1/4" OD, 14 ga. copper tubes,
9'- 3/8" long.
2,106 2" OD. 14 ga. copper tubes, 9', 3/8" long.
2nd Effect: 8,474 sq.ft., 1 1/4" OD, 15 ga. copper tubes, 7'0" long.
3rd Effect: 6,355 sq.ft., 1 1/4" OD, 15 ga. copper tubes, 5'- 3"
long.
4th Effect: 4,540 sq.ft., 1 1/4" OD, 15 ga. copper tubes, 3'- 9"
long.
5th Effect: 5,145 sq.ft., 1 1/4" OD, 15 ga. copper tubes, 4'- 3"
long.
Factory #5
1st Effect: 5,860 sq.ft., vertical-tube, 2" OD, 12 ga. copper,
5'- 5 1/2" long.
2nd Effect: 5,836 sq.ft., horizontal-tube, 1" OD, 16 ga. admiralty brass, 15'- 4" long.
3rd Effect: 3,945 sq.ft.; horizontal-tube, 1" OD, 16 ga. admiralty brass, 13'- 7" long.
4th Effect: Same as above.
5th Effect: Same as above.
Factory steam flow rates, dome pressure and temperature recorders were supplied by Taylor Instruments Company. T h i n
juice brix to 1st effect and thick juice brix from 5th effect were
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S. B. T
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JULY
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157
FACTORIES 1 AND 2
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T
FACTORY 3
U = 55 100
j X j
T h e a b o v e f o r m u l a gives l o w e r h e a t t r a n s f e r coefficients for every
effect f r o m 1st to 5 t h b o d y in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
D a t a s h o w n in T a b l e 1 w e r e 24 h o u r s average. D o m e pres
sures, d o m e t e m p e r a t u r e s , e x h a u s t steam pressures w e r e recorded
every h o u r o n t h e h o u r . J u i c e i n l e t t e m p e r a t u r e s , b r i x e s o f j u i c e
to a n d from each effect b e t w e e n 2 n d a n d 4 t h effect w e r e measured
a n d r e c o r d e d o n c e every t w o h o u r s . J u i c e a n d s t e a m flow rates
to 1st effect a n d t h i c k j u i c e f r o m 5 t h effect w e r e calculated by
overall h e a t a n d m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e t o w i t h i n 2 % accuracy f o r
every factory w i t h o u t m a g n e t i c flowmeter.
TABLE 1.
TABLE 1.(Continued)
TABLE 1.(Continued)
Atmospheric pressure
Factory No. 1: 13,59 psia, 27.63 "Hg.
Factory No. 3: 12.81 psia, 26.03 "Hg.
Foctory No. 5: 12.4 psia, 25.2 "Hg.
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
O v e r a l l h e a t transfer coefficients w e r e c a l c u l a t e d by
U=Q
and tabulated in T a b l e 2. T X A
Where
T = effective t e m p e r a t u r e difference, F
= a p p a r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e difference b.p.r., F.
A p p a r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e difference:
1st effect = e x h a u s t steam t e m p e r a t u r e
temperature, F.
2 n d effect = 1st v a p o r sat. t e m p e r a t u r e
temperature, F.
3rd effect = 2 n d v a p o r sat. t e m p e r a t u r e
temperature, F.
4 t h effect = 3rd v a p o r sat. t e m p e r a t u r e
temperature, F.
5th effect = 4 t h v a p o r sat. t e m p e r a t u r e
temperature, F.
1st v a p o r sat.
2 n d vapor sat.
3 r d vapor sat.
4 t h vapor sat.
S a m p l e c a l c u l a t i o n s : Factory # 2 , R u n 4 .
T h i n j u i c e to 1st effect = 510,000 # / h r .
Solids in j u i c e = 67,800 # / h r . @ 13.3 b r i x .
S t e a m to 1st effect = 188,000 # / h r . @ 24.5 psig a n d 264 F.
1st Effect:
H e a t from steam = 188,000 (936) = 176,000,000 B t u / h r .
H e a t i n g j u i c e = 510,000 (245-223)
(0.925) = 10,350,000
Btu/hr.
A v a i l a b l e h e a t = 165,650,000 B t u / h r .
165,650,000
1st v a rp o r
=
= 174,500 # / h r .
949.5
Juice
Brix
510,000 # / h r .
T o process = 54,400 # / h r .
174,500 # / h v .
To 2 n d effect = 120,100 # / h r .
335,500 # / h r . 20.2
B . P . R . = 1.0F from F i g u r e 2
T = 264 244 1 19F
H e a t i n g surface = 16,744 sq.ft.
176,000,000
U = 19 X 16,744 = 553 Btu p e r hr. p e r sq ft. per F.
2nd Effect:
H e a t from v a p o r = 120,100 (949.5) = 114,000,000 Btu/hr.
J u i c e flash = 335,500 (245 230) 0.82 = 4,130,000 Btu/hr.
A v a i l a b l e h e a t = 118,130,000 B t u / h r .
164
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VOL.
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TABLE 2.(Continued)
F.
O v e r a l l h e a t t r a n s f e r coefficients c a l c u l a t e d b y t h e a b o v e
formula a g r e e w i t h t h e v a l u e s o b t a i n e d from F i g u r e 1 .
S u m m a r y a n d Conclusions
T h e r e s u l t of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h o w e d a b e t t e r c o r r e l a t i o n
between h e a t t r a n s f e r coefficients a n d solids in s o l u t i o n .
T h e curve shown on Figure 1 is applicable to both standard
short v e r t i c a l - t u b e e v a p o r a t o r s a n d s t a n d a r d h o r i z o n t a l - t u b e e v a p orators w i t h t u b e s i n n o r m a l c l e a n l i n e s s p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e t u b e
size a n d o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e w i t h i n t h e f o l l o w i n g r a n g e s :
168
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Acknowledgments
C o o p e r a t i o n s from E n g i n e e r i n g D e p a r t m e n t , O p e r a t i n g Department a n d R e s e a r c h D e p a r t m e n t o f T h e A m a l g a m a t e d S u g a r
Company m a d e t h i s w o r k possible. M r . S. M. H e i n e r , C h i e f
Engineering, assisted in t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
Literature Cited
(1) HONIG, P., "Principles of Sugar T e c h n o l o g y . "
1963.
Vol. I l l , Elsevier
j
J
171
172
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
w e i g h e d , a n d s a m p l e d , a n d t h e s a m p l e s w e r e w a s h e d , screened,
a n d e x a m i n e d f o r a d u l t f e m a l e s a n d c y s t s . C o u n t s o f nematodes
in v a r i o u s stages of d e v e l o p m e n t a r e r e c o r d e d in T a b l e 1.
A s e c o n d e x p e r i m e n t w a s d e s i g n e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e increase
of two nematode populations on tomato. O n e population inc l u d e d c y s t s o b t a i n e d f r o m t o m a t o i n t h e p r e c e d i n g t e s t . The
o t h e r p o p u l a t i o n w a s i n s o i l f r o m a s u g a r - b e e t f i e l d located
a b o u t 20 miles from the source of the p o p u l a t i o n s described in
t h e p r e c e d i n g t e s t . B e e t s w e r e g r o w n i n t h e s o i l 1 2 0 d a y s and
t h e soil w a s h e d a n d s c r e e n e d t o r e c o v e r cysts. E i g h t - i n c h c l a y
p o t s w e r e filled w i t h s t e r i l i z e d soil.
E a c h o f 3 2 p o t s received
o n e P e a r s o n A - 1 t o m a t o s e e d l i n g t r a n s p l a n t a n d 1 5 nematode
c y s t s , s i x t e e n o f t h e s e p o t s r e c e i v e d c y s t s f r o m t o m a t o , a n d the
s e c o n d 1 6 p o t s r e c e i v e d c y s t s f r o m b e e t s . E a c h t r e a t m e n t (population)
w a s r e p l i c a t e d 4 t i m e s a n d i n c l u d e d 4 s a m p l e s (pots).
T h e p o t s w e r e a r r a n g e d i n a r a n d o m i z e d b l o c k - d e s i g n o n benches
i n a g r e e n h o u s e . S i x t y a n d n i n e t y d a y s a f t e r i n o c u l a t i o n , samples
w e r e r e m o v e d t o t h e l a b o r a t o r y w h e r e t o m a t o r o o t s a n d soil
w e r e p r o c e s s e d a s p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d f o r r e c o v e r y o f adult
f e m a l e n e m a t o d e s a n d exsts. D a t a f r o m t h i s test ( T a b l e 2)
w e r e a n a l y z e d f o r s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e b y t h e a n a l y s i s o f variance
method.
A t h i r d e x p e r i m e n t w a s d e s i g n e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r popul a t i o n differences o b s e r v e d in t h e p r e v i o u s tests w o u l d be obt a i n e d w h e n l a r v a e r a t h e r t h a n c y s t s w e r e u s e d f o r inoculum.
T o m a t o o r b e e t s e e d l i n g s w e r e i n o c u l a t e d w i t h approximately
1,000 l a r v a e o f e a c h o f t h e t h r e e p o p u l a t i o n s u s e d i n t h e f i r s t
e x p e r i m e n t . E a c h o f 5 t r e a t m e n t s w e r e r e p l i c a t e d 4 t i m e s . The
p l a n t s w e r e a l l o w e d t o g r o w 9 0 d a y s i n a g r e e n h o u s e a f t e r which
a d u l t f e m a l e n e m a t o d e s a n d c y s t s w e r e r e c o v e r e d b y washing
a n d s c r e e n i n g p l a n t r o o t s a n d s o i l . C o u n t s o f a d u l t nematodes
are listed in T a b l e 3.
T h e f o u r t h e x p e r i m e n t w a s d e s i g n e d to d e t e r m i n e the effect
o f s u g a r - b e e t - r o o t d i f f u s a t e o n h a t c h i n g o f 2 4 0 c y s t s selected a t
r a n d o m f r o m e a c h o f t h e t w o n e m a t o d e p o p u l a t i o n s inoculated
o n t o m a t o i n t h e s e c o n d t e s t . E a c h c y s t g r o u p w a s exposed 6
w e e k s to t r e a t m e n t s of sugar-beet-root diffusate or tap water.
T r e a t m e n t s w e r e r e p l i c a t e d 4 t i m e s in i n d i v i d u a l Syracuse watch
glasses w h i c h c o n t a i n e d 30 cysts a n d 15 ml of t r e a t m e n t solution.
T h e dishes with contents were stored at r o o m temperatures in a
d a r k a e r a t e d c a b i n e t i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y . A t w e e k l y intervals, c y s t s
w e r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o c l e a n w a t c h g l a s s e s c o n t a i n i n g fresh t r e a t ment solutions and the emerged larvae were counted.
VOL-
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J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. T
Table 1.Total numbers of Heterodera schachtii larvae adults and cysts recovered
from roots and soil of tomato examined 15, 30, 60, and 120 days after inoculation. 1
1
Figures given are the total number of nematodes removed from 6 samples.
2
Populations are represented as follows: A. Tomato population. B. Tomato-beet population.
C. Beet population.
3
Excluding cysts recovered from soil.
Table 2.Total number of adult females and cysts of Heterodera schachtii recovered
from tomato plants 60 and 90 days after inoculation with cysts.
1
Populations are represented as follows: ATomato population. CBeet population.
2
Figures are total numbers of nematodes recovered from 2 tomato plants sampled at
the indicated date.
Table 3.Total numbers of adult females and cysts of Heterodera Schachtii recovered
from beet or tomato plants 90 days after inoculation with larvae.
1
Populations are represented as follows: ATomato population. BTomato-beet
population. GBeet population.
2
Figures are total numbers of nematodes recovered from 5 tomato plants.
VOL.
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J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
m e c h a n i s m in
Heterodera
schachtii c a l l s a t t e n t i o n
for a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h i s subject.
to
t h e need
Summary
R e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s u g a r - b e e t n e m a t o d e (Heterodera
schachtii S c h m i d t ) on t o m a t o (Lycopersicon
esculentum)
was
increased d u r i n g a brief p e r i o d of association of host a n d parasite.
P r o l o n g e d association d i d n o t f u r t h e r increase t h e nematodes
r e p r o d u c t i v e r a t e on t o m a t o . R e s u l t s of four s e p a r a t e green
house tests suggest t h a t an a d a p t a t i o n of t h e b e e t nematode to
t o m a t o o c c u r r e d . H o w e v e r , the possibility t h a t test results were
d u e to selective d e v e l o p m e n t of taxa has n o t b e e n eliminated.
Literature
(1)
GOLDEN,
A.
M.
and
THELMA
Cited
SHAFER.
1959.
Host-parasite
of various p l a n t s a n d t h e sugar-beet n e m a t o d e ,
U S D A P l a n t D i s . R e p t r . 4 3 (12) : 1 2 5 8 - 1 2 6 2 .
relationships
Heterodera
schachtii
(2)
J O N E S , F . G . W . 1 9 5 0 . O b s e r v a t i o n s o n t h e b e e t e e h v o r m a n d other
c y s t - f o r m i n g s p e c i e s o f Heterodera.
A n n . A p p l . Biol.
3 7 : 407-440.
(3)
J O N E S , F . G . W . 1 9 5 7 . R e s i s t a n c e - b r e a k i n g b i o t y p e s o f t h e p o t a t o root
e e l w o r m (Heterodera
rostochiensis
W o l l . ) . N e m a t o l o g i c a 2: 185-192,
(4)
M C B E T H , G. W., A.
L. T A Y L O R a n d A.
ing n e m a t o d e s in r o o t tisue.
T.
SMITH.
1941.
P r o c . H e l m . Soc. W a s h .
N o t e o n stain
8 (1) : 26.
(5)
M U L V E Y , R . H . 1 9 5 7 . S u s c e p t i b i l i t i e s o f c u l t i v a t e d a n d w e e d plants t o
the
sugar-beet
nematode,
Heterodera
schachtii
Schmidt,
1871, in
S o u t h w e s t e r n O n t a r i o . J . H e l m . 3 1 : 225-228.
(6)
(7)
R I G G S . R . D . a n d N . W . W I N S T E A D . 1 9 5 9 . S t u d i e s o n t h e resistance i n
t o m a t o i n r o o t - k n o t n e m a t o d e s a n d o n t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f pathogenic
biotypes. P h y t o p a t h o l o g y 49: 716-724.
(8)
(9)
S H E P H E R D , A U D R E Y M . 1959. T e s t i n g p o p u l a t i o n s o f b e e t e e l w o r m ,
Heterodera schachtii S c h m i d t f o r r e s i s t a n c e b r e a k i n g b i o t y p e s , using
t h e w i l d b e e t (Beta p a t e l l a r i s M o q . ) a s i n d i c a t o r . N a t u r e (London)
1 8 3 ( 4 6 6 8 ) : 1141-1142.
( 1 0 ) S T E I N E R , G . 1 9 2 5 . T h e p r o b l e m o f h o s t s e l e c t i o n a n d h o s t specializt i o n o f c e r t a i n p l a n t - i n f e s t i n g n e m a s a n d its a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e
s t u d y o f n e m i c p e s t s . P h y t o p a t h . 1 5 (9) : 5 0 0 - 5 3 4 .
W.
ROBERTSON
AND
MILDRED
March
L.
THORNTON2
9, 1964
It is c o m m o n k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e v i a b i l i t y of m o s t cereal
seeds r e m a i n s h i g h e r w h e n s t o r e d a t low h u m i d i t y t h a n w h e n
stored a t h i g h h u m i d i t y . T h e same r e l a t i o n s h i p h o l d s i n g e n e r a l
for sugar beet seed viability w h e n s t o r e d u n d e r s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s
of h u m i d i t y . H o w e v e r , few d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e on t h e g e r m i n a tion p e r f o r m a n c e of processed ( s e g m e n t e d ) s u g a r b e e t seed w h e n
stored for an e x t e n d e d p e r i o d u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of low h u m i d i t y .
T h e objective of this s t u d y was to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r or n o t
segmentation h a d a n y d e l e t e r i o u s effect on t h e g e r m i n a t i o n of
sugar beet seed after s t o r a g e in c l o t h sacks for v a r y i n g p e r i o d s
of years.
R e v i e w of Literature
In 1928 t w o lots of s u g a r b e e t seed w e r e p l a c e d in a commercial r e f r i g e r a t i o n storage h o u s e i n Salt L a k e C i t y . U t a h ( P a r k
and Owen) 3 . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e d u r i n g t h e test p e r i o d r a n g e d
from + 1 0 F to 10 F. G e r m i n a t i o n tests w e r e m a d e at intervals from 1928 to 1950. T h e g e r m i n a t i o n p e r c e n t in 1928 was
83.5, whereas in 1950 it was 75.0, or a d r o p of only 8.5 p e r c e n t .
Under n o r m a l storage c o n d i t i o n s , US N o . 1 s u g a r b e e t seed
showed 27 p e r c e n t g e r m i n a t i o n after storage for 19 years, as
compared w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l g e r m i n a t i o n of 80 p e r c e n t .
Materials and Methods
T h e sugar b e e t seed u s e d i n this i n v e s t i g a t i o n was o b t a i n e d
from T h e G r e a t W e s t e r n S u g a r C o m p a n y E x p e r i m e n t a l S t a t i o n ,
Longmont, C o l o r a d o . O n e lot e a c h c a m e from t h e c r o p years
of 1943, 1945 a n d 1946 a n d t w o lots from 1944. E a c h of these
five lots is r e p r e s e n t e d by t w o sub-lots. O n e sub-lot consisted
of whole seed, w h i l e t h e o t h e r sub-lot r e p r e s e n t e d t h e s a m e seed
i n segmented f o r m . T h e seeds w e r e s t o r e d i n t h e o r i g i n a l sacks
i n a dry, u n h e a t e d r o o m a t t h e C o l o r a d o A g r i c u l t u r a l E x p e r i ment Station, F o r t C o l l i n s , C o l o r a d o . E a c h year, from 1943 to
U 6 3 , samples w e r e d r a w n from t h e w h o l e a n d s e g m e n t e d seed
lots a n d g e r m i n a t i o n tests w e r e m a d e . B o t h ball a n d s p r o u t
counts were r e c o r d e d .
1
Contribution
of
the Department of Agronomy and the Colorado Seed Laboratory,
Colorado
Agricultural Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colorado: Colorado Agricultural
2
Agronomist Station Scientific Series No. 934.
Colorado.
3
Park, D. A. and F. V. Oven. 1950. Viability of sugar beet seed held in cold storage
for 22 years. Proc. Sixth General Meeting, Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol.
Table 1.Germination percentages of whole and segmented sugar beet seed stored lor one to twenty years.
Table 2.Adjusted germination percentages assuming the original germination to be 100 percent.
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
180
Experimental Results
A c t u a l g e r m i n a t i o n r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d in. T a b l e 1 . I n
o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p e r c e n t a g e d e c r e a s e from t h e original
tests, all g e r m i n a t i o n s w e r e c o n v e r t e d to p e r c e n t a g e s ot the
o r i g i n a l g e r m i n a t i o n , t h a t is, t h e o r i g i n a l g e r m i n a t i o n was cons i d e r e d as 100 p e r c e n t ( T a b l e 2).
A statistical analysis of t h e first 17 years of t h e test (Table 1)
was m a d e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e significance o f t h e d a t a .
T h e statistical analysis s h o w e d (a) t h a t t h e r e was a significant
difference i n g e r m i n a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e w h o l e a n d segmented
seed ( T a b l e 3), (b) t h e r e was no significant difference between
years for t h e w h o l e seed, b u t a very significant difference in years
for t h e s e g m e n t e d seed. ( T a b l e s 4 & 5), (c) t h e r e was a significant
difference in s a m p l e s w i t h i n each t r e a t m e n t for t h e period of
t h e s t u d y , ( T a b l e 4 a n d 5).
T a b l e 3.Analysis of variance for both treatments. 4
4
Le Clerg, E. L., W. H. Leonard, and A. G. Clark.
Publishing Company.
Second edition.
181
by
T h e r e was a d r o p i n g e r m i n a t i o n w h e n t h e s e g m e n t e d seed
w a s c o m p a r e d t o t h e w h o l e seed. T h e difference i n t h e o r i g i n a l
g e r m i n a t i o n was 5, or a d e c r e a s e of 6.4 p e r c e n t . T h e final g e r m ination of t h e o n e lot of w h o l e seed t h a t was s t o r e d for 20 years
was 97 p e r c e n t of t h e o r i g i n a l g e r m i n a t i o n . At t h e e n d of 17
years, w h e n t h e a v e r a g e of all five s a m p l e s is c o n s i d e r e d , t h e r e
was n o d r o p i n g e r m i n a t i o n for t h e w h o l e seed. W i t h t h e segm e n t e d seed t h e r e was a s l i g h t d r o p i n t h e a v e r a g e g e r m i n a t i o n
after six years ( T a b l e 2, F i g u r e 1). A f t e r this d r o p , t h e g e r m i n a t i o n increased a n d h e l d fairly c o n s t a n t for t h e n e x t 6 years,
after w h i c h i t d r o p p e d t o 1 0 p e r c e n t b e l o w t h e o r i g i n a l g e r m i n a t i o n . T h e final g e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e o n e lot t h a t h a d b e e n s t o r e d
for 20 years was 88 p e r c e n t of t h e o r i g i n a l g e r m i n a t i o n . T h e s e
results i n d i c a t e t h a t s e g m e n t e d seed loses v i a b i l i t y to a g r e a t e r
extent t h a n does w h o l e seed w h e n s t o r e d f r o m six to 17 years.
In sugar beets, t h e " s e e d " n o r m a l l y is a b a l l w h i c h c o n t a i n s
several seeds; w h e n g e r m i n a t e d m o r e t h a n o n e s p r o u t m a y e m e r g e
from each seed b a l l . T a b l e 6 r e p r e s e n t s t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r of
sprouts p e r 100 seed balls for b o t h t h e w h o l e a n d s e g m e n t e d
seeds. I n t h e w h o l e seed t h e n u m b e r o f s p r o u t s r e m a i n e d a b o u t
the same for t h e e n t i r e p e r i o d of t h e test. In t h e s e g m e n t e d seed
the n u m b e r of s p r o u t s f o l l o w e d a p a t t e r n s i m i l a r to t h a t o b s e r v e d
for its g e r m i n a t i o n
p e r c e n t a g e s . At t h e e n d of t h e 17 y e a r s s t o r a g e
period it h a d d r o p p e d f r o m 106 to 92 or a d e c r e a s e of 13 p e r c e n t .
T h e c o r r e l a t i o n coefficient b e t w e e n g e r m i n a t i o n p e r c e n t a n d
n u m b e r of s p r o u t s was 0.74, w h i c h is significant at t h e 0.01 perc e n t point.
I n e x a m i n i n g T a b l e 7 , it. will b e seen t h a t a s t h e seeds b e c a m e
o l d e r the p e r c e n t a g e o f w e a k s p r o u t s d e c r e a s e d i n b o t h w h o l e a n d
184
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S.
S.
B. T.
s e g m e n t e d s e e d . I n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f s t o r a g e t h e s e g m e n t e d seeds
h a d a h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f w e a k s p r o u t s t h a n d i d t h e w h o l e seed.
W h o l e s u g a r b e e t seed a n d s e g m e n t e d seed f r o m e a c h o f f i v e )
lots w e r e s t o r e d in c o t t o n sacks in a d r y , u n h e a t e d r o o m at the
C o l o r a d o A g r i c u l t u r a l E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n at F o r t C o l l i n s from
1943 to 1963. A f t e r 17 years of s t o r a g e , t h e a v e r a g e germination
of t h e w h o l e seed w a s 79 p e r c e n t as c o m p a r e d w i t h 78 percent
for t h e o r i g i n a l g e r m i n a t i o n . T h e s e g m e n t e d seed d r o p p e d from
73 p e r c e n t o r i g i n a l g e r m i n a t i o n to 67 p e r c e n t g e r m i n a t i o n after
s t o r a g e for 17 years, a d e c r e a s e of 8 p e r c e n t .
W i t h t h e w h o l e seed t h e n u m b e r o f s p r o u t s p e r 100 balls
v a r i e d f r o m 136 to 159, b u t r e m a i n e d a b o u t t h e s a m e for the
17-year p e r i o d . T h e n u m b e r of s p r o u t s p e r 100 b a l l s was lower
for t h e s e g m e n t e d seed, v a r y i n g from 95 to 114, a n d dropping
off slightly in t h e last f o u r y e a r s of s t o r a g e . T h e percentage of
w e a k s p r o u t s d e c r e a s e d in t h e last f o u r y e a r s of s t o r a g e in both
w h o l e a n d s e g m e n t e d seed. T h e p e r c e n t a g e o f w e a k sprouts
was h i g h e r i n t h e s e g m e n t e d seed t h a n i n t h e w h o l e seed.
19,
1964
T h e m e t h o d s g e n e r a l l y e m p l o y e d for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f
sucrose i n s u g a r b e e t s h a v e c h a n g e d very l i t t l e d u r i n g t h e past
thirty years. C o p p e r r e d u c t i o n a n d p o l a r i m e t r i c m e t h o d s h a v e
generally b e e n used. I n r e c e n t years c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c p r o c e d u r e s
have been d e v e l o p e d t h a t p r o v i d e e x c e l l e n t m e a n s of s e p a r a t i o n
of the sugars a n d e l i m i n a t e s o m e e r r o r s i n v o l v e d in t h e a b o v e
methods ( 1 , 2 , 7 , 12) 3 . T h e basic m e t h o d s o f p a p e r c h r o m a t o graphy of sugars g i v i n g s o l v e n t a n d spray r e a g e n t s h a v e b e e n
reviewed b y K o w k a b a n y (10). M a n y c o l o r i m e t r i c m e t h o d s for
quantitative analysis f r o m t h e c h r o m a t o g r a m s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d
(3, 5, 6, 8, 11, 13, 14). D u b o i s et al. (4) r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d a
colorimetric m e t h o d for sugars b a s e d on t h e f o r m a t i o n of a yellow color b e t w e e n p h e n o l a n d t h e h y d r o x y f u r f u r a l s p r o d u c e d
from the sugars by t r e a t m e n t w i t h s u l f u r i c a c i d .
T h i s p a p e r r e p o r t s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e D u b o i s m e t h o d for
the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of sucrose in s u g a r b e e t s .
Materials and Methods
Sugar b e e t s w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e C r o p Science D e p a r t ment in t h e Fall of 1963, w a s h e d a n d frozen at - 2 0 C , u n t i l u s e d .
Extraction of sugar. T h e frozen b e e t s w e r e t h i n l y sliced. O n e
hundred g r a m s a m p l e s w e r e e x t r a c t e d for 10 m i n u t e s in a W a r i n g
blendor w i t h 100 m l . o f b o i l i n g 9 5 p e r c e n t e t h a n o l . T h e b l e n d e d
material was q u a n t i t a t i v e l y t r a n s f e r r e d to a 1000 m l . v o l u m e t r i c
f l a s k with h o t 9 0 p e r c e n t e t h a n o l a n d h e l d i n a w a t e r b a t h a t
70C. for 3 0 m i n u t e s . I t was t h e n c o o l e d t o 2 0 C C . a n d m a d e t o
volume w i t h 9 0 p e r c e n t e t h a n o l . T h e l i q u i d was filtered t h r o u g h
E and D 512 filter p a p e r a n d 700 m l . of filtrate collected. T h e
nitrate was c o n c e n t r a t e d to a b o u t 50 m l . in a B u c h l e r flash
evaporator a t 3 8 C , m a d e u p t o 100 m l . w i t h w a t e r , a n d c e n t r i fuged at 2500 r p m for 20 m i n u t e s . T h e e x t r a c t n o t u s e d immediately for c h r o m a t o g r a p h y w a s s t o r e d at 1 7 C .
Paper chromatography.
T h e e x t r a c t was c h r o m a t o g r a p h e d
on W h a t m a n N o . 1 filter p a p e r , 24 X 60 c m . u s i n g t h e d e s c e n d i n g
Procedure. T w o m i c r o l i t e r s o f t h e s u g a r b e e t e x t r a c t w e r e s p o t t e d
on 4 places, 6 cm a p a r t a n d 3 c m . f r o m t h e e d g e of t h e p a p e r ,
on a line inches from the t o p of the paper. T h e chromato1
Journal
2
186
g r a m s w e r e d e v e l o p e d u s i n g n - b u t a n o l - a c e t i c a c i d - w a t e r (4:1:5)
for 60 h o u r s at 20-22C. in a c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c c a b i n e t (15). The
c h r o m a t o g r a m s w e r e d r i e d a t 2 5 C for a b o u t 1 2 h o u r s a n d the
t w o 6 c m . s i d e s t r i p s , e a c h c o n t a i n i n g o n e o r i g i n a l s p o t , w e r e cut
f r o m t h e p a p e r . T h e s e w e r e s p r a y e d w i t h b e n z i d i n e s p r a y (9)
a n d h e a t e d a t 1 0 5 C . for 10-15 m i n u t e s for c o l o r development
a n d l o c a t i o n o f t h e s u c r o s e . T h e s t r i p s w e r e t h e n m a t c h e d with
t h e c e n t e r p o r t i o n o f t h e p a p e r a n d t h e t w o s e c t i o n s correspondi n g t o t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e s u c r o s e s p o t s w e r e c u t o u t . E a c h section
was c u t i n t o a b o u t 1 s q u a r e c e n t i m e t e r p i e c e s , p l a c e d in 50 ml.
b e a k e r s a n d c o v e r e d w i t h 1 0 m l . o f r e d i s t i l l e d w a t e r . T h e beakers
w e r e c o v e r e d a n d a l l o w e d t o s t a n d for 3 0 m i n u t e s w i t h occasional
s h a k i n g . T h e e l u a t e w a s filtered t h r o u g h glass w o o l t o remove
t h e c e l l u l o s e l i n t a n d t h e a m o u n t o f s u c r o s e was d e t e r m i n e d b y
t h e D u b o i s m e t h o d (4). A b l a n k p a p e r w a s d e v e l o p e d a n d e x t r a c t e d t o serve a s a c o n t r o l .
Colorimetric
procedure. T w o m l . of s u g a r s o l u t i o n were
t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o 1.5 X 18 c m . p y r e x t u b e s a n d 0.125 m l . 80 per
c e n t p h e n o l s o l u t i o n was a d d e d . T h e n 5 m l . o f concentrated
s u l f u r i c a c i d was r a p i d l y i n t r o d u c e d (10-20 s e c o n d s ) . T h e tubes
w e r e h e l d in a w a t e r b a t h at 25-30C. for 10-20 m i n u t e s for the
d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e y e l l o w - o r a n g e c o l o r , c o o l e d a n d t h e absorba n c y m e a s u r e d a t 487 m w i t h a B e c k m a n D . U . spectrophotom e t e r , slit w i d t h .015 m m . T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f sucrose was
d e t e r m i n e d from the standard curve.
Preparation of standard curve.
A s t a n d a r d s o l u t i o n of sucrose
a n d d i l u t i o n s w e r e m a d e t o c o n t a i n b e t w e e n 3 0 a n d 1 0 0 . per
2 m l . a t 1 0 g . i n t e r v a l s . T h e o p t i m u m p h e n o l concentration
w a s d e t e r m i n e d by a d d i n g .05, .100, .150, .200, .250 a n d .300 ml.
of t h e 80 p e r c e n t s o l u t i o n to 80 m i c r o g r a m s of sucrose. The
a b s o r p t i o n s p e c t r u m w a s d e t e r m i n e d w i t h t h e B e c k m a n D.U.
spectrophotometer.
Results a n d Discussion
T h e a b s o r p t i o n c u r v e for s u c r o s e s h o w s m a x i m u m absorption,
a t 487 m . ( F i g u r e 1). T h e o p t i m u m p h e n o l c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r
m a x i m u m c o l o r f o r m a t i o n was 100 m g . (.125 m l . 8 0 percent
p h e n o l s o l u t i o n ) ( F i g u r e 2). T h e s t a n d a r d c u r v e for sucrose f o l l o w s B e e r ' s law i n t h e r a n g e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n u s e d (Figure 3 ) .
Raffinose h a s t h e s a m e m a x i m u m a b s o r p t i o n a s sucrose, r e q u i r e s
t h e s a m e p h e n o l c o n c e n t r a t i o n for m a x i m u m c o l o r f o r m a t i o n
a n d t h e s t a n d a r d c u r v e follows B e e r ' s L a w ( F i g u r e s 1 , 2 , 4 ) .
Raffinose w a s n o t d e t e r m i n e d q u a n t i t a t i v e l y b e c a u s e very l i t t l e
was p r e s e n t . I t w o u l d h a v e r e q u i r e d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f m o r e
187
450
WAVELENGTH
Milligrams Of Phenol
J O U R N A L OF THE A. S. S. B. T
188
MICROGRAMS
OF
RAFf i N O S t
VoL.
13, N o . 2, J U L Y 1964
189
60.21.0
100.31.2
Absorbancy
Sucrose
micrograms
Sucrose
%
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T
Table 3.Sucrose recovery from sugar beet extracts 1 .
4 microliters spotted.
E
S
U
C
References
(1) BLOCK, R- J-,
R-
LeSTRANGE
and
G. ZWEIG.
1952.
Paper C h r o m a t o -
DIMLER,
R.
J.,
W.
C.
SCHAEFER,
C.
S.
WISE
Q u a n t i t a t i v e p a p e r c h r o m a t o g r a p h y of
charides. A n a l . C h e m . 24, 141 1-1414.
(4)
and
glucose
C.
E.
and
RIST.
its
1952-
oligosac-
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
FLOOD, A. E., J . K. J O N E S a n d E. L. H I R S T .
1947.
Q u a n t i t a t i v e estima-
tion of m i x t u r e s of sugars by t h e p a p e r c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c m e t h o d .
N a t u r e 160, 86-87.
H A W T H O R N E , J. R. 1947. Microestimation of sugars separated on
filter p a p e r c h r o m a t o g r a m s . N a t u r e 160, 714-715.
H E F T M A N , E.
1962.
Chromatography.
R e i n h o l d P u b l i s h i n g Corp.,
New York, p p . 502-533.
HIRST, E. L. a n d K. N. J O N E S . 1949. Q u a n t i t a t i v e analysis of mixtures
of sugars. C h e m i c a l Society J o u r n a l , p p . 1659-1662.
HORROCKS, H. T-I. 1949. P a p e r p a r t i t i o n c h r o m a t o g r a p h y of r e d u c i n g
sugars with b e n z i d i n e as a spray reagent. N a t u r e 164, 444-445.
KOWBABANY, G. N. 1954. P a p e r c h r o m a t o g r a p h y of carbohydrates a n d
related c o m p o u n d s . A d v a n c e s in C a r b o h y d r a t e C h e m i s t r y 9. 303353.
LAIDLAW, R. A. a n d S. G. R E I D . 1950. Extraction of sugars from the
p a p e r at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , N a t u r e 166, 476-478.
LEDERER, E. a n d M. LEDERER.
1953. Chromatography. Elsevier P u b lishing Corp., N e w York ( 1 9 5 3 ) .
MCCREADV, R. M. a n d E. A. M C C O M B . 1954. Q u a n t i t a t i v e determination of sugars on p a p e r c h r o m a t o g r a m by a reflectance m e t h o d ,
Anal. C h e m . 28, 1645-1646.
M C F A R R E N , E. F., K. B R A N D a n d H . R . BUTKOW SKI.
1951.
Quantitative
A.
HARRIS1
Introduction
T h e s u g a r b e e t i n d u s t r y h a s n e v e r h e s i t a t e d t o maintain
t h a t m o l a s s e s - d r i e d - p u l p for f a t t e n i n g l i v e s t o c k is j u s t as good
as g r a i n . T h i s h a s n e v e r b e e n a m i s g u i d e d loyalty, for dozens
of r e e d i n g tests c a n be p o i n t e d to a n d p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s with
a v a r i e t y o f r a t i o n s , t h a t s u s t a i n e d a n d n u r t u r e d t h i s faith.
B u t t h e m a n w h o b u y s t h e feed d o e s n ' t d o s o o n faith alone
H e w a n t s p r o o f t h a t c o m p e t i t i v e m a t e r i a l s c a n ' t d o a b e t t e r jot
for h i m , a n d s o m e t i m e s i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o h a v e g o o d proof.
A b o u t five years a g o t h e s t r o n g p o s i t i o n of d r i e d p u l p , as;
ration c o m p o n e n t , was threatened. T h e "all-barley" ration was
b e i n g w i d e l y e x t o l l e d a n d w a s g a i n i n g in p o p u l a r i t y in some
areas.
B a r l e y a p p a r e n t l y has e n o u g h fiber in t h e h u l l to satisfy
r u m i n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s for r o u g h a g e , p r o v i d e d i t i s rolledto
m a i n t a i n a c o u r s e p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e r a t h e r t h a n ground. A
c o m m e r c i a l s u p p l e m e n t h a d t o b e u s e d , o f c o u r s e , t h a t supplied
l a c k i n g v i t a m i n s a n d m i n e r a l s ( a n d p r o t e i n s ) . U s u a l l y stilbestrol
was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e s u p p l e m e n t t o h e l p t h i n g s a l o n g . But i t
w o r k e d . C a t t l e finished o u t w e l l , w i t h fast g a i n s a n d excellen
feed c o n v e r s i o n t o s h o w g o o d e c o n o m y o f g a i n .
If the m e t h o d were to g a i n widespread acceptance as it was
o r i g i n a l l y p r o m o t e d , b e e t p u l p would, lose p o s i t i o n in the feed
t r a d e s i m p l y by b e i n g i g n o r e d as a r a t i o n c o m p o n e n t . It became
necessary t o l e t o u r feeders k n o w t h a t p u l p c o u l d fit into t h i s
s c h e m e as w e l l as i n t o a n o r m a l f e e d i n g r e g i m e . At that time
t h e r e w a s no e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e (as t h e r e is n o w ) to bac
up any recommendations that might be made.
Y e t p u l p l o o k e d l i k e a n a t u r a l c o m p o n e n t for a "non
r o u g h a g e r a t i o n . It is h i g h in c r u d e fiber. M o s t of it differs
from b a r l e y f i b e r i n b e i n g h i g h l y d i g e s t i b l e , b u t t h e amount
o f n o n - d i g e s t i b l e fiber i n b a r l e y a n d p u l p a r e n o t far apart. A n d
it is k n o w n that p u l p does have some r o u g h a g e value.
I t s e e m e d r e a s o n a b l e t o t h i n k t h a t p u l p w o u l d replace P a r t
o f t h e b a r l e y i n t h i s " a l l - b a r l e y " r a t i o n a n d a g a i n prove i t s e l f
to be a m o n e y - s a v e r .
F a i t h i n s u c h beliefs w a s p u t t o test o n N o v e m b e r 6 , 1 9 5 9
w i t h a feeding trial at the e x p e r i m e n t a l lots of Holly Sugar
Corporation in Torrington, Wyoming.
1
193
Experimental
A laroge purchase of yearling whiteface cattle received at t h e
yards was placed on f u l l feed of alfalfa, d r i e d beet p u l p , and
cottonseed cake. G r a i n was g r a d u a l l y s u b s t i t u t e d for alfalfa a n d
pulp until all a n i m a l s w e r e receiving a b o u t 6 p o u n d s of g r a i n
at the end of t h r e e weeks.
At this t i m e , a n i m a l s t h a t a p p e a r e d to deviate far from
Average in conformity w e r e rejected. All o t h e r steers were individually weighed a n d d i v i d e d to the e x p e r i m e n t a l pens according to weight. T h u s any steer of a p a r t i c u l a r s t a r t i n g weight in
the experimental p e n h a d its c o u n t e r p a r t in t h e c o n t r o l p e n .
Each pen h a d 15 steers with an average weight of 793 p o u n d s .
T h e s u p p l e m e n t was c h a n g e d to 2 p o u n d s p e r head p e r day
If Purina Special 3 2 % Steer F a t e n a for b o t h pens. T h i s s u p p l i e d
10 mg of stilbestrol. H a y was g r a d u a l l y w i t h d r a w n a n d barley
Substituted d u r i n g t h e n e x t t h r e e weeks. At this t i m e t h e c o n t r o l
"all-barley" pen was receiving only rolled bailey a n d the supplement; the e x p e r i m e n t a l p e n was receiving 1 / 2 barley a n d 1 / 2
pulp with the s u p p l e m e n t . Feeds were n o t p r e m i x e d .
Monthly weights w e r e t a k e n u n t i l t h e e x p e r i m e n t was terminated, after 171 days. After an o v e r n i g h t stand, final weights
were taken on A p r i l 26, 1960, a n d a 4% p a p e r s h r i n k was a p p l i e d
to arrive at n e t weight figures. T h e cattle were slaughtered, on
|consignment, at Swift's p l a n t in Scottsbluff, N e b r a s k a .
Results
No off-feed or o t h e r difficulties w e r e seen on t h e feedlot.
One steer in the c o n t r o l p e n did show signs of f o u n d e r in t h e
latter weeks of t h e test.
A difference in t h e two r a t i o n s was e v i d e n t from start to
finish. Steers on the p u l p - b a r l e y c o m b i n a t i o n consistently ate 3/4
to 1 1 / 2 pounds m o r e feed daily t h a n d i d the all-barley cattle.
The result was a faster r a t e of gain all the way t h r o u g h .
Final results a r e s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e 1. T h e p u l p - b a r l e y
pen showed h i g h e r feed c o n s u m p t i o n , faster gain, b e t t e r feed
utilization, lower dressing % , b e t t e r g r a d e a n d m o r e profit.
Actually an excess fill of t h e p u l p - b a r l e y cattle at t h e t e r m i n a l
weighing may have given t h e i n d i c a t i o n of p o o r e r dressing percent Adjustment for this difference w o u l d a m o u n t to 3.5 p o u n d s
p e r head. T h i s w o u l d i n d i c a t e t h e t r u e c o m p a r a t i v e gains perhaps should have been 2.46 a n d 2.62, a n d t h e conversion of feed
would be identical.
The results completely
justified confidence in beet p u l p . For
once again, and under conditions foreign to its normal use, beet
pulp proved that it is difficult indeed to find a ration that cannot
be improved by its addition.
194
J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S.
Table
1.Pulp-barley vs.
all-barley
Intial Weight
Final Net Weight (using 4% shrink)
Total Gain
Net Daily G a i n
Daily F e e d
Rolled barley
D r i e d Molasses Beet P u l p
3 2 % Special Steer F a t e n a
G r o u n d Alfalfa*
Salt
Mineral
Avg. Lbs. Feed Per Lb. Gain
Avg.** Feed Cost Per L b . Gain
Avg. Dressing %
G r a d e , N o . of Steers in
U. S. G o o d
U. S. C h o i c e
N e t Profit Per Steer Over Control
in
Avg.
Avg.
A\g.
Avg.
Avg.
"non-roughage**
* H a y l e d d u r i n g 1st t h r e e week.;,.
' - F e e d prices used; P u l p , S32.50/T; Rolled
s 2 5 / T ; S a i l , S 2 7 . 5 0 / T ; M i n e r a l , $ 5 - 2 0 / 10O.
Barley,
B. T
(control)
all-barley
ration
P e n 15
barley-pulp
ration
793.3
1213.4
420.1
2.4C
793.3
1245.4
452.1
2.64
17.57
_
1.99
0.41
0.022
0.035
8.10
16.19
63.64
>
5
10
S.
i attons.
1.75/100ir;
9.33
9.3?
1.99
0.65
0.022
0.022
8.04
15.44
b3.i5
3
12
S6.42
Fatena,
$86/T;
Hay,
Summary
F i f t e e n h e a d of 793 p o u n d H e r e f o r d steers w e r e fed 171 days
o n a n ' a l l - b a r l e y " r a t i o n a n d t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e c o m p a r e d with
t h a t of 15 s i m i l a r steers fed w i t h 1:1 p u l p : b a r l e y .
T h e p u l p : b a r l e y c o m b i n a t i o n g a v e s u p e r i o r f e e d l o t perforin
a n c e a n d e q u a l or b e t t e r carcass q u a l i t y . N e t profit was in
c r e a s e d w i t h t h e p u l p - b a r l e y feed.
JOURNAL
of the
American Society of Sugar
Beet Xechnologists
Volume 13
Number 3
October 1964
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Author
Page
195
Allison S. Chang
Robert S. Gaddie
Robert R. West
E. G. Bennison _
214
of
Fern Jantzef
A. L. Potter
.218
on
M.
M.
Afanasiev
225
Effect on
by Sugar
5. Dubetz
G. C. Russell 238
R. J. Shepherd
F. J. Hills
D. H. Hall
-244
Frank
-252
X.
McGarvey
.281
G.
ECKROTH,
E.
M.
Received
for
publication
H O L S T AND
February
E>.
19,
F.
PETERSON1
1964
X h e v a l u e o f i n c o r p o r a t i n g h e r b i c i d e s i n t o t h e soil h a s b e e n
thoroughly d e m o n s t r a t e d . It is i m p o r t a n t to d e t e r m i n e the most
efficient m e a n s o f i n c o r p o r a t i o n , t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c m e t h o d , t h e
most p r a c t i c a l , a n d t h a t m e t h o d w h i c h e n h a n c e s t o l e r a n c e o f
sugar b e e t s t o t h e c h e m i c a l . W e h a v e r e a c h e d a p o i n t i n s u g a r
beet p r o d u c t i o n w h e r e t h e u n c e r t a i n l a b o r p i c t u r e p o s e s a g r e a t
challenge to raising a c r o p of beets w i t h an a b s o l u t e m i n i m u m
o r n o h a n d l a b o r a t a l l . M a n y o f u s feel t h a t w e h a v e t h e
knowledge, m e c h a n i c a l e q u i p m e n t a n d herbicides t o d o the j o b .
M o s t R o c k y M o u n t a i n f a r m e r s a r e c o n s t a n t l y f a c e d w i t h rising costs a n d f o r t h e s m a l l e r a c r e a g e g r o w e r t h i s e q u i p m e n t
cost is s e r i o u s .
T h i s p r o j e c t w a s set u p t o c o m p a r e t h e i n e x p e n s i v e m e t h o d s
of incorporation such as the Sinner a n d Ridgecover with the
more expensive p o w e r driven Bye-Hoe a n d Eversman.
Considerable w o r k has b e e n d o n e w i t h n u m e r o u s different
incorporation devices b u t o n l y a l i m i t e d a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n
r e g a r d i n g a c t u a l field c o m p a r i s o n s i s a v a i l a b l e ( 1 , 2 , 3) 2 .
Materials and Methods
Four i n c o r p o r a t i o n devices w e r e c o m p a r e d , using the herbicide T i l l a m ( p r o p y l e t h y l n - b u t y l t h i o l c a r b a m a t e S t a u f f e r C h e m ical C o m p a n y ) a t t w o d e p t h s a n d t w o r a t e s o f a p p l i c a t i o n . X h e
four i n c o r p o r a t i o n d e v i c e s r e p r e s e n t t w o b a s i c m e t h o d s o f incorporation, power-driven m i x i n g a n d layering. X h e Bye-Hoe
and E v e r s m a n t i l l e r a r e p o w e r d r i v e n m i x e r s a n d t h e R i d g e cover a n d S i n n e r X i l l e r ( a l s o c a l l e d R u s s - K e n ) r e p r e s e n t t h e
layering m e t h o d o f i n c o r p o r a t i o n . X h e B y e - H o e c o n t a i n s reshaped k n i v e s a n d t h e E v e r s m a n h a s p e g s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s t h e
primary difference b e t w e e n t h e t w o p o w e r d r i v e n tillers. X h e s e
two p r o v i d e c o m p l e t e m i x i n g o f t h e h e r b i c i d e a n d soil. X h e
Ridgecover m e t h o d a s u s e d i n t h e s e t e s t s u t i l i z e d d i s c s i n p a i r s
t o cover t h e h e r b i c i d e . X i l l a m w a s s p r a y e d a h e a d o f t h e discs a s
a 7 - i n c h b a n d w i t h t h e discs c o v e r i n g t h e s p r a y e d b a n d w i t h soil.
This forms a modified r i d g e on t o p of t h e h e r b i c i d e . X h e S i n n e r
t i l l e r m e t h o d a l s o p l a c e s t h e h e r b i c i d e i n a flat b a n d b e h i n d
a furrow opener with the Sinner blades covering the chemicaltreated b a n d s w i t h soil.
1
196
J O U R N A L OF T H E
A.
S.
S.
B.
T.
VOL.
13,
No-
3,
OCTOBER
1964
197
198
J O U R N A L OF T H E
A.
S.
S.
B. T.
I n o r d e r t o p r e s e n t s o m e w h a t m o r e d e t a i l e d i n f l u e n c e o f inc o r p o r a t i o n m e t h o d s o n w e e d c o n t r o l , T a b l e 3 p r e s e n t s data
for t h r e e l o c a t i o n s .
To i l l u s t r a t e t h e v a r i a t i o n of p e r f o r m a n c e by i n c o r p o r a t i o n
m e t h o d s a t different l o c a t i o n s , t h e S i n n e r gave t h e least weed
c o n t r o l a t S i d n e y b u t w a s best a t W o r l a n d a n d R i v e r t o n . H o w ever, i n o v e r a l l a v e r a g e w e e d c o n t r o l , all f o u r a r e very c o m p a r able, as shown in b o t h Table 2 a n d Table 3.
X a b l e 4 p r e s e n t s t h e effect of i n c o r p o r a t i o n m e t h o d s on sugar
beet emergence.
A l l f o u r m e t h o d s o f i n c o r p o r a t i o n r e s u l t e d i n r e d u c e d beet
e m e r g e n c e a s c o m p a r e d t o t h e c h e c k . T h e d a t a s h o w t h e power
d r i v e n i n c o r p o r a t i o n m e t h o d s t o a d v a n t a g e , w i t h a b o u t t w o more
p l a n t s e m e r g i n g in every 10 feet of r o w . This a d v a n t a g e could
n o t b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n t h e field b u t c o u n t s b r o u g h t o u t this
difference.
It is of i n t e r e s t to o b s e r v e f r o m t h e s e tests t h a t b e e t seedlings
w e r e affected w h e n w e e d c o n t r o l w a s o b t a i n e d . I n n o test was
t h e r e a n e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s d u e t o i n c o r p o r a t i o n m e t h o d . This
s e e d l i n g effect i s a n i n w a r d c u p p i n g a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e cotyled o n a r y leaves. W h e n c u p p i n g was s e v e r e , u s u a l l y o n l i g h t soils,
Table 2.The percent weed control and percent beet stand reduction due to the
listed incorporation methods at two herbicide rates in Holly Sugar's Rocky Mountain
area in 1963.**
Incorporation
method
Tillam
rate*
Percent
weed control
27.0
73.0
10.0
79.0
14.0
Eversman
0
4
5
18.0
76.5
79.5
5.0
7.5
15.5
Sinner Tiller
0
4
5
25.0
68.5
80.0
7.0
12.5
210
Ridgecover
0
4
5
15.0
68.5
74.5
13 0
12.5
25.5
Average of all
Incorporation
Methods
0
4
5
21.2 7.2
71.6
78.2
13.2
19.0
Bye-Hoe
Percent beet
stand reduction
V O L . 13, N o . 3, O C T O B E R 1964
199
rate*
Bye-Hoe
Eversman
16
20
17
12
20
5
4
5
4
5
4
5
4
14
18
19
S3
30
22
21
32
19
20
20
33
28
21
20
34
17
18
18
34
32
17
16
30
12
15
13
30
30
18
18
36
20
20
20
37
36
25
23
33
Total Average
__
32
23.7
Cheek
33
28
32
31
24.8
22.7
216
26.5
200
J O U R N A L OF T H E
A.
S.
S.
B. T.
Summary
A n u m b e r of herbicide trials using Tillam were conducted
comparing four methods of incorporation, (Bye-Hoe, Eversman,
Sinner Tiller, and Ridgecover) in Holly's Montana, Wyoming
and Colorado areas.
A good sampling of factors influencing weed control was
obtained in covering a three state area. These factors were as
follows: differences in soil types, soil moisture content, seed
bed condition, air temperature, irrigation and rainfall, and
cultural practices.
T h e two depths of incorporation provided almost similar
beet emergence results with the deeper depth providing eight
percent more weed control. T h i s could not be observed without
counts.
Very good weed control was obtained with all four methods
of incorporation, all of them being equally effective.
All four methods of incorporation caused a reduction in sugar
beet emergence b u t this difference was usually very difficult to
observe except in a few tests. T h e emergence results gave the
Bye-Hoe and Eversman an advantage of 9 percent more seedlings
than the Sinner and Ridgecover method. T h i s may not be true
when using a herbicide with a greater range of beet tolerance.
From the data obtained in these tests, it indicates that the
inexpensive layering methods of incorporation will do as good
a j o b in weed control as the more expensive power driven incorporators in the Rocky Mountain area.
Literature Cited
(1)
C O S T E L , G . L., C. F . B E C K E R , a n d H . P . A L L E Y .
t h e A p p l i c a t i o n of H e r b i c i d e s to S u g a r Beets.
Sta. C i r c u l a r N o . 158.
(2)
1961.
E q u i p m e n t for
W y o m i n g Agr. Exp.
C O S T E L , G . L., E . C H A M B E R L A I N , C . B E C K E R a n d H . A L L E Y .
1962.
m e n t for t h e A p p l i c a t i o n of H e r b i c i d e s to S u g a r Beets.
Agr. E x p . Sta. C i r c u l a r N o . 179.
Equip-
Wyoming
for publication
February
19,
1964
202
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Equations
R a t e of decrease in m o t h e r l i q u o r purity is determined by
the degree of super-saturation and purity; namely
dP
(1)
dt
=
k
P
(S-1)
Degree of super-saturation is the ratio of the sugar in solution
per 100 units water to the true solubility of sugar in that solution
per 100 units of water both at the same temperature. Purity is
the percentage r a t i o of sugar to total solids.
= k (S-1) dt
1
)
(2)
= t,
(3)
(4)
(5)
t =
( S 1 ) = 0
t=s1k(S1)=
T i m e r e q u i r e d to reduce the m o t h e r l i q u o r purity from P
P is infinite.
203
Figure 1.
204
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T,
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
205
O n F i g u r e 5 , l i n e A B s h o w s t h e t y p i c a l b o i l i n g cycle. P o i n t
A indicates the initial j u i c e p u r i t y a n d t e m p e r a t u r e at g r a i n i n g .
Point B indicates t h e final m o t h e r l i q u o r or g r e e n p u r i t y a n d
temperature. L i n e AB is on the constant super-saturation of
1.35. D u r i n g b o i l i n g p e r i o d A B , s u g a r f r o m t h e m o t h e r l i q u o r
i s d e p o s i t i n g o n t h e s u r f a c e o f e x i s t i n g s u g a r crystals a t v e r y
rapid r a t e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p u r i t y o f m o t h e r l i q u o r i s d e c r e a s i n g
with t i m e a l t h o u g h t h e p a n i s still f e e d i n g w i t h fresh h i g h p u r i t y
standard l i q u o r . H e n c e , r a i s i n g t h e f i l l m a s s t e m p e r a t u r e f r o m
point A to p o i n t B will n o t raise t h e super-saturation p r o v i d e d
that a b s o l u t e p r e s s u r e o f t h e p a n r e m a i n e d t h e s a m e .
B o i l i n g a Strike
T h e strike was i n i t i a t e d by t u r n i n g a switch w h i c h o p e n e d
feed a n d c o n d e n s e r v a l v e s . W h e n j u i c e l e v e l r e a c h e d t h e g r a i n ing v o l u m e , s t e a m w a s t u r n e d o n t o c o n c e n t r a t e t h e l i q u o r a n d
the level m a i n t a i n e d c o n s t a n t . A n a l a r m s o u n d e d w h e n s u p e r saturation r e a c h e d t o p r e s e t v a l u e o f 1.35. T h e n t h e p a n w a s
seeded w i t h 2 0 0 c.c. o f m i l l e d f o n d a n t . A s t h e b o i l i n g p r o c e e d e d ,
fillmass t e m p e r a t u r e t e n d e d t o r i s e a b o v e t h e set p o i n t w h i c h
was 1.35 s u p e r - s a t u r a t i o n , t h e s t e a m f l o w w a s t h r o t t l e d t o p r e v e n t
exceeding t h a t l i m i t . A s t h e p a n c a m e t o g e t h e r , t h e i n c r e a s i n g
tightness o p e n e d t h e f e e d v a l v e . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f f e e d a n d
increased crystal a r e a s t e n d e d t o c a u s e t h e s u p e r - s a t u r a t i o n t o
f a l l away f r o m 1.35. T h e r e f o r e , t h e s t e a m v a l v e w a s o p e n e d t o
m a x i m u m t o k e e p t h e s u p e r - s a t u r a t i o n c o n s t a n t a t 1.35. B o i l i n g
p r o c e e d e d u n t i l t h e p a n r e a c h e d t h e m a x i m u m set l e v e l , t h e
f e e d valve was t h r o t t l e d t o p r e v e n t f u r t h e r r i s e a n d t h e p a n
206
JOURNAL OF THE A.
S.
S.
B. T.
b e g a n t o b r i x u p . A t t h i s t i m e t h e f i l l m a s s t e m p e r a t u r e started
t o rise a b o v e t h e set p o i n t , t h e s t e a m f l o w w a s t h r o t t l e d again
t o a v o i d excess t e m p e r a t u r e rise a n d t o h o l d t h e super-saturation
c o n s t a n t a t 1.35 u n t i l t h e p a n was d r o p p e d .
E s t i m a t i o n of C o n s t a n t K
K n o w i n g t h e p u r i t i e s o f s t a n d a r d l i q u o r a n d h i g h g r e e n , the
b o i l i n g t i m e f r o m g r a i n i n g t o f i n i s h i n g t h e s t r i k e a n d t h e cons t a n t s u p e r - s a t u r a t i o n a t w h i c h t h e p a n i s b e i n g b o i l e d , the
c o n s t a n t k c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q u a t i o n (3).
1n P 1n P = k ( S 1 ) t
1n
P 1n P
Solve for k,
k
=
(
S
1
)
t
(6)
For the experimental boiling shown on Figure 1:
initial standard liquor purity
=
94.0
final h i g h g r e e n p u r i t y
=
86.2
super-saturation
=
1.35
boiling time
= 120 m i n u t e s
absolute pressure
=
7" Hg abs.
k c a n be e s t i m a t e d f r o m E q u a t i o n (6).
k = 1n 94.0 1n 86.2
=
0.08662 = 0.08662 = 0.002062
(1.35 1) 120
0.35 (120)
42
D u r i n g t h e b o i l i n g t i m e o f 120 m i n u t e s , t e m p e r a t u r e o f fillmass was c o n t r o l l e d so t h a t s u p e r - s a t u r a t i o n of fillmass not to
e x c e e d o r d r o p b e l o w 1.35. T h i s w a s v e r y difficult t o accomplish
b e c a u s e t h e l o c a t i o n of 1.35 s u p e r - s a t u r a t i o n was n o t clearly
k n o w n f r o m t h e r e c o r d i n g c h a r t s h o w n o n F i g u r e 1 . Therefore,
after t h e s t r i k e w a s c o m p l e t e d , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c h a r t was exa m i n e d for i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e e n t i r e boili n g was c o n d u c t e d at c o n s t a n t s u p e r - s a t u r a t i o n of 1.35. This
was d o n e b y c o m p u t i n g t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e m o t h e r l i q u o r purity
P 1 u s i n g t h e k v a l u e o b t a i n e d a b o v e , t i m e t after g r a i n i n g and
c o n s t a n t s u p e r - s a t u r a t i o n of 1.35. P 1 was l o c a t e d on F i g u r e 3 at
1.35 s u p e r - s a t u r a t i o n a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f i l l m a s s temperature
was r e a d . T h e r e s u l t i n g f i l l m a s s t e m p e r a t u r e w a s t h e same a s
t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r e c o r d e d o n F i g u r e 1 . H e n c e , t h e p a n was
b o i l i n g at c o n s t a n t s u p e r - s a t u r a t i o n of 1.35.
For the experimental boiling:
k = 0.002062, P = 9 4 . 0 , t = 30 m i n u t e s a f t e r g r a i n i n g ,
s u p e r - s a t u r a t i o n = 1.35.
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e a b o v e d a t a i n t o E q u a t i o n (4):
1n P 1 = 1n 94 0.002062 (1.35 1) 30
= 6.84588 0.002062 (0.35) 30
= 6.84588 0 . 0 2 1 6 5 6.82423
H e n c e , P 1 = 91.9 p u r i t y .
207
Fillmass t e m p e r a t u r e of 7 4 . 8 C w a s o b t a i n e d by l o c a t i n g P 1 of
91.9 o n F i g u r e 3 . F i l l m a s s t e m p e r a t u r e o f 9.8 c h a r t u n i t s , w h i c h
was 74.8 C , w a s o b t a i n e d b y l o c a t i n g a p o i n t 3 0 m i n u t e s a f t e r
graining on F i g u r e 1. Both t e m p e r a t u r e s shown above were
exactly t h e s a m e , t h e r e f o r e , t h e p a n w a s b o i l i n g a t c o n s t a n t s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n of 1.35 f r o m t = 0 m i n . to t = 30 m i n . T h e b o i l i n g
curve was c h e c k e d a t 15. m i n u t e i n t e r v a l s i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r .
I t was f o u n d t h a t for b o i l i n g p e r i o d o f 2 h o u r s a n d 1 C
temperature rise b e t w e e n g r a i n i n g a n d d r o p p i n g t h e p a n , t h e
entire b o i l i n g w a s c o n d u c t e d a t c o n s t a n t s u p e r - s a t u r a t i o n p r o vided t h a t t h e l i n e b e t w e e n i n i t i a l a n d f i n a l p o i n t s w a s fairly
straight a n d t h e a b s o l u t e p r e s s u r e r e m a i n e d c o n s t a n t .
T o verify t h e v a l u e o f k c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q u a t i o n (6), t h e
following p r o c e d u r e w a s u s e d :
U s i n g P o l a r o i d c a m e r a , series
o f p i c t u r e s w e r e t a k e n f r o m p a n m i c r o s c o p e a t 15, 20, 2 5 , 4 0 a n d
110 m i n u t e s f r o m g r a i n i n g a s s h o w n o n F i g u r e s 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 a n d
10. T h e v o l u m e o f fillmass i n t h e p a n w a s r e c o r d e d f o r e a c h
picture t a k e n . W i t h t h i s d a t a , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e k n o w n q u a n t i t y
of milled fondant used, it was possible to calculate t h e constant k.
Milled fondant was p r e p a r e d by a d d i n g o n e p o u n d of granulated s u g a r w i t h a l i t e r ( 1 0 0 0 c.c.) o f i s o - p r o p y l a l c o h o l i n t h e
mill jar. T h e m i l l i n g w a s c o n t i n u e d f o r e x a c t l y 2 4 h o u r s . I t
was f o u n d t h a t t i m e s o f m i l l i n g i n excess o f 2 4 h o u r s d i d n ' t
accomplish a n y f i n e r g r i n d i n g b u t t i m e s o f less t h a n 2 3 h o u r s
were f o u n d t o p r o d u c e i n t e r i o r seed.
F o r m i l l i n g t i m e o f 2 4 h o u r s , 1 c.c. o f f o n d a n t c o n t a i n s 2.5
X 10 9 crystals. T h e a v e r a g e c r y s t a l size h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d t o b e
4.5 m i c r o n s or 0 . 0 0 0 1 7 7 " .
F o r e x p e r i m e n t a l b o i l i n g 2 0 0 c.c. o f m i l l e d f o n d a n t w a s u s e d
to grain t h e p a n . T o t a l n u m b e r of c r y s t a l s in 2 0 0 c.c. = 5 X 10 1 1
crystals. F r o m F i g u r e 6 , a v e r a g e g r a i n size w a s 0 . 0 0 6 " a t 1 5
m i n u t e s after g r a i n i n g .
V o l u m e o f f i l l m a s s a t 1 5 m i n u t e s a f t e r g r a i n i n g w a s 4 3 7 cu.ft.
Purity of fillmass = 9 4 . 0 . S u p e r - s a t u r a t i o n = 1.35 (a) 7 4 . 5 C
and 7" H g a b s .
S u p e r - s a t u r a t i o n = 1.35
s u g a r i n g m . p e r 100 g m . w a t e r
3 4 4 g m . s u g a r p e r 100 g m . w a t e r
S u g a r i n l i q u o r = 4 6 4 g m . p e r 100 g m . w a t e r
dry substance = 464 = 494 gm.
0.94
Dry substance + W a t e r
594 gm.
208
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
JOURNAL OF THE A.
S.
S.
B. T.
210
211
1000 cu.ft. o f f i l l m a s s
94.0 purity, 91.4 R D S ,
t o o b t a i n 0.017 M A s u g a r a n d 86.0 h i g h
g r e e n p u r i t y . T h e p a n t o b e b o i l e d a t c o n s t a n t 1.4
super-saturation.
From E q u a t i o n
===== 108 m i n u t e s
RDS in fillmass
Sugar in fillmass
Let
of sugar to be crystallized
1 h o u r 48 m i n u t e s
J O U R N A L OF T H E A.
212
S.
S.
B. T.
P
P
S
k
t
a
Nomenclature
= P u r i t y of m o t h e r l i q u o r
= Initial standard liquor purity
= Super-saturation
=
C o n s t a n t to be d e t e r m i n e d from E q u a t i o n (6)
=
Boiling time
=
M e a n d i m e n s i o n of s u g a r crystal
Vol.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
213
Acknowledgment
Cooperation from Engineering Department, Research Department and Operating Department made this work possible. Mr.
J. G. Ziegler, Taylor Instrument Company, and Mr. Julian
Johnson, Manager of Research Laboratory, T h e Amalgamated
Sugar Company have contributed to this investigation.
Literature Cited
GILLETT, EUGENE C. 1948. Low grade sugar crystallization. California a n d
Hawaiian Sugar Refining Corp., ltd., Crockett, California.
HONIG, PIETER. 1959. Principle of Sugar Technology. Vol. II, Elsevier P u b lishing Company, New York.
MCGINNIS, R. A. 1951. Beet-Sugar Technology. Reinhold Publishing Corp.,
New York.
ZIEGLER, J. G. 1963. Experiments in vacuum pan control. J. Am. Soc. Sugar
Beet Technol. 12 (6) : 462-467.
21,
1964
Applying the thin film penetration theory of ultra-violet sterilization, considerable success in the sterilization of water has
been demonstrated the past few years. Using this knowledge the
Aquafine Corporation has designed equipment to pass a film of
syrup over an ultra-violet source under extremely turbulent conditions so that theoretically a thin film condition was presented
to the radiation for each particle of syrup. T h e equipment used
in the experiments detailed in this report was the Model G-4
Aquafine Liquid Sugar Sterilizer. It contains 4 Westinghouse
germicidal lamps 4-G36-T6L, wave length 2537 angstroms.
At the West Jordan plant there was available a 4000-gallon
cone-bottom liquid-sugar tank. T h e outlet at the bottom of the
cone was piped with
inch pipe to a positive displacement
(Viking) p u m p which pumped through the sterilizer, up over
the top of and back into the tank. Circulation was at the rate
of 20 gallons per minute. A sample cock was placed on the
suction line to the p u m p and another on the discharge line from
the sterilizer. Yeast and mold counts were made according to
the method of the A.B.C.B.
Investigation No. 1
One thousand two hundred gallons of liquid sucrose, 66.5
Brix were placed in the tank and seeded with a variety of yeasts
normally found in liquid sugar. T h e mixture was stirred thoroughly and the yeast count determined to be 900 per 10 grams
solids. T h e circulation through the sterilizer was started, and
215
Before
sterilizer
After
sterilizer
216
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
After sterilizers
Yeasts
Molds
Yeasts
Molds
632
728
872
320
834
156
54
60
40
110
510
400
440
272
688
162
22
8
36
74
Table 5.Yeast and mold counts, 75-25 liquid sucrosecorn syrup blend, two sterilizers
In series, 20 GPM, single pass.
Before sterilizers
After sterilizers
Yeasts
Molds
Yeasts
752
484
472
664
872
468
120
10
36
12
8
6
92
36
0
68
148
54
Molds
52
0
0
8
0
4
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
217
6,
1964
A c c u r a t e k n o w l e d g e of t h e raffinose c o n t e n t of molasses is
i m p o r t a n t t o sugar b e e t g r o w e r s a n d processors. C a r r u t h e r s and
co-workers (4) 2 h a v e r e v i e w e d m e t h o d s c o m m o n l y u s e d for the
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f raffinose a n d d e s c r i b e d t h e i r l i m i t a t i o n s .
P o l a r i m e t r i c m e t h o d s a r e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d i n t h e sugar beet
i n d u s t r y . O p t i c a l l y active s u b s t a n c e s o t h e r t h a n t h e common
sugars r e d u c e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f these m e t h o d s .
P a p e r c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c m e t h o d s a r e m o r e specific a n d more
r e l i a b l e . A l b o n a n d Gross (1) d e t e r m i n e d raffinose directly,
de W h a l l e y (5) h y d r o l y z e d raffinose to m e l i b i o s e w i t h invertase
b e f o r e c h r o m a t o g r a p h y to e l i m i n a t e i n t e r f e r e n c e of kestoses and
s l o w - m o v i n g c o l o r e d c o m p o u n d s . T h e s e m e t h o d s i n v o l v e visual
c o m p a r i s o n of t h e c o l o r d e v e l o p e d from spots of raffinose or
m e l i b i o s e w i t h t h a t from a series of s t a n d a r d s . T h u s , they are
l i m i t e d b y subjective e r r o r s . B e v e n u e a n d W i l l i a m s ' method
(3) is s i m i l a r to t h a t of de W h a l l e y e x c e p t t h a t t h e y measure
t h e d e v e l o p e d c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c spots of m e l i b i o s e by reflected
light. R e p r o d u c i b i l i t y of these m e t h o d s is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10%.
W e i d e n h a g e n a n d Schiweck (9) o b t a i n e d b e t t e r chromata
g r a m s by clarifying t h e molasses w i t h l e a d a c e t a t e a n d then de
s a l t i n g w i t h i o n - e x c h a n g e resins.
T h e y r e p o r t e d incomplete
recovery of sugars from t h e resins a n d u s e d a c o r r e c t i o n factor.
Several m e t h o d s (6, 7, 8) i n v o l v e p h o t o m e t r i c measurements
after e l u t i o n of t h e raffinose- or m e l i b i o s e - c o n t a i n i n g zones of
p a p e r c h r o m a t o g r a m s . T h e s e m e t h o d s c a n give very good precision. H o w e v e r , e l u t i o n m a y n o t r e c o v e r all t h e sugar.
W e r e p o r t a p a p e r c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c m e t h o d for determining
raffinose d i r e c t l y . It avoids i o n - e x c h a n g e resins, invertase hydrolysis, or e l u t i o n . T h e d i l u t e d molasses, clarified by lead
a c e t a t e , is s p o t t e d on a c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c sheet. T h e sugars are
s e p a r a t e d by d e s c e n d i n g c h r o m a t o g r a p h y , a n d t h e raffinose spots
a r e d e v e l o p e d w i t h p-anisidine. T h e r e s u l t i n g yellow color i s
m e a s u r e d w i t h a c o l o r difference m e t e r or a t r a n s m i s s i o n densitometer.
T h i s r e p o r t d e s c r i b e s a s e c o n d clarification p r o c e d u r e , which
r e m o v e s m o r e c o l o r e d m a t e r i a l s . A f t e r clarification with l e a d
1
Western Regional Research Laboratory, Western Utilization Research and Develop-,
ment Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Albany
California.
2
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
219
220
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
P r e p a r e t h e c o l u m n , 3 0 m m i n d i a m e t e r , w i t h a fritted glass
disc, by p o u r i n g in a s l u r r y of cellulose p o w d e r in absolute
e t h a n o l . Stir a n d let settle a s t h e l i q u i d f l o w s . T h e f i n a l volume
of settled cellulose is 120 m l .
R u n 4.0 m l o f t h e f i l t r a t e i n t o t h e c o l u m n . R i n s e t h e sides
of t h e c o l u m n a b o v e t h e cellulose w i t h s m a l l p o r t i o n s of 80%
e t h a n o l . T h e n a d d 8 0 % e t h a n o l c o n t i n u o u s l y t o t h e t o p o f the
c o l u m n . D i s c a r d t h e first 75 ml of effluent. C o l l e c t t h e next
250 ml of effluent. E v a p o r a t e it on a s t e a m b a t h to a few ml
a n d t h e n d i l u t e to 10.0 m l . Q u a l i t a t i v e tests s h o w e d t h a t all the
p - a n i s i d i n e - p o s i t i v e sugars w e r e i n t h i s fraction.
Paper
Chromatography.Place
10.0 liter-spots of t h e solut i o n s on a c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c sheet at 1.5 i n c h i n t e r v a l s . Apply
on e a c h sheet f o u r spots of molasses s o l u t i o n , t h r e e spots of a
raffinose s t a n d a r d of l o w e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n , f o u r spots of inter
m e d i a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a n d t h r e e spots o f h i g h e r concentration.
A r r a n g e t h e spots i n g r o u p s s o t h a t t h e spots o f a n y o n e solution
a r e a b o u t e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d across t h e sheet. U s e raffinose
standards varying f
r
o
m
M
o
s
t samples fell
in a s m a l l e r r a n g e , 1.5
D i l u t e t h e molasses
s o l u t i o n s if necessary so t h a t t h e raffinose c o n c e n t r a t i o n is near
that of the intermediate standard.
S e p a r a t e t h e sugars by d e s c e n d i n g c h r o m a t o g r a p h y . Spot test
p a p e r strips w i t h a molasses s o l u t i o n . C h r o m a t o g r a p h t h e strips
w i t h t h e sheets a n d d e v e l o p t h e strips a t i n t e r v a l s t o determine
w h e t h e r raffinose is well s e p a r a t e d f r o m o t h e r sugars. A b o u t 64
h o u r s is u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d to s e p a r a t e raffinose f r o m sugars (probably kestoses) t h a t i n t e r f e r e w i t h its m e a s u r e m e n t . W h e n chroma t o g r a p h y i s f i n i s h e d , a i r d r y t h e sheets.
D i p each sheet by d r a w i n g it t h r o u g h a t r o u g h containing
p - a n i s i d i n e r e a g e n t . L e t t h e s h e e t d r y 15 m i n u t e s in a fume
h o o d . H e a t in a forced a i r o v e n at 70 C for 2 m i n u t e s . After
a l l o w i n g it to s t a n d for a few m i n u t e s at r o o m temperature,
m e a s u r e t h e c o l o r of t h e d e v e l o p e d raffinose spots w i t h the color
difference m e t e r o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n d e n s i t o m e t e r .
Measurement
with
Color Difference Meter.-Operate the ins t r u m e n t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s . Standardize t h e c o l o r difference m e t e r w i t h a " y e l l o w " c a l i b r a t e d enameled
standard
o b t a i n e d from the
m a n u f a c t u r e r . P o s i t i o n t h e s h e e t so t h a t a raffinose s p o t is centered
o v e r t h e a p e r t u r e (1.5 i n c h d i a m e t e r ) . P l a c e t h e e n a m e l e d
standard on the paper to hold it flat. O b t a i n readings of
a n d b. M o v e t h e p a p e r slightly w h i l e b a l a n c i n g t h e 6
aticity c o o r d i n a t e t o assure t h e m a x i m u m r e a d i n g . T h e
c o l o r fades w h e n e x p o s e d t o t h e l i g h t o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t ,
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
221
Measurement with
Transmission Densitometer.-Place the
sheet over the aperture
densitometer. Using a
that the optical density reads zero (100% transmission) on a
blank area of the chromatographic sheet in the region of the
raffinose spots and infinity (zero percent transmission) on the
most dense area of a developed sucrose spot. Measure the maximum optical density of each raffinose spot. Determine the amount
of raffinose of the sample from the standard curve for the same
sheet.
222
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Percent raffinose
Initially found 1
Added
Found 1
Molasses 1
2
1.13
1.08
0.17
0.36
1.26
1.46
Fermented molasses 2
0.00
0.00
1.00
1.30
0.99
1.34
1
Paper chromatographic method.
2
Free of raffinose and sucrose by treatment with Bakers' yeast. Sucrose was added after
treatment to imitate original molasses (60% sucrose).
VOL.
13, No. 3,
OCTOBER
1964
223
2
3
4
5
Percent raffinose
Polarimetric1
Paper chromatographic
1.44
1.19
1.08
0.25
0.54
1.20
1.18
1.21
1.01
1.13
1
The values by polarimetric methods were determined at the two sugar beet plants where
the samples were produced.
Summary
A p a p e r c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c determination of raffinose in sugar
beet molasses was developed. T h e treatment of the sample before
chromatography is simple. T w o clarification procedures are reported: A. t r e a t m e n t with lead acetate; B. treatment with lead
acetate followed by washing the sugars through a cellulose powder
column with 8 0 % ethanol. Each procedure gave the same raffinose values. T h e sugars were separated by descending chromatography. p-Anisidine was chosen to develop the color of the raffinose spots because it is as sensitive as other reagents tested and
produces m o r e stable color. T h e intensity of the color of the
spots was m e a s u r e d with a color difference meter or a transmission
densitometer.
224
J O U R N A L OF T H E A.
S.
S. B. T.
(2)
1955.
T e n t a t i v e method
BEVENUE,
ARTHUR,
and
KENNETH
T.
WILLIAMS.
1958.
Quantitative
CARRUTHERS, A., J. V. D U T T O N , J. F. T. O L D F I E L D , C. W. E L L I O T T , R. K.
SCHNEIDER, F., A. E M M E R I C H , C . R E I C H E L a n d H . R O T H E R .
1959.
Uber
die papierchromatographische Bestimmung von Raffinose. ZuckerBeihefte 3 ( 4 ) : 95-102. (Abstr.) I n t . Sugar J. 1959, 6 1 : 317.
(8)
T A U F E L , K., H . R U T T L O F F a n d A. T A U F E L .
1961.
Z u r Mikroanalytik
d e r Raffinose. N a h r u n g . 5: 353-361.
(9)
W E I D E N H A G E N , R., a n d H . SCHIWECK.
Raffinosebestimmung in Melasse.
1959.
Papierchromatographische
Zeit. Zuckerind.
9: 443-445.
M.
AFANASIEV 2
Introduction
Sugar beets g r o w n in M o n t a n a represent a very important
cash crop. E n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions, soil type and general farm
practices are favorable in M o n t a n a for raising good quality crops
of sugar beets with high sugar content. Most of the sugar beets
in M o n t a n a are grown east of the Continental Divide. T h i s
area in M o n t a n a is sometimes subject to hail storms which cause,
in some seasons, extensive damage to sugar beets and to other
crops. In general, there is very little information regarding the
effect of hail injury on the yield and sugar content of sugar
beets.
In o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e the a m o u n t of damage caused by hail
to sugar beets, a limited a m o u n t of work was conducted in Montana d u r i n g 1946-1949 (6,7) 3 on this subject. However, a more
extensive investigation of this problem was undertaken in 1957
and was c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h 1962. Preliminary results for the
first three years of this study were published earlier (1). T h i s
paper contains a s u m m a r y of the results of six years of investigation.
Materials and Methods
In this study, the p l a n was to investigate hail damage throughout the w h o l e g r o w i n g season, beginning soon after beets recovered from t h i n n i n g a n d t e r m i n a t i n g as close as possibe to
harvest. In previous studies (6,7) simulated hail damage to
beets was investigated mainly d u r i n g the middle portion of the
growing season.
T h r e e e x p e r i m e n t s were conducted d u r i n g this study:
E x p e r i m e n t 1: Simulated hail injury was inflicted on sugar
beets seven times t h r o u g h o u t the season, and each set of plots
was damaged only once.
E x p e r i m e n t 2: Beets were subjected to two consecutive defoliations d u r i n g t h e m i d d l e of the growing season.
E x p e r i m e n t 3: A comparison was made of the effect of detonation of beets with scissors a n d wooden sticks.
1
Contribution from Montana State College, Agricultural Experiment Station, Bozeman,
Montana. Paper No. 650, Journal Series.
Department of Botany and Bacteriology, Montana Agricultural Experiment Station,
Bozeman,
Montana.
3
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
2
226
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
of
First Experiment
Simulated Hail Injury on
Sugar
Beets
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
227
DATE OF INJURY
for the appropriate treatment and injury date for the six years
of the experiment.
T h e tops of the check beets were almost always heavier than
the tops of beets subjected to injury (Figure 1). The 25, 50
and 75% defoliated beets had about the same top weights, and
were only slightly below those of the check beets for the 0rst
five injuries including the one made in the middle of August.
During September however, weights of the tops of 25% defoliated
beets resembled the checks, while the tops of beets with 50 and
75% injuries showed lower weights. The tops of 75% defoliated
beets weighed less than those with 50% defoliation and the
top weights of plants subjected to complete defoliation were
much lower than for beets with smaller degrees of injuries, and
this gradually decreased with later defoliations.
The greatest reduction in weight of the tops of beets with
25% defoliation occurred in plants injured in the middle of
August and this weight was about 10% less than the check. The
greatest losses for 50 and 7 5 % treatments occurred when injuries
were made during September with losses of about 16 and 20%,
espectively. Completely defoliated beets showed great losses in
top weights during the latter part of the season, with the greatest
reduction of 7 3 % occurring during September.
Sugar beets with 25%defoliation,
when c o m p a r e d with
the checks, showed (Figure 2) only a slight decrease in yield,
with a maximum reduction of about 5% when injury was made
during the first part of August. The yields of plants subjected
to 50 and 75% defoliation were more or less similar. However,
228
JOURNAL OF THE A.
S. S.
B.
T.
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13, No. 3,
OCTOBER
1964
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230
JOURNAL OF THE A, S. S. B. T.
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3,
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1964
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232
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S.
B. T.
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234
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S.
B. T.
sticks and with scissors four times during the season: July 2,
17, August 1 and 15. The same size of plots and the same procedure were used here as in the previous tests.
Results of the Third Experiment
Figure 5 illustrates the results of this test and presents the
average percentages of weights of tops, yield of beets and sugar
for four replications of each treatment for all the above mentioned dates of defoliation. Injuries made with wooden sticks
produced a gradual reduction in the final weight of beet tops,
reducing them from 4% in beets with 25% injury to 35% for
completely defoliated beets as compared to the checks. Tops
of beets defoliated with scissors at 25, 50 and 75% intensity,
showed more or less the same or only slight reductions in their
top weights in comparison to the checks. Weights of beet tops
with 25% defoliation with scissors were quite similar to those
defoliated with sticks; however, tops of beets with 50 and 75%
injury with scissors weighed considerably more than those damaged with sticks. Weights of tops completely defoliated with
scissors were similar to the same injured with sticks.
Yields of beets in plots defoliated with sticks and scissors
were quite comparable for all degrees of injuries. However,
beets injured with sticks, with the exception of completely defoliated plants, showed slightly lower yields than those injured
with scissors. These reductions were equal to 5.1, 2.0 and 3.7%.
respectively, for 25, 50 and 75% defoliations. The yield of 100%
defoliated beets with sticks was 3.3% higher than in those injured with scissors.
VOL.
13, No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
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236
JOURNAL OF THE A.
S. S.
B. T.
VOL.
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237
injury to sugar beets. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 11: 196-200.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
JONES,
F.
G.
W.,
R.
A.
DUNNING
and
K.
P.
HUMPHRIES.
1955.
The
(11)
(12)
1957.
Esti-
mating hail injury in potatoes. Idaho Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 274.
1952. A study
1959.
A study of simu-
lated hail injury in beans. Idaho Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 322.
VOL.
13, No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
239
240
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
After harvest the tops and roots from each pot were dried
at 180 F in a forced draft oven and weighed. T h e phosphorus
content of the plant material was determined colorimetrically
(15) after preparation by the wet digestion method with perchloric acid (13).
At the time of each harvest the available phosphorus content of the soil in each pot was determined by the sodium bicarbonate method (1). Golden (7) found that the control of
temperature at which soil extractions were made was highly
desirable. Therefore, freshly prepared solutions were kept in
the respective temperature tanks for several hours, and the extraction was then carried out in the tanks.
Results and Discussion
As the soil temperature increased from 7 to 27 C, the
dry weights of sugar beet tops increased significantly (Table 1).
Table 1.Effect of four soil temperatures on sugar beet seedlings and on extractable
soil phosphorus, and significant differences1 between means (means per pot calculated from
three replications and two harvests).
T h e yields of roots increased significantly with temperature increases to 19 C only. T h e optimum temperature for root growth
appears to be around 20 C. While the percentage of phosphorus
in the beet tops was not significantly affected by soil temperature, there was a tendency for it to decrease in the roots with
increasing soil temperature. Total phosphorus uptake by tops
and roots increased with increasing soil temperature in
proportion to increased plant material. T h e amount of available phos-
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
241
242
J O U R N A L OF T H E A.
S.
S.
B.
T.
ATKINSON, H. J., G. R. G I L E S , A. J. M A C L E A N , a n d J. R. W R I G H T .
1958.
KJEARSGAARD.
1963.
Soil
(6)
COOPER,
W.
KALBFLEISCH.
D.
J.,
K.
F.
NIELSEN,
J.
W.
WHITE,
and
temperatures.
1962.
Effect of soil
243
(9) KETCHESON, J. W. 1957. Some effects of soil temperature on phosphorus requirements of young corn plants in the greenhouse. Can.
J. Soil Sci. 37: 41-47.
(10)
M A C L E A N , R. M. HOLMES, and
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
MACLEAN,
R.
M.
HOLMES, and
April
13,
1964
Introduction
T h e beet mosaic virus is widespread in many California beetgrowing areas. T h e virus is particularly common in areas where
large acreages of sugar beets have been overwintered successively
for a number of years and where early plantings are made near
overwintered fields. In some areas early spring plantings have
been observed with almost 100% infection by early summer.
Generally mild strains of the beet mosaic virus seem to predominate in most areas, although the virus occurs as a number
of strains which differ in severity. Plants, following infection
with mild strains of the virus, usually show a flush of severely
mottled and distorted foliage accompanied by some stunting,
but soon recover. Chronically diseased plants generally show
little signs of disease except for mottling and some blistering
on the younger center leaves. Because of the temporary nature
of severe symptoms and its sporadic occurrence in most areas,
the virus has generally been assumed to be of little economic
importance.
Little, if any, data have been collected on the effect of the
beet mosaic virus on beet sugar yields under field conditions
in the U. S. Several reports from Europe on the effect of the
virus on yields of sugar beet suggest it may be economically
important in some cases but in general these reports have indicated the damage is minor in comparison with that associated
with
the beet yellows virus. In England, Watson and Watson
(S)2 found mosaic decreased sugar yields 10 to 20%, an economically important loss. Beet yellows under the same conditions
reduced the sugar yield 50%. Liidecke and Neeb (5) reported
mosaic reduced the yields of beet roots, foliage and sugar 6, 10,
and 9%, respectively, in Germany. In similar experiments beet
yellows caused losses about 9-fold greater than mosaic alone. In
plants infected with both yellows and mosaic, the effects of the
two were additive. Wiesner (9) obtained similar results: mosaic
reduced sugar yields 6 to 10% whereas yellows alone caused
losses of 35-55 percent. Again, in doubly infected plants the
effects of the viruses were additive.
1 Assistant Plant Pathologist, Extension Agronomist, and Extension Plant Pathologist'
University of California, Davis.
2 Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
VOL.
13,
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OCTOBER
1964
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246
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13,
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3,
OCTOBER
1964
247
248
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Table 1.Effect of the beet mosaic virus alone and in combination with the beet yellows
and western yellows viruses on the top growth of sugar beet in 1962, and at high and low
nitrogen levels in 1963.
Top yield, tons/acre; fresh weight
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
249
Table 2.-Effect off the beet mosaic virus alone and in combination with the beet yellows
and western yellows virus on the root yields and sucrose percentage of sugar beet in 1962.
Virus inoculation
Root yield
Tons/Acre
Loss
Tons/Acre
34.9
31.5
29.8
19.1
3.4
51
15.8
14.6
45.3
17.3
32.8
22.6
22.8
17.6
50.4
2.1
6.0
12.3
12.1
35.2
34.7
Control
Beet mosaic alone
Beet mosaic plus western yellows
Beet mosaic plus beet yellows
Beet mosaic plus beet yellows
and western yellows
Western yellows alone
Beet yellows alone
Beet yellows plus western yellows
LSD, 5 %
Percent
loss
Percent
sucrose
13.4
13.5
13.8
13.8
9.7
13.7
13-5
13.7
13.7
n.s.
2.3
Table 3.Effect of the beet mosaic virus, beet yellows and western yellows virus on the
root yields of sugar beet in 1963, at high and low nitrogen levels.
Virus inoculation
Control
Beet mosaic alone
Beet mosaic plus western yellows
Western yellows alone
Beet yellows alone
LSD, 5 %
Root yield-Tons/acre
LowN1
High N 2
32.0
30.3
25.4
27.2
26.5
32.8
30.7
27.4
29.0
25.4
2.9
2.9
Loss3
Tons/acre
5.9
18.5
13.3
19.8
Percent
sucrose
12.4
12-2
11.2
11.8
12.2
% loss in
sugar yield
7.7
26.6
17.9
21.6
0.4
No added nitrogen.
2
200 lb of nitrogen/acre added in the form of ammonium sulfate.
3
Since the losses at the high and low nitrogen levels were not significantly different the
values were averaged for these figures.
250
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
251
BENNETT, C. W . , C. P R I C E , a n d J . S. MCFARLANE.
1957.
Effects of virus
NIKOLIC,
V.,
D.
CAMPRAG, a n d
I.
MATIC.
1958.
Ispitivanje
stetnosti
WATSON, D . J.,
a n d M A R I O N A. W A T S O N .
1953.
C o m p a r a t i v e physio-
logical studies on the growth of field crops. III. T h e effect of infection with beet yellows a n d beet mosaic viruses on the growth
a n d yield of the sugar beet root crop. Am. Appl. Biol. 40: 1-37.
(9) WIESNER, K. 1959. D e r Einfluss einer Rubenmosaik einer Rubenvergilbungs u n d einer Mischinfecktion beider Virosen auf Entwicklung, E r t r a g u n d technologischen W e r t der Zuckerrube. Zucker 12:
266-274.
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
253
254
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S.
juice.
14
14#
10
15
20
2nd carbonation
B. T.
25
SO
BED VOLUMES
255
Grams/liter
135
5.42
5.42
1.30
1.41
Equivalent Weight
50 (averaged
119
147
_
Eq/liter
0.1085
0.0109
0.0096
0.19
256
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S.
B. T.
M E R R Y - G O - R O U N D FLOW DIAGRAM
T h e stream of second carbonation juice will pass through
c o l u m n A, then t h r o u g h c o l u m n B, b o t h of which will load until
the pH of the effluent of A raises to 3.8-4.0. C o l u m n B now
contains a b o u t 2 0 % of its exchange sites in combination with
a m i n o acids a n d betaine. It is also likely that other organic
non-sugars will be held b u t it is n o t k n o w n in exactly what
portion. T h i s area requires m o r e study. O n c e the columns have
reached this condition, the A c o l u m n can be d r o p p e d off for
regenerations. T h e C c o l u m n is started up a n d the flow is now
t h r o u g h C to B. T h i s process continues u n t i l the pH of C
effluent reaches 3.8-4.0. C o l u m n B now is a b o u t 4 0 % loaded
with a m i n o acids. C is t h e n regenerated a n d A operated through
B u n t i l a similar b r e a k t h r o u g h occurs. R e g e n e r a t i o n of V can
now be accomplished while loading in a cycle of low flow rate
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
257
258
JOURNAL OF THE A.
S.
S.
B. T.
lbs. H 2 S0 4 /ft?
BED VOLUMES
Losses D u e to Displacement
In arriving at the loss of sugar due to the displacement processes, estimates must be made on the basis of emperical field
data due to the variables of design and operating conditions.
In general, the displacement will be a function of bed void
volume, sugar liquor density, liquor viscosity, and resin bead
porosity. In addition, liquid heights in the column, Row rates
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
259
and under-drain volume will play an important part in the displacement process. From a practical standpoint, there are two
problems, namely, the added cost of evaporating diluted juice
and the loss of sugar in sweet waters resulting from continued
rinsing.
T h e idealized displacement involving no kinetic considerations would be a sharp step function which would occur when
the displacement had filled the bed and underdrain voids. Sucrose
molecules which have diffused into the resinous structure reduce
this sharpening effect and require time to diffuse out at the end
of the displacement. These effects result in a round frontal displacement with a tailing off at the end of the displacement.
T h e concentration of the sugar liquor plays an important
role during "sweetening on". A thick liquor will tend to diffuse
down the column under the influence of gravity. This will result
in an irregular displacement within the bed. Displacement of a
heavy liquor by water in a "sweetening off" step may present a
drag problem due to viscosity but it is possible to correct this
by using hot water. Flow rate can play an important part in
these matters. Generally, flow should be as slow as practical but
the improvement
in displacement is usually not considerable below about 1 / 2 gpm/ft 3 .
BED VOLUMES
In Figure 5 are drawn displacement curves for a typical operation in a beet sugar factory. These curves indicate the influence
of flow rate but do not represent an optimum situation in regard
to this important operating function. Detailed studies of the
variables have been carried out.
T h e displacement step in juice treatment is an important
one from an economic standpoint. It is apparent that "sweeten-
260
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T,
%
91
88
84
Concentration Temperature
F
Brix
14
14
14
50
50
50
Bed Volume
Total bed volumes
treated
(with dilution)
juice net
16
11
8
18.3
13.3
10.7
Dilution
%
12.8
18.5
25.0
261
F i g u r e 6 . I n v e r s i o n w i t h A m b e r l i t e XE-100 as function of t e m p e r a t u r e
and contact time.
262
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
to
of
by
as
7 48
:
, . s
contact time (min.)
Since the concentration of hydrogen ion is related directly
the rate of inversion, it is necessary to measure t h e amount
time that the cation effluent will exist before neutralization
t h e a n i o n exchanger. In Figure 9 data from Sadter are plotted
summarized by Payne (5), which enables inversion due to
VOL.
13,
No.
3, OCTOBER
1964
homogeneous catalysis to be estimated. While the amount of inversion by homogeneous catalysis is not as great as that caused
by a fully regenerated bed, it must be taken into account.
T h e graphs developed for inversion can be used quite effectively to calculate inversion for a variety of process conditions.
There are four process variables which deserve consideration.
These are: (1) EfiEect of temperature in a standard two bed
system; (2) Effect of flow rate in a standard two bed system; (3)
Effect of a merry-go-round operation and (4) Effect of regeneration levels. These situations are examined in the following
sections.
Effect of temperature
A standard operation with a 90% purity liquor at 15 Brix
which will contact a single
bed of cation exchanger at 4 minute
contact time (1.87 gpm/ft 3 ) will be assumed. The acid generated
will pass on to a bed of anion exchange resin. In Table 3, the
amount of inversion estimated from Figures 6-9 is listed for the
various resins at several temperatures. A sample calculation
follo w s :
JOURNAL OF THE A.
264
S.
S.
B. T.
20C
40C
"
60C
80C
"
Position
on run
Start
Middle
3/4 quarter
Start
Middle
3/4 quarter
Start
Middle
3/4 quarter
Start
Middle
3/4 quarter
Start
Middle
3/4 quarter
Start
Middle
3/4 quarter
Start
Middle
3/4 quarter
Start
Middle
3/4 quarter
Start
Middle
3/4 quarter
Start
Middle
3/4 quarter
0.006
"
"
0.005
"
"
0.056
"
'*
0.014
"
"
0.62
"
0.155
*'
"
6.66
"
"
1.66
"
"
66.4
"
"
16.6
"
*
21.5
5.80
1.55
1.52
0.26
0.085
35.0
14.0
5.4
5.30
1.45
0.60
53.0
28.0
16.0
16.0
5.50
3.40
75.0
55.0
39.0
39
22
15
100.0
iOO.O
90.0
90.0
65.0
53.0
0.25
0.12
0.075
0.072
0.027
0.016
1.80
0.70
0.50
0.50
0.19
0.11
9.0
4.5
2.6
2.6
1.10
0.53
34.0
18.0
9.9
9.8
4.40
2.50
100.0
64.0
54.0
SS.0
16.0
4.0
Amberlite
IR-124
O.073
0.045
0.026
0.026
0.015
0.009
0.33
0.20
0.90
0.092
0.053
0.030
1.30
0.75
0.29
0.28
0.16
0.09
3.8
2.2
0.76
0.76
0.42
0.23
10.0
5.6
1.8
1.8
0.95
O.54
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
265
Contact Convention
Minutes
4
8
4
8
4
8
Invert
0.07
0.125
0.40
0.75
2J!
4 4
-
266
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Full
% Saturation
Capacity
Initial contact
(saturation)
31
49
72
76
81
83
100
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
Corrected contact
time
1.24
1.98
2.88
S.04
3.25
3.3
4.0
T h e s e concepts can be used to derive a curve for the performance of Amberlite IR-120 when operated at 5 lbs/ft 3 using
a contact time of 6 minutes. T h e t e m p e r a t u r e for the run is
15C.
Fully regenerated bed:contact time = 6 m i n u t e s
1.98 X 6 4
So at 5 lbs H 2 S 0 4 / f t 3 , Contact time =
~
= 2.9 m i n u t e s contact at
the start of the run.
Heterogeneous inversion = 0 . 2 8 % of sucrose solids.
H o m o g e n e o u s Catalysis 0.07(6/60) 0 . 0 0 7 % of sucrose
solids.
T o t a l = 0 . 2 8 % heterogeneous inversion of sugar in liquor.
5 0 % point: % heterogeneous inversion = 0.14%
% homogeneous inversion = 0.007
T o t a l = 0.147% of sugar solids
7 5 % point: % heterogeneous inversion = 0.07
% homogeneous inversion = 0.007
T o t a l .= 0.077% of sugar solids.
T h e results of such calculations have been plotted and comp a r e d with actual measurements in Figure 10.
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
267
**' KUN
268
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S,
B. T.
B E D VOLUMES
BED V O L U M E S
Juice of 88.2
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
269
BED VOLUMES
Figure 13.History of the effluent from Amberlite IRA-68 in deionization of a 9 1 % purity juice loading 19.2 lbs/ft 3 . *w / / * * w c t .
% PURITY
(|NFLUF*,TX
270
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Capacity
Equivalent capacity
lbs. non-sugar/ft3
lbs. Eq/ft:i
24
~
0.106
17
0.106
19.2
0.106
Equivalent weight
lbs. or grams
226~
loO
11
Regeneration Efficiency
T h e regeneration of low molecular weight acids from Amberlite IRA-68 is not difficult. Complete regeneration of the sites
results from a contact with an equivalent a m o u n t of ammonium
hydroxide or caustic. For a fully exhausted bed (1.7 meq/liter)
a regeneration level of 1.75 e q / l i t e r is suggested. In English units,
the r e q u i r e m e n t becomes 4.37 lbs N a O H / f t 3 or 1.86 lbs NH 3 /ft 3 .
T h e best r e c o m m e n d a t i o n is to regenerate with ammonia and
then to recover the regenerant with lime. Caustic is normally
n o t employed d u e to its cost.
Effluent Characteristics
An e x a m i n a t i o n of the effluent curves shows a gradual leakage of non-sugars which increases progressively u n t i l breakthrough
occurs. It should be recognized that t h e curves shown in Figures
11-13 represent almost complete b r e a k t h r o u g h . T h e cycles were
so operated to obtain complete utilization of the resin. T h e pro
cedure results in a 5 0 % reduction in non-sugars w h e n calculated
on an accumulative basis.
A consideration of the m a g n i t u d e of the capacity values in
terms of b e d volumes treated w o u l d show that accumulative
purity will n o t change sufficiently to be used for control p u r
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
271
Comment
measured
Anion E x c h a n g e R e s i n L i f e
It must be emphasized that thermal life may n o t be related
directly to actual life except at high temperatures. It is not ex-
272
JOURNAL, OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
pected that Amberlite IRA-68 will last 60,000 days (165 years)
if operated at 1 5 C O t h e r factors will be involved such as oxidation of the resin, fouling with organic m a t t e r a n d operational
attrition. Practice has indicated an average life of a n i o n exchangers at 1 X 10 6 gallons of treated liquor p e r cubic foot of
resin. A m o r e conservative figure will be used in the later
economic evaluation.
Selection of Process a n d G e n e r a l Assumptions
T h e process that has been discussed is one which involves
efficient removal of cations from second carbonation juice by
passing it t h r o u g h a cation exchange system utilizing Amberlite
IR-120 (H). T h e acidified juice is then passed t h r o u g h Amberlite IRA-68 for the removal of anions a n d color bodies. Since
Amberlite IRA-68 is a weakly basic a n i o n exchanger, it is not
surprising that the best loading is accomplished in a feed liquor
which has been converted completely in t h e cation exchange installation. Constancy of effluent composition from the cation
exchange components can best be accomplished in a feed liquor
which has been converted completely in the cation exchange
installation, and this can best be accomplished by a merry-gor o u n d operation of the units. T h i s procedure will also help in
the recovery of a m i n o acids.
T h e r e are several places where this process can be performed
in t h e sugar production flow sheet. It is believed, however, that
best performance would occur after the second carbonation step.
T h i s selection of feed liquor would insure that t h e juice is of
good quality, well established in regard to colloids, a n d yet not
too viscous. It is undesirable to heat liquors b e i n g passed through
a m u l t i p l e b e d system of this type a n d consequently, dilute
liquors are desirable. Generally, it is undesirable to force heavy
liquors through ion exchange beds u n d e r pressure. By the way,
pressure d r o p in an ion exchange b e d is a function of flow rate,
resin particle size, a n d viscosity. T h e pressure d r o p increases almost linearly with the viscosity of the flowing l i q u o r .
An examination of the c u m u l a t i v e p u r i t y curves on the
treated juice versus the instantantaneous effluent curves clearly
shows that considerable difficulty will result if blending of the
effluent was n o t employed to deliver a treated l i q u o r of constant
purity to the evaporator. To avoid the p r o b l e m of boiling high
purity unbuffered liquors which w o u l d degrade rapidly in fne
evaporators, one might employ a surge tank to allow the mixing
of t h e effluent from t h e a n i o n exchange installation or one might
b l e n d in some u n t r e a t e d juice.
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
273
1964
Q u a n t i t y of b e e t s p e r day = 6,000 t o n s
Composition
14.97% sugar
0 . 3 9 % sugar
0 . 0 2 % sugar
14.97-0.41 =
juice.
o n beets
o n beets p u l p loss.
on beets lime, flume loss.
1 4 . 5 6 % sugar on beets in t h e
Solids in j u i c e = 14.0 B r i x
P u r i t y = 8 5 . 5 % b a s e d on solids
T o n s of s u g a r in j u i c e / d a y 6000 X 0.1456 874 tons
T o n s solids in j u i c e / d a y =
874
g^g
= 1021
tons
1 6 6 X 10 6
24 X 60
u 5 0 saiions/minute
s
W e i g h t in n o n - s u g a r s - 1021
X 10 5 l b s / d a y
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
274
S C H E M A T I C DIAGRAM OF ION E X C H A N G E S Y S T E M
VOL.
13,
No.
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OCTOBER
1964
275
276
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13,
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OCTOBER
1964
277
Lime Feed
Lime Salts
In a 3 0 % Slurry
Water Required, Lime System == 350 tons/day
Water from ion exchange
T h e amount of sweet water will depend on the success in the
design and operation of the equipment. It is likely that the
sweet water will not exceed about 4 bed volumes for each bed
volume in operation. For a 6,000 ton/day plant on 85.5% purity,
the amount of sweet water will be:
391 tons of sweet water
For the other purities under consideration, the sweet water
generated by ion exchange becomes:
It is evident from these estimates that the sweet waters produced by ion exchange can be returned either as lime slurry
or as part of the pulp water returned to the diffuser.
Ion exchange system waste disposal
Since it is likely that amino acid recovery cannot be justified
at the present time due to economic reasons, the spent regenerant
from the ion exchange plant will require treatment as a waste.
An indication of the actual amount of waste produced by ion
exchange is of interest in the adaptation of the process to an
existing factory. T h e 6,000 ton per day mill will be used operating on a 85.5% purity juice as the basis for calculations.
Cation regenerant
About 50 tons of sulfuric acid will be used in regeneration
of which about 50% is converted to salts during regeneration.
278
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T .
Anion
regenerant
A b o u t 9 tons of N H 3 are r e q u i r e d and this in t u r n is treated
with lime to yield 15 tons of a spent lime slurry containing a
m i x t u r e of non-sugars. T h e non-sugar loaded on A m b e r l i t e IRA68 a m o u n t s to a b o u t 16 lbs/ft 3 .
Load
Waste
T h e spent regenerant would have a volume a b o u t five times the
total anion exchange resin volume r e q u i r e d for a day's operation.
10,000 x 5 x 7.46 = 374,000 gallons
Concentration of Solid
T h e B O D r e q u i r e m e n t s of the ion exchange waste would be
expected to be similar to that found in a Steffen process. The
ion exchange, waste a m o u n t s to a b o u t 150 gallons per ton of
beets while values of a b o u t 120 gallons per ton are reported
for Steffen's process by McGinnis (4). T h e B O D would probably be a b o u t
of the total a m o u n t found in the process
water a n d would be concentrated in a b o u t
of the total
waste effluent. Backwash water from the beds would be used
in the flumes a n d condensers a n d as such would n o t be considered as a dirtct waste related to the ion exchange process.
Economic Considerations
T h e economic evaluation of this deionization process requires detailed knowledge on the particular mill involved. A
j u d g e m e n t on profitability requires an estimate on the future
m a r k e t price of refined sugar a n d molasses d u r i n g the period
that t h e plant is b e i n g amortized. Certain general values can be
reached however which will serve as an i n d e x for the economic
evaluation of the process.
T h e purity of t h e juice a n d t h e mill size are important influences on t h e r e q u i r e d capital investment. F o r example, a
6000 ton per day mill treating of juice of 8 2 % purity will cost
a b o u t $860,000 or 143 dollars p e r ton of capacity. Capital cost
is also related to non-sugar removal
of non-sugar removed/day. F o r a
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
279
280
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
cost p e r 100 lbs of sugar recovered indicate a significant advantage for t h e ion exchange process.
Conclusions
M o d e r n ion exchange resins have been developed which have
affected materially the economics of a two b e d deionization
process. U n d e r proper conditions it is possible to show a significant gain in sugar recovery at a capital cost of a b o u t 100-125
dollars/ton of beets processed. T h e capital write-off period not
including taxes was in range of 120-200 operating days. The
cost for non-sugar removal varied from 4-5 c e n t s / l b depending
on juice purity a n d p l a n t size.
A comparison with the Steffen H o u s e process was q u i t e favorable to ion exchange w h e n compared at the same depreciation
rate. T h e waste problems were n o t aggrevated a n d the sweet
water utilization was n o t unreasonable. Cooling water would
be a serious p r o b l e m which can be controlled at least in part by
p r o p e r section of the cation exchanger.
Acknowledgements
T h e a u t h o r is grateful to m e m b e r s of Society M1NOC, a
subsidiary of the R o h m & H a a s Company for collecting data on
field operation of the two b e d system; to Tapan O r g a n o for providing valuable field data on invert formation; to Dr. M. Andrus
of R o h m & Haas Company for valuable advice, direct assistance
a n d m u c h editorial help, a n d finally to m a n y individuals in the
American Beet Sugar Industry w h o have given critical advice and
stimulating discussion w h e n this paper was in its early stages.
References
(1) ASSALINI, G. and G. BRANDOLI. 1961.
sugar refining. I. Purification of beet
Sugar Beet Technol. 11: 341-349.
(2) ASSALINI, G. and G. BRANDOLI. 1961.
sugar refining. II. Purification of sugar
Beet Technol. 11: 349-357.
(3)
CARRUTHERS,
A.,
J.
V.
DUTTON,
J.
F.
T.
M.
SHORE and H.
MCCREADY.
A study of the
H.
PETO 1
24, 1964
282
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Laboratory
Scale Acid
Treatments
In a preliminary test on CS36, Contract 3, it was found that
a two-hour treatment with 3% H C L , followed by two-hour wash
ing before placing in the germinator, raised the germination from
5 7 % for u n t r e a t e d seed to 7 7 % for the H C L treated seed
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
283
Five different lots of seed were treated with 3% HCL for two
hours, and washed for two hours without subsequent drying with
the results as shown in Table 4. This acid treatment improved
germination 2 4 % to 2 7 % on treatments where germination was
between 4 1 % and 50%, but gave inconclusive results on lots
where untreated germination was already in the 74% to 78%
range.
Table 4.Effect of 3% HC1 treatments.
Seed
CS
CS
CS
CS
CS
CS
CS
CS
CS
CS
36-3
36-3
41-4
41-4
36-5
36-5
33-11
33-11
40-23
40-23
Material treatment
HC1 3 %
H2O
HC1 3%
H2O
HC1 3 %
H2O
HCI 3%
H2O
HC1 3 %
Hours treated
Hours wash
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
% Germination
47
2
2
2
2
71
50
77
41
65
78
71
74
77
A test was designed to determine whether washing was essential after treatment with 3% acid. Seed that was washed after
treatment gave 2 9 % improvement in germination, whereas, seed
that was not washed after acid treatment gave 28% and 32%
improvement. Therefore, washing may not be essential, but
washed seed should be less damaging on paper bags during shipment and storage, and less corrosive on seed drills and would,
therefore, be preferred for commercial use.
Phosphoric acid treatments were also tried giving in some
cases, improvement comparable to 3% HCL, but the optimum
concentration was somewhat higher than for HCL and the results were more variable.
Neutralization of either H 3 PO 4 or HCL after treatment by
accurate titration caused no damage but in other tests, where the
seed was neutralized by excess N H 3 gas, germination was severely
reduced. T h i s might have been anticipated since it has been reported that naturally occurring ammonia compounds inhibit
germination.
A further test to determine the optimum ratio of seed to acid
solution is shown in Table 5. T h e ratio of 3 seed to 1 acid by
weight indicated insufficient acid, whereas, an acid soak of onepart seed to two-parts acid resulted in less benefit than the intermediate ratios. These results lead to the opinion that percolation
with excess acid might be a practical commercial treatment. This
should insure that all surfaces are exposed to acid action without
damage by too deep a penetration from an excess soaking in acid.
284
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T
Table 5.Seed-acid ratio of 8% add to seed (CS 36, contract 3).
Seed-acid
ratio
Hours treated
3:1
2:1
1:1
1:2
2
2
2
2
Hours drying
3
3
3
3
% Germination
Abnormals
76
85
91
76
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
3
2
0
l
Treatment
material
Seed-add
ratio
Draining No. of
hours
washings
H2O
26% Mur
26% Mur
1:2
1:2
2
3
1:2
1:2
2
3
1:2
1:2
2
3
HsO
3% Mur
3% Mur
H2O
3% Mur
3% Mur
0
3
3
0
3
3
0
3
3
Hours
drying % Germination
0
2-3
2-3
0
2-3
2-3
0
2-3
2-3
68
88
80
57
80
80
56
76
8O
VOL.
13,
No.
3,
OCTOBER
1964
285
Discussion
T h e e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d i n this p a p e r indicates that o n e o f
the i m p o r t a n t l i m i t i n g factors in t h e g e r m i n a t i o n of certain lots
of m o n o g e r m seed g r o w n in t h e V a n c o u v e r area is the tightness
of t h e seed c a p . S n y d e r (2) r e p o r t e d t h a t w h e n cloned seedb e a r i n g p l a n t s w e r e g r o w n a t m e a n t e m p e r a t u r e s o f 66 a n d 76
F, a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n of loose seed caps o c c u r r e d at t h e h i g h e r
t e m p e r a t u r e . Since J u l y a n d A u g u s t m e a n t e m p e r a t u r e s i n Vancouver a v e r a g e 6 3 F a n d t h e m e a n at P h o e n i x is p r o b a b l y above
76 for t h i s p e r i o d , it is p r e d i c t a b l e t h a t t i g h t caps should be a
c o m p l a i n t in B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a a n d loose caps s h o u l d be a problem in P h o e n i x . C l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s at Salem m o r e closely resemble V a n c o u v e r t h a n P h o e n i x a n d t w o p o o r g e r m i n a t i o n lots
from O r e g o n w h i c h w e r e given t h e acid t r e a t m e n t were i m p r o v e d
2 3 % i n g e r m i n a t i o n w h i c h indicates t h a t t h e tight seed cap problem also exists i n O r e g o n .
T i g h t seed c a p s h a v e n e v e r b e e n recognized as a p r o b l e m in
m u l t i g e r m seed, b u t t h i s m a y be because t h e i r seed caps are
n a t u r a l l y t h i n n e r as was f o u n d in t h e o n e case e x a m i n e d .
W h i l e a c i d t r e a t m e n t s of m o n o g e r m seed may prove practical
a n d e c o n o m i c a l on a c o m m e r c i a l scale, it s h o u l d be possible to
b r e e d s t r a i n s w i t h t h i n n e r a n d looser seed caps. I n b r e d lines
now o n h a n d w i l l b e g r o w n i n British C o l u m b i a t o see w h e t h e r
sufficient useful v a r i a t i o n exists.
Conclusions
1. M o n o g e r m seeds g r o w n in t h e V a n c o u v e r area have b e e n
s h o w n t o possess t h i c k e r a n d t i g h t e r seed caps t h a n m u l t i g e r m
seed f r o m t h e s a m e s a m p l e . T h e s e thick tight seed caps a p p e a r
t o b e t h e m a i n r e a s o n t h a t m o n o g e r m has a lower percentage
g e r m i n a t i o n t h a n m u l t i g e r m g r o w n u n d e r the same conditions.
2. G e r m i n a t i o n of m o n o g e r m seeds h a v i n g tight seed caps was
greatly i m p r o v e d by c h i p p i n g off p a r t of t h e cap, by altern a t e s o a k i n g i n w a t e r a n d d r y i n g , b y enzyme t r e a t m e n t s a n d
treatments with 3 % H C L .
3 . S e m i - c o m m e r c i a l t r e a t m e n t s b y percolation with 3 % m u r i a t i c
w e r e successful i n b r i n g i n g g e r m i n a t i o n u p t o acceptable
levels. A c i d t r e a t m e n t s on a c o m m e r c i a l scale presents no
difficulties, b u t t h e d r y i n g of soaked seed in large quantities
will be slow a n d s o m e w h a t risky.
286
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Acknowledgments
T h e a u t h o r wishes to acknowledge the c o n t r i b u t i o n of G. M.
Guccione on the effect of alternate soaking a n d drying, of F. R.
Low a n d A. Schmand for the contributions to the seed treatment
a n d germination experiments, a n d of Sam C. C a m p b e l l for supplying low-germinating samples of Oregon-grown seed.
Literature Cited
(1) LACKEY, C. F. 1948. Chemical loosening of seed caps in relation to
germination of sugar beet seed. Proc. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Techno].
V: 66-69.
(2) SNYDER, F. W. 1959. Influence of the seed ball on speed of germination
of sugar beet seeds. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 10(6) : 513-520.
JOURNAL
of the
American Society of Sugar
Beet Technologists
Volume 13
Number 4
January 1965
Published
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Author
Instrumentation
Corporation
within
the
British
Page
Sugar
J.
E. A. Rich..
.287
On the n a t u r e of h a t c h i n g of Heterodera
schachtii.
I I . N a t u r a l sources of hatching s t i m u l a n t s
T h e p e r f o r m a n c e of sugar beet selections
m a d e for p u r i t y a n d chloride at three levels
of n i t r o g e n fertility
mosaic
virus
in
304
-314
.318
333
O. R. Kunze
F. W. Snyder
C. W. Hall
341
D. R. Viglierchio
P. K. Yu
354
C. W. Doxtator
R. E. Finkner
R. H. Helmerick
P. C. Hanzas
296
R. J. Shepherd
D. H. Hall
D. E. Purcifull
362
370
374
E.
A.
RICH1
288
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
289
290
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
291
W i t h i n t h e r a n g e of sp. gr. 1.20 t h r u 1.45, B r i x equals approximately [ (175 X sp. gr.) ] 165, so e q u a t i o n (3) can therefore be
writ-ten:
292
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
T h e pressure selectors were simple devices utilizing a pneumatic balanced diaphragm and an o u t p u t relay. T h e y could be
arranged to select a n d pass either the higher or the lower of two
pressures.
T h e primary controller was the raw juice flow controller.
U n d e r n o r m a l factory conditions the desired value of this controller was set by the shift s u p e r i n t e n d e n t to an estimated maxim u m . T h e simple computers automatically reduced this desired
value if any one of three tank levels moved outside n o r m a l limits.
T h e three levels were those of the t h i n juice, the second carbonation, a n d the raw juice tanks. T h e latter was also used as a preliming tank a n d was fitted with a level controller operating a
valve on the inlet to it.
A l t h o u g h the tanks were different sizes, they were fitted with
transmitters ranged to give 3 to 15 psi signals over their normal
level ranges. T h e thin juice tank was 6 ft deep and if the level
rose above 4 ft, the raw juice flow was reduced. T h e carbonation
tank transmitter operated over the u p p e r 8 ft of the tank; if the
level rose i n t o the u p p e r half of this range, the raw juice flow
was also reduced. T h e raw juice tank was 10 ft deep and if the
level fell below 3 ft-4 in, t h e n the raw juice flow was again reduced. In addition, whenever any of these off-normal level zones
were entered, an audible alarm attracted the attention of the
supervisor.
VOL
293
T h e t h i n j u i c e level signal was fed i n t o a h i g h pressure selector, t o g e t h e r w i t h a p r e s e t 11 psi signal derived from a pressure
regulator. T h i s selecter w o u l d therefore n o r m a l l y pass 11 psi
a n d w o u l d o n l y pass a h i g h e r signal if the t a n k level rose above
4 ft.
T h e r a w j u i c e level signal was fed i n t o a low pressure selector,
together w i t h a pre-set 7 psi. T h i s selector w o u l d therefore n o r m ally pass 7 psi a n d w o u l d only pass a lower signal if t h e tank level
fell b e l o w 3 ft-4 i n .
T h e signals f r o m these t w o selectors were fed i n t o the first
computer, solving the equation:
Po = (A-C) R K, w h e r e R = 1.5 a n d K = + 15.
T h e o u t p u t of t h i s c o m p u t e r was n o r m a l l y 9 psi, b u t w o u l d
r e d u c e to 3 psi if t h e t h i n j u i c e level rose to 6 ft, or t h e r a w juice
level fell to zero. T h e o u t p u t from this c o m p u t e r was fed i n t o
the second c o m p u t e r , t o g e t h e r w i t h the o u t p u t from a second
high p r e s s u r e selector. T h e i n p u t s t o this were the c a r b o n a t i o n
tank level signal a n d a p r e s e t 9 psi. T h e o u t p u t was therefore
n o r m a l l y 9 psi r i s i n g to 15 psi, as t h e c a r b o n a t i o n tank level rose
above n o r m a l .
T h e s e c o n d c o m p u t e r was also solving the e q u a t i o n :
Po = (A-C) R K, b u t w i t h R = 2 a n d K = + 1 5 .
W i t h t w o n o r m a l i n p u t s of 9 psi, this c o m p u t e r ' s o u t p u t was
15 psi, b u t if t h e c a r b o n a t i o n t a n k level rose, or the o u t p u t from
the first c o m p u t e r fell, t h e n t h e o u t p u t from this second comp u t e r w o u l d fall to 3 psi.
T h e o u t p u t from t h e second c o m p u t e r was c o u p l e d t o t h e
adjustable p n e u m a t i c set p o i n t of t h e raw juice flow controller,
a n d b e i n g n o r m a l l y 15 psi, allowed t h e flow to be set m a n u a l l y
at any d e s i r e d v a l u e . If a n y of t h e t h r e e levels changed from
their n o r m a l state, t h e n t h e o u t p u t o f t h e second c o m p u t e r w o u l d
slowly r e d u c e to 3 psi, a n d this w o u l d automatically r e d u c e t h e
desired v a l u e s e t t i n g of t h e r a w j u i c e flow.
T h e successful c o n t r o l of m i l k of l i m e density in t h e B.S.C.
dates back to 1955 (2) w h e n t h e c o n t i n u o u s density t r a n s m i t t e r
conceived at S p a l d i n g factory was commercially developed. T h i s
i n s t r u m e n t i s n o w i n w i d e use t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e a n d consists
basically of a b a l a n c e d 1" stainless steel U - t u b e , fitted w i t h e i t h e r
a n electric o r p n e u m a t i c force balance transmitter. T h e t u b e i s
mounted horizontally a n d the liquid to be measured flows through
i t B y k e e p i n g t h e t u b e horizontal, changes i n l i q u i d velocity
do n o t affect t h e t r a n s m i t t e d o u t p u t .
T h e s t a n d a r d i n s t r u m e n t has a span of 0.2 specific gravity,
and for m i l k o f l i m e m e a s u r e m e n t t h e n o r m a l r a n g e w o u l d b e
294
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
1.00-1.20 sp. gr. Special models with spans down to 0.05 sp. gr.
a n d fitted with t e m p e r a t u r e compensation are manufactured, but
the standard instrument has a certain a m o u n t of i n h e r e n t temp e r a t u r e compensation d u e to the expansion of the U-tube, and
is adequate for most sugar factory purposes.
Apart from being totally enclosed a n d therefore clean, this
instrument has the added advantage that it can be positively
checked. It is supplied with weights proportional to the sp. gr. to
be measured and these can be h u n g on the U-tube for direct
calibration.
Milk of lime is produced at B.S.C. factories by slaking uncrushed b u r n t lime with 8 to 9 Brix sweet water in conventional
rotary d r u m slakers. T h e milk of lime is fed from the slaker to
a "thick lime" tank via a vibrating screen to remove the fines.
T h i s tank is the key to the automatic control of b o t h the limekiln a n d the slaker, a n d must be sized correctly d u e to the inter
m i t t e n t discharge from the slaker (3).
T h e level in the thick lime tank is used to control the burnt
lime and sweet water feeds to the slaker. T h e level in the limekiln is controlled by a gamma-switch so that as b u r n t lime is
d r a w n from the bottom, the level is automatically maintained.
Coke a n d limestone are added in a p r e s e t b u t adjustable ratio
via a completely automatic load-cell weigher a n d skip hoist.
T h e thick lime tank level controls are arranged to give a
working zone in the tank. T h u s the level will fall to 4 0 % before
the feeds to the slaker are started, a n d will rise to 8 0 % before the
feeds are stepped. T h e sweet water feed to the slaker is manually
adjusted so that the milk of lime p r o d u c e d is slightly heavier
t h a n that r e q u i r e d by the process.
T h e milk of lime is p u m p e d from the thick lime tank to a
constant head tank above 1st carbonation a n d overflows back.
It is sampled immediately after the p u m p a n d the density is
regulated by a control valve a d d i n g sweet water i n t o the suction
of the p u m p . A position alarm is usually fitted so that the main
slaking valve may be adjusted if the dosing valve shuts or goes
wide open. W i t h this type of control it is possible to regulate the
milk of lime density to within 0.5 Brix.
Acknowledgement
T h e a u t h o r wishes to thank Mr. J. C. Macdonald, O.B.E.
Technical Director of the British Sugar Corporation Ltd for
his permission to publish the data contained in this paper.
2 9 5
References
(1) A N O N .
(2) B O O T H , P. M.
191-192.
KELLER 1
Introduction
A continual degradation in quality of beets grown in the
Imperial Valley of Southern California has caused a gradual
increase in lime salts concentration of the sugar juices produced
from these beets. T h i s increase in lime salts concentration from
. 0 4 5 % C a O on thin juice solids in 1956 to .084% in 1961, has
made it increasingly difficult to concentrate these juices in the
evaporators because of scale formed on the heating surfaces.
T h e use of ion exchange resins to soften sugar containing juices
has proven successful in E u r o p e a n sugar mills and preliminary
softening trials using juices produced at Holly's Carlton mill,
indicated that this procedure should be economically feasible.
L a b o r a t o r y Tests
Laboratory tests were conducted in 1961 to determine the
best operating conditions for softening of evaporator thin juice.
T h e s e tests indicated that by using IllcoC-211W resin, a maxim u m loading of 1.89 lbs/cu ft as CaCO 3 , or 1.06 lbs CaO could
be expected by the time we reached a leakage of 4 2 % of the
hardness in the juice being treated. T h e average leakage for the
complete cycle would be 1 3 % at this point. Figure 1 gives the
percent of total hardness which leaked t h r o u g h i n t o the effluent
from the softening trials. T h e flow rate established by these
tests was 8 gpm per sq ft of bed cross section. (Used for water
softening).
VOL.
13, N o . 4, J A N U A R Y 1965
297
Throughput
to 42% Leakage
gallons/cu. ft.
1810
1210
910
730
600
520
Service
time
hours
_____
15.8
10.6
7.9
6.4
5.3
4.5
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
298
gpm
600
600
600
450
600
120
120
120
600
Time,
minutes
1
5
5
20
6
12
22
15
10
Total
gallons
600
3000
3000
9000
3600
1440
2640
1800
6000
VOL.
13,
No.
4, J A N U A R Y
1965
299
Difficulties of Operation
Screens r e q u i r e c l e a n w a t e r which was n o t available, a n d the
screens w e r e c o n t i n u a l l y p l u g g e d from t h e inside. T h e pressure
r u p t u r e d t h e screens. The resin loss was h i g h , so the screens
were r e m o v e d f r o m t h e c e n t e r d i s t r i b u t o r s a n d t h e control circuits c h a n g e d t o b l o w d o w n the c o l u m n , following t h e backwashing o p e r a t i o n , t h r o u g h t h e bed a n d o u t t h e b o t t o m dist r i b u t o r . T h i s left o n l y t h e b r i n e a n d a slow rinse flowing out
t h r o u g h t h e u n s c r e e n e d c e n t e r distributors. Flow rates should
be low e n o u g h so t h a t t h e t o p of the bed w o u l d be well below
the d i s t r i b u t o r level. T h e only resin loss s h o u l d be caused by
m a l f u n c t i o n of t h e u n i t s , a n d to p r o v i d e for this possibility, a
resin t r a p was b u i l t in t h e flume c a r r y i n g waste from the units.
D i a p h r a g m valve o p e r a t o r s caused considerable t r o u b l e . Diap h r a g m t r a v e l w a s t o o s h o r t to allow full o p e n i n g of valves.
O p e r a t o r d i a p h r a g m s w e r e flat a n d p u l l e d o u t of r e t a i n i n g flanges.
T h e o p e r a t o r s h a v e b e e n c h a n g e d t o allow full travel a n d m o l d e d
d i a p h r a g m s h a v e r e p l a c e d t h e flat ones originally installed.
Excessive p r e s s u r e d r o p was e n c o u n t e r e d across the beds
d u r i n g t h e first c a m p a i g n . A fairly heavy layer of calcium carb o n a t e was b e i n g d e p o s i t e d on t o p of t h e b e d w h i l e juice was
flowing d o w n w a r d t h r o u g h t h e resin. It was impossible to
r e m o v e t h i s d e p o s i t b y backwashing, a n d the units were treated
with h y d r o c h l o r i c acid t o r e m o v e t h e calcium carbonate. T h e
source of this c a r b o n a t e was n o t located u n t i l the e n d of campaign w h e n m a i n t e n a n c e w o r k e r s discovered t h a t a by-pass cock
h a d a s h e a r e d p i n w h i c h , u n f o r t u n a t e l y h a d sheared with the
cock in a slightly o p e n position, a n d allowed a small stream of
second c a r b j u i c e to by-pass t h e filters.
I t was i m p o s s i b l e t o h o l d t h e j u i c e a t t h e p r o p e r level i n the
c o l u m n s b e c a u s e of t h e great change in pressure d r o p across the
bed from t h e b e g i n n i n g to t h e e n d of t h e cycle. It was necessary
to m a n u a l l y a d j u s t t h e level in t h e c o l u m n before starting the
r e g e n e r a t i o n cycle, in o r d e r to p r e v e n t excessive sweetening-off
losses. A n e w level c o n t r o l system was installed which could
c o m p e n s a t e for a large c h a n g e in pressure d r o p across the u n i t s
d u r i n g t h e j u i c e cycle.
C o n t r o l of p a r a l l e l flows t h r o u g h t h e u n i t s was impossible
by u s i n g a h a n d set valve, a n d c o n t r o l was accomplished by
utilizing a level c o n t r o l on t h e feed tank cascading to flow
controllers on each u n i t to balance the flows.
It is i m p o s s i b l e to tell w h a t r a t e of b r i n e a d d i t i o n is b e i n g
used d u r i n g t h e r e g e n e r a t i o n step a n d b r i n e c o n s u m p t i o n has
been c o n s i d e r a b l y a b o v e t h a t r e c o m m e n d e d for this application.
300
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13, N o . 4, J A N U A R Y
1965
301
302
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13, N o . 4, JANUARY
1965
303
S.
ROBERTSON,
R.
L. C O O K ,
AND J. F.
C. D. P I P E R ,
DAVIS 2
R.
H.
DOWDY
of
the
Soil
305
Tillage
Methods
T h e m i n i m u m tillage principle was p u t into effect in 1951
(3). On t h e sugar beet plots, this involves moldboard plowing
in late O c t o b e r or early November. Plowing depth averages
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 inches. No other tillage is practiced in the
fall. In t h e spring, a h a r r o w is used immediately prior to planting the sugar beets. T h e drill that has been used on these experiments has spring-loaded press wheels. T h e planting time fertilizer
is placed o n e i n c h to the side and two inches below the seed.
Systems of Farming
Seven systems of farming are evaluated in one experiment.
T h e original c r o p sequence plan included a legume sod crop
for hay in five of t h e seven systems (1). By 1951, it was evident
that clover-timothy h a d a less desirable effect than alfalfa-brome
u p o n the yield of o t h e r crops in the rotation, (7). Therefore,
in this o n e r o t a t i o n , alfalfa-brome was substituted for the clovertimothy c r o p .
D u r i n g t h e course of the research, marked changes occurred
in the sugar b e e t g r o w i n g area of Michigan. T h e n u m b e r of
farms h a v i n g livestock decreased rapidly while the proportion
of cash c r o p farms increased.
By 1958, it seemed desirable to alter some of the rotations
so that t h e systems of farming would realistically evaluate that
which m i g h t occur as a result of using more intense cash crop
systems. In a d d i t i o n , soybeans, a relatively new crop in the
Saginaw Valley, is p r o v i n g to be a valuable one which fits well
with sugar beet p r o d u c t i o n .
T h e systems of farming have been n u m b e r e d to facilitate
discussion. T h e crops a n d the sequence that have been grown
since 1958, w i t h t h e exception that is noted, in each of the rotations a r e as follows:
R o t a t i o n 1: alfalfa-brome, alfalfa-brome, b e a n s 4 , s u g a r
beets, barley
R o t a t i o n 2: sweet clover (oats), sugar beets, corn (GM),
beans, wheat
R o t a t i o n 3: beans, sugar beets, corn (GM), s o y b e a n s ,
wheat (GM)
R o t a t i o n 4: alfalfa-brome, corn, sugar beets, beans, wheat
R o t a t i o n 5: sweet clover, oats, beans, sugar beets, soybeans, wheat
R o t a t i o n 6: beans, wheat, corn, sugar beets, barley
R o t a t i o n 7: beans, wheat (GM), soybeans, sugar beets,
c o r n (GM)
_____
* Changed from corn to beans in 1962.
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
306
Design
307
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
Total for season
Total for year
1959
I960
Year
1961
1962
1963
3.48
3.43
2.64
4.06
1.81
2.53
3.53
21.48
29.89
2.62
2.76
4.18
0.96
3.33
1.77
1.24
16.86
23.43
4.67
1.48
4.19
4.25
6.93
3.58
1.91
27.01
34.79
0.95
2.89
3.58
1.77
2.43
1.86
1.92
15.40
20.16
1.49
2.62
2.26
3.59
2.63
1.11
0.74
14.44
20.02
W h i l e t h e yield d a t a t h a t are r e p o r t e d were analyzed statistically, t h e analysis of variance data are n o t included in this
s u m m a r y . T h i s was to simplify the tables a n d to expedite discussion of t h e results. T h e only instance where treatments did
not cause a statistically significant difference in yield at the 5%
level o c c u r r e d w h e r e s u p p l e m e n t a l nitrogen was used in 1963.
In general, a n y differences in rotations greater than 9% are
significant. T h e same figures for levels of fertility a n d nitrogen
are 6 a n d 8% respectively.
T h e yields of sugar beets p r o d u c e d w i t h o u t supplemental
n i t r o g e n a n d w i t h 400 p o u n d s p e r acre of 5-20-10 fertilizer are
shown i n T a b l e 2 . T h e highest yields were produced d u r i n g
those t w o years w i t h average or m o r e than normal rainfall.
T h e h i g h e s t average yield was p r o d u c e d in R o t a t i o n 5. In
this r o t a t i o n , w h i c h c o n t a i n s sweet clover, the beets follow
beans. T h i s historically has b e e n a good sequence of crops.
W h e r e alfalfa precedes corn, the yield of sugar beets after
corn ( R o t a t i o n 4) was a p p r o x i m a t e l y the same as after beans
( R o t a t i o n 1).
T h e r a n g e in yield from o n e year to another was as great
in R o t a t i o n 5 as in a n y of t h e rotations. Most of the yield increase reflected in t h e final average occurred d u r i n g 1959 a n d
in 1961, w h i c h w e r e the wettest years. T h i s suggests that the
308
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Table 2.Sugar beet yields as affected by seven systems of crop sequence. (Low
fertility level - no supplementary nitrogen.)
""
T o n s o f s u g a r beets p e r acre
Rotation
no.
2
S
4
5
6
7
Crop sequence*
1959
A, A, Be, SB, Ba
Sw1 S B , C 2 , B e , W
Be, SB, C 2 , S, W i
A , C, SB, B e , W
Sw 1 , B e , S B , S, W
B e , W , C, S B , B a
Be, W 2 , S, SB, C2
Mean
L. S. D .
21-2
19.3
19.4
20.2
21.9
16.7
17.3
19.4
1.8
Year
1961
1962
1963
Range
Mean
13.9
17.6
18.0
15.5
14.6
20.4
18.0
16.2
24.0
16.0
14.7
16.2
18.4
14.6
18.7
15.3
1.4
1.6
13.3
13.9
11.5
13.4
16.2
11.3
13.9
13.4
3.2
16.8
11-2
12.9
16.6
15.2
15.0
14.8
14.6
1.6
7.9
8.1
8.9
6.8
8.8
5.4
4.5
16.6
15.6
15.8
16.9
18.7
15.8
15.8
1960
*A = alfalfa b r o m e h a y , Be = b e a n s , SB = s u g a r b e e t s , Ba = b a r l e y ,
Sw = sweet clover, C = c o r n , W = w i n t e r w h e a t , S = s o y b e a n s .
O a t cover c r o p s e e d e d a f t e r sweet clover.
A m i x t u r e of s m a l l s e e d e d l e g u m e s p l a n t e d in t h e c r o p for g r e e n m a n u r e purposes.
VOL.
13,
No.
4,
JANUARY
1965
309
Table 3.Yearly changes in yield of sugar beets as affected bv the use of 40 pounds
of supplemental nitrogen in seven systems of crop sequence. (Low fertility level - with
supplementary nitrogen.)
Change in yield - tons per acre
1959
1960
Year
1961
1962
1963
Mean
0.1
0.1
+1.4
+ 1.2
0.7
+2.3
+2.9
+1.0
+0.4
0.9
+0.9
0.7
+0.8
1.0
+0.8
+0.0
+0.5
+2.2
+0.6
+2.5
+0.3
+4.8
0.4
+ 1.5
+0.3
+ 1.5
+2.6
+ 1.1
+ 1.0
+3.4
+ 1.7
+ 1.7
+0.0
+0.7
+1.5
+0.9
+0.3
+ 1-7
+0.9
0.5
0.4
1.1
+0.6
+2.2
+0.2
+0.3
0.8
0.7
+0.1
N.S.
tion
Crop sequence*
A, A, Be, SB, Ba
Sw1, SB, C 2 , Be, W
Be, SB, C 2 , S, W1
A, C, SB, Be, W
Sw1, Be, SB, S, W
Be, W,2 C, SB, Ba2
Be, W , S, SB, C
Mean
L. S. D.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0.5
0.4
Rotation
no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Crop sequence*
A, A, Be, SB, Ba
Sw1. SB, C2 2 , Be, 1W
Be, SB, C , S, W
A, 1 C, SB, Be, W
Sw , Be, SB, S, W
Be, W, C, SB, Ba
Be, W 2 , S, SB, C 2
Mean
L. S. D.
1959
+ 1.8
+2.1
+ 14
0.2
+0.6
+0.3
+2.5
+ 1-2
1.5
1960
Year
1961
1962
1963
Mean
+ 1.5
0.6
+2.4
0.3
0.4
3.0
+ 1.6
+0.17
+2.6
+ 1.0
+2.6
+ 11
+0.1
0.7
+2.0
+ 1.2
+3.4
+2.1
+4.7
2.2
+ 1.6
+2.8
+ 1.8
+2.0
+0.2
+5.9
+3.3
+2.1
+2.9
+ 1.5
+2.7
+ 1.9
+2.1
+2-9
+0.1
+1.0
+0.2
+2-1
0.4
0.6
0.6
+2.7
0.8
310
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
311
Table 5Yearly changes in yield of sugar beets as affected by the use of extra
nitrogen in seven systems of crop sequence. (High fertility level - with supplementary
nitrogen.)
Change ini yield - tons per acre
Rotation
Crop sequence*
1959
I960
Year"
1961
1962
1963
Mean
Be, SB, Ba
sw 1 , SB, C 2 , Be, W
Be, SB, C 2 , S, W 1
A, C, SB, Be, W
bw1, Be, SB, S, W
Be, W, C, SB, Ba
Be, W 2 , S, SB, C 2
Mean
L. S. D.
_____
+0.8
+0.3
+0.1
+0.8
+2.7
+3.1
+0.1
+ 1.1
0.51
+0.5~
+ 1.6
+0.1
+ 1.1
+ 17
+4.4
+ 1.4
+ 1.5
0.46
+0.6
+0.8
+ 1.8
+0.7
+0.6
+2.4
+ 1.0
+ 1.1
0.38
+2.7
+2.3
+1.1
+0.4
+0.3
+0.5
+0.1
+ 1.1
+0.9
+ 1.0
+0.6
+ 1.1
+ 1.3
+2.7
+0.7
no.
A,A,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0.1
+0.1
+2.4
+ 1.3
+3.1
+0.7
+ 1-0
0.48
1
2
Table 6.Sugar beet yields as affected by seven systems of crop sequence. (High
fertility level - with supplementary nitrogen.)
Tons of sugar beets per acre
Crop sequence*
1959
1960
Year
1961
1962
A, A, Be, SB, Ba
sw 1 , SB, C2, Be, W
Be, SB, C 2 , S, W 1
A, 1 C, SB, Be, W
hw , Be, SB, S, W
Be, W, C, SB, Ba
Be, W 2 , S, SB, C 2
Mean
L. S. D.
22.8
21.3
20.9
22.4
23.8
20.1
20.5
21.7
16.2
15.2
17.7
16.7
18.3
16.3
16.3
16.6
20.7
20.6
22.3
21.0
25.8
18.8
21.8
21.6
17.3
16.8
18.0
16.5
18.4
16.5
16.7
17.2
19.7
19.4
17.3
18.7
18.4
17.0
17.6
18.4
1.8
1.4
1.6
3.2
1.6
tion
no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
6.6
6.1
3.8
5.9
7.4
3.8
4.2
5.4
19.3
18.7
19.1
19.1
20.9
17.7
18.6
19.1
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Table 7.The effect of a beet-bean strip cropping plan upon yields.
Beets tons/acre
Year
1960
1961
1962
1963
Mean
% increase
% decrease
Beans bu/acre
Inside
rows
Outside
rows
Inside
rows
17.0
16.3
17.2
17.3
17.0
24.4
20.4
19.0
20.7
28.1
36.4
27.2
40.3
33.0
211
Outside
rows
18.9
32.1
20.2
36.8
27.0
24.1
18.1
Summary
T h e data in this paper represent the fourth successive fiveyear summary of the sugar beet yields produced in the Ferden
tarm rotation experiment. T h i s replicated field experiment is
located in the Saginaw Valley region of Michigan a n d involves
seven systems of farming, two fertility levels a n d the use of
supplementary nitrogen applied as a sidedressing.
On the basis of the data shown in this paper, the following
statements can be made:
1) T h e yields of sugar beets after corn were approximately
the same as after beans, providing the corn was preceded by
alfalfa.
2) T h e lowest sugar beet yields were produced in a cash
crop rotation that did not include a green m a n u r e or cover
crop immediately previous to the sugar beets.
3) Preceding sugar beets with sweet clover resulted in yields
approximately two tons per acre less than with a bean crop
between the sweet clover a n d the sugar beets.
4) T h e highest average of sugar beet yields was produced
in Rotation 5 where sugar beets followed beans which were preceded by sweet clover.
5) T h e use of more t h a n 400 p o u n d s of 5-20-10 fertilizer did
not consistently increase sugar beet yields to levels above those
produced with this rate.
6) T h e greatest yield response from the use of sidedressed
nitrogen was produced in the rotation that had no green manure
or cover crop.
7) T h e use of an extra 40 p o u n d s of sidedressed nitrogen
caused increases in yield ranging from 0 to 1.7 tons per acre on
the low fertility plots. T h i s was less t h a n on the high fertility
plots, despite the fact that the high fertility plots received significantly m o r e nitrogen in the p l a n t i n g time fertilizer.
VOL.
IS, N O . 4, J A N U A R Y
1965
313
8) T h e u s e of an e x t r a 40 p o u n d s of sidedressed n i t r o g e n
caused increases in y i e l d r a n g i n g from 0.5 to 2.7 tons p e r acre
on the h i g h fertility plots.
9) T h e yields of s u g a r beets were increased, b u t b e a n yields
were d e c r e a s e d w h e n a l t e r n a t e strips of six rows of beans a n d
six r o w s of b e e t s w e r e p l a n t e d in an east a n d west direction,
side by side.
10) G r o w i n g s u g a r b e e t s year after year on the same land
m a y n o t be d e s i r a b l e because leaf b l i g h t caused a r e d u c t i o n in
yield o n e y e a r o u t of four.
L i t e r a t u r e Cited
(1)
1945.
A crop rota-
COOK,
R.
L.,
H.
F.
MCCOLLY,
L.
S.
1946.
Sugar beets
ROBERTSON,
and
C.
M.
HANSEN.
1958.
Sugar beet
p r o d u c t i o n in Michigan as affected by cropping sequence and fertility level. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 10: 65-75.
(7)
1952.
Ten
years results from the Ferden rotation and crop sequence experim e n t . Proc. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 7: 172-179.
(8) ROBERTSON, L. S. 1952. A study of the effect of seven systems of cropp i n g u p o n yields a n d soil structure. Proc. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet
T e c h n o l . 7: 256-264.
VOL.
13, N o . 4, J A N U A R Y
Figure
Heterodera
1.Microplot
schachtii.
1965
containing
315
sugar
beet
plants
infected
with
316
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Crop
Alfalfa
Clover
Navy bean
Pea
Pole bean
Significance
L S D .05
1
260 1
196
797
463
752
122
397
504
835
320
238
676
554
488
178
4
381
188
646
884
1,077
5
196
205
412
750
1,203
Total
Average
1,197
1,662
2,913
3,420
3,530
239.4
332.4
582.6
684.0
706.0
354.4
F i g u r e s listed a r e a v e r a g e n u m b e r s of l a r v a e p e r g r a m of r o o t s of s u g a r beet.
VOL.
13,
No.
4,
JANUARY
1965
317
GOLDEN,
A.
M.
and
THELMA
SHAFER.
1959.
Host-parasite
relation-
A.
ARMER1
6. Geibig
7. Leyner
8. Murphy
System
Subsequent application
Several contemporary
English harvesters
Lockwood Topper-Windrower
(Present)
Armer experiments
1940-43
See Item 1
Most contemporary U.S.
disk toppers & scalpers
Roscoe Zuckerman 1943
See Item 5
Catchpole (England)
Devey, 1939, Armer
(U.C.) 1940
Powers (U.C.) 1939
VOL.
13, N o . 4, J A N U A R Y
Inventor, 1913
Pruvot,
France
Siedersleben,
Germany
11. Smith
1965
319
System
Subsequent application
M u l t i p l e disk finder
Stationary narrow knife
T o p p i n g in the Machine
W h i l e g r o u n d t o p p i n g offers some self-evident advantages,
t o p p i n g in t h e m a c h i n e has certain u n i q u e virtues. These include:
1) All o p e r a t i o n s (digging, topping, loading) can be done
in a single pass d o w n t h e row.
2) H i g h e r speeds a r e possible t h a n with g r o u n d toppers.
3) O p e r a t i o n is possible in m u d or peat, where beets are
i n s e c u r e i n t h e soil.
Some c o n t e m p o r a r y harvesters which top in the machine are
A r m e r ( I r e l a n d ) , M a r b e e t a n d Scott-Viner. Each of these makes
use of a p a i r of c o u n t e r - r o t a t i n g disks, with slightly overlapping
c u t t i n g edges.
Ground Topping
G r o u n d , or " I n P l a c e " t o p p i n g has long appealed to harvester designers, m a i n l y for these reasons:
1) T h e beets a r e rigidly fixed in the ground.
2) T h e beets a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y uniform in lateral positioning.
3) T h e beets, w h i l e n o t u n i f o r m in height at the crown,
c a n be gaged by a " F i n d e r " which adjusts the vertical
p o s i t i o n of c u t .
4) T o p p i n g a n d t o p saving may be a separate operation
from r o o t lifting a n d loading.
F r o m 1938 to 1945, a comprehensive program of research
a n d d e v e l o p m e n t in sugar beet field machinery was pursued at
the U n i v e r s i t y of California at Davis. T h e d e p a r t m e n t of Agric u l t u r a l E n g i n e e r i n g s u p p l i e d shop, field and laboratory facilities
in a d d i t i o n to a h i g h l y t r a i n e d staff. T h e U. S. Department of
A g r i c u l t u r e p a r t i c i p a t e d , a n d t h e project was financed through
a g r a n t f r o m t h e U. S. Beet Sugar Association. T h e late Prof.
H. B. W a l k e r h e a d e d t h e project.
.
Several " I n P l a c e " t o p p e r s were developed by the project,
a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d a r e m a r k a b l e facility for accurately severing
320
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Figure 1. In 1939, John Powers, University of California, Davis, designed this oscillating knife, variable-cut topper.
the foliage while the roots remained intact in the soil (Figures
1 and 2).
An entirely different topping principle involves the attrition
of the foliagechopping the leaves a n d petioles into bits with
a beating or scrubbing device which is n o t q u i t e severe enough
to damage the root crown. T h e first of the "Scrubbing Brush"
toppers known to this a u t h o r was the rotary brush preceding
the lifter blades of the M u r p h y Digger, o n e of the entrants in
VOL.
13, N o . 4, JANUARY
1965
Sugar
321
C o m p a n y harvest competition
in
322
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T,
Saving T o p s for F e e d
T h e r e have been numberless well-planned experiments performed, all of which demonstrated the feed value of beet tops,
whether fed green-chopped, ensiled, dehydrated, baled or (most
recently) watered.
In 1948, Spreckels Sugar Company cooperated in a largescale demonstration of the value of beet foliage when steamblanched, pressed to remove juices containing soluble salts, and
dried into a meal closely resembling alfalfa meal. A BlackwelderLocke green crop harvester was employed to cut and deliver
clean foliage prior to harvesting the roots. D u r i n g the same
series of trials, Blackwelder M a n u f a c t u r i n g C o m p a n y built an
experimental rotary chopper which blew the chopped leaves into
a truck.
In 1952, Spreckels Sugar Company conducted trials which
involved kiln-drying of chopped beet tops. An excellent, nutritious meal was produced, b u t fuel costs proved to be prohibitive.
In 1956, the Company conducted e x p e r i m e n t s to show how, with
p r o p e r precautions, palatable silage could be m a d e from beet
tops. In both of these trials, chopped beet foliage was delivered
by an experimental Rotobeater supplied by Olson Manufacturing Company.
T h e most recent efforts to harvest a n d utilize beet tops have
m a d e use of the Lockwood, Speedy a n d Wescon toppers (Figure
6).
VOL.
13, N o . 4, JANUARY
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323
Digging
T h e p r e s e n c e of soil with t h e beets as they are d u g has long
been a source of c o n c e r n to inventors of beet harvesting machinery. T h e e a r l i e r a t t e m p t s at mechanical beet harvesting were
mainly a t t e m p t s to a d a p t p o t a t o harvesters to the beet field
(Figure 3).
H o r s e - d r a w n p o t a t o diggers appeared in great variety during
the second half of t h e 19th century. Most of these devices cont e m p l a t e d s o m e m e a n s of sifting loose soil from the potatoes
("Potato C h a i n " is a heritage of this era). Such a procedure
worked w i t h potatoes, w h i c h are rarely grown in heavy cloddy
soil, a n d w h i c h h a v e no h a i r roots by which soil adheres.
A p o t a t o d i g g e r p a t e n t e d in 1872 in the U n i t e d States by a
C a n a d i a n i n v e n t o r h e l d t h e g e r m of a successful beet digger,
b u t t h e p a t e n t e v i d e n t l y escaped notice u n t i l a search was made
in 1949 to d e t e r m i n e t h e patentability of a digger invented by
Carl O p p e l , t h e n r e s i d i n g in Alberta, Canada (Figure 7).
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Meanwhile, the same principle had b e e n invented a n d reduced to practice by Mr. R o b e r t Maynard, an i m p l e m e n t maker
at Whittlesford, near Cambridge, England in 1923 or 1924, and
sold in considerable n u m b e r s for digging sugar beets, particularly
in England's fen soils (Figure 8). Quite independently, Hammer
Brothers of O h i o developed lifter wheels of the finger type
(Figure 9).
VOL.
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the necessity to free sugar beets from soil existed in full measure
as an obstacle to d e v e l o p i n g a successful sugar beet harvester.
T h e " C o l o r a d o Lifter," or d o u b l e blade plow was an effective
beet digger in friable soils. Most of the earlier sugar beet harvesting m a c h i n e s e m p l o y e d double-blade plows. ( T h e origin of
the d o u b l e b l a d e is o b s c u r e i t probably came to this country
from G e r m a n y as t h e horse d r a w n "Bow Plow").
Beet harvesters b u i l t commercially in the U n i t e d States at
this t i m e favor t h e wheel type lifter. T h i s preference is probably based on t h e lower draft of the wheel lifter as compared
to t h e d o u b l e p o i n t lifter. B u t the wheel lifter comes to grief
in heavy, d r y soils. Its s h a r p r i m s slice through the crust, lifting
out a r i b b o n of soil which contains the beets. T h i s ribbon then
cracks a p a r t at each beet, forming large solid chunks, almost
impossible to b r e a k up or separate in any subsequent screening
operation.
Cleaning
In t h e days of h o r s e d r a w n farm implements, the potato digger
r e p r e s e n t e d t h e last w o r d in root harvesting devices. It is no
wonder, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t w h e n inventors t u r n e d their attention
to h a r v e s t i n g sugar beets, they first attempted m i n o r modifications to t h e p o t a t o digger.
T h e s e modified p o t a t o diggers worked almost as well with
sugar beets as they d i d with potatoes; what most people failed
to realize was t h a t t h e potatoes, after being dug, were dropped
back o n t o t h e g r o u n d a n d later picked u p o n e at a timeby
hand.
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T,
T h u s the need became a p p a r e n t for a mechanism more effective in breaking clods by impact than was possible with potato
diggers. Such a mechanism was applied to the Pruvot digger
built by Emile Degremont at Le Cateau, France, in 1913 (Figure
10). T h i s digger replaced p o t a t o chain with a series of four
transverse rotating shafts to which were fastened a series of
"Star Wheels." These wheels behaved like 6-lobed cams, so that
beets and clods were "kicked" from wheel to wheel. T h u s beets
and clods were subjected to both propulsion and violent agitation, with the result that many clods were fractured a n d sifted
out, while beets survived with only m i n o r bruises.
T h e Pruvot digger was entered in T h e Great Western Sugar
Company harvester competition in 1913, and (along with the
Provot topper) worked so well that T h e Great Western Sugar
Company continued to improve a n d perfect it. In 1924, their
chief engineer, Mr. George Rienks, Sr., revived a n d improved
the Pruvot "Star Wheels," a n d developed the famous "Rienks
Screen"a beet cleaning device used in most receiving stations
until recently, and still used in most makes of sugar beet harvester (Figure 11).
H a n d Sorting
While beet diggers e q u i p p e d with Rienks screens delivered
clean beets grown in light soils, the beets from California's fertile
but fractious adobe were generally accompanied by numerous
large, hard clods. To separate these clods from the beets. Prof
Roy Bainer (Agricultural Engineering D e p a r t m e n t Head, University of California, Davis) suggested passing beets and clods
over a "picking table," where clods could be manually picked
out of the beets. Acting on this suggestion, Austin Armer designed
two successive models of harvesters employing sorting belts
1965
327
Figure 1 3 . - I n 1942 Armer applied the hand-sorting principle (turntable) to the John Deere N o . 53 beet harvester.
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Figure 14. The John Deere No. 100 beet harvester (1943) provided
an optional hand-sorting turntable.
T h e John Deere
sorting belt (potato
1941 harvester at
H M I harvester had
Figure 15.The John Deere No. 200 beet harvester (1951) used sorting
belts, similar to Armer's 1941 experimental machine.
VOL.
13, N o . 4, JANUARY
1965
329
O n l y o n e m a k e ( M a r b e e t ) represents an u n b r o k e n line of
descent from its p r o t o t y p e t h e experimental spike-wheel harvester b u i l t by L l o y d a n d Lewis Schmidt in 1941 (Figure 16);
financed by A. L. J o n g e n e e l ; christened " M a r i o n Beet W h e e l "
in h o n o r of M r s . M a r i o n Jongeneel, a n d finally contracted to
" M a r b e e t " ( F i g u r e s 17, 18, 19, 20).
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331
Figure 22.
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
All of the rotary flail toppers have a c o m m o n ancestorJ o n a t h a n Garst's patented beater of the late 1930's. T h o s e with
driven-wheel finders actuating fixed slanting knives are reminiscent of the Pruvot topper of 1913 (Figure 23), although this
machine was in all probability u n k n o w n to the present generation of topper designers.
Introduction
Since t h e discovery of X rays in 1895, plants have been used
extensively in studies of the effects of ionizing radiation on living
material. A l m o s t every conceivable type of study has been made
using seeds, p o l l e n , embryos, isolated tissues of various kinds,
whole p l a n t s , a n d isolated subcellular structures such as chloroplasts a n d m i t o c h o n d r i a . Studies have been made using all
kinds of i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n such as X rays; alpha, beta and gamma
radiation; n e u t r o n s ; etc. Studies have been made from almost
every p o i n t of view; i.e., in terms of radiation effects on the
physiology, b i o c h e m i s t r y , cytology, genetics, histology, morphology a n d e m b r y o l o g y of plants. T h e general field has been reviewed r e c e n t l y by S p a r r o w (9) 4 , G u n c k e l a n d Sparrow (3), and
Spikes (11). T h e p r e s e n t studies were undertaken primarily to
d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t r e a t m e n t with ionizing radiation would improve storage life of harvested sugar beets. At the same time,
several o t h e r aspects of t h e r a d i a t i o n biology of sugar beets were
surveyed.
R a d i a t i o n Effects on Root Respiration
T h e effect of i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n on plant storage tissue depends on p l a n t species, r a d i a t i o n dosage and other factors.
Sussman (14) f o u n d t h a t dosages of only a few thousand roentgens (r) significantly e x t e n d e d the storage life of potatoes by
p r e v e n t i n g s p r o u t i n g ; r a d i a t i o n increased the respiratory rate,
however. Gustafson, et al. (4) also found that gamma radiation
increased t h e r e s p i r a t o r y r a t e of potatoes for several weeks; after
this t h e r e s p i r a t o r y r a t e decreased a n d reached a low point in
a p p r o x i m a t e l y seven weeks. Dallyn, et al. (1) showed that the
s p r o u t i n g of o n i o n s c o u l d also be prevented by gamma radiation
with a c o r r e s p o n d i n g increase in storage life. Smock and Sparrow
(7) showed t h a t 2,500 r of g a m m a radiation decreased the respiratory r a t e of C o r t l a n d apples.
1
Physiologist, Agricultural Research Service, Crops Research Division, U. S. DePartment of Agriculture, Logan, Utah.
.
Professor,
Department
of
Experimental Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
3
This
work was supported in part by U. S. Atomic Energy Commission Contract No.
AT(11-1).875
4
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
2
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Table 1.Effect of gamma irradiation on the respiration of sugar beet root tissue.
Values in percentage of matched nonirradiated check (CO60 source).
335
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
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4,
JANUARY
1965
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338
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
F i g u r e 1.Effect of g a m m a
23 days after r e p l a n t i n g .
radiation
on
regrowth
of sugar beets
VOL.
13, N o . 4, J A N U A R Y
1965
339
1955.
Extending
GLEGG,
R.
E.,
F.
P.
BOYLE,
L.
W.
TUTTLE,
D.
E.
WILSON
and Z.
I.
1957. Influence
MIKAELSEN,
K.,
I.
P.
BJORNSETH
and
H.
HALVORSEN.
1956.
Experi-
R I E S K E , J. S., R . L U M R V a n d J. D. SPIKES.
1959.
T h e mechanism of
340
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
1954. Record
preparations.
Plant
1963. Radia-
tion effects and peaceful uses of atomic energy in the plant and soil
sciences, in: Radioecology (edited by V. Schultz and A. W. Klement,
Jr.), Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York. pp. 5-11.
(12) STOUT, MYRON. 1957. Respiratory losses from sugar beets soon after
harvest. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. IX (4) : 350-353.
(13)
1957.
Respiratory metabolism of
K U N Z E , F . W . SNYDER AND C . W . H A L L 2
Received for publication June 1, 1064
342
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T
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13, N o . 4, JANUARY
1965
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544
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. f
Pneumatic
impact-loads
T h e second m e t h o d of impact-loading the individual sugar
beet fruits was developed by F. H. Peto 4 of the British Columbia
Sugar Refining Company in Vancouver, Canada. T h i s method
utilized compressed air, a venturi tube, a n d a steel impact-plate
(Figure 2). T h e compressed air was connected to the venturi
tube. Slight modifications were m a d e in the apparatus to permit
reasonably accurate reproduction of the tests. A gage, which
measured static pressure only, was installed in the air line immediately before the venturi tube. T h e distance between the
end of the venturi tube and the 3/8-inch steel impact-plate could
be varied to whatever distance was desired. A screen cylinder
approximately 8 inches in diameter was b u i l t using the steel
impact-plate as one end. A circular screen section with a 1/2-inch
diameter hole at its center was used to enclose the other end.
Fruits could then be projected against the base-plate through
the 1/2-inch opening. T h e screen cylinder retained all fruits
treated in this m a n n e r .
Figure 2.Screen cylnder with 3/8" steel impact-plate on the left and
sliding circular screen section inserted on the right. Seed was dropped
through small funnel into high velocity air stream. Gage recorded static
pressure.
3 4 5
Results
Impact-energies of 63 gram-centimeters applied with a steel
sphere were found to be detrimental to the fruit in any of the
positions listed in Table 1. Each treatment consisted of 25 to
28 seeds and germination tests were over a 10-day period. Impact
on the seedcap caused approximately 50% reduction in seedling
vigor. Treatments on the butt of the fruit or perpendicular to
the radicle of the seed caused about a 30% reduction in growth.
Impact-loads on the micropyle were the least detrimental but
still caused about a 14% decrease in seedling vigor. Seeds impacted by the steel sphere generally germinated. This was true
even if the seedcap had been cracked or broken by the impactload. However, vigor was impaired.
Table 1.Effect of a single 63 gram-centimeter impact on different parts of processed
fruits of sugar beet variety 62B24-20 with 25 to 28 seeds in each treatment.
Average length
Treatment
Root
Shoot
Cm.
Cm.
6.1
2.5
2.2
1.8
1.4
No impact
Impact on butt
Impact on micropyle
Impact perpendicular to radicle
Impact on cap
5.2
4.2
2.5
Percent of control
Root
Shoot
67*
85
69
41
73*
88
72
56
Sub-experiment
25 gram-centimeters,
43 gram-centimeters,
51 gram-centimeters,
65 gram-centimeters,
light sphere
heavy sphere
light sphere
heavy sphere
A
98
57
104
55
B
80
49
95
51
81
Shoot
C
98
73
92
36
86
A
79
39
93
65
B
79
64
107
C
83
61
78
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25
0.500
51
25
0.600
51
Root
Shoot
99
98
94
82
95
97
86
84
Pneumatic
impact-loads
347
No. impacts
94
95
92
77
0
1
3
5
Average length
Root
Shoot
Cm.
Cm.
4.9
2.0
3.5
3.2
1.5
1.3
Percent of control
Root
Shoot
71
65
75
65
Table 5.Comparison of type* and number of impacts on seedling vigor of handprocessed (SL 126 X 128)ms X 5822-0 fruits.
Growth as percent of con trol**
Treatment
Sphere
Pneumatic
Number of impacts
Fruit diam.
inches
9/64
Root
Shoot
96
97
93
92
92
93
80
80
81
84
8/64
Root
Shoot
79
74
77
74
Average
Root
Shoot
86
84
79
77
72
73
77
79
9/64
Root
Shoot
85
78
78
70
70
64
66
64
8/64
Root
Shoot
60
60
53
53
60
73
64
64
Average
Root
Shoot
__
65
62
60
59
62
68
17%.
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Sphere
Exp. 1
Exp. 2
Average
92
95
98
96
97
93
98
96
95
98
97
Pneumatic
Exp. 1
Exp. 2
Average
96
96
93
94
94
79
81
80
79
84
82
VOL.
13, N o . 4, J A N U A R Y
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349
Discussion
Energy
of steel-sphere
impacts
T h e t w o m e t h o d s of impact-loading can be subjected to a
more critical analysis. T h e potential energy of the steel sphere
is e q u i v a l e n t to t h e w e i g h t of t h e sphere multiplied by the height
that it is s u s p e n d e d a b o v e the sugar beet fruit. W h e n t h e sphere
is d r o p p e d , t h e p o t e n t i a l energy is converted to kinetic energy.
At i m p a c t t h e k i n e t i c energy is absorbed by the fruit if no reb o u n d occurs. A s a m p l e energy calculation is shown below.
1.03 g r a m X 31 centimeters = 32 gram-centimeters
If r e b o u n d occurs, t h e fruit returns part of the energy to
the steel s p h e r e . T h i s r e b o u n d may be of a variable nature dep e n d i n g on t h e c o n d i t i o n s of impact. If the fruit shifts its position w h i l e i m p a c t - l o a d i n g occurs, some energy is utilized in
p r o d u c i n g t h i s m o v e m e n t a n d the sphere is deflected against
the glass t u b e . T h e r e s u l t i n g r e b o u n d is of a smaller magnitude
a n d t h e fruit itself often r e b o u n d s . Consequently the second
impact r e s u l t i n g from t h e r e b o u n d may strike the fruit at a
different p o i n t . W i t h a 31-centimeter d r o p for the heavier sphere,
m a x i m u m r e b o u n d s of slightly over 10 centimeters were observed. H e n c e t h e energy r e t a i n e d by the fruit d u r i n g the initial
impact was o n l y a b o u t 20 gram-centimeters. T h e importance
of t h e r e b o u n d s e e m e d less significant, however, than the overall effect of i m p a c t - l o a d i n g t h e fruit. Neglecting friction and
impact losses b e t w e e n t h e sphere a n d glass tube, the total kinetic
energy was finally a b s o r b e d by the fruit.
If t h e s p h e r e is d r o p p e d several times from a given height
on a fruit, t h e n e t effect is n o t additive and does not compare
to a single d r o p i n v o l v i n g t h e same net energy. For example,
a fruit m a y be a b l e to absorb two impact-loads of 25 gramc e n t i m e t e r s each b u t m a y n o t be able to withstand a single
impact-load of 50 gram-centimeters. T h e difference is caused by
the t i m e d u r i n g w h i c h t h e fruit absorbs the energy.
Energy
of pneumatic
impacts
T h e p n e u m a t i c m e t h o d of impact-loading proved to be very
capable of i n j u r i n g t h e seed. Preliminary tests were r u n using
10, 15 a n d 20 psi pressure differentials across the venturi tube.
Impacts p r o d u c e d w i t h these pressure differentials mutilated
nearly every fruit. C o n s e q u e n t l y the pressure difference was
r e d u c e d to a final v a l u e of 2 psi. Calculations were made to
estimate t h e k i n e t i c energy of a sugar beet fruit when accelerated
by this p r e s s u r e difference.
T o m a k e these calculations, the pressure gage and venturi
t u b e w e r e c o n n e c t e d to a pressure regulating valve installed in
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a steel pressure cylinder. T h i s container was filled with compressed air a n d weighed. T h e air was then exhausted at a rate
which gave a 2 psi pressure differential across the v e n t u r i tube.
Diameters of the v e n t u r i throat a n d exhaust were 0.188 and
0.290 inches, respectively. T h e time r e q u i r e d to exhaust about
8 0 % of the air was d e t e r m i n e d a n d then the cylinder was weighed
again. By using the time interval r e q u i r e d to release a definite
weight of air, we calculated t h e velocities at the venturi throat
a n d exhaust to be 430 a n d 165 ft/sec, respectively. If lo<v
additional air was d r a w n in t h r o u g h the seed injection tube,
the final velocity at the v e n t u r i exhaust was near 180 ft/sec.
W h e n a fruit was d r o p p e d i n t o t h e v e n t u r i tube, the flow
of air was restricted thus causing an instantaneous pressure
build-up. T h i s caused the air velocity to increase around the
perimeter of the fruit which was b e i n g accelerated. Flotation
velocities for 8/64 a n d 9/64-inch d i a m e t e r hand-processed sugar
beet fruits were found to be approximately 17 ft/sec. With the
assumption of a 5 0 % velocity increase a r o u n d the fruit perimeter, calculations of particle acceleration in an air stream
indicated an impact velocity of 70 ft/sec.
T h e kinetic energy of a fruit weighing 0.0125 grams and
moving with a velocity of 70 ft/sec may be calculated as shown
below.
351
from
free
fall
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1965
353
r e d u c t i o n . T h e r e f o r e c a u t i o n is suggested w h e n pneumatic
systems a r e u s e d to convey sugar beet fruits. T h e m i n i m u m air
velocity w h i c h will successfully convey the fruits is recommended.
Summary and Conclusions
H a n d - p r o c e s s e d sugar beet fruits were impact-loaded by d r o p ping steel s p h e r e s t h r o u g h glass tubes o n t o the fruits a n d also
by a c c e l e r a t i n g t h e fruits w i t h a p n e u m a t i c system a n d projecting
them against a steel impact-plate. Fruits were impact-loaded in
different p o s i t i o n s w i t h a steel sphere. Reduction in seedling
vigor was m o s t a p p a r e n t w h e n fruits were treated on the seedcap. Single impact-loads as small as 25 gram-centimeters applied
by a steel s p h e r e r e d u c e d r o o t growth approximately 6% and
shoot g r o w t h 1 3 % . Single p n e u m a t i c impacts having an estimated
impact-energy of 29 gram-centimeters reduced the root growth
1 5 % a n d t h e s h o o t g r o w t h 2 2 % . Five pneumatic impact-loads
of this s a m e m a g n i t u d e r e d u c e d r o o t a n d shoot growth approximately 3 5 % . S m a l l e r fruits suffered more reduction in germination a n d s e e d l i n g vigor t h a n d i d larger fruits for a given level
of i m p a c t - e n e r g y a p p l i e d repeatedly with a steel sphere. Generally, t h e p e r c e n t a g e r e d u c t i o n s in root and shoot growth were
so similar t h a t r o o t m e a s u r e m e n t s would have been sufficient for
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e d u c t i o n in seedling vigor.
T h e o r e t i c a l considerations c o m b i n e d with experimental results i n d i c a t e t h a t n e i t h e r seedling vigor n o r germination should
be r e d u c e d by i m p a c t s r e s u l t i n g from free falls of any distance
by a sugar b e e t fruit. Impact-energies are dependent upon the
velocity a n d w e i g h t of t h e fruit. In practical applications the
impact e n e r g y of 29 gram-centimeters is approximated by an
impact-velocity of 70 ft/sec w h e n the fruit weight is 0.0125 grams.
S e e d l i n g v i g o r a n d percentage germination can be reduced
t h r o u g h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of impact-loads without visibly harming
the sugar b e e t fruit. Seeds which were impact-loaded three times
with t h e p n e u m a t i c system showed a small reduction in percentage g e r m i n a t i o n . Seeds which were impact-loaded four times
e x p e r i e n c e d a considerably greater reduction in percentage germination. T h e f o u r t h p n e u m a t i c impact seemed to be of critical
significance.
Introduction
T h e hatching response of cysts of Heterodera schachtii has
received m u c h attention since the r e p o r t by Baunacke (l) 3 of
the stimulatory effects of the leachings of sugar beet roots on
larval emergence. If, as Shepherd (4) suggests, hatching is considered a starting point for the process of host infection and
the life cycle of the nematode, the effort a n d attention devoted to
this aspect of nematology in the past was almost inevitable. This
line of work subsequently became extended to the effects of
extracts of other plant organs a n d synthetic chemical agents. As
a result the evidence is overwhelming that leachings of the
appropriate plants contain active agents that stimulate significantly the emergence of larvae from cysts over the normal expected with water.
A great proportion of the research devoted to the phenomenon
of hatching has been concerned with the description of the effect
of physical or environmental factors on cysts or the bioassay
systems (3,7,8,9). T h e research into the chemistry of the hatching process has resolved itself mainly into the testing of a number
of diverse substances from natural a n d synthetic sources for
hatching factor activity (10,12) a n d the identification of a
naturally-occurring hatching factor as yet n o t achieved (2).
Despite the research effort to date little is k n o w n about the
n a t u r e or mechanism of hatching or the role of the naturallyoccurring hatching stimulants in eclosion.
Materials and Methods
Plants used in these studies included dame's violet (Hesperts
matronalis), tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum)
rape
(Brassica
napus), sugar beet (Beta vulgaris), yellow m i l o (Sorghum vulgare), broccoli (Brassica oleracea, var. botrytti), alfalfa (Medical
sativa) barley (Hordenm
vulgare)
a n d onion (Allium cepa).
Plants were grown u n d e r greenhouse conditions in 6-inch pots
filled with sand a n d watered with modified Hoagland's nutrient
solution (11). W h e n the root systems h a d developed sufficiently
1
Research funds for this study were contributed in part by the Beet Sugar Development2 Foundation.
Associate Nemaiolojrist and Assistant Research Nematologist, respectively Department of Nematology, University of California, Davis, California.
3
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
VOL.
13, N o . 4, JANUARY
1965
355
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
356
Results
Leachings from all the plants tested stimulated hatching of
H. schachtii larvae to some degree (Figure 1, 2 a n d 3). It was
evident that the stimulatory activity of the leachate varied as the
leaching progressed. According to expectations the over-all activity of the leachate decreased to the level of water by the end
of the leach period; however, two patterns of larval emergence
in response to leachings were clearly resolved. T h e activity of
milo, alfalfa, and dame's violet leachings decreased to the level
of water hatching in a gradual fashion, whereas the activity of
rape, tomato, broccoli, t u r n i p a n d sugar beet did so erratically
(Figure 1). T h e fluctuations were much too large to be accounted
for by assay variability.
Concentration hatch curves (Figure 2 and 3) for refrigerated
leachate solution indicated that the plant leachings could be
rated in activity from high to low: t u r n i p , rape, dame's violet
and broccoli. T h e leachings of the other plants were very low
in activity, comparable to that of water.
W h e n the plant leachings were lyophilized then resuspended
for assay the hatching activity varied considerably. T h e response
of dame's violet was very high; t u r n i p and rape, high; sugar
beet, onion a n d tomato, moderate; alfalfa, milo, broccoli and
barley, very lowslightly above water. Comparison of the hatching curves of refrigerated solutions and lyophilized material indicated that drying had no effect on the activity of leachings
from t u r n i p , dame's violet, barley and m i l o b u t increased the
activity of leachings from tomato, rape, onion a n d sugar beet.
Drying decreased the activity of leaching of broccoli and possibly
alfalfa.
T h e hatching response to dried leachinors of germinating
seedlings was remarkably similar in all plants tested. Larval
emergence, moderately high, decreased with concentration of
dry solids similarly with all plants tested.
T h e acidity of the leachings of all plants decreased to neutrality as the leach period progressed with t h e greatest change occurring between batches 2 and 3 (Figure 4). Preliminary experiments with sugar beet germ had indicated little change in pH
between leach solution as collected a n d that lyophilized and redissolved. T h e leachings of the other g e r m i n a t i n g seedling increased in pH and most of t h e m became alkaline, pH 8-9. It
became standard practice thereafter before lyophilizing to render
the buffer capacity of the leachings acidic with H 2 S 0 4 until
acidity began to increase rapidly as indicated by a pH meter.
13
N o . 4, JANUARY
1965
357
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T
358
Root weights of the greenhouse leached plants were surprisingly uniform except for the coarse rooted m i l o and fine
rooted dame's violet a n d alfalfa ( T a b l e 1). T h e physical seed
dimensions of milo and tomato a n d dame's violet were not
amenable to the use of uniform weights or n u m b e r s . Percent
germination and g e r m i n a t i o n times also varied as reported. The
dry solid content of the leaching from germinating seedlings
showed little correlation with either the seed n u m b e r or seed
weight. T h e host test for H. schachtii reported in T a b l e 1 was
for the indication of relative susceptibility a n d not necessarily
absolute susceptibility. It was evident that sugar beet was the
best host for H. schachtii b u t that the females were able to mature
more quickly on rape.
Discussion
T h e abnormal environmental regime the plants experienced
d u r i n g the leaching process would effect mineral and nutritional
imbalances resulting in the variable production of stimulatory
agents a n d / o r leaching of competitive inhibitors. It was of
interest to note that milo, alfalfa a n d dame's violet were nonhost plants whereas the others were hosts ( T a b l e 1). Tomato
has been reported as a host of H. schachtii; however, the susceptibility of the Pearson variety was apparently too low to be de
tectable by the test m e t h o d used in this experiment.
It was clear from the hatch curves of refrigerated teachings
(Figure 2 and 3) that the stimulatory potential varied greatly
from one plant to another. It was surprising to observe that
lyophilization, normally considered a gentle procedure, had
altered the hatch characteristics of the leachate of more than
half the plants tested. T h e increase in hatch-factor activity obtained u p o n lyophilization of leachates could be explained by
a loss of inhibitors either through volatilization or chemical
inactivation. T h e change in pH of leachate u p o n drying was
consistent with this notion. T h e loss of volatile organic acids or
bases would explain a change in acidity.
It was unlikely that the e n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions during
lyophilization would have been conducive to synthesis of hatch
factors from precursors. T h e a p p a r e n t inactivation of crude
hatch material u p o n lyophilization as observed in the case or
broccoli and to a lesser degree with alfalfa may have been a
result of active factor volatilization or heat inactivation. In the
process of freeze-drying water was removed from the frozen
solution by sublimation. T h e dry solids r e m a i n i n g behind would
have b e e n at the t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e frozen solution if in contact
VOL.
13, No.. 4, JANUARY
Plants/pot
Root Wt. (g)/pot
Wt. seeds (g)/rep.
No. seeds/rep.
Germination time (hrs.)
Percent germination
Dry solids (g) from seeds
(10 days)
Susceptibility
H. schachtii females
H. schachtii cysts
Turnip
Alfalfa
Rape
Milo
8
70
13
3700
42
96
8
77
10
4400
42
94
15
36
11
5100
42
85
8
73
12
3100
72
93
8
105
22
765
72
96
0.57
0.45
0.45
0.55
0.55
1995
31
1127
15
958
9
0
0
679
556
8
76
9
4700
120
20
Broccoli
Dame's
violet
Tomato
8
Barley
Onion
0
0
0
0
8
71
6
1500
120
85
42
10
5800
120
44
0.74
0.51
0.38
0
0
0
0
0
0
1965
Sugar
beet
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T
360
WARING.
1949.
T h e potato eel
VOL.
13, N o . 4, JANUARY
1965
361
W.
DOXTATOR,
R.
E.
FINKNER,
R.
AND P. C. HANZAS
H.
HELMERICK
VOL.
13, N o . 4, J A N U A R Y
1965
363
Table 1.Data on mother root selections of 59-401 and 59-417 for high and low chlorides and purity of juice.
365
Table 2.Yield and chemical results obtained from three selections for purity and three selections for chloride, at three different fertility levels.
367
368
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T
VOL.
13, N o . 4, JANUARY
1965
369
1962. Selection for low and high aspartic acid and glutamine in
sugar beets. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 12(2): 152-162.
(5) LEDERER, E. a n d M. LEDERER. I n o r g a n i c paper chromatography.
C h r o m a t o g r a p h y 1953 Edition, Chap. 39, p. 338.
(6)
1959.
Popula-
POWERS,
LEROY,
R A L P H E.
FINKNER,
GEORGE E. RUSH, R. R. W O O D
.
(9) STARK, J. B. 1960. Composition and beet molasses study. Report of
13th M e e t i n g of the Sugar Beet Advisory Committee and the
W e s t e r n Regional Research Laboratory. (Mimeo).
(10) W O O D , R. R. 1954 Breeding for improvement of processing characteristics in sugar beet varieties. Proc. Am, Soc. Sugar Beet Technol.
V I I I ( 2 ) : 125-133.
Introduction
In the genus Beta, only species of the section Patellares Trans.:
B. patellaris Moq., B. procumbens Chr. Sm., a n d B. webbiana
Moq., have proved to be highly resistant to the nematode,
Heterodera schachtii Schmidt
T h e occurrence of a single female n e m a t o d e on a few plants
of B. patellaris as reported by Shepherd (5) a n d by Steele and
Savitsky (6), does not preclude use of hybridization of species of
t h e section Patellares with sugar beet for transmission of nematode resistance to sugar beets. T h e high resistance of species of
the section Patellares to n e m a t o d e infestation distinguishes them
from all other Beta species.
T h e viable semi-fertile polyploid hybrids obtained by H.
Savitsky (4) p e r m i t selection for n e m a t o d e resistance and the
study of manifestation of resistance in a heterozygote, which
is i m p o r t a n t in breeding for resistance a n d for acquiring knowledge of the mechanism of the inheritance of resistance. Studies
of the resistance of F 1 hybrids between sugar beet and B. patellaris
are presented in this report.
T h e hybrids used in this study were produced by the senior
author, infestation of soil a n d the growing of the plants under
test conditions were performed by the j u n i o r author, examination of the plants was performed by b o t h authors.
Materials and Methods
Seed of two parental species, tetraploid B. vulgaris L. (sugar
beet) susceptible to n e m a t o d e a n d tetraploid B. patellaris resistant to nematode, together with F 1 h y b r i d seed obtained from
hybridization of these species, were p l a n t e d in soil in a greenhouse. Viable matings were selected in which seedlings grew on
their own roots. Seedlings which showed good growth and welldeveloped root systems were used for test (Figure 1).
1 Cooperative investigations of the Crops Research Division. Agricultural Research
Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and the Beet Sugar Development Foundation
2 Geneticist and Research Agronomist, respectively, Crops Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Salinas, California.
3 Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cired.
VOL.
13, N o . 4, JANUARY
1965
371
B.
patellaris) ex-
372
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
T h e plants e x a m i n e d fell i n t o two groups: a highly susceptible g r o u p which contained sugar beets, and a resistant
g r o u p which included B. patellars a n d F 1 hybrids. Resistance in
F 1 hybrids was n o t intermediate between t h e 2 species, B. Vulgaris
a n d B. patellaris, b u t approached closely the resistance ot the
resistant parent, B. patellaris, To d e t e r m i n e whether the grade
of resistance in F 1 hybrids was the same as in B. patellaris an
assumption was m a d e that the r a t i o of the plants with a few
nematodes on the roots to all plants e x a m i n e d was the same in
the population of B. patellaris a n d F 1 hybrids. T h i s assumption
was verified by calculation of the chi-square. T h e value of the
chi-square was 0.3922. T a b u l a t e d value at the 5% level for
d.f. 1 is x 2 0.05 = 3.841 a n d at 1% level x 2 0.01 = 6.63
VOL.
13, N o . 4, JANUARY
1965
373
H.
H A L L , AND D.
E.
PURCIFULL1
VOL.
13, N o . 4, JANUARY
1965
375
376
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T
VOL.
13,
NO.
4,
JANUARY
1965
377
JOURNAL
of the
A m e r i c a n Society of Sugar
Beet Technologists
Volume 13
Number 5
April 1965
Published
quarterly
by
Subscription
$4.50 per year,
$5.00 per year,
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domestic
foreign
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Author
Page
O. R. Kunze
C. W. Hall
F. W. Snyder-----------------448
C. R. Kaupke--------------------462
380
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T
VOL.
13,
No.
5,
APRIL
1965
381
382
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Diluted 1 : 1
VOL.
13,
No.
5,
APRIL
1965
383
r e m o v e d t h e t o x i c m a t e r i a l s . Since dialysis removed only a port i o n of t h e toxicity, some of t h e molecules were so largre that
t h e y failed to pass t h r o u g h the pores of the cellophane tube.
A c o m b i n a t i o n of p r e c i p i t a t i o n with basic lead acetate followed
by filtering:, p r e c i p i t a t i n g : t h e excess lead with monobasic potass i u m p h o s p h a t e , a n d dialvsis effectively removed the toxic substances. In o n e test, p r e c i p i t a t i o n with calcium chloride followed
by dialysis was n o t as effective as t h e lead acetate in removing
t h e t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s . In s u m m a r y , the inhibitory action seems
to be c a u s e d by a c o m b i n a t i o n of dialyzable a n d non-dialyzable
s u b s t a n c e s . T h e m o s t p o t e n t o f t h e substances appear t o b e
o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s w h i c h are dialyzable. Osmotic stress cannot
a c c o u n t for t h e d e g r e e of i n h i b i t i o n observed in the wheat test.
I n t h e p r o c e d u r e s e m p l o y i n g precipitation, the precipitability
of g i v e n o r g a n i c a n i o n s m u s t be established. T h e differences in
g r o w t h of w h e a t on a seedball extract treated with either calcium
or l e a d suggest t h a t some i n h i b i t o r s may be removed by lead
( b u t n o t b y c a l c i u m ) p r e c i p i t a t i o n . T h e inhibitory substances,
v a n i l l i c , caffeic, a n d ferulic acids, previously isolated from sugar
b e e t fruits (5,7), a r e n o t p r e c i p i t a t e d by calcium b u t are prec i p i t a t e d b y lead. T h e presence o f these inhibitors a n d others
c o u l d a c c o u n t for s o m e of t h e inconsistency observed between
lead a n d c a l c i u m p r e c i p i t a t i o n .
Relation of soluble oxalate to speed of germination
B e c a u s e of t h e large q u a n t i t y of soluble oxalate in the fruits
as c o m p a r e d w i t h a n y of t h e o t h e r inhibitors, the influence of
w a t e r - s o l u b l e o x a l a t e on speed of g e r m i n a t i o n seemed a p p r o p r i a t e
to i n v e s t i g a t e . F o r t h e 36 samples examined, the rapid-germinati n g s a m p l e s g e n e r a l l y c o n t a i n e d lower a m o u n t s of water-soluble
o x a l a t e t h a n t h e s l o w - g e r m i n a t i n g samples ( T a b l e 4). The corr e l a t i o n coefficients for speed of g e r m i n a t i o n versus soluable
o x a l a t e i n t h e seedball e x t r a c t a r e - 0 . 6 6 for the p e r m a n g a n a t e
384
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13,
No.
5,
APRIL
1965
385
* Averages of 4 replications
386
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. X.
T a b l e 6 . Q u a n t i t y o f m a t e r i a l ( g r a m s ) f r o m t h e hand-processed s u g a r b e e t seedballs
u s e d t o p r e p a r e extracts for o x a l a t e analysis a n d g r o w t h o f w h e a t .
Discussion
T h e complex nature of the inhibitory action of the suga
beet seedball extract on germination is indicated. Probably
number of effects interact to give the observed germination
sponse. However, the data indicate that organic solutes
largely responsible for the inhibition. At least 2 or&"1* *
stances seem to be involved. At present, only oxalate n;is
387
(2)
DSKOCK,
P. C, R. F.
H U N T E R and I . ^ M A C D O N A O ,
n a t i o n i n h i b i t o r from sugar-beet.
IMS. A gernu-
388
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B.
R. R. W O O D ,
Received
R.
L. ABRAMS, AND S.
for publication
G. W A L T E R 2
July 1, 1964
Introduction
T o d a y , w i t h t h e u n c e r t a i n t y of availability of h a n d labor,
r e s e a r c h e r s n e e d to d e v i s e effective systems of c h e m i c a l w e e d i n g
on sugar beets. For, the ultimate, complete spring mechanization, r e m a i n s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c h e m i c a l c o n t r o l s
t h a t p e r m i t p l a n t i n g t o s t a n d i n a weed-free e n v i r o n m e n t witho u t h a n d l a b o r a n d c u l t i v a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , t h e systematic screening of available herbicides is an important contribution toward
the r e a l i z a t i o n of t h i s g o a l .
T h e p r e e m e r g e n c e herbicides disodium 3,6-endoxohexahydrop h t h a l i c a c i d ( e n d o t h a l l ) a n d t r i c h l o r o a c e t i c acid ( T C A ) h a v e
given v a r i a b l e r e s u l t s i n surface i r r i g a t e d r e g i o n s a l t h o u g h satisfactory w e e d c o n t r o l s a r e o b t a i n e d u n d e r h u m i d c l i m a t e s a n d
n a t u r a l r a i n f a l l c o n d i t i o n s (2,3,6,8,9) 3 . Lately, p r e p l a n t applications of e t h y l iV, i V - d i - n - p r o p y l t h i o l c a r b a m a t e ( E P T C ) , n-propyl
e t h y l - n - b u t y l t h i o l c a r b a m a t e ( P E B C ) a n d 2,3-dichloroallyl diisop r o p y l t h i o l c a r b a m a t e ( D A T C ) h a v e s h o w n eflEective c o n t r o l of
c e r t a i n w e e d species b u t ineffective c o n t r o l o f k o c h i a i n i r r i g a t e d
r e g i o n s (1,3,7,8,9). R e s e a r c h i n C o l o r a d o a n d M o n t a n a has s h o w n
that t h e c o m b i n a t i o n , P E B C + D A T C , i s m o r e effective i n t h e
c o n t r o l of w i l d o a t , Avena fatua, a n d l a m b s q u a r t e r s , Chenopodium album, w h i l e c o n t r o l l i n g p i g w e e d , Amaranthus retroflexus,
a n d foxtail, Setaria s p p . , t h a n P E B C a p p l i e d a l o n e (8).
T h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s s t u d y w e r e t o d e t e r m i n e f u r t h e r (A)
t h e w e e d c o n t r o l effectiveness o f n e w h e r b i c i d e s a n d (B) t o evaluate t h e r e l a t i v e effectiveness o f h e r b i c i d e c o m b i n a t i o n s i n a n
a t t e m p t t o i n c r e a s e t h e s p e c t r u m o f w e e d c o n t r o l o n s u g a r beets.
Materials and Methods
T h e s p r i n g e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e c o n d u c t e d a t 6 locations, n a m e ly: W i n d s o r a n d S t e r l i n g , C o l o r a d o ; M i t c h e l l a n d Bayard,
N e b r a s k a ; L o v e l l , W y o m i n g ; a n d Billings, M o n t a n a . T h e s e trials
were i n i t i a t e d on M a r c h 27 t h r o u g h A p r i l 20 in the spring a n d
o n J u n e 1 3 a n d J u l y 1 7 i n t h e s u m m e r . T h e n u m b e r o f treatm e n t s p e r t r i a l r a n g e d f r o m 1 2 t o 2 4 a n d t h e n u m b e r o f treatm e n t s a t e a c h l o c a t i o n r a n g e d f r o m 2 4 t o 6 6 a m o n g locations
/ Contribution from T h e Great Western Sugar Company, Agricultural Experiment
^ n ' L o n S m o n t , Colorado.
.
Agronomist, Manager, and Assistant Agronomists, respectively.
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
390
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
and dates. These treatments were arranged in randomized complete blocks with 2 to 3 replicates. The single herbicides evaluated
in this report are shown in Table 1.
Table 1.Single herbicides evaluated under preplant conditions in the spring and
summer, 1963.
VOL.
391
contained
pigweed,
Amaranthus
retroflexus;
kochia,
Kochia
scoparia; a n d S e t a r i a m i l l e t , Setaria italica, a m o n g o t h e r species.
At s o m e l o c a t i o n s , v o l u n t e e r l a m b s q u a r t e r s , Chenopodium album;
g r e e n f o x t a i l , Setaria viridis; yellow foxtail, Setaria glauca; a n d
b a r n y a r d g r a s s , Echinochloa crusgalli, w e r e p r e s e n t in m i n o r percentages w h i l e v o l u n t e e r b l a c k n i g h t s h a d e , Solatium nigrum,, p r e sented m a j o r infestations. T h e ratio of broadleaved weeds to
grasses i n t h e u n t r e a t e d c o n t r o l s , a s d e t e r m i n e d b y p l a n t c o u n t s ,
r a n g e d f r o m 7 3 : 2 7 t o 5 1 : 4 9 a m o n g trials. W e e d p o p u l a t i o n
densities i n t h e c h e c k p l o t s r a n g e d from 2 6 t o 100 weeds p e r
s q u a r e foot a n d s u g a r b e e t s h a d e m e r g e d densities r a n g i n g from
1.3 to 3.7 p l a n t s p e r l i n e a r foot of r o w .
W e e d a n d b e e t s e e d l i n g c o u n t s w e r e t a k e n , w i t h i n a w i r e rect a n g l e w h i c h m e a s u r e d 4 by 36 inches, as a m e a s u r e of t r e a t m e n t
effectiveness. T h e c o u n t s w e r e m a d e a t a place i n each r o w
e s t i m a t e d t o h a v e t h e g r e a t e s t w e e d c o n t r o l w i t h t h e least i n j u r y
t o s e e d l i n g b e e t s , a n d t h e p l a c e was r e c o r d e d a s o p t i m u m . B o r d e r
effects w e r e e l i m i n a t e d b y p l a c i n g t h e q u a d r a t e a t e q u i d i s t a n t
i n t e r v a l s t o e a c h side o f t h e b e e t r o w . I n a d d i t i o n , a r e t a r d a t i o n
e s t i m a t e w a s m a d e o n b e e t s . T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e m a d e from
May 16 to M a y 2 8 , on J u l y 1 a n d 2 a n d on A u g u s t 13 for t h e
s p r i n g , J u n e 13, a n d J u l y 1 7 e x p e r i m e n t s , respectively. T h e
o p t i m u m data w e r e recorded a n d calculated as the percentages
of t h e u n t r e a t e d c o n t r o l of s i n g l e or total species. In this study,
the a v e r a g e w e e d c o n t r o l p e r c e n t a g e s of h e r b i c i d e s s h o w i n g less
t h a n 6 0 % c o n t r o l r e m a i n u n r e p o r t e d e x c e p t s t a n d a r d chemicals.
W h i l e , e m e r g e d w r eed s e e d l i n g d e n s i t i e s of less t h a n 2 p e r s q u a r e
foot i n t h e u n t r e a t e d c h e c k s w e r e c o m p o s i t e d a n d r e p o r t e d a s t h e
p e r c e n t a g e c o n t r o l o f o t h e r b r o a d l e a v e d weeds.
N o a t t e m p t w a s m a d e t o a d a p t statistics t o t h e analysis o f
variable dosage results.
R e s u l t s a n d Discussion
Spring
results
T h e a v e r a g e w e e d c o n t r o l p e r c e n t a g e s r a n g e d from 5 0 t o
7 5 w h e n p r e p l a n t h e r b i c i d e s w e r e a p p l i e d i n t h e s p r i n g ( T a b l e 2).
Specific c o m p a r i s o n s s h o w e d t h a t t h e t h i o l c a r b a m a t e s , R 1 9 1 0
a n d E P T C , g a v e p r o m i s i n g c o n t r o l o f p i g w e e d a n d foxtail b u t
insignificant c o n t r o l o f k o c h i a w h i c h h a d b e e n s h o w n e a r l i e r
(8). L i k e w i s e (8), i n t h e a b s e n c e o f w i l d oats, t h e s t a n d a r d h e r b icide, P E B C + D A T C , g a v e 1 4 p o i n t s m o r e b r o a d l e a v e d w e e d
control t h a n t h e percentage control produced by P E B C applied
alone ( T a b l e 2).
392
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
3
Number of observations shown in parenthesis followed by combination ratio of acti\_
* Weed densities in the untreated controls averaged: pigweed. 14.5; kochia. 10.5; other
broadleaved weeds 5.9; and foxtail, 18.4 per sq ft. The emerged beet seedlings averaged
3.7 per linear ft of row. Data for foxtail from 4 locations only, all broadleaves omitted
from total species control or average.
VOL.
13,
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5,
APRIL
1965
393
Kochia
Sandy
95
92
94
99
92
72
46
59
Foxtail
loam
Average
soils
75
41
87
70
87~
68
76
76
5
N u m b e r of observations in parenthesis followed by combination ratio of active.
6
Weed densities in the untreated controls averaged for coarse- and fine-textured soil;
respectively: Pigweed, 14.3, 12.8; Kochia. 10.5, 10.6; and foxtail. 14.3 and 22.4 per sq ft.
394
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T
T a b l e 4 . A v e r a g e effects o f v a r i o u s p r e p l a n t h e r b i c i d e s a t t h e o p t i m u m response
s u m m e r e x p e r i m e n t s , W i n d s o r , C o l o r a d o . T r e a t e d J u n e 1 3 a n d July 17.
7
N u m b e r of observations s h o w n in p a r e n t h e s i s f o l l o w e d by c o m b i n a t i o n ratio of active
Each e x p e r i m e n t c o n t a i n e d 3 replicates.
8
W e e d d e n s i t i e s in t h e u n t r e a t e d controls a v e r a g e d : P i g w e e d , 38.5; a n d foxtail, 27.2
per sq ft.
VOL-
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1965
395
p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t s h i g h e r t h a n those o f P E B C a n d P E B G +
D A T C w h i c h a v e r a g e d 1 1 1 % . S t a n d differences a m o n g c h e m icals w e r e u n d e t e c t e d i n t h e s p r i n g ( T a b l e s 2 a n d 4).
Summary
Several s i n g l e h e r b i c i d e s a n d h e r b i c i d e c o m b i n a t i o n s w e r e
e v a l u a t e d a t 6 f i e l d l o c a t i o n s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r p r e p l a n t pot e n t i a l for c h e m i c a l w e e d i n g o n s u g a r beets.
T h e results showed that Pyrazon, T D 2 8 2 and CP32179 were
m o r e effective i n w e e d c o n t r o l t h a n P E B C w h i l e P E B C + D A T C
was m o r e effective t h a n P E B C a p p l i e d a l o n e . T h e h e r b i c i d e
combinations Pyrazon + CP32179, P y r a z o n + T D 2 8 2 a n d
C P 3 2 1 7 9 + T E 2 8 2 a m o n g o t h e r s gave effective c o n t r o l o f c e r t a i n
b r o a d l e a v e d a n d grassy w e e d s w i t h o u t u n d u e i n j u r y t o s u g a r
beet s e e d l i n g s .
Specific c o m p a r i s o n s s h o w e d t h a t P y r a z o n p r o d u c e d effective
b r o a d - l e a v e d w e e d c o n t r o l , b u t t h e c h e m i c a l was relatively ineffective i n t h e c o n t r o l o f grass, w h i l e , C P 3 2 1 7 9 a n d T D 2 8 2
gave a d d i t i o n a l c o n t r o l o f grass. T D 2 8 2 effected s u p e r i o r a n d
E P T C a n d P E B C g a v e i n f e r i o r c o n t r o l o f kochia.
T h e results indicated that CP32179, T D 2 8 2 and Pyrazon
w e r e m o r e effective o n l i g h t t h a n h e a v y t e x t u r e d soils.
H e r b i c i d e s a p p l i e d u n d e r s u m m e r c o n d i t i o n s gave h i g h e r
weed c o n t r o l p e r c e n t a g e s t h a n t h e same h e r b i c i d e s a p p l i e d i n
the spring.
Acknowledgement
T h e a u t h o r s wish to express their appreciation on behalf of
T h e G r e a t W e s t e r n S u g a r C o m p a n y t o t h e following c o m p a n i e s
for f u r n i s h i n g t h e h e r b i c i d e s r e p o r t e d i n t h i s s t u d y : A m c h e m
Products, Inc.; M o n s a n t o Chemical Company; Pennsalt Chemicals C o r p o r a t i o n ; a n d Stauffer C h e m i c a l C o m p a n y .
L i t e r a t u r e Cited
(1)
ALLEY,
H.
P.,
E.
W.
CHAMBERLAIN,
1961. W e e d c o n t r o l
M i m e o Circ. 159.
(2)
in
C.
F.
sugar beets.
BECKER,
and
G.
W y o m i n g Agr.
A S C H E M A N , R . E., R . C . Z I E L K E , a n d E. W . STROUBE.
1961.
L.
COSTEL.
Expt.
Sta.,
Herbicides
ECKROTH, E.
G.,
E.
M.
H O L S T , a n d C . E. C O R M A N Y .
1958.
Chemical
396
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. f.
1963.
Essais
1963.
Weed control
PRICE1
Introduction
T h e cyst n e m a t o d e Heterodera schachtii S c h m i d t causes a
m a j o r disease o f s u g a r b e e t s i n E u r o p e a n d i n t h e U n i t e d States.
I n t h e U n i t e d States, t h e cyst n e m a t o d e has b e e n severe chiefly
i n areas w h e r e s u g a r b e e t s h a v e b e e n g r o w n for m a n y years. I n
some a r e a s , h o w e v e r , n o t a b l y i n t h e I m p e r i a l Valley o f California, s u g a r b e e t s h a v e b e e n g r o w n a relatively s h o r t t i m e , yet
t h e n e m a t o d e disease is a l r e a d y serious a n d soil infestation is
s p r e a d i n g . P r o b a b l y i n i t i a l n e m a t o d e infestation r e s u l t e d from
cysts c a r r i e d i n p a r t i c l e s o f soil a d h e r i n g t o f a r m e q u i p m e n t
w h i c h h a d b e e n u s e d i n o t h e r areas w h e r e t h e soil was infested
with s u g a r b e e t n e m a t o d e . T h e pest was b r o u g h t t o this c o u n t r y
from E u r o p e , w h e r e i t h a s b e e n k n o w n for over 100 years, t h r o u g h
t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f s u g a r b e e t seed. I n t h e early 1920's, t h e
a u t h o r f o u n d l i v e n e m a t o d e s i n soil screened from i m p o r t e d
sugar b e e t s e e d ( l ) 3 .
C r o p r o t a t i o n h a s b e e n effective i n keeping: t h e p o p u l a t i o n
of n e m a t o d e s d o w n to a level t h a t will p e r m i t o n e c r o p of beets
to be g r o w n successfully in infested soil o n c e in 4 to 6 years.
T h i s is possible only if nonhost plants are grown in rotation
w i t h s u g a r b e e t s . H o w e v e r , i n t e r v a l s of 4 to 6 years b e t w e e n
sugar b e e t c r o p s s o m e t i m e s a r e n o t c o n d u c i v e t o favorable
economy of small farmers w h o d e p e n d u p o n sugar beets as a
profitable cash c r o p .
C r o p r o t a t i o n , soil f u m i g a t i o n , a n d o t h e r m e a s u r e s h a v e
b e e n r e c o m m e n d e d for c o n t r o l o f t h e n e m a t o d e ; however, these
are n o t fully satisfactory, a n d t h e r e is still serious n e e d for
varieties t h a t a r e t o l e r a n t o f t h e p a t h o g e n . B r e e d i n g research
for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f v a r i e t i e s t h a t a r e resistant t o t h e n e m a t o d e
has b e e n a m a j o r a c t i v i t y at t h e U. S. A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h
Station, S a l i n a s , C a l i f o r n i a . T h e use o f resistant varieties w o u l d
* Research Agronomist, Croos Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S.
department of Agriculture, Salinas, California.
3
T h e author is indebted to Phvllis Emparan. formerlv a member of the Crops Research
division, Agricultural Research Service. U. S. Department of Agriculture, for help with
statistical analyses, and to C. L. Schneider. Pathologist. Crops Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, l.ogan, Utah, for isolation of the pathogenic fungi from the field
soil used for screening tests.
8
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
398
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400
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1965
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Test
Field
Test
In t h e field test p l o t ( F i g u r e 4) at t h e U. S. A g r i c u l t u r a l
R e s e a r c h S t a t i o n at Salinas, C a l i f o r n i a , t h e soil is infested w i t h
sugar b e e t n e m a t o d e a n d i t also c o n t a i n s r o o t - r o t t i n g f u n g i ,
p r i n c i p a l l y Rhizoctonia solani. A h i g h p o p u l a t i o n of n e m a t o d e s
i s m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e soil b y m e a n s o f f r e q u e n t a p p l i c a t i o n s , w i t h
a fertilizer drill, o f soil i n f e s t e d w i t h s u g a r beet n e m a t o d e . T h e
400
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Field
Test
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Field
Test
T a b l e 1 s h o w s t h e r e s u l t s of tests of 10 l i n e s of s u g a r b e e t
b r e d for r e s i s t a n c e to t h e cyst n e m a t o d e Meterodera schachtii a n d
t w o c o m m e r c i a l v a r i e t i e s , U S 4 1 a n d U S 75, u s e d a s c h e c k s . U S
41 has b e e n u s e d as a c h e c k for several years in n e m a t o d e tests,
Table 1.Root yield of resistant lines of sugar beet grown under severe exposure to
cyst nematode and other soil-inhabiting pathogens. Field test, Salinas, California, 1962.
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
404
b u t US 75 was used for the first time in the 1962 tests. Sugar
beets were planted in heavily infested soil as already described.
Plots were replicated three times for each line and for each of
the two commercial checks. Of the 10 nematode-resistant lines
included in the test, 7 were significantly superior in yield of
roots per acre to US 41 at the 1% level of significance, and 3
were significantly superior at the 5% level. All nematoderesistant lines tested were superior in yield per acre to US 75
at the 1% level of significance.
Crock Test
T a b l e 2 shows results of 12 entriesUS 41, used as check,
and 11 lines of sugar beet which have been bred for resistance
to the cyst nematode. T h e plants were grown in 3-gallon crocks,
as described u n d e r "Methods". After the tops were removed,
each individual root was weighed and its weight recorded in
grams. T h e r e were 10 crocks in each of three replications, or a
total of 30 beets of each line and 30 beets of US 41. Results
are therefore averages of 30 roots for each entry in the test.
T h r e e 10-beet samples were taken for sucrose determination.
T a b l e 2, column 2, shows weights of roots grown in noninfested
soil, and column 4 shows weight of roots grown in infested soil.
T h e percent loss in weight due to nematodes was calculated on
the basis of difference between weight of roots grown in noninfested soil and those grown in infested soil. T h e loss in weight
Table 2.Root yield and sucrose percentage of resistant lines of sugar beet grown in
crocks containing nematode-infested soil or nematode-free soil. Salinas, California, 1962.
Noninfested
Infested
VOL.
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Introduction
Most recently, the destruction of sucrose in hot alkaline
synthetic process juices has been investigated by Pieck (5) 2 and
Carruthers (1).
T h e measurement technique pursued by these investigators
involved the separate measurement of the rate of formation of
invert in a hot alkaline buffered solution containing sucrose and
the rate of invert destruction in a buffered solution under similar
conditions of temperature and p H . In both cases pure sucrose
and invert solutions in conjunction with appropriate buffers
were used. Having obtained the formation rate of invert from
sucrose and the independent rate of destruction of invert, it
was possible to determine the a m o u n t of sucrose destroyed at
any given process condition. All reactions were found to be
of the first order with respect to invert formation and invert
destruction. Carruthers (1) intimated the existence of steady
state with respect to the transient reaction intermediate invert.
Pieck (5) enlarged on the steady state invert concept by measuring invert concentrations u n d e r various pH and temperature
conditions.
It is the intention of this paper to utilize the kinetic concept
of steady state. By doing so, it is possible to solve for the first
order reaction rates describing the destruction of sucrose, glucose
and fructose, and the concentrations of glucose and fructose
within the steady state invert level.
Theory
Steady state as opposed to dynamic state can be explained
in a graphic form. Figure 1 denotes the concentration of sucrose
(A), invert (B), intermediates (C) a n d terminal acidic end
products (D). T h e s e concentrations are plotted with respect to
time. In this model, sucrose concentration is approximately
equivalent to the other reactants. Reaction rates KA, K B and K c
are all high in numerical magnitude. T h i s set of conditions
precludes the existence of steady state. Concentrations of all
reactants involved in the irreversible reaction are subject to
1
8
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1965
c o n s t a n t c h a n g e . F o r t u n a t e l y , d y n a m i c s t a t e d o e s n o t exist i n
hot alkaline process juices a n d liquors. A n y m e a s u r e m e n t of
r e a c t i o n r a t e s in a d y n a m i c s t a t e r e a c t i o n is e x t r e m e l y difficult.
TIME
>
Figure
408
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409
(1)
(2)
410
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
2. Determine the concentration of (B) and (C) contained within the steady state invert level.
<B> - K2 + K, ' <B> + <C>
<C) " K, + K, * (B> + <C>
When glucose and fructose are produced in equimolar
amounts, as from sucrose, their concentration within the steady
state concentration (B) -j- (C) is indirectly proportional to the
individual rate constants involved.
3. Solve for reaction rate constant Kx describing destruction of
(A) in solution.
Kx (A) Ka (B) + K3 (C)
K2 * (B) - f +_ K3 (C) - f
Ki _
f = factor converting B and C to A equivalents.
4. Solve for percent sucrose destroyed in time (T)
_ K * * ( A > ' T . 100
V
The reaction vessel designed for this project consisted of a
stainless steel vessel of 1.5 liter capacity with pressure fittings
capable of withstanding internal pressures up to 75 psig. This
feature enables the investigator to study destructive reactions
at temperatures far above those obtainable at atmospheric pressure. The reaction vessel was fitted with an internal stirrer,
pressure pH electrodes, electric temperature control, pressure
equalized burret for reagent addition, sample outlets, and standard temperature and pressure gauges.
Results
The concept of steady state invert concentration was investigated
using
first
car
Donation
clarifier
juice.
demonas
describes
carbonation
and
stants
temperatures.
or
strates
enables
the
this
lower
Figure
fructose
juice
K
arange
extrapolation
logarithmic
temperature
the
and
5 temperature
clarifier.
is
indicates
amply
influence
A
in
K
temperature
accordance
ofcovers
increase
The
of
ranges.
the
glucose
of
decreases.
invert
linear
temperature
variation
temperatures
with
in
range
and
concentrations
steady
function
the
The
fructose
of
ofArrhenius
state
the
on
function
70
maintained
found
reaction
C
specific
invert
atto
toFigure
different
for
is
equation
90C
include
concentration
linear,
reaction
velocity
both
in4
was
the
glucose
process
higher
which
whicli
used
first
con
(2).
412
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13,
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5,
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1965
413
F i g u r e 7 i n d i c a t e s t h e a c t u a l p e r c e n t loss of sucrose, w h i c h
w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d , i n a clarifier after 3 0 m i n u t e s j u i c e r e t e n t i o n
t i m e a t a p H o f 9.70. T h i s p H c o r r e s p o n d s t o a n a l k a l i n i t y o f
.070. It is e v i d e n t t h a t sucrose d e s t r u c t i o n in a clarifier a p p r o x i m a t e s o n l y . 0 2 2 % o f t h e sucrose i n t r o d u c e d . T h i s loss m a y b e
considered negligible.
F i g u r e 8 shows t h e g r a p h i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of sucrose d e s t r u c tion in the high green storage t a n k u n d e r various conditions.
D a t a w e r e a r r i v e d a t b y a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e steady s t a t e m e t h o d
a t t h e f o u r d i f f e r e n t p H levels i n d i c a t e d . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
indicates that if the recirculation load is high, the t e m p e r a t u r e
h i g h , s t o r a g e l o n g , a n d h i g h g r e e n p H low, significant losses o f
sucrose d u e t o d e s t r u c t i o n m a y o c c u r . I t s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t
t h a t a n y loss o f sucrose i n t h e process c o n t r i b u t e s n o n s u g a r
b r e a k d o w n products which in t u r n are of a melassigenic n a t u r e .
Summary
A new kinetic m e t h o d has been presented which is d e p e n d e n t
o n t h e s t e a d y state k i n e t i c c o n c e p t . T h e e q u a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d i n
this p a p e r e n a b l e a n i n v e s t i g a t o r t o o b t a i n t h e f o l l o w i n g information.
414
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
W.
NORMAN,
JAMES
E.
LAUGHLIN
AND
L.
O.
MILLS
Introduction
I n v i e w o f i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t i n a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s for w a s t e
t r e a t m e n t a t b e e t s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g facilities, H o l l y S u g a r
Corporation, in cooperation with Forrest a n d Cotton, Inc., Consulting Engineers, conducted treatment experiments at the Tracy,
C a l i f o r n i a , factory. T h e o b j e c t i v e s w e r e :
1. To characterize the waste at this p l a n t as to organic strength
and biodegradability.
2 . T o d e t e r m i n e t h e effectiveness o f a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t a n d t r i c k l i n g filter t r e a t m e n t a s r o u g h i n g u n i t s a h e a d
o f n o r m a l l a g o o n systems.
3 . T o i n v e s t i g a t e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s affecting d e s i g n c o n siderations.
4 . T o establish a n a l y t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s s u i t a b l e for c o n t r o l o f
t r e a t m e n t systems.
5 . T o d e t e r m i n e B O D levels w h i c h m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d i n
t r e a t e d effluent.
Equipment
and Procedures
416
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417
F i g u r e 3.Screen a n d clarifier s e t u p , X r a c y , C a l i f o r n i a .
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
CLARIFIER TUBE
419
_ 5
400
J
Q
O
CO
300
200
'
% EQUAL. OR L E S S T H A N
420
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T
20
30
OXYGEN
40
50
DEMAND
60
70
80
REMOVED <%)
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13,
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421
terial g r o u p , t h e Sphaerotilus, c o u l d b e f o u n d .
B O D removal
r e m a i n e d " n o r m a l " after these slimy f i l a m e n t o u s forms h a d t a k e n
over. B u t t h e s l u d g e w o u l d scarcely settle, a n d t h e m i x e d l i q u o r
gave t h e g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n o f b e i n g p o p u l a t e d b y g r e a t masses
of m i l k y seaweed.
I t was n e v e r d e t e r m i n e d i f t h e m i s s i n g species h a d b e e n
w a s h e d o u t o f t h e u n i t , h a d lost o u t i n c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h t h e
Sphaerotilus,, o r b o t h . X h e r e was n o d o u b t , h o w e v e r , t h a t b u l k y
s l u d g e was a likely p r o b l e m u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of i n t e n s e l o a d i n g .
F i g u r e 8 . L o a d i n g vs. r e m o v a l p e r f o r m a n c e i n reactor.
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
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15
9b
9^
tions. A s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s , m u c h o f t h e w o r k r e p o r t e d w a s
based u p o n C O D v a l u e s w h i c h a r e easily a n d r e l i a b l y c o n v e r t e d
to equivalent B O D .
P e r h a p s o n e r e a s o n t h i s c o n v e r s i o n was satisfactory i n t h e s e
tests i s t h e fact t h a t t h e waste w a t e r a n a l y z e d d i d n o t i n c l u d e
e i t h e r p u l p p r e s s w a t e r o r Steffen w a s t e . I t m a y w e l l b e t h a t
varying p r o p o r t i o n s of either, or both, of these in the total waste
would disallow the c o n v e n i e n t use of C O D . Nevertheless, it
would seem a p p r o p r i a t e to check o u t the relationship on any
p a r t i c u l a r s u g a r waste u n d e r s t u d y .
F u r t h e r t i m e s a v i n g w i t h t h e C O D p r o c e d u r e was r e a l i z e d
since i t was f o u n d t h a t r e f l u x d i g e s t i o n t i m e c o u l d safely b e c u t
from t w o h o u r s t o o n e h o u r . S e v e r a l t i m e s t u d i e s o n t h i s aspect
i n d i c a t e d o x i d a t i o n b y t h e d i c h r o m a t e was essentially c o m p l e t e
in 30 minutes, and complete in 45 minutes. O n e h o u r allowed
a sufficient m a r g i n of safety.
P r o b a b l y t h e s a m e factors, n a m e l y t h e p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f
simple sugars i n t h e waste, a l l o w e d t h i s t i m e s a v i n g a s p r o v i d e d
for c o n s t a n t B O D / C O D r a t i o . A g a i n , a n y w a s t e u n d e r c o n s i d e r ation m i g h t b e c h e c k e d for v a l i d i t y o f s u c h a d j u s t m e n t i n p r o cedure.
Summary
S t u d i e s o f waste w a t e r effluents f r o m t h e T r a c y p l a n t , free
o f e i t h e r Steffen w a s t e o r p u l p w a t e r s , w e r e e v a l u a t e d a n a l y t i c a l l y
and s h o w n t o r a n g e i n s e t t l e d r a w w a s t e f r o m 200 t o 6 0 0 m g / l i t e r
ROD loading with a m e a n value of 400 m g / l i t e r B O D .
T r e a t m e n t of this water in a laboratory activated sludge u n i t
and a p i l o t p l a n t t r i c k l i n g filter u n i t i n d i c a t e effective o x i d a t i o n
can b e a c c o m p l i s h e d . W i t h t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e u n i t effluent
C O D c o n c e n t r a t i o n s fell b e t w e e n 5 5 a n d 145 m g / l i t e r w i t h a
424
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SCHOENROCK
1964
Introduction
A b e e t s u g a r m i l l o p e r a t i n g w i t h a molasses d e s u g a r i n g
process via Steffen s h o u l d k n o w t h e a m o u n t o f n o n s u g a r s i n t r o d u c e d t h r o u g h t h i s o p e r a t i o n . I t h a s b e e n s u s p e c t e d for s o m e
time that the saccharate cake purity values derived t h r o u g h the
classical c a r b o n d i o x i d e gassing m e t h o d a r e n o t r e a l l y i n d i c a t i v e
o f t h e a c t u a l n o n s u g a r l o a d recycled i n t o t h e c a r b o n a t i o n process
of the mill. Xhusly these saccharate p u r i t y values c a n n o t be
used to establish a u s a b l e r e n d e m e n t v a l u e for t h e s a c c h a r a t e
cake.
It has been the general opinion in the industry that the
a c t u a l n o n s u g a r l o a d in s a c c h a r a t e c a k e is of l i t t l e v a l u e since
t h e c a r b o n a t i o n process m a y e l i m i n a t e a d d i t i o n a l n o n s u g a r s
w h i c h s h o u l d b e c r e d i t e d t o t h e Steffen process. T h e classical
c a r b o n d i o x i d e gassing m e t h o d i s a s s u m e d t o d u p l i c a t e c o n d i tions a s p r e v a i l i n g i n factory o p e r a t i o n . N o n s u g a r a d s o r p t i o n
on freshly p r e c i p i t a t e d c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e is a r e c o g n i z e d fact
a n d m a y b e sizable.
However, conditions d u r i n g carbonation in mill operation
can n o t b e d i r e c t l y c o m p a r e d w i t h c o n d i t i o n s o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g
the gassing w i t h c a r b o n d i o x i d e o f a s a c c h a r a t e c a k e s a m p l e . I n
the l a t t e r case w h e r e t h e c a l c i u m o x i d e : n o n s u g a r r a t i o m a y b e
as h i g h as 10 : 1 c o n d i t i o n s a r e i d e a l for n o n s u g a r a d s o r p t i o n
on calcium carbonate. D u r i n g mill operation, however, the
calcium o x i d e : n o n s u g a r r a t i o i s o n l y a b o u t 1 : 1 .
L a b o r a t o r y tests w e r e c o n d u c t e d t o e x p l o r e t h e r e m o v a l o f
saccharate c a k e n o n s u g a r s d u r i n g c a r b o n a t i o n i n t h e p r e s e n c e
of a l a r g e excess of n o n s u g a r s f r o m r a w j u i c e . A m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e
via single a c i d t r u e p u r i t y d i d n o t s h o w a n y i n c r e a s e d n o n s u g a r
removal for t h e Steffen h o u s e o v e r t h e s t r a i g h t h o u s e u n d e r
equal c o n d i t i o n s o f a c t i v e C a O o n t o t a l n o n s u g a r s i n r a w j u i c e .
The Steffen h o u s e h a d c o n s i s t e n t l y a l o w e r effective a l k a l i n i t y ,
a h i g h e r l i m e salt level a n d m o r e c o l o r i n t h i n j u i c e t h a n t h e
c o m p a r a t i v e s t r a i g h t h o u s e r u n . S a c c h a r a t e c a k e p u r i t i e s calculated f r o m t h e m a t e r i a l b a l a n c e w e r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y l o w e r t h a n
those d e r i v e d f r o m t h e c a r b o n d i o x i d e gassing m e t h o d . F u r t h e r more, i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t s a c c h a r a t e c a k e a s p r o d u c e d i n t h e
1
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of
saccharate
cake
-via
ammonium
carbonate:
428
JOURNAL OF THE A. S.
S.
B.
T.
( A m m o n i u m carbonate purity m e t h o d . )
V O L . 13, N o . 5, A P R I L 1965
T a b l e 2. Steffen process dry substance b a l a n c e .
429
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Table 4. Effect of time and washing on apparent purity of saccharate cake and
sugar loss in the wash.
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and
Conclusion
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433
F i g u r e 1.Harvesting s u g a r b e e t tops for silage, Scotts Bluff E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n . G r e e n t o p s from this field yielded 19.1 t o n s p e r a c r e , b e e t
roots, 19.9, a n d e d i b l e silage 14.2 tons.
A n i m a l s w e r e r a n d o m l y assigned t o g r o u p s . T h e g r o u p f e e d i n g
p r o c e d u r e was u s e d i n all e x p e r i m e n t s . T h e y w e r e fed t w i c e
daily. F r e s h w a t e r was a v a i l a b l e a t all t i m e s . Salt, t h e o n l y
m i n e r a l fed, was g i v e n free c h o i c e . I n d i v i d u a l w e i g h t s w e r e
taken periodically.
T h i s e x p e r i m e n t a l m a c h i n e was d e v e l o p e d a n d m a d e available t o t h e s t a t i o n b y M r . L l o y d S m i t h o f G e r i n g , N e b r a s k a .
Results and Discussion
Yield of roots, tops and edible silage
Yields o f s u g a r b e e t r o o t s , t o p s a n d e d i b l e silaee from v a r i o u s
f i e l d s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1957 t o 1962 a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e 1 .
I n 1 9 6 1 , t h r e e m e t h o d s o f s t o r i n g u n w i l t e d b e e t t o p s silage
were u s e d . O v e r 1 4 t o n s o f e d i b l e silage p e r a c r e w e r e o b t a i n e d
from a field, w h e r e b e e t s y i e l d e d 19.9 t o n s , a n d u n w i l t e d t o p s
T a b l e 1.Yields of sugar beet roots, tops a n d e d i b ' e sila-je (1957-1962).
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
5rs
Table 2.The relative feed value ot beet top silage and com silage supplemented with dehydrated alfalfa or alfalfa hay at two levels (45 lambs
per treatment (1951-52).
Concentrate mixture was 13% soybean meal and 29% each: com, barley and dried beet plup pellets.
0*
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Lambs fed beet top silage gained faster and required less
feed per p o u n d of gain than those fed corn silage (Table 2).
Lambs fed dehydrated alfalfa gained faster and required less
feed per p o u n d of gain than those fed alfalfa hay with both
beet tops and corn silage. Little benefit was received from using
the higher levels of alfalfa hay and dehydrated alfalfa pellets.
Lambs receiving alfalfa hay and corn silage did not perform as
well as those receiving alfalfa hay and beet top silage.
Experiments 2, 3, and 4 (1953-56): T h e relative feeding value
of beet top silage and corn silage fed at three restricted levels of
intake was studied in three trials replicated over three years
(Table 3). Fifty lambs per treatment were used each year.
Table 3.The relative feed value of beet top silage and corn silage fed at three levels
(Three-year average 1953-56).
1
Concentrate mixture was 8.8 % soybean meal and 30.4% each: corn, barley and dried
beet pulp pellets.
Beet top silage was fed at restricted rates of 1.0, 1.8 and 2.6
pounds per lamb daily and corn silage on the same basis except
the greatest a m o u n t of corn silage that the lambs would consume was 2.4 pounds per head daily (Table 3). T h e lambs fed
the highest rate of beet top silage (2.6 pounds) would have
consumed more had it been offered to them. Alfalfa hay was
fed free choice and as silage consumption increased consumption
of hay decreased.
Lambs fed the high rate of beet top silage gained faster than
those fed the high rate of corn silage. T h e y also consumed less
feed per p o u n d of gain. Otherwise, the gains of lambs fed the
three rates of beet top silage and the light and m e d i u m rates
of corn silage were comparable.
Experiments 5, 6, 7 (1957-60): T h e relative feeding value of
beet top silage and corn silage fed according to appetite was
studied in three trials replicated over three years (Table 4).
Fifty lambs per treatment were used each year.
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437
Table 4.The relative feeding value of beet top silage and corn i ilage fed ad. libitum
(Three Year Average 1957-60).
Table 5.- Chemical composition of beet top silage and corn silage used in the 1957-58
experiment.
438
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1961-62
1962-63
440
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Table 8.Relative feeding value of corn silage and beet top silage fed with concentrates ensiled and not ensiled (1960-61).
1
Ration was made by mixing 150 pounds each of corn, beet pulp pellets and dehydrated
alfalfa pellets and 30 pounds soybean meal per ton of unwilted beet tops at time of ensiling.
2
An attempt was made to feed the same amount of concentrate as was fed in the ensiled
concentrate-beet top mixed ration.
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1965
Xable 9.Relative feeding value of corn silage and beet top silage fed -with varying
amounts of concentrates ensiled and not ensiled.
1
Light mix was 100 pounds each of corn, beet p u l p pellets and dehydrated alfalfa per
ton of unwilted beet tops. Medium mix was 150 pounds each of corn, beet p u l p pellets
and dehydrated alfalfa per ton of unwilted beet tops. Heavy mix was 200 pounds each of corn,
beet p u l p pellets and dehydrated alfalfa per ton of unwilted beet tops.
2
An attempt was made to feed the same amount of concentrate as was fed in the
ensiled concentrate-beet top mixed rations.
top
silage
in
cattle
finishing
rations
T w o e x p e r i m e n t s d e s i g n e d t o c o m p a r e b e e t t o p silage w i t h
corn silage a n d w i t h c o m p l e t e b e e t t o p - c o n c e n t r a t e silage m i x tures w e r e c o n d u c t e d i n 1960-61 a n d 1962-63.
I n t h e first e x p e r i m e n t b e e t t o p silage was c o m p a r e d w i t h
corn silage a s t h e m a j o r r o u g h a g e i n a c a t t l e f i n i s h i n g r a t i o n
Table 10.Relative feeding value of beet top silage fed with varying amounts of concentrate ensiled and not ensiled (1962-63).
Concentrates
not ensiled2
1
Light mix was 50 pounds each corn, beet pulp pellets and dehydrated alfalfa per ton of unwilted beet tops. Medium-light mix was 109 pounds
each of corn, beet pulp pellets and dehydrated alfalfa per ton of unwilted tops. Medium mix was 175 pounds each of corn, beet pulp pellets and
dehydrated alfalfa per ton of unwilted beet tops. Heavy mix was 258 pounds each of corn, beet pulp pellets and dehydrated alfalfa per ton of
unwilted beet tops.
2
An attempt was made to feed the same amount of concentrate as was fed in the ensiled concentrate-beet top mixed rations.
VOL.
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1965
Each
head
feed
than
443
718
2.78
17.1
28.5
615
1025
62-8
17.3
1
Started on 50% ground shelled corn and 50<%> dried beet p u l p pellets and changed to
65% corn and 3 5 % beet p u l p d u r i n g the latter half of the experiment. Each steer received
2 pounds of dehydrated alfalfa pellets and 0.5 pounds soybean meal daily.
2
Hot carcass weight divided by slaughter weight x 100.
8
18, 17, 16 = high, average and low choice, respectively.
Light
pound
Heavy
pound
2000
300
300
75
2000
400
400
100
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. 1
T a b l e 1 3 . C h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f silages u s e d i n t h e steer f e e d i n g t r i a l s .
B e e t top-
trate rnixtur
1
2
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445
446
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Lambs fed either beet top silage or corn silage at three restricted rates gained about the same except those fed the high
rate of beet top silage gained faster than those fed the high
rate of corn silage.
Beet top silage was consumed free choice at the rate of 5.91
pounds per lamb daily, compared with corn silage consumption
at 3.23 pounds. T h e dry matter less ash intake was about the
same for both silage rations. T h e lambs fed beet top silage
gained faster than those fed corn silage.
It was possible to mix concentrates at several rates with unwilted beet tops to produce complete ensiled rations. T h e complete ensiled rations produced good gains, with low death loss
when fed free choice to lambs. T h e lambs fed the complete
mixed silage gained comparably with lambs fed the same amount
of concentrates and beet top silage fed separately.
Yearling steers fed corn silage gained faster and consumed
less feed per p o u n d of gain than steers fed beet top silage. T h e
laxative effect of beet top silage in steers is extreme. Beet top
silage used as the only roughage is not as desirable for cattle
feeding as for lamb feeding.
T h e results of these studies show the efficiency of sugar beet
farming can be improved by feeding beet top silage to livestock.
Literature Cited
(1) HOLDEN, JAMES A. 1926. Lamb feeding experiments in the sugar beet
growing district. Nebr. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 216.
(2) INGRAHAM, ALDEN S. 1936. Sugar beet by-products for fattening lambs.
Wyo. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 216.
(3) JOHNSON, R. F. 1941. Highlights in agricultural research in Idaho.
Idaho Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 244.
(4)
1948.
V O L . 13, N o . 5, A P R I L 1965
447
Proc. A m . Soc.
(12)
(13)
T h e handling and processing of sugar beet fruits is becoming increasingly mechanized. Little basic information is available relative to the physical and mechanical properties of the
sugar beet fruit which can be used in engineering design. With
an increase in mechanization, there is a greater demand for
basic engineering information. T h i s research concerns flotation
(terminal velocity) and conveying velocities as well as some
observations on the orientation of the sugar beet fruit in a
vertical air stream.
Materials and Methods
A 1-hp electric motor with a centrifugal forward-curved blade
fan connected to a 4-inch (outside diameter) horizontal alumin u m irrigation pipe was used as the air-flow system. A stainless
steel orifice plate and a venturi tube were installed in series in
the pipe. Flange, vena contracta and pressure taps were located
in relation to the orifice plate as recommended by Eckman 3 .
These permitted three pressure-differential readings to be taken
with each rate of flow. A separate measurement was taken with
the venturi tube.
A plenum chamber, 24 X 36 X 30 inches outside dimensions,
constructed from 34-inch plywood was installed at the end of
the pipe. Sheet metal baffles were used to diffuse the air
currents in the chamber. Steel sleeves (2i/ inches outside diameter and 6 inches long) with air-sealing flanges were used to
connect the chamber with the observation tubes which consisted
of 2 1 / 4 -inch (outside diameter) clear acrylic plastic pipe polished
on both interior and exterior surfaces. An air-flow control unit
with a seed retainer was used on the exhaust end of the tubes.
Flotation velocities were determined in the vertical tube
(50 inches long). Conveying velocities were determined in the
1
Cooperative investigation of the Michigan Agricultural Fxnerirrent Station and the
Crops Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Departrrent of Agriculture.
Approved for publication as Journal Article #3363, Michigan Agricultural Experiment
Station.
4
Research Assistant and Professor, respectively, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University; and Research Plant Physiologist, Crops Research Division,
Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, East Lansing, Michigan.
3
Eckman, Donald P. 1958. Industrial Instrumentation. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
New York.
VOL.
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1965
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
450
Results
T h e n u m b e r of fruits in each group, the total weight, the
mean weight per fruit and the standard deviation of the fruits
for each size-group are recorded in T a b l e 1. T h e weights of
the individual fruits in any size-group approach a normal distribution. Hence 68.27% of the observations should be within
one standard deviation of the mean, 95.45% within two standard
deviations and 99.73% within three standard deviations. A study
of each g r o u p revealed that only the lightest fruit in the 9/64inch group and the heaviest fruit in both the 11/64- and 12/64inch groups were more than three standard deviations removed
from the mean. W h e n the fruits in each group were divided
by equal weight intervals into approximately 12 subgroups, the
weight interval containing the mean weight had the lamest
n u m b e r of fruits in every case with only one exception (Table
2). In this exceptional case, the weight interval containing the
most fruits was immediately below the one containing the mean
weight, and the mean weight was the lowest value in its weight
interval.
Table 1. Size, mean weight, and standard deviation for hand-processed sugar beet
fruits of (SL 126ms x SL 128)ms x SP 5822-0 hybrid variety.
Fruit diam.
inches
7/64
8/64
9/64
10/64
11/64
12/64 o r larger
No. of
fruits
90
96
128
127
85
96
Total weight
grams
Mean weight
grams
Standard deviation
grams
.7296
.9500
1.6039
1.8711
1.5126
2.0638
.0081
.0099
.0125
.0147
.0178
.0215
.0016
.0018
.0017
.0021
.0023
.0031
Table 2- The weight distribution of hand-processed (SL 126ms x SL 128)ms x SP 5822-0 variety sugar beet fruits after subdivision into
size-groups.
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
weight span for their respective size-groups. For the larger fruits,
the dots are below the mid-point of the weight span, thus indicating that there were only a few unusually heavy fruits in the
group.
T h e span of flotation velocities for each size-group is illustrated
in Figure 2. Only a slight increase in air velocities was necessary
as the size of the fruit diameters increased. T h e m a x i m u m and
m i n i m u m values plotted represent averages of the average values
calculated from the flange, vena contracta and pressure tap
readings, all used with the 2-inch orifice plate.
Velocities required to convey horizontally the fruits for the
different methods of injection are plotted in Figure 3. T h e
least velocity (23 to 24 fps) was required when the fruits were
injected at a rate which permitted each fruit to be individually
dispersed in the air stream as it fell across the diameter of the
conveying tube. Each plotted point (Figure 3) for this injection method represents the air velocity which successfully
conveyed the size-group in ten successive trials. T h e heavier or
more dense fruits tended to lodge in the tube, but the lighter
fruits had a scouring effect and helped to move the heavier fruits
along.
VOL.
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APRIL
1965
/64
IO/B4
!2/fc4
Figure 2 . M a x1/64
i m u m 8FRUIT
and
m9/64
inimum
air 11/54
velocities
required for the
DIAMETER,
(INCHES)
flotation of hand-processed sugar beet fruits of (SL 126ms X SL 128)ms
X SP 5822-0 hybrid variety.
W h e n t h e s u g a r b e e t fruits of a g i v e n size w e r e i n j e c t e d as
a g r o u p , a h i g h e r velocity was r e q u i r e d t o c o n v e y t h e m t h r o u g h
t h e t u b e . X h e g r e a t e r t h e t o t a l w e i g h t o f t h e fruits i n j e c t e d ,
t h e g r e a t e r was t h e a i r velocity necessary t o sufficiently d i s p e r s e
a n d a c c e l e r a t e t h e fruits w h i l e t h e y w e r e f a l l i n g across t h e dia m e t e r o f t h e c o n v e y i n g t u b e . E a c h p l o t t e d p o i n t for t h i s m e t h o d
of i n j e c t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t e n successive trials in w h i c h t h e respective size-groups w e r e successfully c o n v e y e d .
F r u i t s p l a c e d i n t o t h e c o n v e y i n g t u b e w i t h n o a i r flowing
r e q u i r e d t h e g r e a t e s t a i r velocity t o d i s l o d g e a n d c o n v e y t h e m
t h r o u g h t h e t u b e . I n t h i s case, t h e s t a t i o n a r y fruits s u p p o r t e d
each o t h e r i n t h e s t a t i c c o n d i t i o n . X h e lowest a i r velocity i n
the c o n v e y i n g t u b e was a r o u n d t h e t u b e p e r i m e t e r , s o t h e f l o w
rate i n t h e t u b e h a d t o b e i n c r e a s e d u n t i l t h e p e r i m e t e r velocity
was sufficiently h i g h t o give t h e s u g a r b e e t fruits t h e i r i n i t i a l
acceleration. E a c h p l o t t e d p o i n t for t h i s m e t h o d r e p r e s e n t s five
successive trials in w h i c h t h e size-groups w e r e successfully conveyed.
The r e c o m m e n d e d c o n v e y i n g velocity of 38 fps is d e v e l o p e d
in t h e d i s c u s s i o n s e c t i o n of t h i s r e p o r t .
454
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Discussion
Air-flow
equipment
Accurate air-flow measurement presents a problem even with
modern instrumentation. Considerable time and effort was spent
in the design and construction of an orifice meter and a venturi
tube. T h e objective was to use these devices in the same air
stream and then from their pressure differential readings to
calculate air volumes which would coincide. T h e orifice was
machined from an 0.08-inch stainless steel plate. T h e venturi
tube was constructed from 26-gage galvanized sheet metal. A
piece of heavy-duty steel pipe was machined to the appropriate
slopes and throat diameter to give a precision throat section.
A 0.50 diameter ratio (orifice diameter/inside pipe diameter)
was used in the calculations. T h e air-flow system developed less
than 2 inches H 2 0 m a x i m u m static pressure. Therefore, the air
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APRIL
1965
455
456
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13,
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APRIL
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457
458
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
fruits were placed into the system, they tended to strike each
other in the oscillation process and thereby disrupted the aerodynamic equilibrium position of an individual fruit.
Previous research by Kunze, Snyder and Hall 5 has indicated
the sugar beet seed to be most sensitive to damage when the
fruit is impact-loaded on its cap. From the foregoing observations, the individual fruit in a free fall would position itself
with its cap up and hence would impact on its butt, b u t it
would be impacted on its cap by succeeding falling fruits.
Terminal
velocities
VOL.
13,
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5,
APRIL
1965
459
t h e fruit. A n a d d i t i o n a l i n c r e a s e i n a i r f l o w c a u s e d t h e fruit t o
oscillate t o w a r d t h e t o p o f t h e t u b e w i t h t h e possibility o f b e i n g
ejected i n t o t h e s e e d - r e t a i n e r .
Conveying
velocities
460
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13,
No.
5,
APRIL
1965
461
e n t u p o n t h e m e t h o d o f i n j e c t i n g t h e fruits i n t o t h e a i r s t r e a m .
T h e lowest velocity (23 t o 2 4 fps) was r e q u i r e d w h e n fruits
w e r e i n d i v i d u a l l y d i s p e r s e d i n t h e a i r s t r e a m . T h e h i g h e s t velocity (30 t o 3 5 fps) w a s r e q u i r e d w h e n t h e fruits w e r e i n i t i a l l y
a t rest i n t h e c o n v e y i n g t u b e b e f o r e t h e air-flow was s t a r t e d .
A i r velocities o f 3 8 fps s h o u l d b e a d e q u a t e t o c o n v e y fruits
h o r i z o n t a l l y i n a t u b e . N o tests w e r e r u n w i t h e l b o w s i n t h e
system.
Previous work by the a u t h o r s has indicated that g e r m i n a t i o n
a n d v i g o r o f s u g a r b e e t seeds m a y b e r e d u c e d w h e n fruits a r e
s u b j e c t e d to i m p a c t - l o a d s of 25 g r a m - c e n t i m e t e r s . If a f r u i t (12.5
m i l l i g r a m s ) a t t a i n e d a velocity of 38 fps, it w o u l d h a v e an i m p a c t e n e r g y of 8.6 g r a m - c e n t i m e t e r s . T h i s is well b e l o w t h e 25 g r a m c e n t i m e t e r e n e r g y level w h i c h i s d e t r i m e n t a l .
R.
KAUPKE1
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5, A P R I L
463
1965
F i g u r e 1.Assemblies
a subsurface b l a d e .
for d i r e c t i n j e c t i o n
(left)
and
injection over
464
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Table 1.Orifice data and application rates.
1
2
Average of 4 orifices.
Based on overall coverage and 1 inch effective width per orifice.
VOL.
13,
No.
5,
APRIL
1965
465
466
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Literature Cited
(1) ANTOGNINI, J. 1960. Soil incorporation of herbicides. Proc. California
Weed Conf. 112-114.
(2) ARYA, S. V. and G. E. PICKARD. 1958. Penetration of liquid jets in soil.
Agricultural Engineering 39(1): 16-19, 23.
(3) CARTER, L. M. and J. H. MILLER. 1961. Progress report on experimental
equipment for soil incorporation of herbicides. Proc. California Weed
Conf. 78-82.
(4) CYKLER, J. F. and R. T. TRIBBLE. 1961. Principles of injection soil
fumigation. Transactions of the ASAE 4 ( 1 ) : 199 202.
(5)
1963.
Effect of incorpora-
NOTES
SECTION
468
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
JOURNAL
of the
American Society of Sugar
Beet Technologists
Volume 13
Number 6
July 1965
Published
quarterly
by
A m e r i c a n Society of S u g a r Beet T e c h n o l o g i s t s
Office of t h e Secretary
P . O . B o x 538
F o r t Collins, C o l o r a d o 80521
Subscription
$4.50
$5.00
$1.25
$ 1.40
per
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per
per
year,
year,
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prices:
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foreign
domestic
foreign
M a d e in t h e U n i t e d States of America
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Author
A d d i t i o n a l hosts of the beet
Aphanomyces cochlioides Drechs
Xhe Findlay
system
flume
and
water
condenser
mold
of
sugar
469
S. L. Force
478
/. B. Stark
492
H. G. Walker, Jr.
B. A. Ricci
J. C. Goodwin
503
C. S. Baldwin
C. E.
Broadwell
J. F. Davis
509
water
C. L. Schneider
beet
P r o d u c t i o n practices affecting y i e l d a n d
sugar c o n t e n t of sugar beets g r o w n in O n tario, C a n a d a 1 9 6 1 a n d 1962
523
470
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
described method (13). Concentration of zoospores was determined with a bright-line counting chamber.
In order to reduce the likelihood of seedling infection by
seed-borne fungi, seeds of most of the species included in inoculation tests were soaked in an aqueous suspension of ethyl mercury
phosphate (1000 ppm) for 20 minutes, rinsed in r u n n i n g tap
water for 30 minutes, then dried.
Bioassays to determine the occurrence of A. cochlioides in
plants exposed to the fungus were conducted as follows: Small
pieces of hypocotyls and roots were immersed in a shallow layer
of sterile water in Syracuse dishes and incubated at 20-25 C.
T h e presence of A. cochlioides was indicated by the production
of characteristic zoosporangia protruding from the tissues after
approximately 16 hours, and by characteristic oospores or oogonia
within the tissues. Identification was based on descriptions published by Drechsler (5) and Scott (4).
Host Range Survey
Seedlings of 98 species representing 40 plant families were
exposed to zoospores of A. cochlioides in a series of tests. Included were many of the important crops and weeds of the Great
Lakes region. In each test, seedlings of a highly susceptible
sugar beet variety were included as a check on the infection
potential of the zoospore inoculum.
Fifty-three species were first subjected to an extremely rigorous laboratory test. Seeds were germinated on moist blotting
paper in petri dishes or glass jars. After germination, 20 ml
water containing approximately 25,000 zoospores were poured
into each dish or jar containing the seedlings and were decanted
2 days later. W i t h i n 3 days after exposure to zoospores, susceptible
seedlings began to d a m p off. Although the extremely artificial
environment doubtlessly predisposed plants of susceptible species
to infection, the laboratory test was useful in that it provided
a relatively quick method of isolating nonsusceptible species.
All species susceptible in the laboratory test were included
in subsequent inoculation tests in the greenhouse. Also included
were 48 species that were not tested previously in the laboratory.
Plants were grown in 4-inch pots of steam-sterilized soil. When
seedlings were emerging, 50 ml of water containing approximately 150,000 zoospores were poured into the soil of each pot.
Total n u m b e r of blighted seedlings was determined approximately 30 days after exposure to zoospores. These included plants
with root rot and plants that had damped off.
Seedlings of 30 species in the following families became
blighted when exposed to A. cochlioides zoospores in the greenhouse: Aizoaceae, Amaranthaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Hydrophyl-
VOL.
13,
No.
6,
JULY
1965
471
laceae, L i n a c e a e , P a p a v e r a c e a e , P o r t u l a c a c e a e , a n d S o l a n a c e a e
( T a b l e 1). Species s u s c e p t i b l e i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y test w e r e also
s u s c e p t i b l e i n t h e g r e e n h o u s e test.
Species s u s c e p t i b l e to artificial e x p o s u r e s of t h e p a t h o g e n
w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y g r o w n i n t h e g r e e n h o u s e o r f i e l d i n soil
n a t u r a l l y infested w i t h A. cochlioides. P l a n t s w i t h s y m p t o m s of
damping-off, w i l t i n g , r o o t r o t , a n d d i s c o l o r a t i o n o f t h e l o w e r
s t e m w e r e bioassayed for t h e p r e s e n c e of A. cochlioides.
A.
cochlioides was i d e n t i f i e d in p l a n t s of 19 species, besides Beta
vulgaris, t h a t w e r e g r o w n in n a t u r a l l y infested soil ( T a b l e 1).
P u r e c u l t u r e s of A. cochlioides w e r e isolated f r o m Chenopodium
album,
Spinacia
oleracea,
Tetragonia
expansa,
Mollugo
verticillata a n d Saponaria ocymoides a n d w e r e p a t h o g e n i c on s u g a r
b e e t seedlings i n g r e e n h o u s e i n o c u l a t i o n tests.
A. cochlioides was n o n p a t h o g e n i c on t h e following; species:
A s c l e p i a d a c e a e , Asclepsis syriaca L . ;
B a l s a m i n a c e a e , Impatiens
balsamina L.; B o r a g i n a c e a e , Anchusa azurea M i l l . ; C o m p o s i t a e ,
Ambrosia trifida L., Aster macrophyllus L.,
Calendula
officinalis
L., Carthamus tinctorius L., Solidago sp., Tagetes sp., Zinnia sp.;
Convolvulaceae,
Ipomoea
purpurea
Lam.;
Cruciferae,
Alyssum
saxatile L., Brassica arvensis (L.)
R a b e n h , B. rapa L., Lepidium
virginicum
L., Raphanus sativus L., Thlaspi
arvense
L.; Cuc u r b i t a c e a e , Cucumis melo L., C.
sativus
L., E u p h o r b i a c e a e ,
Euphorbia serpyllifolia Pers., Ricinus communis L.;
Geraniaceae,
Geranium sp.; G r a m i n e a e , Avena sativa L., Echinochloa crusgalli
(L.)
B e a u v . , Hordeum vulgare L., Secale cereale L.; Setaria
glauca L. (Beauv.), Zea mays L., L a b i a t a e , Monarda fistulosa L . ;
Leouminoseae,
Astragulus
canadensis L., Medicago
sativa
L.,
Melilotus alba Desr., Pisum sativum L., Glycine max
(L.)
Merr.,
Trifolium pratense L.; L i l i a c e a e , Allium cepa L.;
Malvaceae,
Althaea
rosea C a v . ;
Nyctaginaceae,
Abronia
umbellata
Lam.,
Mirabilis jalapa L . ; O n a g r a c e a e , Clarkia elegans D o u g l . ; P e d a l iaceae, Sesamum indicum L . ; P i n a c e a e , Pinus banksiana L a m b . ;
P l a n t a g i n a c e a e , Plantago
major L.;
P l u m b a g i n a c e a e , Armeria
pseud-armeria
Mansfeld;
Polemoniaceae,
Phlox
drummondii
Hook;
P o l y g o n a c e a e , Fagopyrum esculentum M o e n c h , Polygonum
erectum L., P. pensyIvanicum L., P. persicaria L., Rumex crispus
L.,
R.
mexicanus
Meisn.;
Primulaceae, Anagallis
linifolia
L.,
R a n u n c u l a c e a e , Delphinium ajacis L.; R o s a c e a e , Geum chiloense
Balbis,
Potentilla
arguta
Pursh;
Scrophulariaceae,
Verbascum
thapsus L . ; S o l a n a c e a e , Lycopersicon esculentum M i l l . , Nicotiana
rustica
L.
Petunia
hybrida
Vilm.,
Solanum
melongena
var.
esculentum N e e s ;
Tropealaceae,
Tropeolum
majus L . ;
Umbellferae, Anethum graveolens L . ;
Urticaceae,
Urtica gracilis A i t . ;
V e r b e n a c e a e , Verbena hybrida Voss; V i o l a c e a e , Viola tricolor L.
Table 1. Reaction of 30 plant species to artificial and natural exposures of Aphanomyces cochlioides.
1
2
Authorities for scientific and common names are: Bailey (1), Engler and Prantl (7) and Fernald (8).
Symptoms confined to a slight discoloration of the roots.
474
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
LSD (P = .05)
36.3
Includes plants damped off and those with root rot.
Results expressed as mean of two 4-inch pots. Percentage data were converted to degrees
for statistical analysis.
1
2
V O L . 13, N o . 6, J U L Y 1965
475
LSD (P = .05)
N.S.
Sub-cultures from single zoospores are designated by a capital letter following the culture number.
2
Results expressed as mean of 4 pots. Incidence and severity of disease expressed as a
single percentage value transformed to degrees for statistical analysis.
1
Discussion
A. cochlioides h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d to o c c u r in soils in w h i c h
crops o f s u g a r b e e t s a p p a r e n t l y h a v e n e v e r b e e n g r o w n (4). S o m e
of t h e c o m m o n w e e d s s h o w n to be hosts of A. cochlioides including
Chenopodium
album,
Amaranthus
blitoides,
A.
retroflexus a n d Mollugo verticillata m a y well a i d in t h e s u r v i v a l of
the f u n g u s i n a g r i c u l t u r a l soils. A r e p o r t e d i n c r e a s e i n i n c i d e n c e
476
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
COONS,
G.
H., J.
E.
KOTILA
and H.
W.
BOCKSTAHLER.
1946.
Black
root of sugar beets and possibilities for its control. Proc. Am. Soc.
Sugar Beet Technol. 4: 364-380.
V O L . 13, N o . 6, J U L Y 1965
477
L.
FORCE 1
V O L . 13, N o . 6, J U L Y 1965
479
480
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VOL.
13,
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JULY
1965
481
9 . F r o m t h e m a i n w a t e r s u m p t h e clarified a n d spray-cooled
flume water is p u m p e d to the "main water tank," which
s u p p l i e s all t h e c o n d e n s e r s a n d o t h e r m i s c e l l a n e o u s uses
not r e q u i r i n g clean water.
10. T h e c o n d e n s e r w a t e r i s c o l l e c t e d i n seal t a n k s a n d p i p e d
to the "flume water tank".
11. T h i s c o n d e n s e r w a t e r i s t h e n p u m p e d t o t h e f l u m e s b y t h e
4 0 0 0 g p m f l u m e w a t e r p u m p t o c o m p l e t e t h e closed system
cycle.
N o n e o f t h e r e c y c l e d w a t e r e n t e r s t h e s u g a r - m a k i n g process.
Diffuser s u p p l y m a k e - u p c o m e s f r o m a fresh well w a t e r c i r c u i t
which serves a s c o o l i n g w a t e r for crystallizers, p u m p j a c k e t s a n d
other uses r e q u i r i n g c l e a n , c o l d w a t e r . T h i s i s t h e n d i r e c t e d
i n t o t h e process w a t e r a s diffuser m a k e - u p w a t e r . Excess well
and city w a t e r n o t r e q u i r e d for m a k e - u p i s sent t o t h e B l a n c h a r d
River. T h i s i s p e r m i s s i b l e since t h i s excess well w a t e r d o e s n o t
contain a n y p o l l u t a n t s a n d p r e v e n t s a n u n d e s i r a b l e v o l u m e
b u i l d - u p i n t h e recycle system.
W a t e r accumulating in the sludge a n d lime ponds is reused
in t h e system t h u s e l i m i n a t i n g a b u i l d - u p of w a t e r f r o m t h e s e
sources.
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
In the early summer the lagoon water is p u m p e d at a controlled rate of 150 gpm during the hours from 6:00 pm to 6:00
am to the Municipal Sewage Plant. T h e r e is a waste water
disposal contract with the city with a service fee figured on the
basis of pounds of B O D and suspended solids passing through
the city disposal system.
As would be expected, the BOD and suspended solids are
subject to wide variations. In October and early November the
BOD is generally around 700 ppm. By the end of the operating
season, approximately the 1st of January, the B O D approaches
2600 ppm, total solids range from 1500 to 2000 ppm, the water
temperature is 1C and the pH approximately 6.5. By midMarch the water temperature is 8C, pH 7.7 and the B O D 700
ppm. W h e n the final wastes are retained until June 1st, BOD's
as low as 70 ppm have been obtained with water temperature
approximately 16C and a pH in the neighborhood of 7.7.
No serious odor problems have been encountered by holding
the waste waters until late May. For a short period in March
odors are noticeable downwind from the ponds for a distance
of about 200 ft, b u t about two weeks later they become less
noticeable. T h e odors emanating from the lime pond, the mud
pond and the spray pond are always a great deal more pronounced than from water stored in the excess water pond. Longer
retention time d u r i n g warm weather reduces the discharge costs.
T h e total volume of water delivered to the city treatment
plant varies from a low of 1,616,700 gal in 1958 to a high of
6,446,100 gal in 1959. T h e system is estimated to hold 9,500,000
gal.
T h e Findlay system originally went into operation during
the 1956-57 campaign. T h e contract with the city called for
payment of $20 per 100 lb of B O D disposed through the city
system. Immediately prior to the 1961-62 campaign the contract
was revised, and service charges are presently $16 per 100 lb BOD
in excess of 200 ppm and $12.50 per 100 lb of suspended solids
in excess of 240 ppm. Fifty per cent is then added to the bill
because the factory is outside the city limits.
T a b l e 1 shows the volumes treated and the costs for the past
nine years. T h e 1955-56 data was included to show a comparison
between the old and new systems. T h e treatment costs up to
the 1961-62 sugar year were based on the B O D average for the
preceding year. For the first year a B O D of 1500 was assumed.
It is interesting to note the a m o u n t of water p u m p e d to the
treatment plant d u r i n g the operating season. W i t h proper inplant water use and control, it is not necessary to unload the
system d u r i n g campaign. D u r i n g the 1963-64 campaign, the
Table 1.Nine-year costs and volumes treated, Findlay flume and condenser water system.
484
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V O L . 13, N o . 6, J U L Y 1965
485
486
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Table 3.Average figures on Fremont waste water in the lagoons for the campaign and the discharge period.
* B.O.D. samples heavily diluted with water pumped into lagoon from flooded area.
Table 4.BOD, suspended solids, dissolved solids, temperature and pH on the spray pond, Findlay, Ohio, Intercampaign.
*BOD determined actually 42 and 38 respectively. These results were incorrect because the ponds now contain dissolved oxygen which we failed to
consider.
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
A word of explanation might be in order regarding the techniques used and the
interpretation of this data. One hundred millileter samples were collected on June 10,
1964 in sterile bottles. Serial dilutions of 100. 1000, and 10,000 were made and plated for
a colony count on nutrient agar. Also. 0.1, 1.0, and 10ml samples were inoculated into
lactose broth. This is a method of approximating the numbers of coliform organisms based
on statistical probability. It also constitutes a presumptive test for the presences of the
coliform organisims. After 24 hours, samples were taken from the positive lactose broth
tubes and streaked on EMB agar. After an additional 24 hours, all plates showed the
presence of Escherichia coli. This test is considered a confirmation test in the standard
analysis of water supplies.
The plate count shows the numbers of bacteria to be verv high in the spray pond with
fewer bacteria per millileter in the lime and excess water ponds.
The most significant aspect of this analvsis is the LARGE NUMBERS of coliform organisms, particularly E. coli. This means that this water is heavily polluted from a Mater
sanitation viewpoint. It does not mean that these impoundments were necessarily contaminated directly with domestic sewage. Although the human colon is the primary source
of the coliform organisms in nature, these organisms are not necessarily parasites but can
establish themselves wherever the proper conditions of nutrients, temperature, etc. prevail.
It does mean however, that these bodies of water are of a potential danger to domestic
sources of drinking water if the water is not treated or disposed of in the proper way.
* Using lactose broth which is a presumptive test for the coliform group of bacteria.
** Using EMB agar which is selective for Escherichia coli.
Data by Dr. John W. McClymont, Professor of Botany and Bacteriology, Findlay College,
Findlay, Ohio.
T a b l e 4 shows B O D , suspended solids, dissolved solids, temperature and pH on the spray pond with comments from the
end of campaign through J u n e 17, 1964. T a b l e 5 shows the same
data on the excess water pond. T h i s is the first time the ponds
have been closely checked after campaign and prior to discharge.
T h e r e were some surprising rapid changes: the marked increase
in filterability of the waste water on May 27, which coincided
with the appearance of the green algae on the spray pond; the
disappearance of the green algae d u r i n g the week ending June
V O L . 13, N o . 6, J U L Y 1965
491
B.
STARK 1
V O L . 13, N o . 6, J U L Y 1965
493
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
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No.
6, J U L Y
495
1965
Total g
1
Glucose
Sucrose purity
R u n 21
Run 1
Run 2
Run 1
Run 2
2.0
2.5
19.7
26.3
23.8
13.3
8.1
4.0
2.0
0.7
0.3
188.4
19.0
25.6
26.5
15.3
6.3
3.5
1.0
0.2
0.2
0.9
6.5
0.0
0.3
4.0
16.4
22.9
21.4
16.3
9.5
4.0
1.9
188.8
13.5
27.3
33.5
17.1
3.6
0.5
92.1
95.5
80.1
59.1
36.7
27.3
19.7
17.4
14.5
15.5
99.0
98.6
86.3
65.9
35.6
15.7
17.0
21.1
32.0
Run 1
203.6
201.6
A series of e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e c o n d u c t e d u s i n g X-12 r e s i n at
25C a n d 9 0 C a n d X-4 r e s i n a t 9 0 C . D i l u t e b e e t molasses, 4 0
RDS, was l o a d e d o n t h e l a r g e c o l u m n c o n t a i n i n g X-12 r e s i n
and w a s h e d t h r o u g h w i t h w a t e r a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e r e sults o f t h i s e x p e r i m e n t a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e 2.1 a n d g r a p h e d
i n F i g u r e 2 . T h e c u r v e s for ash a r e o m i t t e d i n t h i s a n d o t h e r
496
JOURNAL OF THE A. S.
S.
B.
T.
Fraction
Sucrose
Nonsucrose
solids
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Total g
2.6
16.9
24.6
23.0
16.7
9.8
4.0
1.6
0.6
262.0
3.3
15.9
21.8
21.8
18.5
11.4
4.9
1.9
0.5
132.3
Nitrogen
Amino
ni trogen
Ash
Chloride
Purity
2.0
9.7
13.6
17.7
18.8
16.9
11.9
6.9
2.5
1.2
3.3
18.8
26.8
22.8
16.0
9.1
2.6
0.5
0.0
56.4
2.2
15.5
27.2
26.2
18.1
8.3
2.1
0.3
0.0
8.4
61.5
67.8
69.1
67.6
64.2
63.1
61.8
62.6
69.9
4.7
10.6
15.7
20.4
20.2
15.2
8.2
3.7
1.3
7.9
Fraction
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Total
Sucrose
Reducing
sugars
2.9
17.2
22.2
19.1
18.1
11.7
5.7
1.7
0.8
0.5
148.7
0.6
3.4
8.5
13.4
17.1
19.0
17.0
11.3
6.3
3.5
98.9
Solids less
sucrose &
red. sugars
6.0
20.6
22.2
20.7
13.5
9.9
4.5
1.3
0.7
0.6
124.7
Nitrogen
Chloride
Purity
6.7
18.7
19 3
16.7
14.0
10.0
5.3
3.3
3.3
27
2.4
2.1
17.3
25.3
23.4
18.7
11.6
1.4
.1
35-1
46.9
47.8
42.1
44.3
35.9
27.2
16.7
IS.8
16.2
9.5
497
0.2
6.0
19.0
27.3
30.2
17.4
3.9
14.8
23.9
28.2
23.3
4.5
1.0
0.5
2.3
Total g
75.4
1
Arbitrary color units at 425 m.
0.2
.05
16.2
23.8
26.3
23.2
7.7
1.7
0.4
37.4
0.2
3.7
10.6
16.7
21.1
26.5
15.3
4.1
1.9
2.3
5.6
16.8
25.9
30.5
20.5
0.7
0.1
3.1
8.9
12.5
15.6
21.1
20.6
12.7
5.5
15.2
.4
0.6
13.0
24.5
30.0
19.3
9.1
2.0
0.9
0.6
50.71
64.8
66.9
68.4
67.0
53.8
55.6
498
JOURNAL OF THE A.
S.
S.
B.
T.
Fraction
Sucrose
Reducing
sugars
Solids less
sucrose &
reducing
sugars
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Total g
0.0
4.4
19.1
26.4
27.9
18.0
3.4
0.7
0.1
42.7
0.0
1.0
2.4
7.1
18.5
32.2
29.7
7.9
1.4
31.0
0.2
9.7
22.4
26.3
23.8
12.7
3.2
1.2
0.5
38.5
total
Chloride
7.1
23.5
29.2
28.4
11.7
0.1
2.8
Nitrogen
Color
Purity
0.4
12.1
22.5
25.0
21.4
10.7
4.2
2.3
1.6
0.6
0.2
15.9
27.8
29.3
20.3
5.4
0.5
0.3
0.3
327.6 1
0.0
31.6
46.5
47.8
44.5
34.1
12.3
8.8
7.7
VOL.
13, N o . 6, J U L Y 1965
499
Fraction
Sucrose
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
0.6
3.9
12.1
21.9
29.5
19.6
12-1
0.2
Total g
76.2
Chloride
0.2
1.7
5.9
11.6
16.8
22.1
29.7
12-0
2-3
Nonsucrose
solids
Nitrogen
Amino
nitrogen
Color
Ash
Purity
0.3
3-0
6.9
10.7
14.3
17.0
19-6
11.7
8.4
6.8
1.2
0.4
2.3
4.8
7.4
10.1
11.7
13.2
14.7
16.9
14.5
3.8
0.1
1.6
4.3
7.2
9.8
12-1
12-7
19.0
11.8
12.4
9-2
1.7
10.1
15.0
19.2
21.7
15.5
7.0
6.4
2.4
0.8
0.3
0.3
2.9
7.3
12.6
16.9
21-1
25.8
11.6
1.1
0.3
0.1
9.1
34.3
57.4
68.0
82.7
81.5
77.0
27.6
2-2
0.3
48.7 1
15.0
40.2
Most i m p u r i t i e s are e l u t e d before t h e m a x i m u m sucrose concentration, b u t some a p p e a r later. I m p u r i t i e s eluted later are
p r i n c i p a l l y a m i n o acids a n d o t h e r n i t r o g e n c o n t a i n i n g c o m pounds.
T h i s e x p e r i m e n t was r e p e a t e d u s i n g c a n e molasses, ( T a b l e
5 a n d F i g u r e 5). M o r e t h a n 6 5 % o f t h e s u c r o s e was e l u t e d a t
68 purity or higher. T h i s purity is a considerable i m p r o v e m e n t
over t h a t o b t a i n e d u s i n g X-12 a t 9 0 C w h e r e t h e best f r a c t i o n
h a d a 4 8 p u r i t y . I t i s likely t h a t t h e s u b s t a n c e s s h o w n i n t h e
Table 5.Purification of cane molasses at 90C using Dowex 50 W(K) X-4.
Percent of total
Solids less
sucrose &
Fraction
Sucrose
sugars
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
0.1
1.0
6.7
17.8
32.9
34.0
7.5
0.1
0.8
1.1
1.5
1.5
3.8
19.8
36.9
30.1
4.3
Total g
45.6
30.5
sugars
Chloride
Nitrogen
Ash
Color
Purity
1.3
6.8
11.5
16.2
18.9
19.0
16.2
2-9
2.9
2.4
1.1
0.8
0.4
2.4
7.6
15.1
22.1
28.4
23.7
0.1
1.6
8.8
14.5
17.6
17.9
13.8
11.6
6.3
3.5
2.5
1.9
0.7
4.2
10.3
16.7
22.3
23.9
20.6
0.6
0.3
0.2
0.2
3.8
12-3
18.4
21.8
27.2
7.1
6.0
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.4
1.4
6.6
29.3
52.3
68.1
68.6
21.7
O.3
36.3
2.8
0.6
15.9
323.0 1
500
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13,
No.
6,
JULY
1965
501
Conclusions
E x a m i n a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t s of these e x p e r i m e n t s i n d i c a t e s
t h a t X-4 r e s i n a t 9 0 C gives t h e best p u r i f i c a t i o n . U n d e r these
c o n d i t i o n s 5 0 % o f t h e sucrose i n b e e t molasses was s e p a r a t e d
a t 8 0 p u r i t y o r h i g h e r . O n a c o m m e r c i a l scale these fractions
could be r e t u r n e d to i n t e r m e d i a t e pans using liquors of this
p u r i t y for crystallization a n d sucrose recovery. F r a c t i o n 16, 77
purity, containing 1 2 % of the sugar could be r e t u r n e d to the
low r a w p a n s b u t fractions 12-13 c o n t a i n i n g 3 4 % o f t h e s u g a r
a r e o f s u c h low p u r i t y t h a t u n d e r p r e s e n t p r a c t i c e t h e y s h o u l d
n o t b e r e t u r n e d t o t h e s u g a r e n d o f t h e factory. M o s t o f t h e
s u g a r i n t h e s e fractions m a y b e r e c o v e r e d b y u s i n g t h e m t o d i l u t e
fresh molasses for t h e n e x t c o l u m n l o a d . The i m p u r i t i e s ret u r n e d t o t h e s u g a r e n d w o u l d o f c o u r s e f o r m s o m e molasses
a n d l a t e r b e recycled t h r o u g h t h e c o l u m n . U s i n g i o n e x c l u s i o n
i t w o u l d n o t b e necessary t o o b t a i n o n l y h i g h l y p u r i f i e d fractions.
H i g h p u r i t y fractions w o u l d b e r e t u r n e d t o t h e s u g a r e n d o f
t h e factory for c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d crystallization, fractions h i g h
i n salts a n d l o w i n sucrose w o u l d b e d i s c a r d e d , a n d fractions
i n t e r m e d i a t e i n p u r i t y w o u l d b e used t o d i l u t e fresh molasses
a n d recycled o n t h e c o l u m n .
X h e r e s u l t s o f these e x p e r i m e n t s show t h a t static i o n e x c l u s i o n
c o l u m n s of D o w e x 50 W ( 4 % D V B , 50-100 m e s h , K) c a n be
used t o r e c o v e r sucrose f r o m b e e t a n d c a n e molasses a n d i n v e r t
from c a n e molasses.
O p e r a t i o n o f t h e c o l u m n s a t 9 0 C gives t h e best overall
s e p a r a t i o n o f molasses c o n s t i t u e n t s , t h e h i g h e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n
of solids, a n d l o w e r s t h e possibility of f e r m e n t a t i o n t a k i n g p l a c e
d u r i n g purification.
Acknowledgment
X h e a u t h o r wishes t o t h a n k t h e f o l l o w i n g p e o p l e for a n alytical d e t e r m i n a t i o n s : M r . E . F . P o t t e r ( r e d u c i n g s u g a r s a n d
sucrose) a n d M r . H . W r i g h t (solids, ash, t o t a l n i t r o g e n , a n d
a m i n o n i t r o g e n ) . X h e a u t h o r i s i n d e b t e d t o t h e Spreckels S u g a r
Company a n d to California and Hawaiian Sugar Refining C o r p o r a t i o n for s a m p l e s of b e e t a n d c a n e refiners molasses.
Reference to a c o m p a n y or p r o d u c t n a m e does n o t imply
approval or recommendation of the product by the U . S . Department of Agriculture to the exclusion of others that may be
suitable.
(1)
L i t e r a t u r e Cited
W H E A T O N , R. M. a n d W. C. B A U M A N . 1953. Ion exclusion: A u n i t
o p e r a t i o n utilizing ion e x c h a n g e materials. I n d . E n g . C h e m . 4 5 :
228-233.
502
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
1954.
Ion exclusioncolumn
fication of sugar juices. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 12: 363370.
(10) HIGGINS, I. R. U. S. patent 2,815,322 (1957) [C.A. 52: 4076 (1958)].
(11) JONES, J. K. N.; R. A. W A L L and A. O. PITTET.
1959.
Separation of
1196.
1960.
T h e separation
G.
WALKER, JR.,
Received
B.
A.
RICCI
for publication
August
AND J .
20,
C.
GOODWIN1
1964
Western Regional Research Laboratory, Western Utilization Research and Development Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Albany,
California.
2
Numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited.
3
Brinkman Instruments, Inc., Westbury, N. Y.; Research Specialties Co., Richmond,
California.
4
Johns Manville, New York, N. Y.
504
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13,
No.
6,
JULY
1965
505
506
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
507
1965
(1)
Literature Cited
BOBBITT, J. M. 1963. T h i n Layer Chromatography. Reinhold P u b lishing Corporation, New York, 208 p p .
(2)
CARRUTHERS,
(3)
A.,
and
J.
F.
T.
OLDFIELD.
1961.
Methods
for
the
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
508
(4)
(5)
(6a)
V.,
H.
BERBALK
and
M.
KRAUSE.
1961.
Die
Dunnschicht-
PREY, V.,
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
W.
BRAUNSTEINER,
R.
GOLLER and
F.
STRESSLER-BUCHWEIN.
1961. Dunnschicht-Chromatographie,
S.
BALDWIN,
C.
E.
BROADWELL
AND
J.
F.
DAVIS2
1
Contribution of the Soil Science Department of Michigan State University, the
Western Ontario Agricultural School, and the Canada and Dominion Sugar Company, Ltd.
Authorized for publication by the Director as Journal Article No. 3390 of the Michigan
Agr. Expt. Sta., E. Lansing, Mich. Partial requirement of the senior author for fulfillment2 of the Ph.D. degree.
Graduate student in Soil Science, Michigan State University and Chief Instructor and
Extension Specialist, Western Ontario Agricultural School; and Research Supervisor, Canada
and Dominion Sugar Company; and Professor of Soil Science, Michigan State University,
respectively.
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
510
8. Pounds seed per acre (whole). 0-0.9, 1.0-1.9, 2-0-2.9, 3.0-3.9, 4.0-4.9, 5.0-5.9,
6.0-6.9, 7.0-7.9, over 7.9.
9. Pounds seed per acre. Combination (whole-processed-monogerm). 0-0.5, 0.6-0.9,
1.0-1.4, 1.5-1.9, 2.0-2.4, 2.5-2.9, 3.0-3.4, 3.5-3.9, 4.0-4.5, over 4.5.
10. Previous crop (1st year). Corn, vegetables, beans, wheat, spring grain, clover,
alfalfa, sweet clover, grass sod, tobacco, beets, potatoes, others.
11. Legumes preceding years. 1st year, 2nd year, 3rd year, none.
12. Manure application (tons per acre). 1-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15-19, over 19, none.
13. Manure and year of application. 1963, 1962, 1961, 1960, 1959, 1958, 1957, none.
14. Plowing practice. Fall, spring, none.
15. Depth of plowing (inches). Less than 3.9, 4.0-5.9, 6.0-7.9, 8.0-9.9, 10.0-11.9, over
12.0, not plowed.
16. Soil test. Yes, no.
17. Soil test recommendation followed. Yes, no, partly.
18. Times worked between plowing and planting. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. 9, over 9.
19. Fertilizer application method. Plow down, broadcast, drill, combination.
20. Pounds fertilizer with drill (pounds per acre). None, 1-99, 100-199, 200-299, 300399, 400-499, 500-599, 600-699, 700 and over.
21. Total pounds fertilizer used (pounds per acre). None, 1-199, 200-399, 400-599,
600-799, 800-999, 1000-1199, 1200-1399, 1400 and over.
22. Fertilizer ratio used with drill. O-x-x, 1-1-1, 1-2-3, 1-3-1, 1-4-2, 1-4-4, 16-5,
1-6-3, others.
23. Nitrogen material used. Ammonium nitrate, urea, anhydrous ammonia, nitrateurea, aqua ammonia, cyanamid, others, none, combination.
24. Nitrogen application method. Pre-plant, side-dress, combination, none.
25. Time of side-dressing nitrogen. Before June 1, June 1-14, June 15-30, July 1-14,
July 15-31, August 1-14, August 15 and later, no side-dressing.
26. Total pounds per acre nitrogen used. 0-19, 20-39, 40-49, 50-59. 60-69, 70-79, 8089, 90-99, 100-119, 120 or more.
27. Total pounds per acre phosphate (P 2 O 5 ) used. 0-49, 50-74, 75-99, 100 124, 125149, 150-174, 175-199, 200-224, 225-249, 250 or more.
28. Total pounds per acre potash (K2O) used. 0-24, 25-49, 50-74, 75-99, 100-124, 125149, 150-174, 175-199, 200-224, 225 or more.
29. Date of planting, actual planting date or average planting date, e.g. Mar. 1-31,
Apr. 1-30, May 1-31, June 1-30.
30. Row width (inches). Less than 22, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32. 34, 36, 38 and over.
31- Date of harvest. Before Oct. 1, Oct. 1-7, Oct. 8-14, Oct. 15-21, Oct. 22-28, Oct.
29-Nov. 4, Nov. 5-11, Nov. 12-18, after Nov. 18.
32. Minor elements. No minor elements, boron, manganese, sodium, magnesium, zinc,
others, combination.
33. Acres harvested.
34. Total tons beets.
35. Percent sugar.
36. Total tons sugar.
37. County. Eight counties.
38. Townships. Eighty townships.
39. Tons per acre beets.
40. Date planted. Before Mar. 21, Mar. 21-30, Apr. 1-10, Apr. 11-20, Apr. 21-30, Mav
1-10, May 11-20, May 21-30, May 31-June 9, after June 9.
VOL.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
13, N o .
6, J U L Y
1965
511
Results a n d Discussion
D a t a for 1961 a n d 1962 a r e p r e s e n t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e
weighted averages for t h e t w o years. Unless otherwise stated,
the discussion a c c o m p a n y i n g each table p e r t a i n s to t h e w e i g h t e d
averages. A p p r o x i m a t e l y 80 p e r c e n t of t h e acreage of beets is
grown on fine-textured soils. T h e r e f o r e , possibly m o r e confidence can be placed on results from these soils. H o w e v e r , w h e r e
results from coarse-textured soils a r e p r e s e n t e d sufficient acreage
exists so t h a t r e a s o n a b l e confidence is assured.
In O n t a r i o , fall p l o w i n g is the accepted practice on t h e finet e x t u r e d soils. R e s u l t s from this survey ( T a b l e 1) t e n d to s u b stantiate this. H o w e v e r , such a practice is n o t t h e case w i t h
coarse-textured soils w h e r e s p r i n g p l o w i n g is t h e r e c o m m e n d e d
practice. T h e results, however, i n d i c a t e a similar t r e n d as on
the fine-textured soil, t h a t fall p l o w i n g is s u p e r i o r to s p r i n g
plowing insofar as t h e yield of beets a n d gross sugar a r e c o n cerned.
T h e c o m p a r i s o n of t h e d e p t h of p l o w i n g in T a b l e 2 indicates
that on b o t h t h e coarse- a n d t h e fine-textured soils t h e r e is a
tendency for t h e yield of beets a n d gross sugar to increase as
depth of p l o w i n g increases to 8 inches in d e p t h . On t h e finetextured soil this influence c o n t i n u e s to t h e 8 to 10 inch d e p t h .
The d e p t h of p l o w i n g d i d n o t affect t h e p e r c e n t sugar of roots
produced o n t h e coarse-textured soils b u t o n t h e f i n e - t e x t u r e d
soils t h e r e was a t r e n d for t h e p e r c e n t sugar to decrease w i t h
increasing d e p t h s of p l o w i n g .
Table 1.Beet yields and percent sugar as affected by time of plowing, 1961 and 1962.
1961
Plowing
practice
Acres
Sugar
Beets
T/A
Weighted average
1962
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Acres
Beets
T/A
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Total
acres
Beets
T/A
Sugar
15.88
15.69
16.34
5771
5405
5265
13,388
454
388
17.7
16.4
16.3
15.44
15.41
15.53
5475
5050
5048
15.39
15.48
15.54
5637
4893
5233
2732
1232
34
18.0
16.4
15.0
14.96
15.04
15.53
5386
4969
4658
Sugar
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Fine-textured soils
Fall
Spring
No
5881
182
305
17.1
15.1
16.3
14.88
14.98
15.31
5097
4519
4989
Fall
Spring
No
1148
531
16
17.5
17.1
12.9
14.36
14.45
15.51
5040
4937
4012
7507
272
83
18.2
17.2
16.1
Coarse-textured soils
1584
701
18
18.3
15.8
16.8
Table 2.Beet yields and percent sugar as affected by depth of plowing, 1961 and 1962.
1961
Depth of
plowing
inches
Acres
Beets
T/A
Weighted average
1962
Sugar
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Acres
Beets
T/A
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Total
acres
Beets
T/A
Sugar
16.07
15.79
15.62
5596
5889
5516
5205
7826
793
16.8
18.2
18.0
15.58
15.37
15.30
5285
5581
5519
15.70
15.24
16.00
4935
5716
4800
1660
2097
170
16.4
18.4
17.3
15.03
14.97
14.96
4923
5502
5177
Sugar
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Fine-textured soils
8.0
8.0-9.9
10.0-11.9
2365
3251
447
16.4
17.4
18.3
14.99
14.79
15.05
4912
5147
5522
8.0
8.0-9.9
10.0-11.9
777
709
156
17.2
17.6
17.5
14.26
14.44
14.87
4909
5082
5211
2840
4575
346
17.1
18.7
17.7
Coarse-textured soils
883
1388
14
15.7
18.8
15.0
VOL.
13,
No.
6, JULY
1965
513
Table 3.Beet yields and percent sugar as affected by the number of times a field was worked prior to planting, 1961 and 1962. (Fine textured
oils)
19*2
1961
Acres
Beets
T/A
Sugar
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Acres
Beets
T/A
Weighted average
Sugar
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Total
acres
Beets
T/A
Sugar
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
154
19.4
14.43
5605
89
19.2
16.16
6202
243
19.3
15.06
386
16.6
14.60
4845
732
18.7
16.04
5996
1100
18.0
15.56
5611
1498
16.7
15.02
5007
1472
17.4
16.07
5595
2970
17.1
15.54
5298
1534
16.8
14.79
4976
1734
18.0
15.80
5696
3268
17.4
15.33
5358
1329
17.5
15.01
5243
2255
18.3
15.83
5780
3584
18.0
15.53
5581
864
17.2
14.90
5121
1106
18.6
15.78
5854
1970
18.0
15.39
5533
366
16.3
14.66
4791
265
17.4
15.71
5458
631
16.8
15.10
5071
5824
Table 4.Beet yields and percent sugar as affected by date of planting, 1961 and 1962.
1961
Date of
planting
Acres
Beets
T/A
Weighted average
1962
Sugar
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Acres
Beets
T/A
Sugar
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Total
acres
Beets
T/A
Sugar
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Coarse-textured soils
Apr. 1-10
April 11-20
133
20.2
13.77
5569
52
19.8
16.64
6584
185
20.1
14.58
5854
56
20.4
14.15
5796
702
18.8
15.67
5903
758
18.9
15.56
5895
56
18.9
15.12
5707
791
19.6
15.03
5905
847
19.6
15.04
5892
May 1-10
361
17.9
14.15
5062
320
13.3
15.59
4146
681
15.7
14.83
4632
May 11-20
758
16.6
14.68
4885
110
15.8
15.76
4965
868
16.5
14.82
4895
May 21-30
174
16.7
14.17
4724
68
12.4
15.86
3938
242
15.5
14.64
4503
After May 30
157
16.3
14.38
4675
260
14.5
15.33
4443
417
15.2
14.97
4530
5984
April 21-30
Fine-textured soils
Apr. 1-10
641
20.0
14.65
5871
666
19.5
15.65
6092
1307
19.8
15.16
Apr. 11-20
218
19.7
13.73
5416
3343
18.6
15.82
5872
3561
18.9
15.69
5844
Apr. 21-30
151
19.1
14.77
5633
2289
18.0
15.99
5765
2440
18.1
15.91
5757
5198
May 1-10
1068
17.5
14.94
5216
769
16.1
16.06
5173
1837
16.9
15.41
May 11-20
2801
16.4
14.90
4892
344
15.9
15.86
5041
3145
16.4
15.00
4908
May 21-30
1076
15.3
15.32
4676
62
13.4
16.27
4367
1138
15.2
15.37
4659
Table 5.Beet yields and percent sugar as affected by row width, 1961 and 1962.
1961
Row
width
inches
Acres
Weighted average
1962
Beets
T/A
Sugar
%
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
17.1
18.9
15.6
16.1
14.82
14.89
15.38
14.39
5055
5625
4793
4627
Acres
Beets
T/A
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
15.89
15.66
16.06
16.23
15.32
15.20
15.74
Sugar
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Total
acres
Beets
T/A
Sugar
5765
6018
5503
5316
9886
1899
2155
17.6
19.1
16.4
16.2
15.40
15.36
15.76
15.13
5441
5867
5190
4903
5806
5691
4564
2391
18.3
18.3
15.0
14.87
14.74
15.42
5465
5403
4625
Fine-textured soils
24
26
28
30
451?
731
951
129
5374
1168
1204
86
18.1
19.2
17.1
16.4
215
Coarse-textured soils
24
26
28
1111
230
349
17.7
17.8
16.1
14.35
14.14
14.77
5073
5028
4748
1280
300
712
18.9
18.7
14.5
530
1061
Table 6.Beet yields and percent sugar as affected by fertilizer application method. 1961 and 1962.
Acres
Beets
T/A
Weighted average
1962
Sugar
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Acres
Beets
T/A
Total
acres
Beets
T/A
Sugar
15.68
16.08
15.84
5571
5695
5824
2067
4720
7371
17.6
16.7
18.2
15.36
15.50
15.44
5411
5177
5630
15.67
15.89
15.25
5747
5129
5382
594
694
2703
18.0
15.8
17.7
15.39
15.26
14.84
5494
4869
5271
Sugar
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Fine-textured soils
923
2486
2920
17.4
15.7
18.0
14.97
14.99
14.82
5213
4711
5335
Broadcast
Drill
Combination
187
338
1163
16.7
15.7
17.9
14.77
14.59
14.30
4944
4595
5123
1144
2234
4451
17.8
17.7
18.4
<
Broadcast
Drill
Combination
Coarse-textured soils
407
356
1540
18.3
16.1
17.6
A.
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
OURNAL OF THE
1961
Fertilizer
application
method
VOL.
13, N O . 6, J U L Y
1965
517
below the seed. T h e broadcast m e t h o d seemed to h a v e an advantage over t h e drill m e t h o d insofar as t h e yield of beets a n d
gross sugar are c o n c e r n e d . H o w e v e r , t h e p e r c e n t sugar was
n o t influenced by t h e m e t h o d of fertilizer a p p l i c a t i o n . On
coarse-textured soils t h e greatest yield response o c c u r r e d w h e n
the fertilizer was broadcast. Broadcasting the fertilizer showed
a p r o n o u n c e d increase in t h e yield of beets a n d gross sugar
over t h e drill m e t h o d a n d a lesser response over t h e c o m b i n a t i o n
m e t h o d . O n t h e coarse-textured soils the p e r c e n t sugar a p p e a r e d
to be influenced by t h e m e t h o d of fertilizer application, with
the broadcast m e t h o d s h o w i n g t h e highest p e r c e n t sugar.
T h e effect of total p o u n d s of potash p e r acre a p p l i e d on
fine-textured soils on yields of roots a n d gross sugar is i n d i c a t e d
in T a b l e 7. V a r y i n g t h e rates of potash h a d virtually no influence
on t h e p e r c e n t sugar. H o w e v e r , t h e yield of beets a n d gross
sugar increased as t h e a m o u n t of potash increased over t h e
e n t i r e r a n g e of potash a p p l i c a t i o n . In O n t a r i o , it is generally
accepted t h a t most of t h e fine-textured soils in t h e beet area
are fairly well s u p p l i e d w i t h potassium; therefore, little response
to potash fertilization is a n t i c i p a t e d .
W i t h t h e coarse-textured soils, T a b l e 7, as with t h e finet e x t u r e d soils, t h e r e seems to be a p p r o x i m a t e l y the same general
t r e n d o c c u r r i n g w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n b e i n g t h a t possibly m i n o r
fluctuations exist in t h e p e r c e n t sugar.
A n i n t e r e s t i n g c o m p a r i s o n was o b t a i n e d o n t h e fine-textured
soils c o n c e r n i n g t h e m e t h o d of a p p l y i n g t h e n i t r o g e n fertilizer.
T h e r e s e e m e d to be little, if any, influence on t h e p e r c e n t sugar
d u e to t h e various m e t h o d s of a p p l y i n g t h e n i t r o g e n .
H o w e v e r , such was n o t t h e case w h e n t h e yield of beets a n d
gross sugar a r e considered. T h e pre-plant m e t h o d of a p p l y i n g
n i t r o g e n ( T a b l e 8) h a d a distinct a d v a n t a g e over t h e side-dress
m e t h o d or a c o m b i n a t i o n of m e t h o d s . T h e side-dress m e t h o d
had a c o n s i d e r a b l e a d v a n t a g e over t h e " c o m b i n a t i o n " m e t h o d .
On t h e coarse-textured soils t h e r e a p p e a r e d to be a r a t h e r
definite influence of t h e m e t h o d of fertilizer a p p l i c a t i o n on t h e
percent sugar. T h e same general t r e n d o c c u r r e d o n t h e coarset e x t u r e d soil as w i t h t h e fine-textured soil b u t was less well
defined.
T h e effect of t i m e of side-dressing n i t r o g e n is s h o w n in T a b l e
9. P r e s e n t r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s in O n t a r i o are t h a t n i t r o g e n s h o u l d
be side-dressed as early as possible b u t no later t h a n m i d - J u l y
due to t h e possibility of a r e d u c t i o n in sugar p e r c e n t that may
result. T h e results of this survey illustrate on fine-textured soil
that t h e r e seems to be no effect on the p e r c e n t sugar d u e to
any of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n times recorded. H o w e v e r , t h e yield of
Table 7.Beet yields and percent sugar as affected by total pounds KitO/acre, 1961 and 1962.
1961
Total Ki-0
Lbs/A
Weighted average
1962
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Sugar
Acres
0-24
545
15.5
14.84
4615
486
18.6
16.32
25 - 49
1657
15.7
15.11
4740
1571
17.0
16.00
50 - 74
1432
16.8
14.96
5022
1900
18.1
15.91
Acres
Beets
T/A
Sugar
Beets
T/A
Total
acres
Beets
T/A
Sugar
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
6075
1031
17.0
15.54
5303
5431
3228
16.3
15.54
5076
5758
3332
17.5
15.50
5442
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Fine-textured soils
75 99
1238
18.0
14.85
5343
1375
18.1
15.77
5912
2613
18.1
15.33
5642
100 - 124
955
18.3
14.82
5433
1769
17.8
15.81
5632
2724
18.0
15.46
5562
125 149
221
17.6
14.99
5279
15.62
6227
15.38
5865
17.6
15.11
5312
20.0
15.76
6291
18.9
15.45
5825
175 or more
173
21.2
13.81
5815
19.4
15.73
6080
578
309
415
19.0
147
357
162
242
19.9
150 - 174
20.2
14.93
5970
0-24
73
14.9
14.39
4290
30
18.0
15.80
5700
103
15.8
14.80
4701
2 5 - 49
357
16.2
14.71
4768
247
18.5
13.60
5025
604
17.1
14.26
4873
50 - 74
583
17.0
14.63
4983
299
16.9
15.82
5347
882
17.0
15.03
5106
Coarse-textured soils
75 - 99
139
17.9
14.60
5230
409
17.6
16.01
5641
548
17.7
15.72
5537
100 - 124
315
18.6
13.76
5114
567
17.2
15.58
5360
882
17.7
14.93
5272
125 - 149
136
20.0
14.45
5785
395
16.5
15.37
5086
531
17.4
15.13
5265
150 - 174
31
18.1
13.79
5000
188
18.3
15.65
5728
219
18.3
15.39
5625
175 or m o r e
61
16.3
13.64
4453
95
19.8
15.33
6048
156
18.4
14.67
5424
Table 8.Beet yields and percent sugar as affected by nitrogen application method, 1961 and 1962.
1961
Nitrogen
application
method
Pre-plant
Side-dress
Combination
Pre-plant
Side-dress
Combination
Acres
980
3820
85
365
902
62
Beets
T/A
Sugar
%
19.1
16.8
17.0
18.4
17.4
16.0
Weighted average
1962
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Sugar
%
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
14.77
14.97
15.26
Fine-textured soils
5638
1168
19-3
5041
5199
18.4
5178
8
16.1
15.7
15.9
16.1
6045
5863
5200
14.35
14.28
14.64
Coarse-textured soils
5285
589
18.5
4970
1333
17.5
4683
365
16.0
14.7
15.6
15.8
5451
5480
5045
Acres
Beets
T/A
Total
acres
Beets
T/A
Sugar
%
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
2148
9019
19.2
17.7
16.9
15.28
15.51
15.33
5859
5515
5180
18.5
17.5
16.0
14.57
15.07
15.63
5387
5274
4992
93
954
2235
427
Table 9.Beet yields and percent sugar as affected by time of side-dressing of nitrogen. 1961 and 1962.
1961
Time of
side-dressing
Acres
Beets
T/A
1962
Weighted average
Sugar
%
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Beets
T/A
Sugar
%
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Fine-textured soils
5690
304
17.7
5462
2101
18.9
5005
2745
18.1
4773
106
16.4
4666
15.58
16.03
15.88
15.86
5515
6072
5758
5190
Acres
11
735
2315
802
18
19.1
18.4
16.8
15.6
14.8
14.90
14.81
14.91
15.34
15.75
43
272
588
51
19.9
13.36
Coarse-textured soils
5306
152
19.9
15.37
6107
19.1
16.5
14.7
13.99
14.51
14.37
5337
4802
4239
15.87
15.55
16,38
5897
5027
5340
395
745
10
18.6
16.2
16.3
Total
acres
Beets
T/A
Sugar
%
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
315
2836
5060
908
18
17.8
18.8
17.5
15.7
14.8
15.56
15.71
15.44
15.40
15.75
5556
5914
5413
4822
4666
195
667
19.9
14.93
5930
18.8
16.3
15.0
15.10
15.09
14.70
5669
4928
4419
1333
61
Table 10.Beet yields and percent sugar as affected by total pounds of nitrogen per acre, 1961 and 1962.
1961
Total N
Lbs/A
Acres
Beets
T/A
(Fine-textured soils)
Weighted average
1962
Sugar
%
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Beets
T/A
Sugar
Acres
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Total
acres
Beets
T/A
Sugar
%
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
20 or less
346
14.0
15.31
4276
307
14.9
16.00
4770
653
14.4
15.63
4508
20 - 39
820
15.5
15.01
4665
1026
15.9
16.01
5086
1846
15.7
15.74
4899
40 - 49
687
15.9
15.21
4841
554
17.4
16.14
5603
1241
16.6
15.63
5181
50 - 59
1230
17.2
15.06
5177
865
17.7
16.07
5676
2095
17.4
15.48
5383
60 69
668
17.1
14.91
5107
853
18.7
16.03
6006
1521
18.0
15.54
5611
70 - 79
814
17.6
15.08
5299
1286
188
15.85
5975
2100
18.3
15.55
5713
83 89
768
18.5
14.41
5317
809
18.2
15.67
5695
1577
18.4
15.06
5511
90 - 99
357
17.4
14.67
5111
. 670
20.6
15.69
6449
1027
19.1
15.34
5984
365
18.0
14.72
5292
812
19.1
15.77
6014
1177
18.7
15.44
5790
313
19.4
14.44
5602
680
18.3
15.70
5756
993
18.6
15.30
5707
100
119
120 or more
Table 11.Beet yields and percent sugar as affected by the total pound of fertilizer used on tile-drained land, 1961 and 1962.
1961
Total
fertilizer used
Lbs.
Acres
Beets
T/A
Sugar
Acres
Beets
T/A
Weighted average
1962
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Sugar
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
Total
acres
Beets
T/A
Sugar
Gross
sugar
Lbs/A
6,
Fine-textured soils
635
14.4
15.11
4337
531
16.9
16.20
5482
1166
15.5
15.60
4858
599
2227
16.7
14.98
4992
2251
16.9
16.00
5410
4478
16.8
15.49
5202
600 - 799
1963
17.7
14.87
5264
3343
18.6
15.78
5864
5306
18.3
15.44
5642
800 - 999
685
18.9
14.83
5616
1275
20.1
15.78
6343
1960
19.7
15.45
6089
1000 - 1199
188
19.3
14.67
5670
134
18.2
16.34
5940
322
18.8
15.36
5782
4790
200 - 399
400
Coarse-textured soils
200 - 399
129
16.5
14.90
4916
47
13.9
16.05
4446
176
15.8
15.21
400 - 599
341
16.3
14.52
4739
578
16.9
1587
5358
919
16.7
15.37
5128
600- 799
481
18.3
14.54
5326
977
17.8
15.56
5538
1458
18.0
15.22
5468
800 - 999
405
19.4
13.67
5295
505
18.1
14.62
5306
910
18.7
14.20
5301
39
17.6
13.80
4856
105
18.0
15.27
5489
144
17.9
14.87
5316
1000 - 1199
JUL
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JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
ESTES2
Introduction
D e t a i l e d investigations of t h e parasitic b e h a v i o r a n d host
reaction have b e e n m a d e of Nacobbus batatiformis, T h o r n e a n d
Schuster in roots of sugar beets a n d o t h e r plants to e l u c i d a t e t h e
biology of this n e m a t o d e . T h i s p a t h o g e n causes an economically
i m p o r t a n t disease in western N e b r a s k a a n d elsewhere. Some
studies h a v e b e e n m a d e a n d r e p o r t e d in 1956 (7,9s)3 b u t a d d i tional i n f o r m a t i o n has b e e n o b t a i n e d o n histopatholosrv a n d
cytopathology t o m o r e fully u n d e r s t a n d t h e n e m a t o d e ' s activities.
T h i s p a p e r e m b o d i e s these studies.
Because t h e g e n e r a Aleloidogyne a n d Heterodera h a v e received m o r e a t t e n t i o n t h a n o t h e r g e n e r a a n d because certain
similarities exist, it seems desirable to c o m p a r e a n d contrast these
genera w i t h N. batatiformis. Studies on t h e cytopathology a n d
histopathology of Aleloidogyne a n d Heterodera in p l a n t roots
are well reviewed in t h e l i t e r a t u r e (1,4) a n d a d e t a i l e d review
will n o t b e p r e s e n t e d h e r e .
Materials and Methods
M. batatiformis used in these e x p e r i m e n t s was taken from a
p o p u l a t i o n collected in Scotts Bluff C o u n t v , N e b r a s k a . T h e s e
cultures h a d b e e n m a i n t a i n e d on Beta vulgaris L. g r o w n in
benches, flats, pots, or p e t r i dishes.
O t h e r n e m a t o d e species c o m p a r e d with N. batatiformis included
Meloidogyne
hapla C h i t w o o d , a n d Meloidogyne incognita
C h i t w o o d o b t a i n e d from infected sugar beets g r o w n in Scotts
Bluff C o u n t y , N e b r a s k a a n d m a i n t a i n e d for several years in t h e
g r e e n h o u s e on this host. Heterodera schachtii S c h m i d t was obtained from t h e same area a n d m a i n t a i n e d on g r e e n h o u s e g r o w n
sugar beets.
T h e effects of t h e n e m a t o d e s on p l a n t growth w e r e d e t e r m i n e d in g r e e n h o u s e a n d tissue cultures. In g r e e n h o u s e tests,
sugar b e e t a n d o t h e r seeds t r e a t e d with 1 0 % P u r e x (a commercial bleach c o n t a i n i n g 5 . 2 5 % N a O C l ) for 2 0 m i n u t e s w e r e
1
Published with the approval of the Director as paper No. 1603, Journal Series,
Nebraska
Agricultural Experiment Station.
2
Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln.
3
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
Research funds for this study were contributed in part by T h e Public Health Service
Grant No. E-2033, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and T h e Great
western Sugar Company, Denver, Colorado. We thank Monna J. Greenstreet for her technical assistance.
524
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this " C " or coiled stages are the tunnels of broken cells in the
cortex of the young roots (Figure 4). These cavities were evident
by the presence of necrotic spots in small galls (Figure 5). T h e
necrotic spots readily took up acid fuchsin stain. Teasing of
the necrotic spots in young galls yielded usually more than one
" C " or coiled dark brown larva (Figure 6A & B). Upon sectioning of these small galls, larvae could be found in the cavities.
Breakdown of several cells results in formation of the cavity
which appears to be devoid of cellular material. T h e r e seems
to be little evidence of chemical dissolution of cell walls so
pronounced in older infections. T h e cavity is formed by mechanical tearing, pressure, and feeding on the cortical cells (Figure
7). T h e faces of the cell walls are indented as though pressure
were exerted centrifugally. T h e cavity containing the nematode
seems to enlarge as the nematode grows. Granular residues, precipitates from the cytoplasm, or excreta from the nematode are
deposited in necrotic cells or on the outer walls of the cavity.
T h e " C " and coiled larvae are gorged with globules (fat as
determined by Sudan III test) so that an oblique angle between
the anterior position and the intestine, so characteristic of the
hatched larval stage, is masked due to presence of globules and
the brownish cast of the advanced larvae.
T h e immediate reaction of root tissues to infection is necrosis
and hypertrophy. T h e first macroscopic change is the necrosis
and hypertrophy of the cortical and epidermal cells. In small
galls, 7-10 days after infection, this effect is noticeable. Sectioning of these galls shows that galling is due primarily to hypertrophy of the cortical cells. T h e n u m b e r of rows of cortical cells
was similar in galled and non-galled roots. Hypertrophy is not
confined to cells adjacent to larvae, but extends also to those
some distance away. Cells of the endodermis may show necrosis
and some hypertrophy but this effect is usually not in the central
cylinder.
Usually the female tends to lie parallel to the long axis of
the root and does not affect the vascular tissue as viewed through
bright light. W h e n the female lies perpendicular or obliquely
to the longitudinal axis, it affects the vascular tissue; with bright
light this appears more physical than chemical. Under such
circumstances, the endodermal cell walls fluoresce white as though
affected. T h e phloem and xylem elements, although separated
from the nematode by only a layer or two of cells, seem singularlv
free from necrosis, hypertrophy, and r u p t u r e . However, fluores
cent studies show that the alteration of cellulose that glows white
VOL.
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a n d has b e e n seen to be characteristically associated w i t h n e m a tode-induced necrosis a n d cell wall changes, is f o u n d s u r r o u n d ing t h e n e m a t o d e ; fluorescence is a p p a r e n t in t h e p h l o e m a n d
in t h e x y l e m too, b u t difficult to assess in t h e x y l e m which
fluoresces strongly n a t u r a l l y . X h e cells l i n i n g the cavity in t h e
small galls increase in t h e i r v o l u m e of cytoplasm a n d g r a n u l a r
c o n t e n t . L a r g e n u m b e r s of larvae e n t e r a r o o t in t h e same
area, b u t a p p a r e n t l y they a r e dispersed because clusters of a d u l t
females a r e usually n o t observed. In contrast, several Meloidogyne
larvae sometimes occupy a single gall a n d cause a p r o p o r t i o n a l
increase in swelling up to a p o i n t . It has b e e n assumed that
the a d v a n c e d larval stages of N. batatiformis leave t h e necrotic
roots a n d infect o t h e r roots (9). X h e w o u n d s a n d necrosis interfere w i t h t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e smaller b r a n c h roots cr t h e t a p
roots. In t h e field, c o m p l e t e loss of stand d u e to N. batatiformis
occurs. P l a n t s t h a t r e m a i n n e v e r a t t a i n good g r o w t h , b u t a r e
stunted.
E s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e n e m a t o d e in a p e r m a n e n t site w i t h its
entire body w i t h i n t h e cortex initiates a series of p h e n o m e n a .
O n e effect is t h e p r o d u c t i o n of lateral roots in t h e galled areas.
Xhis is of interest because t h e lateral roots arise from the pericycle
a n d t h e n e m a t o d e is localized in t h e cortex. X h e presence of
the n e m a t o d e seems to s t i m u l a t e m i t o t i c activity in t h e pericycle
which is s o m e distance away. S t i m u l a t i o n of lateral roots on
the galls is a characteristic m o r p h o l o g i c a l s y m p t o m of N. batatiformis. X h e n u m b e r s p e r gall r a n g e from several to over 50.
Xhese lateral roots arise from all p a r t s of the gall. In contrast,
lateral roots arise in two rows from t h e n o r m a l , diarch sugar
beet t a p r o o t ( F i g u r e 8). X h e presence of a n e m a t o d e in, a
nearby cell c a n cause t h e lateral r o o t to alter its original p a t h
or even to c o n t i n u e d o w n t h e cortex parallel to t h e vascular area.
In tissue c u l t u r e , N. batatiformis affects t h e r o o t in a way
somewhat a n a l a g o u s to t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n of lateral roots. X h i s
effect is t h e f r e q u e n t i n d u c t i o n of stem b u d s (rootlings). X h e
buds arise from t h e pericycle in a m a n n e r similar to lateral
roots. X h e vascular tissue l e a d i n g to the b u d base is similar
in m o r p h o l o g y to t h a t in t h e lateral root. X h e leaves on these
buds h a v e typical leaf a p p e n d a g e s . X h e i n d u c t i o n of stem b u d s
may b e d u e t o a n increase i n t h e a d e n i n e / i n d o l e a c e t i c acid
ratio w h i c h is k n o w n to differentiate callus i n t o leaves a n d
stems (8). A n a t t e m p t i s b e i n g m a d e t o grow these b u d s t o
mature plants.
530
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Figures 13-18.13A.) Nucleolus b u d d i n g with concomitant invagination of the nucleus in syncytium of sugar beet gall. 1100 X. 13B.) Similar
condition in syncytium of spinach a n d the resulting m u l t i n u c l e a t e condition d u e to amitotic divisions. 1100 X. 14.) A b n o r m a l cylindrical nuclei
in syncytium in Kochia showing densely stained areas. T h e long axes of
the nuclei are usually p a r a l l e l to t h a t of the root. 3500 X. 15.) Syncytium
in 5-day old gall showing presence of small starch granules occurring with
the initial h y p e r t r o p h y of cells, nuclei, a n d nucleoli; arrows p o i n t to starch
grains a n d transverse section of young larva. 970 X. 16.) Starch grains
are initiated in vicinity of the nuclei of affected cells; similar condition
is illustrated in Figures 7 a n d 13A. 800 X. 17.) Starch located n e a r
feeding a r e a of a d u l t female; starch granules are darkly stained bodies.
200 X. 18.) Starch g r a n u l e s a r e n u m e r o u s d u r i n g dissolution of syncytial
cell walls. 750 X.
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L i t e r a t u r e Cited
(1) CHRISTIE, J. R. 1936. T h e development of root-knot nematode galls.
Phytopathology 26: 1-22.
(2) ESAU, KATHERINE. 1960. Anatomy of seed plants. J o h n Wiley a n d Sons,
Inc., N . Y. 376 p p .
(3) JOHANSEN, D. A. 1940. Plant microtechnique. McGraw-Hill, New York.
523 p p .
(4) MANKAU, R. and M. B. LINFORD. 1960. Host-parasite relationships of
the clover cyst n e m a t o d e Heterodera trifolii Goffart. Illinois Agr.
Expt. Sta. Bull. 667.
(5)
1964.
Science
Starch
143:
(6) SCHUSTER, M. L. and X. SULLIVAN. 1960. Species differentiation of nematodes through host reaction in tissue culture. I. Comparison of
Meloidogyne hapla, Meloidogyne incognita
incognita, a n d Nacobbus
batatiformis. Phytopathology 50: 874-876.
(7)
SCHUSTER, M. L. a n d GERALD T H O R N E .
1956.
Distribution, relation to
X H O R N E , GERALD a n d M. L. SCHUSTER.
1956.
N a c o b b u s batatiformis n .
Introduction
Twenty-eight years ago plant breeders were presented with
a new and revolutionary breeding method (4,8) 2 . T h e discovery
that polyploid strains of plants could be produced in large
numbers through the action of the drug colchicine appeared
to be a valuable plant breeding tool.
Shortly following this discovery European and North American sugar beet geneticists and plant breeders began to produce
autotetraploid strains of sugar beets (1,12,13,14,15). T h e y found
that although these tetraploid sugar beets could be maintained
at this high polyploid level, the yield of tetraploid beets was
generally lower than the original diploid varieties (2,3). Several
North American plant breeders (2,12,15) produced and tested
limited quantities of triploid sugar beets. T h e y concluded that
there was little difference between the yield of the triploid
hybrids and diploid varieties. Peto and Boyes (12) reported
that the percentage of sugar did not decrease with increased size
of root as rapidly in triploids as in diploid beets. Perhaps because of the difficulty in producing tetraploids or the failure of
substantial success in polyploid beet breeding, further work on
polyploid beets was terminated in North America.
Such was not the case in Europe where today many of the
diploid varieties are being replaced by polyploid hybrids (7).
T h e European sugar beet breeders believe that better combination of high sucrose with high tonnage can be obtained at the
polyploid level than at the diploid level. T h e y attribute the
increase in yields to the triploid hybrids. Because male-sterile
diploids were unavailable, most of the commercial polyploid
hybrids now used in Europe are produced by planting tetraploid
and diploid seed together in the same field. T h e percentage of
triploids in the resulting commercial seed is controlled by unbalancing the parental populations. T h e commercial plantings
are actually a mixture of tetraploid, triploid and diploid plants.
T h e experiments reported in this paper were designed to
test the combining ability of pure triploid sugar beets produced
with male-sterile diploid parents. T h e hybrid populations are
1
Plant Breeder, Manager Research Station and Plant Breeder, respectively, American
Crystal
Sugar Company, Rocky Ford, Colorado.
2
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
VOL.
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1965
Pedigree
SLC #129 MS (ACS 60-424)
C 9561-3HO
7-515 MS x 9561
F59-569HO
F59-507H1 (8-515 X 507 rr)
F59-507H2 (8-569HO x 8-507 rr)
SLC #129 MS (SLC 0166 rr ram MS)
T h e r m a l l y i n d u c e d stecklings of these t e t r a p l o i d a n d d i p l o i d
p o p u l a t i o n s w e r e o b t a i n e d from P h o e n i x , Arizona, i n t h e s p r i n e
of 1961. T h e t e t r a p l o i d a n d male-sterile p o p u l a t i o n s w e r e p l a n t e d
i n t w e n t y isolated g r o u p s a t C a n o n City, Colorado. T h e g r o u p s
were p l a n t e d t o p e r m i t each male-sterile p a r e n t t o b e b o r d e r e d
by the tetraploid pollinator, thus ensuring adequate available
pollen. T h e male-sterile p o p u l a t i o n s were r o g u e d t o male-sterile
plants i n o r d e r t o h e l p e n s u r e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f 1 0 0 % t r i p l o i d
seed.
Each male-sterile p o p u l a t i o n was harvested separately w i t h
the r e s u l t t h a t 140 t r i p l o i d h y b r i d s were o b t a i n e d . H o w e v e r ,
sufficient t r i p l o i d seed to c o m p l e t e a diallel series was o b t a i n e d
on 16 of t h e t r i p l o i d isolations. T h e r e s u l t i n g 112 t r i p l o i d s
were tested at C l a r k s b u r g , California; R o c k y F o r d , C o l o r a d o ;
and East G r a n d Forks, M i n n e s o t a . T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l design a t
all locations was an 11 X 11 t r i p l e lattice r e p e a t e d t h r e e times.
T h e d a t a i n c l u d e d i n this p a p e r w e r e extracted from t h e larger
design a n d g r o u p e d as a r a n d o m i z e d c o m p l e t e block e x p e r i ment. N i n e r e p l i c a t i o n s w e r e used i n t h e C o l o r a d o a n d M i n nesota d a t a w h i l e only six r e p l i c a t i o n s w e r e used for t h e California d a t a .
540
JOURNAL OF THE A.
S. S.
B.
T.
Mean
square
d.f.
r-1
Replications
Test crosses
(c-1)
Females
Males
Females X males
Error
Total
Variance
components
Parameters
estimated
(f-1)
(m-l)
(f-1) (m-1)
(r-1) fm-1)
(rfm-1)
Experimental Results
T h e combination analysis of variance for the three locations
showed highly significant mean square values for all sources of
variation involving locations, T a b l e 3. T h i s reaction was expected due to the wide environmental differences between growing areas. T h e mean square values for the interaction of males
with locations wer^ greater than the interaction of females with
locations for both factors studied. Because of the magnitude
of these interactions it was necessary to analyze and discuss each
location separately.
T a b l e 3 . C o m b i n e d analysis of variance for the 112 triploid hybrids at three locations.
Source of
variation
d.f.
Tons/Acre
MS
222
30
12
180
19.06**
47.64**
23.88**
13.97**
Sucrose
MS
2.52**
7.36**
3.54**
1.64**
VOL.
13, N o . 6, J U L Y
1965
541
Table 4.Analysis of variance and variance components for tons per acre at the three locations.
Source of
California
Colorado
Minnesota
variation
d.f.
M.S. 1
V.C. 2
M.S. 1
V.C. 2
Females
Males
Females x males
6
15
90
31.99**
112.43* *
23.26* *
.091
2.122
2.110
455.92**
985.52**
124.61*
2.301
13.665
2.977
1
2
M.S.*
47.99*
170.61**
22.49
V.C*
.1771
2.351
.0233
Mean square
Variance components
Table 5.Analysis of variance and variance components for sucrose percent at the three locations.
California
Source of
variation
d.f.
M.S. 1
Females
Males
Females x males
6
15
90
7.85**
14.52*0.52
V.C. 2
.0764
.3335
:0406
Colorado
M.S. 1
349**
9.97**
3.22**
Minnesota
V.C2
M.S. 1
V.C2
.0019
.1071
.2451
2.793**
2.082* *
0.632
.0150
.0865
.0090
Mean square
Variance components
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JOURNAL OF THE A.
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S.
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T.
Table 6.Tons per acre for the 112 triploid hybrids produced from 16 tetraploid pollinator strains
and 7 cytoplasmis male-sterile types (California data).
Tetraploid
pollen
parents
6I-4T1
L.S.D.
2
3
4
8
9
10
11
13
14
15
16
17
19
20
28
23.22
18.40
18.32
21.00
19.74
24.82
18.10
17.89
22.28
20.45
19.30
22.69
19.69
18.58
22.08
19.43
20.34
22.12
18.70
22.47
19.03
22.59
25.40
20.73
25.02
22.48
24.37
19.71
22.98
21.30
22.61
20.49
19.99
20.06
19.52
21.04
18.54
25.31
21.47
20.86
22.96
17.75
22.86
22.08
21.14
21.89
21.36
21.84
20.47
18.79
17.30
22.45
20.04
22.87
22.47
18.81
24.48
20.77
21.30
18.89
20.10
21.78
22.41
20.65
19.48
16.89
19.94
22.74
21.55
24.02
20.16
17.71
22.35
21.01
23.41
22.46
19.13
22.82
21.18
20.73
23.74
17.43
18.39
22.18
18.56
25.85
22.76
19.14
23.50
24.03
25.64
20.20
20.42
23.50
22.45
18.77
19.41
16.73
21.91
22.60
18.45
24.71
23.28
18.10
23.28
18.03
23.79
19.44
17.44
21.31
19.20
19.43
20.95
18.63
19.15
22.01
19.41
24.31
21.94
19.03
23.41
20.64
22.95
20.78
20.12
21.59
21.64
20.19
Mean
LSD (0.05)
LSD (0.01)
20.38
2.43
3.23
21.90
3.97
21.17
20.85
20.98
NS
NS
NS
NS
21.66
4.25
5.64
20.42
4.14
5.49
21.04
NS
NS
NS
Mean
.05
.01
NS
3.24
NS
NS
NS
NS
3.85
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
.05 = .92
.05 = 1.39
.05 = 3.69
.01 = 1.22
01 = 1.84
01 = 4.86
Table 7.Sucrose percentages for the 112 triploid hybrids produced from 16 tetraploid pollinator
strains, and 7 cytoplasmic male-sterile types (California data).
Tetraploid
pollen
parents
61-4T1
L.S.D.
2
3
4
8
9
10
11
13
14
15
16
17
19
20
28
Mean
LSD (0.05)
LSD (0.01)
Mean
12.97
13.01
12.67
13.89
13.60
13.49
12.14
12.66
13.36
12.54
13.08
12-97
12.56
13.44
13.29
11.16
12.65
12.16
12.49
13.19
13.62
13.25
11.57
12.52
11.75
12.58
12.09
12.44
11.78
13.02
11.91
11.08
12.64
12.28
12.28
13.40
13.19
13.12
12.34
11.82
11.92
12.54
12.28
12.33
12.62
13.03
12.28
10.75
12.68
12.38
12.31
13.11
13.38
1 3.27
12.04
12.17
12.78
12.29
12.33
12.48
12.09
12.70
12.18
11.58
12.72
12.93
13.08
13.90
14.19
13.47
12.63
12.45
12.84
12.58
12.32
12.44
13.50
13.54
12.44
11.36
13.30
13.28
12.68
14.19
14.21
13.34
12.18
12-79
12.94
12.98
12.42
13.23
13.28
13.62
12.94
11.71
13.46
12.16
12-93
13.83
14.38
13.05
12.54
13.03
13.05
12.75
12.52
12.85
12.84
12.99
13 16
11.16
12.91
12.60
12.63
13.64
13.79
13.28
12.20
12.49
12.66
12.61
12.43
12.68
12.67
13.19
12.60
11.26
1293
1.09
1.45
12.38
1.03
1.37
12.43
12.49
12.92
1.05
1.40
12.73
.96
NS
12.90.
1.05
1.39
13.07
.96
1.28
.99
1.32
.05 = 0.25
.05 = 0.37
.05 = 0.99
.01 = 0.32
.01 = 0.49
.01 = 1.30
.05
.01
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
.78
105
NS
NS
NS
1.03
NS
NS
NS
NS
VOL.
13,
No.
6,
JULY
543
1965
Table 8.Tons per acre for the 112 triploid hybrids produced from 16 tetraploid pollinator strains
and 7 cytoplasmic male-sterile types (Colorado data).
Tetraploid
pollen
parents
51-4T1
2
3
4
8
9
10
11
13
14
15
16
17
19
20
28
Mean
LSD (0.05)
LSD (0.01)
L.S.O.
Mean
25.49
23.44
23.49
25.21
23.62
27.85
24.38
26.76
25.72
24.08
24.22
23.18
25.35
26.59:
24.36
29.17
25.10
25.12
24.38
24.34
22.35
27.16
27.09
26.91
26.64
26.16
25.19
25.51
27.44
28.06
25.86
27.76
24.39
22.92
24.74
24.97
23.72
26.06
27.63
25.96
26.53
22.95
26.97
25.05
26.45
22.09
25.25
28.85
25.32
24.26
24.43
24.08
23.32
25.72
24.99
26.71
25.11
26.19
28.04
21.81
24.07
25.47
25.57
26.46
27.82
23.29
25.05
25.12
22.46
27.05
26.88
26.80
27.45
25.57
25.18
24.98
28.64
26.33
25.14
26.56
28.20
23.96
26.71
25.47
22.79
28.73
28.42
28.48
27.03
23.72
27.02
24.25
26.58
26.49
27.08
27.19
25.86
22.44
22.99
24.63
22.45
25.15
28.13
23.68
24.51
19.81
27.37
24.14
24.65
26.25
23.71
29.15
26.02
23.63
24.54
24.83
22.96
26.81
26.78
26.47
26.09
24.07
26.28
24.13
26.11
25.90
25.28
27.87
25.17
2.78
3.68
25.93
3.11
25.27
3.12
4.11
25.08
3.04
25.88
26.37
3.33
24.62
3.10
4.09
25.49
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
.05
.o1
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
2.83
3.77
NS
NS
2.98
NS
NS
NS
NS
.05 =. .77
.05 =
1.77
.05 = 3.10
.01 = 1.02
.01 = 1.54
.01 = 4.08
Table 9.Sucrose percentage for the 112 triploid hybrids produced from 16 tetraploid pollinator
strains and 7 cytoplasmic male-sterile types (Colorado data).
Tetraploid
pollen
parents
61-4T1
2
3
4
8
9
10
U,
13
14
15
16
17
19
20
28
Mean
LSD (0.05)
LSD (0.01)
Mean
.12-86
12.51
14.44
14.42
14.23
14.34
14.58
14.74
14.05
14.14
14.03
13.72
11.50
13.73
14.20
14.05
13.58
14.26
15.22
13.54
14.91
13.65
14.18
14.32
14.03
14.33
13.89
14.03
12.90
13.51
13.78
13.90
13.83
13.50
14.36
14.18
13.82
14.32
12.98
15.12
14.09
14.12
12.67
13.53
12.83
13.73
14.25
13-94
13.72
14.41
14.58
13.88
13.88
13.76
14.21
14.62
14.50
14.05
13.63
13.79
13.28
13.61
14.15
13.85
13.96
14.24
13.19
14.10
14.60
13.90
14.56
14.48
13.39
14.24
13.70
13.90
12.98
13.50
14.18
14.04
14.08
14.56
14.31
14.33
14.82
14.30
13.88
14.73
14.16
14.62
13.78
14.94
13.26
13.85
13.82
14.39
13.95
14.10
14.30
14.69
14.82
14.24
14.44
14.71
13.99
13.72
13.35
13.19
13.88
14.12
15.35
14.00
13.71
13.94
14.34
14.16
14.44
14.07
14.12
14.67
14.03
14.18
13.58
13.87
12.94
13.72
14.25
14.02
13.84
1.09
1.44
13.99
1.15
13.82
1.11
1.46
13.99
13.93
14.23
NS
NS
NS
NS
14.17
1.02
1.35
14.00
NS
NS
NS
.05 = 0.23
.05 = 0.35
.05 = 0.93
.01 = 0.31
.01 = 0.46
.01 = 1.22
.05
L.S.D.
.
JO I
NS
1.13
1.08
1.51
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
1.16
1.54
NS
NS
.93
NS
544
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13,
No.
6,
JULY
545
1965
Table 10.Ton per acre for the 112 triploid hybrids produced from 16 tetraploid pollinator strains
and 7 cytoplasmic male-sterile types (Minnesota data).
Tetraploid
pollen
parents
61-4T1
2
3
4
8
9
10
11
13
14
15
16
17
19
20
28
Mean
LSD (0.05)
LSD (0.01)
L.S.D.
___
8
Mean
16.16
15.49
16.72
16.28
15.22
17.51
15.64
16.11
16.78
15.54
16.89
15.79
16.34
16.44
16.80
15.28
16.14
14.82
15.06
14.68
15.16
16.97
16.16
16.24
16.18
15.52
17.03
15.68
15.46
16.54
16.31
15.89
14.95
15.39
14.58
16.48
13.90
15.40
15.54
15.63
15.24
16.16
17.40
15.80
15.47
15.86
15.97
15.98
14.64
14.74
14.84
16.19
14.95
16.21
15.53
15.52
16.00
15.42
17.39
16.67
15.23
16.29
15.91
16.46
15.23
14.15
15.48
16.38
14.90
15.83
16.74
14.78
15.52
15.04
16.68
15.50
15.87
16.30
16.49
15.90
16.10
15.62
15.39
16.32
14.12
16.37
15.60
15.31
15.96
15.93
17.61
14.97
16.72
16.08
15.42
15.49
15.64
14.95
16.48
16.91
15.60
16.55
15.66
16.00
16.41
14.39
17.56
16.45
16.03
16.03
15.84
15.27
15.55
15.02
15.51
16.18
14.84
16.40
15.84
15.65
16.01
15.42
17.22
15.84
15.87
16.22
16.11
15.75
16.18
15.86
1.47
15.60
1.58
15.74
15.66
1.55
NS
15.80
1.47
1.94
15.98
1.39
1.84
15.84
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
.05
.01
NS
NS
1.44
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
.05 = 0.37
.05 = 0.56
.05 = 1.49
.01 = NS
.01 = 0.74
.01 = 1.96
Table 11.Sucrose percentage for the 112 triploid hybrids produced from 16 tetraploid pollinator
strains and 7 cytoplasmic male-sterile type (Minnesota data).
Tetraploid
pollen
parents
61-4T1
2
3
4
8
9
10
11
13
14
15
16
17
19
20
28
Mean
LSD (0.05)
L
SD (0.01)
L.S.D.
2
16.21
16.19
16.25
16.26
16.39
15.65
15.75
16.09
16.20
16.80
16.00
16.08
16.32
16.31
16.03
15.72
3
16.22
15.50
15.84
16.41
16.02
16.36
15.21
15.98
16.02
16.11
15.61
15.84
15.54
15.72
15.88
14.73
4
15.80
15.71
16.09
16.42
16.10
15.80
15.54
15.85
16.58
16.10
15.95
16.41
15.89
16.32
15.78
14.62
5
16.10
15.99
16.13
15.94
16.25
16.00
15.98
16.20
16.23
15.86
16.09
15.92
15.89
16.11
15.93
14.58
6
16.24
16.20
15.78
16.24
16.54
15.42
15.73
15.80
16.08
16.09
15.26
15.91
16.04
16.03
16.50
15.02
7
15.84
15.85
15.90
15.88
16.82
15.54
15.72
15.80
16.15
16.23
16.01
15.88
15.59
15.62
15-76
15.32
8
16.45
16.22
16.06
16.69
16.98
15.75
15.45
15.62
16.33
16.60
15.88
16.29
16.05
16.58
16.42
15.70
Mean
16.12
15.95
16.01
16.26
16.44
15.79
15.62
15.90
16.22
16.25
15.83
16.04
15.90
16.10
16.04
15.10
16.13
15.80
15.92
15.94
15-92
15.86
16.18
15.98
.74
.98
.74
.98
.71
.94
.67
.88
.66
NS
.63
.83
NS
NS
.05 = 0.17
.05 = 0.18
.05 = 0.69
.01 = 0.22
.01 = 0.34
.01 = 0 9 0
.05
.0L
NS
NS
NS
NS
.63
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
74
.98
546
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13,
No.
6, J U L Y
1965
547
1946.
F u r t h e r studies
DICKENSON, D . D . a n d D . F. PETERSON.
1956.
Results of use of t h e
red marker beet as a top cross parent. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet
T e c h n o l . IX (3) : 217-220.
(7) K N A P P , E. 1957. T h e significance of polyploidy in sugar beet breeding. I n t e r n a t l . Genet. Symp. Proc. 1956. 300-304.
(8) N E B E L , B. R. 1937. 1937 Mechanism of polyploidy through colchicine. N a t u r e 140: 1101.
(9) OLDEMEYER, R. K. 1954. General combining ability of sugar beet
inbreds as determined with two different top-cross testers. Proc.
Am. Soc. Sugar Beet T e c h n o l . VIII (2) : 59-63.
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
05)
OLDEMEYER, DONALD L .
a n d GEORGE E.
RUSH.
1960.
Evaluation
of
combining ability in self-fertile lines of sugar beets using malesterile testers. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. XI (2) : 175-185.
PETERSON, D. F. a n d D. D. DICKENSON. 1958. Results of divergent
selection for general combining ability. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet
T e c h n o l . X (1) : 60-65.
P E T O , F. H. and J. W. BOYES. 1940. Comparison of diploid a n d triploid sugar beets. C a n a d i a n J. Res. Sec. C. Bot. Sci. 18: 273-282.
RASMUSSON, J. a n d A. LEVAN. 1939. Tetraploid sugar beets from
colchicine treatments. Hereditas 25: 97-102.
SCHWANITY, F. 1938. Die herstellung polyploider rassen bei beta
rviben u n d gemusearten durch b e h a n d l u n g mit colchicin. Der
Ziichter 10: 278-279.
STEWART, D. a n d J. O. GASKILL. 1952. Results of field tests with triploid sugar beets in 1951. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet T e c h n o l . Proc.
7: 452-453.
VOL.
13,
No.
6, J U L Y
1965
549
550
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Materials a n d Methods
T h e open-pollinated variety selected to be the male parent
was 61-307 an American #2 type. T w o male-sterile lines, F59507HI and the F 1 of 515 X C 9561, were chosen as the female
parents. T h e parental populations were sent to Phoenix, Arizona
in 1960 and stecklings were returned for planting in the spring
of 1961. Fifty pairs of each male sterile were paired with one
h u n d r e d pairs of 61-307. Because of faulty bolting caused by
severe hail only thirty-five pairs crossed to F59-507H1 and
twenty-one pairs crossed to 515 X C 9561 set sufficient quantities
of seed for yield trials. T h e seed from the female plants was
included in yield trials and the seed of the sib pairs was grown
in nursery rows d u r i n g the summer of 1962. Stands in the yield
trials were erratic, thus the data for tons per acre were adjusted
by regression to a uniform stand.
T h e pairing and crossing was accomplished by using plastic
covered cages. These cages are approximately twenty-four inches
square and five and one-half feet high. T h e tops are open to
prevent a heat build-up within the cage. Some crossing between
cages is possible b u t it was felt to be negligible.
VOL.
13,
No.
6, J U L Y
1965
551
Experimental Results
T h e results r e p o r t e d i n this p a p e r are n o t conclusive a s t h e
d a t a for a c o m p l e t e cycle are n o t available. H o w e v e r , it was
thought desirable to report on the methods and the data available
to d a t e .
T a b l e 1 shows the m e a n s of the yield factors for t h e t w o m a l e
steriles, G r o u p I (F59-507H1), G r o u p II (515 X C 9561) a n d
t h e p a r e n t a l p a r e n t (61-307). N o statistical differences w e r e detectable b e t w e e n these p o p u l a t i o n means. T h u s , n o expression
of heterosis w o u l d be evident, if t h e o p e n p o l l i n a t e d p o p u l a t i o n ,
61-307, w e r e crossed w i t h these m a l e steriles. H o w e v e r , e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l pairs w i t h i n each g r o u p indicates considerable heterosis for c e r t a i n pairs. T h e highest p a i r was 4 . 6 %
b e t t e r t h a n t h e p a t e r n a l p a r e n t for sucrose p e r c e n t w h i l e t h e
t o n n a g e p a i r was 2 2 . 9 % b e t t e r t h a n the p a t e r n a l p a r e n t .
Table 1.Means of the yield factors for the two male-steriles (Group I and Group II)
and the paternal parent (61-307).
Yield factors
Lbs. sugar per acre
Tons per acre
Percent sucrose
n
Group I
Group II
6199
20.62
15.03
35
5853
19.72
14.81
21
Parent
6420
20.60
15.60
Group I
Group II
7
4
7
0
5
5
3
2
552
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Group I
Group II
3.44
3.50
1.67
0.05
0.01
0.96
Combined
groups I & II
4.33
9.671
3.76
Discussion
T h e population cycling data if available would be the conclusive evidence that the paired system was either working or
not working in sugar beets. T h e cycles were attempted by planting the sib seed of the pairs and taking selected mother beets
from the higher yielding pairs. For two years curly top in the
mother beets prevented the production of seed in the second
cycle, thus most of the material was subsequently lost. Since
then, the selected pairs have been propagated as stecklings, a
method that appears to be working.
T h e need of maintaining the genotype in any hybrid program
is of prime importance. T h e effort involved to obtain a small
quantity of seed on a few plants by self pollination stimulated
the search for a more adaptable method. Sib pollination is an
alternative method of genotype maintenance and has been used
to maintain sugar beet inbred lines (1). Self pollination being
quite severe fixes the genotype quite rapidly. Sib pollination
fixes the genotype at a slower rate enabling the plant breeder
to observe more combinations of genotypes while selecting the
better ones. T w o other advantages of sib pollination are reduced plant deterioration connected with self pollination and
the production of sufficient quantities of seed for yield trials
and disease nurseries.
T h e necessity of having homozygous material to produce
heterotic responses is debatable. However, a certain amount of
genotype fixing is necessary in order to approximately duplicate
each plant in the hybrid population. Hybrids selected by the
proposed cycling methods should be good yielders because of
the selection and progeny testing in each cycle and the utilization
of additive and nonadditive gene action. T h e reduced genotype
fixing involved in sib matings should give a greater yield flex
ibility in a genotype X environmental situation.
VOL.
553
1965
Acre
yield
88.6
96.2
91.7
76.4
83.2
T h e i m p r o v e m e n t of a cross p o l l i n a t e d species is d e p e n d e n t
on t h e a b i l i t y of t h e p l a n t b r e e d e r to select on t h e basis of a d d i tive g e n e effects. T h e success of h y b r i d i z a t i o n is believed to be
largely d u e to one's ability to capitalize on n o n a d d i t i v e g e n e
effects over a n d a b o v e t h e c h a n c e a d d i t i v e p o r t i o n of t h e selected
lines. Cycling m e t h o d s of a c c u m u l a t i n g these a d d i t i v e effects
such as r e c u r r e n t selection a n d p a i r e d crossing w o u l d give t h e
hydridizer s u p e r i o r source p o p u l a t i o n s from which to d e v e l o p
lines.
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
554
Summary
Methods of using paired-plant crosses were discussed. O n e
cycling method is designated to accumulate the additive genetic
effects. T h e second method which follows the first is designed
to capitalize on heterosis and the non-additive genetic effects.
Preliminary data pertaining to the expected frequency of
low X low, low X high, and high X high combinations from
pair crosses are presented.
Literature Cited
(1) DOXTATOR, C. W. and A. W. SKUDERNA. 1946. Crossing experiments in
sugar beet lines. Proc. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. pp 230-236.
(2) HARLAND, S. C. 1946. A new method of maize improvement. Trip.
Agr. 23: 114.
(3) LONNQUIST, JOHN H. 1960. El mejoramiente de las poblaciones de maiz.
Improvement of corn populations. 6a Reunion Centroamericana.
Departmento de Divulgacion Tecnica. Inst. Nal. de Inv. Agric,
S. A. G. pp 14-22.
(4) LONNQJUIST, JOHN H. 1961. Progress from recurrent selection procedures for the improvement of corn populations. Neb. Agr. Expt.
Sta. Bull. 197 July.
(5) OLDEMEYER, R. K. and H. L. BUSH. 1952. Influence of geographical
locations and type of bag on selfed-seed setting for sugar beets.
Proc. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. pp 360-363.
(6) OWEN, F. V. 194?. Utilization of male sterility in breeding superioryielding sugar beets. Proc. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. pp 158161.
S.
M C F A R L A N E AND
I.
O.
SKOYEN1
556
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Open-Pollinated
Selections
C361.A T y p e O, bolting resistant selection from US 22/3.
T h e line was developed by making two successive T y p e O selections, followed by selections for bolting resistance (1). C361
is similar to US 75 in curly-top and bolting resistance. It has
been used to produce the male-sterile equivalent of C361 and
as a Type O, self-sterile breeding line.
C361HO.A male sterile produced by crossing C361 to a malesterile plant from US 56 and backcrossing four times to C361.
Increases of this male sterile have been used as the seed-bearing
parent to produce commercial hybrid varieties.
C366.The second successive bolting-resistant selection from
US 35/2. T h i s selection is superior to US 75 in sucrose percentage b u t inferior in root yield. It is similar to US 75 in
curly-top and bolting resistance. C366 has been used as a topcross parent in producing commercial hybrid varieties.
C663.A pollen parent derived from a cross between US 15
and US 22/3. Selections for curly-top resistance, bolting resistance, and high sucrose content were made in the F 2 and F 3
generations. Curly-top resistance is similar to that of US 75
and bolting resistance to that of US 56. Increases of C663 have
been used extensively as the top-cross parent in commercial hybrid
varieties.
C585.A bolting-resistant selection from C361. T h i s selection
combines very good bolting resistance with good curly-top resistance and has been used to produce the male-sterile equivalent
of C585.
C585HO.A bolting-resistant selection from 361 HO combining
very good bolting resistance with good curly-top resistance. Increases of C585HO have been used as the seed-bearing parent
to produce commercial hybrid varieties.
C586.A bolting-resistant selection from C366 combining very
good bolting resistance with good curly-top resistance (2). C586
has been used to replace C366 as a top-cross parent.
C671.A composite of T y p e O selections made at Salinas, California, from US 75, US 22/4, and US 56/2. T h e line has moderate
resistance to bolting and curly top. C671 has been widely used
as a T y p e O breeding line.
C681M.A Mendelian male sterile of C366 which segregates
approximately 50 percent aa. C681M has been used to produce
four-way hybrids such as (MS of NB1 X NB3) X (C681M
X NB4).
C787.A bolting-resistant selection from US 75. T h e selection
is similar in performance and disease resistance to US 75. C787
VOL.
13,
No.
6, J U L Y
1965
557
has b e e n used as a p o l l e n p a r e n t to p r o d u c e t h e c o m m e r c i a l
h y b r i d (MS of N B 5 X N B 6 ) X C787.
C951.A T y p e O selection from C366, used only as a b r e e d i n g
line.
C952.A T y p e O selection from US 15, used only as a b r e e d i n g
line.
C953.A T y p e O selection from t h e E u r o p e a n Klein E variety,
used only as a b r e e d i n g line.
C264.A bolting-resistant selection from C663. Tests have shown
C264 to be s u p e r i o r to C663 in b o l t i n g resistance b u t similar
in o t h e r characteristics. C264 is b e i n g used as a r e p l a c e m e n t
for C663.
C 3 3 0 . T h e fifth successive selection from US 75 for resistance
to virus yellows. D a m a g e from virus yellows is only a b o u t onehalf as severe in C330 as in US 75. T h i s selection is similar to
US 75 in o t h e r characteristics. C330 is b e i n g used as t h e p o l l e n
p a r e n t in p r o d u c i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l q u a n t i t i e s of h y b r i d seed.
C321.A yellows-resistant selection from t h e T y p e O, selfsterile line C 6 7 1 . T e s t s at Davis, California, showed C321 to be
s u p e r i o r i n yellows resistance t o t h e p a r e n t variety a n d t o t h e
US c o m m e r c i a l h y b r i d varieties. T h i s selection has good resistance to b o l t i n g a n d curly t o p . C321 is b e i n g used as a yellowsresistant b r e e d i n g line.
Multigerm
Inbred
Lines
N B l . A n increase of S 5 (CI 179 X CI 1-707) c o m b i n i n g resistance to b o l t i n g a n d curly t o p (1). CI 179 was a T y p e O clone
with high sucrose p e r c e n t a g e from US 1. CI 1-707 was a selffertile i n b r e d h i g h i n curly-top resistance a n d d a r k g r e e n i n
color. N B l is an excellent T y p e O i n b r e d w i t h very good comb i n i n g ability a n d has b e e n utilized in t h e p r o d u c t i o n of t h e
MS of N B l a n d as a b r e e d i n g line.
MS of N B l . A m a l e sterile p r o d u c e d by crossing N B l to a
cytoplasmic male-sterile p l a n t f o u n d in US 56 a n d t h e n backcrossing four times to N B l (1). MS of N B l has b e e n used as
the seed-bearing p a r e n t to p r o d u c e t h e F 1 h y b r i d s MS of N B l
X N B 2 , M S of N B l X N B 3 , M S of N B l X N B 4 , a n d M S of
N B l X N B 5 . T h e s e F 1 hybrids are m a l e sterile a n d have b e e n
used extensively as seed-bearing p a r e n t s to p r o d u c e c o m m e r c i a l
hybrid varieties.
N B 2 . An i n b r e d d e v e l o p e d from a cross m a d e at Salt L a k e
City, U t a h , in 1943 b e t w e e n a bolting-resistant clone a n d a
self-fertile line (2). F o l l o w i n g intensive selection, a high-performing S 5 l i n e was designated N B 2 . T h e i n b r e d possesses good
vigor, m o d e r a t e l y g o o d b o l t i n g resistance, a n d fair c u r l y - t o p
resistance. It has good c o m b i n i n g ability especially from t h e
558
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
standpoint of sucrose percentage. NB2 has been used to produce the seed-bearing parent MS of NB1 X NB2.
NB3.A moderately bolting-resistant segregate from the CT 9
inbred developed by Dr. F. V. Owen at Salt Lake City, Utah
(2). T h i s inbred has very good curly-top resistance but poor
downy-mildew resistance. NB3 has been used to produce the
seed-bearing parent MS of NBI X NB3.
NB4.An inbred developed from the same cross as NB2. This
inbred combines bolting and downy-mildew resistance with good
combining ability but lacks vigor and is susceptible to curly
top. NB4 has been used to produce the seed-bearing parent
MS of NBI X NB4.
NB5.A T y p e O, bolting-resistant inbred from US 56/2 X N B I .
T h i s inbred has good curly-top resistance, excellent vigor, and
good combining ability. NB5 has been used to produce MS
of N B I X NB5.
MS of NB5.A male sterile produced by crossing NB5 to MS
of NBI and backcrossing twice to NB5 (3). Increases of MS
of NB5 have been used as the seed-bearing parent to produce
the F 1 hybrid MS of NB5 X NB6.
NB6.An increase of S 4 (US 22/3 X N B I ) . This inbred combines excellent bolting resistance with good curly-top resistance.
NB6 has been used to produce MS of NB5 X NB6, the seedbearing parent in the bolting-resistant hybrid (MS of NB5 X
NB6) X C787.
NB7,An increase of S 4 (Type O US 56/2 X N B I ) . T h i s inbred
combines very good curly-top resistance with good bolting resistance and has good combining and seed-setting ability. NB7
is being used as the pollen parent to produce commercial monogerm hybrid varieties such as (515HO X 569) X NB7 and
(562HO x 569) X NB7.
C7508.A downy-mildew resistant inbred selected from S 2 (US
22/3 X N B I ) . T h i s inbred has very good bolting resistance and
moderate curly-top resistance. C7508 has been used as a Type
O, mildew-resistant breeding line.
C7508HO.A male sterile produced by backcrossing four times
to C7508. C7508HO has been used only as a breeding line.
C8503.An increase of S 5 (C453 X N B I ) . T h i s inbred has very
good downy-mildew resistance, good bolting resistance, and fair
curly-top resistance. C8503 has been used as a source of mildew
resistance.
C884.The second successive bolting-resistant selection from
US 20IB. C884 has been used as a breeding line combining
bolting and leaf-spot resistance.
Vop.
13,
No.
Monogerm
6,
JULY
Inbred
1965
559
Lines
C7507.An increase of S 4 ( U S 2 2 / 3 X SLC 101mm). T h i s inbred has very good b o l t i n g resistance, m e d i u m vigor, a n d good
seed-setting ability, b u t lacks curly-top resistance. A l t h o u g h t h e
i n b r e d i s n o t completely T y p e O , p o l l e n p r o d u c e r s d o n o t
occur in h y b r i d s w i t h good cytoplasmic m a l e steriles. C7507
has b e e n used to p r o d u c e t h e seed-bearing p a r e n t s 5 1 5 H O X
507 a n d 5 6 9 H O X 507.
C7515.An increase of S 5 ( N B 1 X S L C 101mm). T h i s i n b r e d
has g o o d b o l t i n g resistance, good vigor, a n d fair seed-setting
ability, b u t lacks curly-top resistance. It is a very g o o d T y p e O
line w i t h good c o m b i n i n g ability. C7515 has b e e n used to produce t h e male-sterile C 7 5 1 5 H O .
C 7 5 1 5 H O . A m a l e sterile p r o d u c e d by crossing C7515 to MS
of N B 1 a n d t h e n backcrossing four times to C7515. Increases
of C 7 5 1 5 H O have b e e n used as t h e seed-bearing p a r e n t to p r o d u c e
the Fi h y b r i d s 5 1 5 H O X 507, 5 1 5 H O X 569, 5 1 5 H O X 5 6 1 ,
and 5 1 5 H O X 562. T h e s e F 1 h y b r i d s have been used as seedb e a r i n g p a r e n t s to p r o d u c e c o m m e r c i a l m o n o g e r m h y b r i d varieties.
C7569.An increase of S 3 ( N B 1 X S L C 101mm). T h i s m o n o germ i n b r e d has good b o l t i n g , m e d i u m vigor, good seed-setting
ability, a n d m o d e r a t e curly-top resistance. A l t h o u g h t h e i n b r e d
i s n o t completely T y p e O , pollen p r o d u c e r s d o n o t occur i n
hybrids w i t h good cytoplasmic m a l e steriles. C7569 has b e e n
used to p r o d u c e t h e m o n o g e r m seed-bearing p a r e n t s 5 1 5 H O X
569, 5 6 1 H O X 569, a n d 5 6 2 H O X 569.
C8569HO.C7569 crossed to a cytoplasmic male sterile from
MS of N B 1 a n d backcrossed to C7569. Increases of C 8 5 6 9 H O
have b e e n used as t h e seed-bearing p a r e n t to p r o d u c e c o m m e r c i a l
m o n o g e r m h y b r i d varieties.
C9561.A bolting-resistant m o n o g e r m i n b r e d from S 4 ( N B 1 X
C7507). T h i s i n b r e d has good b o l t i n g resistance, fair curly-top
resistance, good seed-setting ability, a n d is a good T y p e O.
C9561 has b e e n used t o p r o d u c e t h e seed-bearing p a r e n t s 5 1 5 H O
X 561 a n d 5 6 9 H O x 5 6 1 .
C9561HO.A m a l e sterile p r o d u c e d b y backcrossing t o C 9 5 6 1 .
Increases of 9561 HO h a v e b e e n used as the seed-bearing p a r e n t
to p r o d u c e 561 HO X 569.
C0562.A T y p e O sister line of C 9 5 6 1 . T h i s m o n o g e r m i n b r e d
combines good b o l t i n g a n d curly-top resistance with good combining ability. C0562 has b e e n used to p r o d u c e t h e m a l e sterile
C0562HO.
560
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13,
No.
6, J U L Y
1965
561
Seed
production
Pollen parent
pounds
Multigerm see<
MS of NB1 X
MS of NB1 X
MS of NB1 X
MS of NB1 X
MS of NB1 X
MS of NBI X
MS of NBI X
MS of NBI X
MS of NBI X
MS of NBI X
MS of NB5 X
C361HO
C585HO
MS of NBI X
MS of NBI X
MS of NBI X
MS of NBI X
NB2
NB2
NB2
NB3
NB3
NB3
NB4
NB4
NB4
NB5
NB6
NB2
NB3
NB4
NB5
C366
C586
C681M x NB4
C586
C663
C681M X NB4
C366
C586
C663
C663
C787
Company pollinators
Company pollinators
Company pollinators
Company pollinators
Company pollinators
Company pollinators
47,500
599,300
800
84,900
854,800
1.000
14,400
247,200
210,100
418,400
18,900
1,887,800
957,500
84,300
2,629,300
372,300
363,800
Xotal
Monogerm
515HO X
515HO x
515HO x
569HO x
562HO x
515HO x
562HO x
569HO
569HO
562HO
561 HO x
5R2HO x
seed
507
561
569
507
569
569
569
562
569
C663
C663
C663
C663
C663
1,400
2.300
49,000
2,000
37,700
39,800
34,900
NB7
NB7
NB7
Company
Company
Company
Company
8,792,300
900
pollinators
polli nators
poll nators
polli nators
1,153,600
9,800
198,200
386,900
Total
1,916,500
562
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
MCFARLANE, J.
S.,
F. V.
OWEN
and ALBERT M.
MURPHY.
1961.
New
hybrid sugar beet varieties for California. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet
Technol. 11: 500-506.
(3) OWEN, F. V. 1948. Utilization of male sterility in breeding superior
yielding sugar beets. Proc. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 5: 156-161
(4) OWEN, F. V. 1954. Hybrid sugar beets made by utilizing both cytoplasmic and Mendelian male sterility. Proc. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet
Technol. 8(2) 64.
JOURNAL
of the
American Society of Sugar
Beet Xechnologists
Volume 13
Number 7
October 1965
Published
quarterly
by
Subscription
$4.50
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title
Author
to
Page
C. L. Schneider
563
Alan E. Goodban
Holland M. McCready
566
Arnold E. Steele
573
Charles Price
C. L. Schneider
604
S. T. Dexter
M. G. Frakes
607
Jay L. Haddock
Darrel M. Stuart
613
V. F. Savitsky
Helen Savitsky
621
Walter E. Peay
645
damage
649
L.
SCHNEIDER1
Introduction
T h e following a r e a m o n g t h e advantages of oil sprays over
o t h e r c o n v e n t i o n a l spray materials for the control of p l a n t p a t h o genes: they are effective spreaders a n d stickers; relatively c h e a p ;
well a d a p t e d t o aerial application; a n d n o n p h y t o t o x i c ( l ) 2 .
Fisher (2) r e p o r t s satisfactory c o n t r o l of greasy spot disease of
citrus (Cercospora citrigrisea sp. nov.) with oil e m u l s i o n spray.
Calpouzos (1) cites several instances of c o n t r o l of Sigatoka leaf
spot disease of b a n a n a (Mycosphaerella musicola Leach = Cercospora musae Zimm.) w i t h ultra-low-volume oil-mist sprays, applied e i t h e r as fungicide carriers or applied alone. E v i d e n c e
a c c u m u l a t e d by Calpouzos indicates t h a t oil acts as a fungistatic
t h e r a p e u t i c agent in c o n t r o l l i n g this disease. A c c o r d i n g to W i l s o n
et al. (3), a d d i t i o n of emulsifiable oil to fixed c o p p e r sprays for
control of sugar beet leafspot (Cercospora beticola Sacc.) is
beneficial because it a p p e a r s to r e d u c e t h e e r o d i n g a c t i o n of
w i n d a n d r a i n o n t h e c o p p e r deposit.
T h e successful c o n t r o l of t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d cercosporoses
of citrus a n d b a n a n a w i t h oil sprays p r o m p t e d o u r o w n tests of
the efficiency of ultra-low-volume mist applications of p e t r o l e u m
oilalone a n d as a fungicide c a r r i e r i n the c o n t r o l of sugar
beet leaf spot i n d u c e d by C. beticola.
Materials and Methods
We c o m p a r e d t h e following t r e a t m e n t s in a field test u n d e r
severe a n d sustained e x p o s u r e to C. beticola:8
1. P e t r o l e u m spray oil (Esso) 4 ; a n a p h t h e n i c spray oil of 92
U S R ( u n s u l f o n a t a b l e residue) a n d 70 second viscosity
(Saybolt Universal Seconds).
2. C o p p e r o x y c h l o r i d e (0.5 l b / g a l of e m u l s i o n c o m p r i s i n g
o n e p a r t p e t r o l e u m oil + 3 p a r t s water).
3 . M a n e b (1.25 l b / g a l p e t r o l e u m oil).
4. T r i - b a s i c c o p p e r sulfate (1 l b / g a l p e t r o l e u m oil).
5. C o n t r o l .
1
Plant Pathologist, Crops Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S.
Department
of Agriculture, Logan, Utah.
2
Numbers
in parentheses refer to literature cited.
3
All materials were prepared and furnished by Esso Research and Engineering Company,4 Linden, New Jersey.
Mention of material and company name is for identification only and does not
emply endorsement by U. S. Department'of Agriculture.
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
564
Acre yield a
Apparent"
purity
Sucrose" coefficient
Percentage
2.5
Copper oxychloride + oil
14.38 ab
80.52 a
3.2
Maneb + oil
14.51 a
79.52 a
3-6
Tri-basic copper sulfate 4- oil
13.72 bc
79.98 a
5.0
Oil alone
13.07 c
78.63 a
6.2
Control
12.14 c
77.44 a
a
Results given as 5-plot averages. Superscripts indiicate levels of significance for ranked
means. Treatments not including the same letter a r e significantly different at the 5%
level (Duncan's multiple range test).
b
Leaf spot readings based on a scale from 0 (no disease)i to 10 (all :leaves dead ). Ratings
shown are maxima for readings on 3 different dates.
Treatment
Gross
sugar
Pounds
3986 a
3832 ab
3373 bc
2887 c
2255 d
Roots
Tons
13.86 a
13.21 a
12.30 ab
11.06 b
9.29 c
5
Inoculum was prepared and applied by Dr. G. E. Coe, Crops Research Division
Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland.
VOL.
13,
No.
7,
OCTOBER
565
1965
1963.
E x p e r i m e n t s in
Botany
T h e prospect of improving sugar beet processing by pretreating beets with lime has intrigued beet technologists for
many years. Proposed systems have included pressing limed
brei (2,3,4,12) 2 , pressing limed and neutralized brei (13,14),
diffusion of limed and neutralized beet chips (14), diffusion with
dilute lime solution (7), and diffusion of cossettes after treatment with a solution of lime and sugar (10). To our knowledge,
none of these processes has found commercial acceptance. This
paper reports our investigation of the effects of lime on beet
tissue and some results of processing limed cossettes.
T h e effects of lime on beet tissue are due primarily to the
reactions of pectin under alkaline conditions since other pulp
components are relatively inert. About 3 0 % of the water-insoluble portion of the beet is pectin. Pectin is a linear polymer of
galacturonic acid units which are partially methylated and
acetylated. In sugar beet pectin, about 5 0 % of the carboxyl
groups are methylated, and about 3 0 % of the hydroxyl groups,
which are in positions 2 and 3, are acetylated.
Previous knowledge of the effects of alkali on pectin (9,11)
may be summarized as follows: T w o reactions may occur when
pectin is treated with alkali. One reaction is ester hydrolysis,
which produces methanol and acetate as byproducts. T h e other
reaction is polymer degradation by glycosidic bond cleavage.
Figure 1 shows a portion of the pectin molecule and the reactions with hot or cold alkali. At low temperature the predominant reaction is ester hydrolysis. T h e resulting pectic acid
is highly resistant to alkaline degradation. T h e calcium salt of
pectic acid is insoluble, and, if lime is the alkali used to deesterify the pectin, the divalent calcium cross links acid groups
to form a rigid calcium pectate structure.
At high temperature, not only are the esters hydrolyzed, but
glycosidic bonds adjacent to esterified carboxylic groups are
broken (11). Since about half of the carboxyl groups are originally esterified, the pectin chain is almost completely destroyed.
T h i s pectin degradation makes the associated hemicellulose
soluble in water, and thus greatly reduces the mechanical strength
of the beet tissue. Although the degradation product shown in
1
Western Regional Research Laboratory, Western Utilization Research and Develop
ment Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Albany
California.
2
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
VOL.
13,
No.
7,
OCTOBER
1965
567
Lime Penetration
Esterified p e c t i n can be detected in p l a n t tissue in situ by
reaction w i t h a l k a l i n e h y d r o x y l a m i n e a n d ferric c h l o r i d e (6).
T h i s r e a c t i o n was used to follow t h e de-esterification of sugar
beet p e c t i n w i t h lime. Five c e n t i m e t e r r e c t a n g u l a r plugs w e r e
cut from a sugar beet w i t h a m i c r o t o m e , a n d soaked in 1% l i m e
slurry. Sections e x a m i n e d after ten m i n u t e s showed de-esterification to a d e p t h of 0.1 mm at 25 C a n d 0.2 mm at 45 C. T h i s
corresponds to 3 a n d 7 cells, respectively. No g r a d a t i o n of
partially de-esterified pectin was a p p a r e n t . T h e s h a r p d e m a r c a tion b e t w e e n de-esterified a n d u n r e a c t e d pectin indicates t h a t
the r a t e c o n t r o l l i n g step is diffusion of lime.
568
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Saponification Rates
De-esterification and deacetylation rates were obtained by
measuring the residual ester and acetyl content of p u l p after reaction with lime. Cossettes were mixed with dry Ca(OH) 2 and
held at 25 C. Samples were withdrawn at timed intervals and
the acetyl and methoxyl content of the marc measured (5). The
results were calculated as percent saponification, and are shown
in Figure 3. T h e rate of demethylation is greater than the rate
of deacetylation at this temperature. Demethylation stabilizes
pectin, but deacetylation does not, and furthermore, it produces
VOL.
13,
No.
7,
OCTOBER
569
1965
Time, minutes
Figure 3.Saponification of beet pectin. R a t e of de-esterification
and deacetylation. Cossettes treated at 25 C with dry C a ( O H ) 2 , 1.3%
on beets.
acetic acid as a b y p r o d u c t . Since d e m e t h y l a t i o n is m o r e r a p i d
than deacetylation, it may be possible to restrict deacetylation
a n d still s t a b i l i z e p e c t i n b y sufficient d e m e t h y l a t i o n .
Processing
Xests
570
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
CO,. Liming at 40 C was unsatisfactory because of pulp deterioration. Lime slurry treatments were difficult to manage
because of the rapid extraction of sugar, even at low temperature. For continuous operation, a system of adding treatment
liquor to the diffusion juice at a constant rate would be needed.
Dry liming was easier, and still gave satisfactory treatment to
the beets. T r e a t m e n t levels above 0.4% CaO on beets were
unnecessary. Diffusion juice from alkaline beets was clear and
light colored. Juice from neutralized beets was darker, with
more colloids, but still much lighter and clearer than normal
diffusion juice. All of the diffusion juices were subjected to
first carbonation, with additional lime. Sedimentation and filtration rates were determined on the first carbonation juices, and
the color, lime salts, and purity of the second carbonation juices
were measured. T a b l e 1 is a summary of the results from the
best three treatments. T h e major differences are in the total
lime consumption and in the lime salts and total anions. T h e
final m u d volumes are a reflection of the amount of lime used.
Table 1.Processing comparisons for prelimed beets
Cossettes limed at roo:m temperature Lth
dry Ca (HO) 2 , (0.4'% CaO on beets)
Control
Alkaline
Neutral
Preliming time, min.
Diffusion temp., C.
First carbonation:
Lime added (% CaO on beets)
Sedimentation resistance
Mud volume (%)
Second carbonation:
Lime salts (CaO/100 Bx
Anions (meq./lOO Bx)
Purity (%)
Color (OD/100 Bx)
none
70
30
25
30
70
10
70
2.0
25
9.0
0.5
32
5.0
0.5
31
5.0
1.0
34
7.0
.05
.18
.39
.52
31
50
55
51
91.6
89.5
90.2
90.0
2.0
2.0
2.8
2.8
VOL.
13,
No.
7,
OCTOBER
1965
571
grams of solids in second c a r b o n a t i o n juice. W i t h i n experim e n t a l error, this is t h e same as t h e observed d r o p in p u r i t y for
juices from l i m e d beets. P r e l i m e d cossettes do r e t a i n m o r e colloids a n d insoluble calcium salts t h a n do u n t r e a t e d cossettes,
b u t these are materials w h i c h w o u l d b e r e m o v e d d u r i n g carb o n a t i o n . T h e r e is no n e t change in the a m o u n t of s o l u b l e
nonsugars in second c a r b o n a t i o n juice, except for acetate prod u c e d by deacetylation of p u l p pectin.
P u l p from p r e l i m e d beets i s m u c h t o u g h e r t h a n n o r m a l
p u l p . L a b o r a t o r y tests showed that u p t o 4 0 % solids c o u l d b e
o b t a i n e d u s i n g a static press b u t that the p u l p was t o o t o u g h
to be pressed in a high-speed screw press. We w e r e u n a b l e to
test p u l p from p r e l i m e d beets in a factory press w i t h o u t int r o d u c i n g t h e system to an e n t i r e factory, b u t we h a v e m a d e
some factory tests on p u l p from a c o n t i n u o u s slope diffuser by
a d d i n g l i m e after diffusion. P u l p treated with 0 . 1 5 % C a O becomes h a r d a n d t o u g h in the same way as do t h e cossettes. D r y
h y d r a t e d l i m e or a slurry of l i m e was a d d e d to t h e p u l p in t h e
conveyor system feeding t h e presses. T h e t e m p e r a t u r e was 45
to 50 C. A l t h o u g h t h e trials were n o t extensive, it does seem
that l i m e - h a r d e n e d p u l p can b e pressed satisfactorily. I n o n e
trial, a b o u t 100 tons of p u l p were treated at the r a t e of 0 . 1 5 %
C a O on p u l p over a p e r i o d of two h o u r s , a n d t h e p u l p was
pressed o n t w o o r t h r e e Stearns-Rogers presses t o a b o u t 8 3 %
moisture, w h i c h was the same as for u n t r e a t e d p u l p . On t w o
occasions, lower moistures were o b t a i n e d for brief periods, b u t
the presses plugged, e i t h e r because t h e b o t t o m plates w e r e t o o
tight or because n o t e n o u g h pressure could be d e v e l o p e d to
force t h e p u l p t h r o u g h t h e discharge slot. T h e p o w e r c o n s u m p tion on t h e presses was n o t excessive, even w h e n they w e r e
plugged.
Summary
Cossette p r e l i m i n g at low t e m p e r a t u r e stabilizes t h e b e e t
s t r u c t u r e to p e r m i t alkaline diffusion w i t h o u t d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of
the p u l p . C o n s i d e r a b l e r e t e n t i o n of otherwise e x t r a c t a b l e colloids is observed, l e a d i n g to a r e d u c t i o n in the l i m e n e e d e d for
clarification. T h e p r o d u c t i o n of acetate by alkaline d e a c e t y l a t i o n
reduces t h e p u r i t y of clarified j u i c e a n d increases t h e a m o u n t of
lime salts.
T h e p r e l i m i n g o f cossettes m u s t b e carried o u t b e l o w 40
C a n d sufficient t i m e m u s t be allowed for t h e p e c t i n to be
stabilized before it is subjected to heat. A l k a l i n e diffusion m a y
presumably be c o n d u c t e d over a w i d e range of t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e
high p H will p r e c l u d e f e r m e n t a t i o n a t low t e m p e r a t u r e s , a n d
the stabilized p e c t i n will p e r m i t u n u s u a l l y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s
572
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
1960.
the characterization of pectic substances in some fruit and sugarbeet marcs. Food Research 23: 72-75.
(6) G E E , M., R. M. REEVE, and R. M. MCCREADY.
1959.
Reaction of hy-
droxylamine with pectinic acids. Chemical studies and histochemical estimation of the degree of esterification of pectic substances in fruit. J. Agr. Food Chem. 7: 34-38.
(7) LOOF, H. G., and W. POHL. 1956. Process for extracting sugar beets,
using weakly alkaline water. French Patent 1,129,771.
(8)
1959.
Development
of a sugar beet processing laboratory. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technologists 10: 563-570.
(9) SPEISER, R., C. R. EDDY, and C. H . HILLS.
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
Kinetics of deesterification
E.
STEELE2
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
575
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
576
1958.
Differential response of
1959.
Host-parasite relationships
1959.
(Heterodera
Susceptibility of tomato
577
W H E A T L E Y , GEORGE W . a n d J . S.
MCFARLANE.
1964.
List of p l a n t s
tested in the greenhouse to determine the host range of the sugarbeet nematode (Heterodera schachtii). Spreckels Sugar Beet Bull.
28 (5) : 37.
(18) W I N S L O W , R. D. 1954. Provisional lists of host plants of some root
eelworms (Heterodera spp.). Annals Appl. Biol. 41 (4) : 591-605.
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
578
Table 1.Source of seeds or plants tested for susceptibility to the sugar beet nematode.1
Reference No.
cited in
Table 2
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
1
No.
Specimens
tested
Ferry-Morse Seed Company, Mountain View, California
Germain's, Inc., Los Angeles, California
Weed specimens collected in Monterey County, California
Yoder Bros, of California, Inc., Salinas, California
Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Gardens of the native plants
of California, Santa Ana, California
United States Department of Agriculture
Weed specimens collected in Western Arizona
Weed specimens collected in San Bernardino County, California
The Butchart Gardens, Victoria, B. C.
Kitezawa Seed Company, San Jose, California
Clyde Robin Seed Co., Carmel Valley, California
Floralana Company, Los Angeles, California
Specimens collected in Marshall County, Iowa
Los Angeles State and County Arboretum, Arcadia, California
Seed Laboratory, Fort Collins, Colorado
67
64
59
1
15
32
5
2
2
1
10
1
4
4
2
Listing of trade names is for identification of seed only and does not imply indorsement
by the Department of Agriculture over similar ones not mentioned.
Tabic 2.Susceptibility of cultivated and weed plants to the sugar beet nematode (Heterodera schachtii Schmidt)
Studies at Salinas, California
Commercial variety
or common name
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
of
plants
Index
range
(l)1
25-
Avg.
index
Host
status
References
AIZOACEAE
Mesembryanthemum
crystallinum L.
Tetragonia expansa Murr.
AMARANTHACEAE
Amaranthus blitoides S. Wats.
A. carneus Greene
A. caudatus L.
A. deflexus L.
A. graecizans L.
A. hybridus L.
A. hypochondriacus L.
A. palmeri S. Wats.
A. powellii S. Wats.
A. quitensis H.B.&K.
A, retroflexus L.
A. spinosus L.
A. tricolor L.
Celosia argentea
C. argentea L. v. cristata Kuntze
Pigweed
Spiny amaranth
Josephscoat
Patnpus plume
Cockscomb
AMARYLLIDACEAE
Allium cepa L.
A. porrum L.
A. schoenoprasum L.
Allium sp.
Allium sp.
Allium spp.
Onion
Leek
Hardy perennial chives
Leek
Onion
Garlic
Iceplant
New Zealand spinach
2.04
Tumbling pigweed
Love-lies-bleeding
+5
+
+
+
+
Tumbleweed
Green amaranth
+0
+0
(0
13
(2)
25
24
2.1
1.0
(1)
25
(1)
(2)
16
24
0
0
0
0
17
9,17
17
5
10,11,18
5
12
5
9
5
5
9
+
+0
+
5
5
10
0
0
0
0
0
5,12,17
5,9,17
12
10,12
17
Table 2 (continued)
Studies at Salinas, California
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
of
plants
Index
range
Avg.
index
Milkweed
Milkweed
(3)
21
Fiddleneck
Borage
Chinese forget-me-not
Houndstongue
(3)
(2)
(1)
20
5
22
0
1
0
0
0.2
0
(1)
25
Commercial variety
or common name
Host
status
References
ASCLEPIADACEAE
Asclepias sp.
A. syriaca L.
10
0
0
0
0
18
9
18
9
0
0
+
18
18
10,11,18
+
+
+
+
18
11
9
10
BORACINACEAE
Amsinckia intermedia F.&M.
Borago officinalis
Cynoglossum amabile
C. officinale L.
Myosotis alpestris
M. arvensis L. Hill
M. oblongata
Myosotis sp.
Field forget-me-not
Bluebird forget-me-not
CAMPANULACEAE
Lobelia spp.
Lobelia
24
(1)
CANNABINACEAE
Humulus lupulus
L.
Wild hop
CAPPARIDACEAE
Cleome spinosa Jacq. v. rosea
(1)
25
4.0
25
1-4
1.6
CARYOPHYLLACEAE
Agrostemma githago L.
Cerastium
perfoliatum
Dianthus barbatus L.
Dianthus caryophyllus
D. deltoides L.
D. plumarius L.
Dianthus sp.
Dianthus spp.
Corncockle
Carnation
Pinks
(2)
25
22
1-4
1-4
1.6
3.0
Table 2 (continued)
Studies at Salinas, California
Commercial variety
or common name
Gypsophila acutifolia Fisch.
G. elegans Bieb.
Lychnis coronaria L.
L. flos-cuculi L.
Lychnis sp.
Melandrium dioicum (L.)C.&G.
M. noctuiflorum (L.) Fr.
M. rubrum (Weig.) Garcke
Saponaria cerastoides
S. ocymoides L.
5. officinalis L.
5. vaccaria L.
Scleranthus annuus L.
S*7en antirrhina
S. armeria L.
S. cucubalus Wibel.
S. gallica L.
S. maritima With.
5. noctiflora L.
S. nutans L.
5. pendula L.
S. quadrifida L.
S. saxifraga L.
S*7<?ne sp.
Spergula arvensis L.
Stellaria media (L. )Vill.
Stellaria spp.
Tunica saxifraga Scop.
Vaccaria pyramidata Med.
Viscaria vulgaris Bernh.
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
of
plants
(1)
22
Index
range
14
Avg.
index
1.3
Ragged-robin
Campion
Red Campion
Night-flowering campion
Red campion
Soapwort
Annual Knawel
Sweet-william catchfly
Bladder campion
Windmill pink
Sea campion
Night-flowering catchfly
Nottingham catchfly
Catchfly
Corn spurry
Common chickweed
Chickweed
Viscid campion
(3)
(3)
25
25
Host
status
+
+
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
+
+
+
0
0
+
0
References
18
18
18
18
10
9
9
18
18
18
9,18
9
18
18
18
9
+
0
+
0
+
+
0
0
+
+
0
+
0
18
10
18
9,18
18
18
10
9,18
1,8,9,11,18
17
9
18
9
Table 2 (continued)
Other host studies
Number
of
plants
(5)
24
Garden orache
Saltbush
Garden orache
Quail brush
(5)
25
2-4
3.1
(5)
(5)
25
25
4
4
4.0
4.0
Commercial variety
or common name
Index
range
Avg.
index
Host
status
References
CHENOPODIACEAE
A triplex confertifolia
A. confertifolia (T&F.) {5. Wats.
A. hastatum
A. hortensis L.
A. hortensis L.
A. hortensis L. v. rubra Moq.
A. lentiformis
A. leucophylla
A. littorale
A. patula L.
A. polycarpa
A. rosea L.
A triplex sp.
Beta atriplicifolia
B. atriplicifolia Rouy x B. t/u/gflrfa L. (Fa)
B. corolliflora Zoss.
B. intermedia Bunge
B. lomatogona Fisch. & Meyers
B. macrocarpa Guss.
B. macrorrhiza
B. maritima L.
B. patellar is Moq.
B. patula Ait.
B. patula Soland
B. procumbens Chrys. Sir1.
B. procumbens Moq.
B. trigyna Wald. et Kitt
B. vulgaris L.
B. vulgaris L.
H. vulgaris L.
Common orache
Cattle spinach
(5)
25
0
15
1
9
17
10
+
+
8,9
+
0
+
+
17
10
7
3
+
+
+
17
7,17
3,7,17
+
+
+
+
0
0
+
+
+
3,7,9,16,17
13
3
17
3,17
7,16
3,7,17
9,10,17
9,10,17
9
3.0
Coppery orache
Wild beet
Wild beet
Wild beet
Wild beet
Wild beet
Wild beet
Wild beet
Wild beet
Wild beet
Wild beet
Wild beet
Wild beet
Mangel
Red table beet
Spinach beet
+
+
+
+
+
(6)
(6)
(6)
25
25
25
4
4
4
4.0
4.0
(6)
25
4.0
(6)
25
0-1
0.1
(fi)
(6)
25
25
0
4
0
4.0
(1)
22
4.0
4.0
Table 2 (continued)
Sugar beet
Swiss chard
Leaf beet
Sugar beet
Wild beet
Fat hen
Lambsquarters
White pigweed or goosefoot
Good-King-Henry
Source
of seed
or plant
(6)
(6)
Number
of
plants
25
25
Index
range
4
0
AYg.
index
4.0
0
Host
status
2,3,5,9,10,11,17
5,17
10
3,7,16,17
8,9
4
1
17
5
9,11
18
5,9,11,17
18
10
9
9
5,11,12,17
8,9,18
1,9,18
1,8,9,11
5
9,10
17
9,11
1
18
1
9
1
1
9
5,10,11,17
+
+
+
+
+
+
0
Strawberry-blite
Fig-leaved goosefoot
Oak-leaved goosefoot
Sowbane
Nettle-leaved goosefoot
Sowbane
Many-seeded goosefoot
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
0
Red goosefoot
+
+
0
Pigweed
Stinking goosefoot
References
+
+
+
+
+
0
+
0
Sea purslane
+
0
0
Summer spinach
Spinach
+
+
Table 2 (continued)
Other host studies
Commercial variety
or common name
Spinacia oleracea L.
Suaeda maritima
CISTACEAE
Helianthemum
scoparium
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
of
plants
Index
range
Avg.
index
Winter spinach
Nutt.
Common rush-rose
(7)
25
Coldenhead
Yarrow
Perennial ragweed
Ragweed
Dogfennel
Lavender-Munstead strain
Burdock
Mugwort
Mugwort
(8)
12
(3)
25
22
25
14
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
16
24
25
23
25
23
25
25
25
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(1)
25
(2)
25
(3)
25
9
17
10
17
9,10
0
0
10
9
73
z
A.
(3)
(5)
(1)
(1)
(6)
(2)
(2)
(3)
(3)
(2)
0
0
0
OF THE
Gold fields
Dble mixed English daisy
Gt. Crego mixed aster
Safflower
Dusty-miller
Bachelors-button
Napa thistle
Yellow star thistle
Green curled endive
Asparagus chicory or
catalogna
Chicory
Lg.-root coffee chicory
Canada thistle
Common thistle
Bullthistle
(3)
(9)
(10)
References
9
1
IAL
C. intybus L.
C. intybiw L.
Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.
Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.
C. vulgare (Savi) Tenore
+
0
Joui
COMPOSITAE
Acamptopappus
sphaerocephaltts
(Harv. & Gray) A. Gray
Achillea millefolium L.
Ambrosia psilostachya DC.
Ambrosia sp.
Anthemis cotula L.
Anthemis sp.
Arctium lappa L.
Artemisia sp.
A. vulgaris L.
Aster sp.
Baeria chrysostoma v. gracilis
Bellis perennis
Callistephus sinensis
Carthamus tinctorius
Centaurea cineraria L.
C. cyanus
C. melitensis L.
C. solstitialis L.
Cichorium endivia
C. intybus L.
Host
status
C/i
C/i
W
0
_ _
Table
(continued)
Studies at Salinas, California
Commercial variety
or common name
Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt.
Cosmos bipinnatus Cav.
Cynara cardunculus
C. scolymus L.
Dicoria canescens T. & G.
Dimorphotheca
aurantiaca
Erigeron glaucus Ker.
Erigeron sp.
Eupatorium coelestinum L.
Gaillardia picta
Grindelia camporum v. interioris
(Jepson) Steyermark
Helianthus annuus L.
Helianthus spp.
Helichrysum bracleatum Andr.
Heterotheca grandiflora Nutt.
Hypochoeris radicata L.
Hypochoeris radicata L.
Lactuca saligna
L. sativa L.
L. serriola L.
Layia platyglossa v. elegans
Leontodon leysseri (Wallr.) G. Beck
Madia gracilis (Smith) Keck
Palafoxia linearis (Cav.) Lag.
Parthenium argentatum Gray
Peucephyllum schottii Gray
Picris echioides L.
Senecio douglasii D. C.
S. vulgaris L.
Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.
Sonchus arvensis L.
S. oleraceus L.
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
of
plants
Index
range
Avg.
index
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(7)
(1)
(3)
(3)
(1)
(0
25
25
25
25
17
22
23
24
24
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(3)
(3)
(2)
(1)
(3)
(3)
(3)
(6)
(6)
(3)
(5)
(3)
(3)
(7)
(6)
25
14
25
22
25
23
25
25
25
25
25
25
13
20
22
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(3)
(7)
(3)
(3)
5
25
25
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Host
status
References
10
10
0
0
5,9,10,12,17
17
17
10
17
Table 2 (continued)
Studies at Salinas, California
Commercial variety
or common name
Sonchus sp.
Stephanomeria sp.
S. tenuifolia (Torr.) H. M. Hall
Tagetes spp.
Tagetes spp.
Taraxacum officinale Wiggers
Taraxacum officinale Web.
Taraxacum sp.
Tithonia
rotundifolia
Tragopogon porrifolius L.
Xanthium italicum Mor.
Zinnia elegans
CONVOLVULACEAE
Calonyction aculeatum House
Calystegia septum L. R. Br.
Convolvulus arvensis L.
Convolvulus arvensis L.
Ipomoea botata
1. cardinalis L.
/. quamoclit L.
Ipomoea sp.
CRUCIFERAE
Aethionema
grandiflora
A. pulchellum
A. stylosum
Alliaria officinalis Bieb.
^iy55m alpestre
A. argenteum
A. borzaeanum Nyar.
4. mariHmum L.
A. marilimum L.
Source
of seed
or plant
Sowthistle
Stephanomeria
Narrow-leaved stephanomeria
African crackerjack marigold
Dwarf marigold
Common dandelion
Dandelion
Dandelion
Mexican-sunflower
Salsify
Cockle-bur
Calif, giant-white
purity zinnia
Moonflower
Larger bindweed
Lesser bindweed
Morning glory
Sweet potato
Cardinal climber
Mixed cypress vine
Candy pink morning-glory
Garlic mustard
Sweet alyssum
Sweet alyssum v. violet queen
(3)
(3)
(2)
(1)
(3)
Number
of
plants
20
16
25
25
25
Index
range
0
0
0
0
0
Avg.
index
25
25
0
0
0
0
(2)
25
(1)
12
22
25
25
0
0
0
References
0
0
17
10
0
0
12
17
0
0
0
0
9
9
17
17
0
0
0
+
0
+
+
+
+
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
0
0
0
0
0
(0
(3)
(1)
(1)
(1)
Host
status
0
0
0
Table 2 (continued)
Studies at Salinas, California
Commercial variety
or common name
Alyssum
maritimum
Lam.
A. montanum
A. saxatile L.
Alyssum sp.
A. spinosum
Arabis arenosa Scop.
A. bellidifolia
A. caucasia Willd.
A. muralis Bertol
A. turrita L.
A. verna R. Br.
Armoracia lapathifolia Gilib.
Aubrieta columnea Guss.
Aubrieta sp.
Barbarea longirostris
B. praecox R. Br.
B. vulgaris R. Br.
Berteroa incana (L.) DC.
Biscutella auriculata L.
B. depressa
B. laevigata L.
Brassica campestris L.
Brassica campestris L.
B. caulorapa Pasq.
B. cernua Thbg.
B. ;'unca
B. /tmcca (L.) Czern. & Coss.
B. napobrassica Mill.
B. na/7W$ L.
B. napMi L.
B, napus L.
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
of
plants
(3)
25
(2)
10
Avg.
index
Host
status
1-4
2.2
+
+
5
18
0-1
0.1
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
T
0
+
+
+
+
+
10,18
18
11
18
18
18
11
18
9,10
11
9
18
11
11,18
18
18
18
18
5,17
18
10
11
+
+
+
+
+
18
10
9,10,17,18
2,9,18
5
Index
range
Garden arabis
Horseradish
Yellow-rocket
Common mustard
Wild turnip
Kohlrabi
So. gt. curled mustard
Trowse mustard
Rutabaga
Coleseed or rape
Swede
Turnip
(1)
25
References
4.0
Table 2 (continued)
Number
of
plants
Black mustard
Broccoli
Brussel sprouts
Cabbage
Red cabbage
Cauliflower
Coliards
Kale
Kohlrabi
(11)
25
Kale or coliards
Dwarf curled kale
Cauliflower
Cabbage
Brussd sprouts
Early white Vienna kohlrabi
Chinese cabbage
Turnip
(11)
(2)
25
25
Commercial variety
or common name
Gold-of-pleasure
Sheoherds-purse
Cuckoo flower
Hoarycress
Siberian wallflower
Wallflower
Horseradish
Scurvy grass
Host
status
References
4.0
4
4
4.0
4.0
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
8,9,11,18
5,9,10,17,18
5,9,17,18
2,5,9,17,18
2
5,9,17,18
5
9,17,18
9
11
10
+
+
+
10
10
10
+
+
+
0
+
+
+
+
5
8,9,10,17,18
9
1
18
1,8,9,10,17,18
11
1,18
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
9
11
18
9,10,11
8
18
9,18
(2)
25
4.0
(1)
25
4.0
(3)
25
4.0
(3)
20
11
3-4
4
3.9
4.0
(1)
C4
OUR]
Avg.
index
Index
range
00
>
r
0
>
C/3
C/3
Commercial variety
or common name
Conringia orientalis (L.) Dum.
Coronopus squamatus (Forsk.) Asc.
C. ruellii
Descurainia sophia (L.) Prantl.
Diplotaxis erucoides (L.) DC.
D. muralis (L.) DC.
D. tenuifolia (L.) DC.
Erysimum
allionii
E. capitatum
E. cheiranthoides L.
E. cheiranthoides L.
E. heiraciifolium L.
E. insulate v. grandifolum
Hesperis matronalis L.
Hesperis matronalis L.
Hesperis sp.
/fecrw coronaria Hort.
/ t e r i j sp.
Jfcem spp. (amara & umbellata)
I. umbellata L.
Isatis tinctoria L.
Lepidium graminifolium L.
L. latifolium L.
I. nitidum Nutt.
L. sativum L.
Lobularia maritima (L.) Desv.
Lunaria annua L.
JL biennis
L. rediviva L.
Malcolmia littorea (L.) DC.
Af. maritima (L.) R. Br.
Matthiola annua
Hares-ear-cabbage
Swinecress
Swinecress
Flixweed
White-wall rocket
Wall rocket
Perennial wall rocket
Siberian wallflower
Wallflower
Treacle-mustard
Wormseed-mustard
Wallflower
Dames-violet
Sweet rocket
Rocket
Candytuft
Mixed candytuft
Candytuft
Woad
Broad-leaved pepperwort
Common peppergrass
Garden cress
Sweet alison
Hon; sty
Money plant
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
of
plants
Index
range
Avg.
index
Host
status
18
1,18
8
9,18
1,18
18
18
18
'+
+
+
8,9,18
10
18
1,5,18
0
+
+
10
18
9,10
+
-f0
0
11,18
9,11,18
18
18
+
0
+
+
+
0
0
(5)
21
1-2
1.0
(5)
25
3-4
3.6
(1)
24
0-1
0.1
(2)
21
1-4
2.3
(3)
(2)
15
20
0
4
0
4.0
(1)
24
2-4
3.5
+
0
+
+
0
Virginian stock
References
(2)
24
3-4
3.6
+
0
8,9,10,18
18
9,10,18
18
18
1,2,11,18
1
Tabic 2 (continued)
Studies at Salinas, California
Commercial variety
or common name
M. bicornis (Sib. & Sm.) DC.
M. incana (L.) R. Br.
Af. sinuata (L.) R. Br. v. glabra
Matthiola sp.
Moricandia arvensis (L.) DC.
M. sonchifolia
Myagrum perfoliatum L.
Nasturtium microphyllum (Boenn.)
N. officinale R. Br.
Peltaria alliacea Jacq.
Raphanus maritimus Sm.
R. raphanistrum L.
R. sativus L.
R. sativus L.
Rapistrum perenne All.
R. rugosum (L.) All.
Rorippa amphibia (L.) Besser
jR. islandica (Oeder) Borbas
R. nasturtium
R. sylvestris (L.) Besser
Saxatile citrinum
Sinapis alba L.
S. arvensis L.
S. kaber (DC.)
Sisymbrium austriacum Jacq.
S. irio L.
S. officinale (L.) Scop.
S. orientale L.
S. sophia L.
Teesdalia nudicaulis
Thlaspi arvense L.
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
of
plants
Index
range
Avg.
index
Night-scented stock
Stock
Sea stock
Garden stock
Rchb.
One-rowed watercress
Watercress
Sea radish
Wild radish
Radish
Wild radish
Great yellowcress
Marsh yellowcress
True watercress
Creeping yellowcress
Alyssum
White mustard
Charlock
Wheeler charlock
London rocket
Hedgemustard
Eastern rocket
Field pennycress
(1)
(3)
25
25
14
4
2.6
4.0
(11)
20
4.0
(9)
10
Host
status
References
0
0
0
0
0
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
18
5
18
9,10
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
9,17
2,5,9,10,17
+
+
+
+
11
18
18
18
18
+
+
+
+
+
+
2,9,18
1,9,18
10
18
18
+
+
+
+
1,8,9,11
18
11
1
1,9,11
Table 2 (continued)
Studies at Salinas, California
Commercial variety
or common name
Thlaspi arvense L.
Tropaeolum spp.
Mithridate mustard
Calif, giants mixed
nasturtium
Avg.
index
1-3
1.3
(2)
25
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
25
25
25
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(12)
19
(3)
(11)
21
(1)
25
Sun spurge
Caper spurge
Castor bean
Castor oil bean
(11)
(2)
25
Redstem filaree
(3)
23
CYPERACEAE
Cyperus eragrostis Lam.
Tall umbrella-plant
DIPSACACEAE
Dipsacus fullonum
D. lacineatus L.
Scabiosa caucasia
Fullers teasel
Teasel
Pincushion flower
GERANIACEAE
Erodium cicutarium L'Her.
. mancescavi Coss.
Geranium rotundifolium L.
Pelargonium hortorum Bailey
Index
range
25
L.
Number
of
plants
(2)
CUCURBITACEAE
Citrullus vulgaris
Cucumis melo L.
C. melo reticulatus
C, sativus L.
Cucurbita maxima
C. pepo L.
C. pepo L.
Cucurbita sp.
Luffa cylinrica
EUPHORBIACEAE
Euphorbia helioscopia
E. lathyrus L.
Ricinus communis L.
Ricinus communis L.
Source
of seed
or plant
Round-leaved cranes-bill
Geranium
Host
status
References
10
10,12,17
0
0
9
10
0
0
0
9
9
12.17
0
0
0
0
17
9
9
17
Table 2 (continued)
Other host studies
Commercial variety
or common name
GRAMINEAE
Agropyron sp.
Alopecurus sp.
Arrhenatherum
elatius (L.)
Arrhenatherum
elatius (L.) J. & C. Presl.
Avena byszantina L.
A. fatua L.
A. saliva L.
A. sterilts
Briza maxima L.
Bromus inermis Leys
B. mollis L.
B. secalinus L.
Cynodon dactylon L.
Cynosurus cristatus L.
Dactylis glomerata L.
Dactylis glomerata L.
Echinochloa crusgalli |[L.) Beauv.
Festuca elatior L.
Festuca elatior L.
F. pratensis Huds.
Hordeum
jubatum
H. sativum Pers.
H. vulgare L.
H. vulgare L.
Lolium multiflorum Lam.
L. perenne L.
Phalaris canariensis L.
Phleum pratense L.
Poa annua L.
P. pratensts agg.
Polypogon mott.speh"enstj L.
Couchgrass
Foxtail
Tall oatgrass
False-oatgrass
Red cultivated oa s
Wild oats
Oats
Oats
Quaking grass
Smooth bromegrass
Soft bromegrass
Bermuda grass
Crested dogs-tail
Cocks-foot
Orchard Grass
Watergrass
Meadow fescue
Tall fescue
Meadow fescue
Wild barley
Barley
Atlas barley
Barley
Italian ryegrass
Ryegrass
Canarygrass
Timothygrass
Annual meadowgrass
Smooth stalked meadowgrass
Rabbitfootgrass
Source
of seed
or plant
'(13)
(3)
Number
of
plants
25
25
Index
range
0
0
Avg.
index
25
(2)
(3)
24
25
0
0
0
0
25
References
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9,10
10
17
9
17
17
9,10,12,17
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
17
9
9
17
9
9
17
17
17
17
9
17
9
12
10,17
9
9
0
0
0
9,10
9
9
0
0
(3)
(3)
Host
status
Commercial variety
or common name
Secale cereale L, Bieb.
Setaria glauca L.
Sorghum halapense L. Pers.
S. vulgare Pers.
S. vulgare Pers.
Triticum aestivium L.
T. vulgare Vill.
lea mays L.
lea mays L. v. saccharata
loysia
japonica
HYDROPHYLLACEAE
Nemophila
insignis
Phacelia campanularia
P. minor
P. tennuifolia Harv.
LABIATAE
Ajuga chamaepitys (L.)
Galeopsis dubia Leers
G. pyrenaica Bartl,
G. speciosa Mill.
G. tetrahit agg.
Hyssopus officinalis L.
Lamium album L.
/.. mo//
L. purpureum L.
Lavandula sp.
Leonurus sibiricus
Majorana hortensis
Marrubium vulgare L.
Melissa officinalis L.
Rye
Yellow foxtail
Johnson grass
Sweet sorghum v. honeydrip
Milo
Wheat
Wheat
Corn
Stowell's evergreen
sweet corn
Japanese lawngrass
Baby-blue-eyes
Desert bluebell
Calif, bluebell
Source
of seed
or plant
(2)
Number
of
plants
25
Index
range
Avg.
index
(1)
22
25
0
0
0
0
(1)
(5)
(5)
7
17
19
0
0-1
0
0
0.7
0
Large-flowered hemp-nettle
Common hemp-nettle
Hyssop
White deadnettle
Red deadnettle
Lavender
(1)
(3)
(1)
25
25
16
0
1
0
References
0
0
0
9,17
17
17
0
0
0
0
17
10,12
9,17
9,10,17
0
0
+
+
+
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
18
9,18
2,8,9,18
18
9
9,18
18
9,18
10
18
10
Groundpine
Downy hemp-nettle
Sweet marjoram
Horehound
Lemon balm
Host
status
0
1.0
0
Table 2 (continued)
Other host studies
Commercial variety
or common name
Mentha arvensis L.
M. piperita L.
Molucella laevis
Ocimum basilicum L.
Ocimum basilicum L.
Salvia lanigera
S. officinalis L.
S. sclarea L.
Salvia sp.
Scutellaria orientalis L.
Stachys annua (L.) L.
S. officinalis (L.) Trev.
S. sylvatica L.
Thymus sp.
T. vulgaris
LEGUMINOSAE
Anthyllis vulneraria L.
Arachis hypogaea L.
Arachis hypogaea L.
Arachis hypogaea L.
Crotalaria mucronata
C. pumila
C. spectabilis
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
Glycine max (L.) Merr.
Glycine max (L.) Merr.
Lathyrus odoratus L.
Lathyrus odoratus L.
Lens sp.
Lespedeza stipulacea Maxim.
Corn mint
Peppermint
Bells of Ireland
Ornamental basil
Sweet basil
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
(2)
(1)
(1)
(14)
25
24
25
19
of
plants
Index
range
Avg.
index
0
0
0
0-1
0
0
0
0.1
0
0
Garden sage
Sage
Skullcap
Woundwort
Betony
Hedge woundwort
Thyme
Thyme
Kidneyvetch
Argintine-peanut
(Spanish-type)
Southeastern runner
Virginia bunch peanut
Rattlebox
Texel guar
Soybean
Soybean v. Earlyana
Winter-flowering
spencer sweetpea
Sweetpea
Lentil
Korean lespedeza v. auburn
(2)
25
Host
status
References
9
10
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
9
10
9
9,18
18
18
10
9,18
(6)
(b)
(6)
(14)
(14)
20
25
25
9
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(6)
25
(6)
25
1-3
2.0
(2)
25
(6)
23
0-1
0.3
12
5,10,17
+
0
12
18
Table 2 (continued)
Studies at Salinas, California
Number
of
plants
(6)
(6)
(6)
(6)
(6)
15
21
12
22
19
Lupine
Annual lupine
(5)
Burclover
Hairy medick
Alfalfa
Caliverde alfalfa
Chilean alfalfa
German alfalfa
Lahontan alfalfa
Lucerne
Ranger alfalfa
White swectclover
Common melilot
Yellow sweet clover
Sweetclover
Sanfoin
(3)
21
0-2
0.6
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
25
25
25
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(2)
(3)
25
25
0
0
0
0
(2)
25
(1)
(2)
22
25
0
0
0
0
22
Commercial variety
or common name
Source
of seed
or plant
(1)
12
Index
range
0-2
0-1
1-2
1-2
1-3
Avg.
index
Host
status
0.7
0.6
0.9
1.5
2.3
0
0
0
17,18
18
18
+
0
0
0
0
12
18
17
18
5,10,12,17
9,18
0
0
0
a
0
0
0
10
18
17
12
9,18
18
18
0
0
17
9,18
10,12
Commercial variety
or common name
P.
P.
P.
P.
P.
P.
vulgaris
vulgaris
vulgaris
vulgaris
vulgaris
vulgaris
L.
L.
L.
L.
L.
L.
P. vulgaris L.
P. vulgaris L.
P. vulgaris L.
Pisum sativum L.
P u m sativum L.
Piswm sativum L. v. arvense
Sesbania exaltata (Ref.) Rydb.
S. macrocarpa
Trifolium hybridum L.
T. pratense L.
7. repens L.
T. repens L.
T. rejbens L.
Trifolium sp.
Trigonella caerulea (L) Ser.
Fjda americana Muhl.
V. atropurpurea
V. faba L.
V. faba L.
V. sativa L.
Vicia sp.
Vicia sp.
V. villosa Roth.
Vigna sinensis Endl.
Vigva sinensis L.
Figna sp.
Source
of seed
or plant
(2)
Number
of
plants
25
Index
range
Avg.
index
24
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
(6)
25
25
25
25
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
24
1-3
1.6
(2)
15
(2)
25
25
(2)
References
17
0
0
+
18
9
12
0
0
17
5,17
(2)
(6)
Host
status
(3)
(2)
(2)
25
25
12
0
0
0
0
0
0
(2)
25
(1)
25
12
+
+
0
0
0
11
12
10
9,10,12,17.18
17,18
18
0
0
0
0
17
9
17
9
+
0
+
0
+
12
10
11
17
12
Table 2 (continued)
$
Studies at Salinas, California
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
of
plants
Index
range
Avg.
index
Asparagus
(6)
25
Tritoma
(1)
20
Perennial flax
Scarlet flax
Blue flax
(1)
(2)
23
25
0
0
0
0
Kudzu-vine
(1)
25
(13)
25
(1)
(11)
16
14
0
0
0
0
Commercial variety
or common name
LILIACEAE
Asparagus officinalis L.
Bulbine annua Willd.
Kniphofia uvaria
LINACEAE
Linum anglicum Mill.
L. grandiflorum rubrum
L. perenne
Linum sp.
Pueraria thunbergiana Benth.
MALVACEAE
Abutilon theophrasti
Althaea rosea
Medic.
Velvetleaf
Double newport pink
hollyhock
Poppy-mallow
Cotton
Cheeseweed
Cheese-mallow
Common mallow
NYCTAGINACEAE
Mirabilis jalapa L.
Mixed four-o'clock
ONAGRACEAE
Clarkia biloba v. Brandegeae
Clarkia sp.
Fuchsia sp.
Godetia amoena
Lopezia coronata Andr.
Oenothera biennis L.
O. hookeri
0. hookeri Montereyensis
0. lamarckiana Ser.
0. ttiicrantha (Nels.) Munz
Clarkia
Fuchsia
Double-mixed godetia
Evening
Evening
Evening
Evening
Evening
primrose
primrose
primrose
primrose
primrose
(2)
21
(5)
15
(1)
24
(11)
(11)
(11)
(3)
14
7
14
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Host
status
References
0
0
5,9
9
0
0
0
0
12,17
5
17
9
0
0
10
10
+
0
9
9
Commercial variety
or common name
PAPAVERACEAE
Argemone mexicana L.
Eschscholtzia californica Cham.
Eschscholtzia californica Cham.
Eschscholtzia sp.
Papaver rhoeas L.
Mexican-poppy
Extra golden Calif.-poppy
True deep orange
Calif-poppy
Papaver rhoeas L.
Papaver sp.
Double-mixed Shirleypoppy
Field poppy
Poppy
PHYTOLACCACEAE
Phytolacca acinosa Roxb.
P. americana L.
Pokeweed
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
of
plants
Index
range
Avg.
index
(1)
18
(2)
23
(1)
25
0-1
0.6
PLANTAGINACEAE
Plantago coronopus L.
P. lagopus L.
P. lanceolata L.
P. lanceolata L.
P. major L.
P. major L.
(3)
25
Buckhorn plantain
Narrow-leaf plantain
Common plantain
Greater plantain
(3)
25
PLUMBAGINACEAE
Limonium sinuatum Mill.
Statice-mixed straw-flower
(1)
25
(5)
(11)
25
1
0
4
0
4.0
Cut-leaved plantain
POLEMONIACEAE
Gilia abrotanifolia Nutt.
G. achilleaefolia
G. capitata
POLYGONACEAE
Emex spinosa Campd.
Fagopvrum esculentum Moench
Fagopyrum sagittatum Gilib.
Buckwheat
Buckwheat
(3)
23
Host
status
References
0
0
17,18
9
0
0
18
10
+
+
18
17
17
0
0
0
9,18
1,10.18
9
Table 2 (continued)
Studies at Salinas, California
Commercial variety
or common name
F. tartaricum Gaertn.
Polygonum amphibium L.
P. aviculare agg.
P. convolvulus L.
P. lapathifolium L.
P. orientate L.
P. pensylvanicum L.
P. persicaria L.
P. punctatum
Polygonum sp.
Rheum rhaponticum L.
Rumex acetosa
R.
J?,
.R.
R.
J?,
i?.
R.
jR.
ii.
JR.
i?.
acetosella L.
alpinus L.
confertus
crispus L.
hydrolapathum Huds.
maritimus
obtusifolius L.
palustris Sm.
patientia L.
pulcher L.
sanguineus L.
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
of
plants
Index
range
Avg.
index
Amphibious polygonum
Knotgrass
Willow smartweed
Princesfeather
(3)
25
0-1
(1)
21
4.0
(0
25
Monks-rhubarb
Curled dock
Great water dock
References
0
0
0
+
9
9
9,18
11
0
+
+
+
+
+
10
14
8,9,18
14
10,17
5,9.10,11
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
11
18
18
2,8,9,10
11,18
1
9
18
11
18
10,11,17
0.6
Persicaria
Smartweed
Rhubarb
Large-leaved
French sorrel
Host
status
(3)
25
1-4
1.7
Fiddle dock
Red-veined dock
(3)
25
4.0
PORTULACACEAE
Montia
gypsophiloides
Portulaca grandiflora Hook.
P. oleracea L.
Indian lettuce
Moss rose portulaca
Purslane
(6)
(1)
(3)
22
22
25
PRIMULACEAE
Anagallis arvensis L.
Anagallis arvensis L.
Common pimpernel
Scarlet pimpernel
(3)
Broad-leaved dock
Marsh dock
0
0-1
0-1
0
0.7
0.4
T a b k 2 (continued)
Studies at Salinas, California
Commercial variety
or common name
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
of
plants
(14)
(1)
(2)
25
25
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
(1)
22
Index
range
Avg.
index
Host
status
References
RANUNCULACEAE
Aquilegia vulgaris
Aquilegia vulgaris
Delphinium ajacis
Delphinium sp.
Nigella damascene
Nigel la sp.
Columbine
Imperial mixed columbine
White supreme larkspur
Dwarf delphenium
Love-in-a-mist
Love-in-a-mist
0
0
0
0
18
9
18
17
Agrimony
Strawberry
Salad burnet
0
0
0
9
17
9
Goosegrass
0
0
9
9
RESEDACEAE
Reseda alba L.
Reseda alba L.
R. lutea L.
R. odorata
R. odorata
Upright mignonette
White mignonette
Wild mignonette
Mignonette
Red goliath mignonette
(1)
14
4.0
ROSACEAE
Agrimonia eupatoria L.
Fragaria chiloensis Duchesne
Poterium sanguisorba L.
RUBIACEAE
Crucianella angustifolia L.
Galium aparine L.
RUTACEAE
Dictamnus albus L,
Larrea divaricata Cav.
Creosote bush
(8)
15
Snapdragon
Snapdragon
Small toadflax
(6)
25
SCROPHULARIACEAE
Antirrhinum majus L.
Antirrhinum sp.
Chaenorrhinum minus (L.) Lange
18
18
Table 2 (continued)
Studies at Salinas, California
Commercial variety
or common name
Collinsia heterophylla
Linaria sp.
L. vulgaris Hill
Nemesia compacta
Scrophularia nodosa L.
Veronica agrestis L.
V. persica Poir.
V. spicata L.
Toadflax
Butter-&-eggs
Triumph mixed nemcsia
Figwort
Procumbent speedwell
Buxbaum's speedwell
Spiked speedwell
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
of
plants
(5)
21
1-2
0.5
(1)
23
Index
range
Avg.
index
Host
status
References
9
5
0
0
0
0
9
9
18
18
SOLANACEAE
Capsicum annum
Capsicum annum
C. frutescens L.
Datura stramonium L.
Datura stramonium L.
Hyoscyamus niger L.
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.
L. pimpinellifolium Mill.
Nicotiana affinis
N. glauca Graham
N. tabacum L.
N. tabacum v. Samsun
Petunia parviflora Juss.
Petunia spp.
Physalis longifolia
P. pubescens
Physalis sp.
Physalis sp.
Salpiglossis sinuata
Bell pepper
Pimiento pepper
Pepper
Jimson weed
Thornapple
Black henbane
Pearson A-l tomato
Pearson XL tomato
Tomato
Wild tomato
Affinis hybrid nicotiana
Tree tobacco
Tobacco
Turkish tobacco
Petunia seaside
Colorama mixed petunia
Perennial groundcherry
Yellow husk tomato
Golden queen tomato
Yellow pear tomato
Painted tongue
(2)
(2)
25
25
0
0
0
0
(3)
25
(3)
(2)
25
25
0
2
0
2.0
(6)
(2)
(3)
25
25
25
2
0
0
2.0
0
0
(6)
(3)
(2)
(15)
(13
25
25
25
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(13)
25
19
2
1-3
2.0
2.3
(I)
17
0
0
9
9
40
6
17
0
0
17
17
12
Table 2 (continued)
Studies at Salinas, California
Commercial variety
or common name
Solarium douglasii
S. dulcamara
S, eleagnifolium Cav.
S. melongena
S. nigrum L.
S. rostratum Dunal
S. sarrachoides Sendt.
Solarium sp.
S. tuberosum L.
Nightshade
Bittersweet nightshade
White horsenettle
N.Y. improved egg plant
Black nightshade
Kansas-thistle buftalo-bur
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
of
plants
(6)
25
25
22
20
25
11
(7)
(2)
(15)
Index
range
1-3
0
0
0-1
0-1
0
Avg.
index
1.6
0
0
0.1
0.4
0
Nightshade
Potato
Host
status
References
12
0
+
0
9
12
9,10,17
18
0
0
9
9
0
0
0
9
5,9,12,17
10
0
0
17
9
5,9,12
10,17
TROPAEOLACEAE
Tropaeolum
peregrinum
UMBELLIFERAE
Aethusa cynapium L.
Anethum graveolens L.
Anthriscus
cerefolium
Apium graveolens L.
Apium graveolens L.
Apium graveolens L. v. dulce Pers.
A. graveolens L. v. rapaceum
Carum carvi L.
Cicuta douglasii (PC) C & R.
Conium maculatum L.
Conium maculatum L.
Coriandrum sativum
Daucus carota L.
Daucus carota L.
Daucus carota L. v. sativa DC.
Foeniculum dulce
F. vulgare
Fools-parsley
Dill
Chervil
Celeriac
Celery
Celery
Smooth Prague celeriac
Caraway
Water hemlock
Hemlock
Poison-hemlock
Coriander
Carrot
Imperator carrot
Carrot
Anise
Sweet-florence fennel
(2)
(1)
(2)
(1)
25
15
25
25
0-3
1-2
0
0
1.0
1.0
0
0
(3)
(1)
25
25
0-3
0
0.6
0
(1)
22
(1)
(2)
25
25
0
0
0
0
Commercial variety
or common name
Pastinaca sativa L.
Pastinaca sativa L.
Pastinaca sp.
Petraselinum crispum L. (Mill.)
P. hortense crispum
Scandix pecten-veneris L.
Trachymene caerulea
Nym.
Source
of seed
or plant
Number
of
plants
(1)
25
Index
range
0-1
Avg.
index
Host
status
References
0.1
(2)
25
(1)
25
0
0
0
9,10
10
9,12,17
0
+
9
17
0
0
9
9
URTICACEAE
Vrtica dioica L.
U. gracilis Ait.
U. holosericea Nutt.
U. pilulifera L.
U. urens L.
Common nettle
Stinging nettle
Hoary nettle
Roman nettle
Small nettle
(3)
Red valerian
Large-leaved corn-salad
(3)
(1)
25
25
0
0
0
0
(2)
25
Redstem filaree
(3)
25
VALERIANACEAE
Centranthus ruber (L.) DC.
Valerianella olitoria (L.)
VIOLACEAE
Viola tricolor
Viola tricolor agg.
ZYGOPHYLLACEAE
Erodium
cicutarium
L'Her.
23
Introduction
Damping-off is one of the principal causes of poor stands of
sugar beets in some areas. T h e suddenness of damping-off attack
is often impressive, inasmuch as one day the seedlings may look
healthy and the next day they may be dying in large patches in
the field. Damping-off fungi are almost universally present in
the soil and early planted sugar beets are subject to attack,
especially in wet soil. Preemergence damping-off is perhaps
the most serious aspect of the disease because seedlings are
attacked before they reach the surface of the soil and nothing
can be done to remedy the situation except to replant.
In commercial sugar beet production postemergence rotting
of sugar beets also causes serious losses because rotting sometimes
continues throughout the entire period of growth resulting in
low quality or final death of the plant. It has been observed
by the senior author that the incidence of root rot is greater
and the disease more severe in fields of sugar beets in which
the sugar beet cyst nematode is also present in the soil than
when the pathogen is absent. It is concluded, therefore, that
there is a relationship between injury by Heterodera schachtii
and infection by soil-borne fungi that causes damping-off and
root rotting of sugar beets. T h e increased damage may in part
be due to openings of infection courts to the fungi by the feeding
punctures of the nematode.
Powell (1) cites proven examples of association between
plant parasitic nematodes and root-rotting fungi.
In connection with breeding sugar beets for resistance to
Heterodera schachtii it has been observed in greenhouse tests
at Salinas, California, that damage to sugar beets from rootrotting fungi is greatly increased if grown in soil infested with
the nematode. It was, therefore, important to determine the
amount of reduction in root weight caused by the nematode
alone and in combination with root-rotting fungi. This paper
reports results of experiments with sugar beets grown under
controlled conditions. A vigorous program is in progress at the
1
Research Agronomist and Plant Pathologist, respectively, Crops Research Division.
Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Salinas, California and
Logan, Utah.
VOL.
605
1965
Fungus genus
Rhizoctonia
Fusarium
Pythium
Unidentified
Total number of plants bioassayed
Some plants yielded more than one fungus genus, therefore sum of plants yielding
fungi exceeds total number of plants bioassayed.
Results
Results given in the following table show comparisons between
sugar beets grown in nema tode-free soil a n d soil infested with
606
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Avg. wt.
of beets
Difference between
control and disease
Loss due
to disease
Grains
Grams
Percent
586.0
491.0
85.6
180.6
12.726.9
364.0
671.6
6.7
8.8
307.6
45.8
Summary
In this test it is evident that reduction in weight of the
sugar beet roots was lowest in the sugar beets grown in soil
with root-rotting fungi alone, next lowest with the nematode
alone and highest with both nematodes and root-rotting fungi
present. Sugar beets exposed to both nematode and root-rotting
fungi suffered more damage than the sum of losses due to
nematodes alone and root rot alone.
Literature Cited
(1) POWELL, N. P. 1963. T h e role of plant parasitic nematodes in fungus
diseases. Phytopathology 53 (1) : 28-35.
T.
D E X T E R 2 AND
M.
G.
FRAKES 2
Contribution from the Michigan State University Experiment Station, Journal paper
No.
3414
2
Professor of Crop Science, MSU, and Research Director, Michigan Sugar Company.
3
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
608
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Table 1.Percentage recovery as bagged sugar from beets of various qualities, according
to The Great Wesetern formula.
Clear juice
purity %
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
68.7
71.1
73.2
75.3
77.4
79.4
81.4
83.4
85.3
87.1
89.0
90.8
92.5
68.9
71.2
73.4
75.5
77.6
79.6
81.6
83.5
85.4
87.3
89.1
90.9
92.6
67.0
71.3
73.5
75.6
77.7
79.7
81.7
83.7
85.6
87.4
89.3
91.1
92.9
69.1
71.4
73.6
75.7
77.8
79.8
81.8
83.8
85.7
87.6
89.4
91.2
93.0
69.2
71.5
73.7
75.8
77.9
79.9
81.9
83.9
85.8
87.7
89.5
91.3
93.1
69.2
71.6
73.8
75.9
78.0
80.0
82.0
84.0
85.9
87.8
89.6
91.4
93.2
69.3
71.7
73.9
76.0
78.1
80.1
82.1
84.1
86.0
87.9
89.7
91.5
93.3
no
to
be
34
of
figures were given for bagged sugar per acre, it was possible
estimate from purities given that about 5,100 pounds would
bagged per acre in each case, although it required processing
vs. 21 tons for the two lots. Similar examples could be given
the effects of other agronomic variables.
T h e difficulties that would be involved in attempting to determine bagged sugar per ton by actual factory processing of small
samples seem evident. By the use of this new technique, we have
been able to evaluate a wide range of agronomic practices in
terms of bagged sugar per ton and per acre.
In this paper, sucrose loss, in terms of bagged sugar per ton
of original beets, will be reported as affected by storage conditions and original quality of beets. In the remainder of this
paper, the juice clarified in the laboratory by Carruthers' modification will be designated "clear juice", to distinguish it from
the factory "thin juice" with which we occasionally work.
Literature Review
T h e literature on storage of beets is so voluminous that only
a few papers particularly pertinent to this study will be mentioned. In general, respiration of beets increases rapidly with
the temperature of storage, Barr et al. (1). Although there is
considerable variation in the results of the experiments in which
carbon dioxide production per pound of beets was determined,
there is remarkably good agreement in some cases between the
sugar loss by computation and that lost by actual analysis. In
some cases loss of sugar from undetermined causes is very considerable, but in many cases this loss is related to growth or to
the quality of the beets. Larmer (5) studied the keeping quality
VOL.
1965
609
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
610
In Pile
lbs.
Frozen
lbs.
In Pile
%
Frozen
%
258
301
293
267
202
240
265
122
276
293
284
281
237
285
307
158
91.1
92.9
92.1
91.1
86.1
88.2
89.7
80.2
90.2
92.4
91.1
91.3
88.6
90.6
92.6
81.7
VOL.
611
Table 3.Effect of 10 weeks storage in the pile or in the frozen condition on the loss
in percentage sugar in beets, corrected to the original weight of each sample. The ratio
% sugar in beets stored in pile
of
. is given in the table.
% sugar in beets stored in frozen condition
Ratio calculated from Actual ratio from
Change in
Sample
weight shrinkage
sugar analysis
ratio of sugar %
Large beets
Small b e e t s
O v e r 17 B r i x
15-17 B r i x
Below 14 B r i x
W h o l e beets
T o p p e d beets
Crowns
0.981
0.951
0.956
0.990
0.961
0.986
0.998
1.002
0.081
0.025
0.020
0.050
0.077
0.127
0.084
0.183
0.900
0.976
0.976
0.940
0.884
0.859
0.914
0.819
shrunk slightly less (except for crowns) than did the frozen
samples. T h u s , from consideration of shrinkage alone, one would
expect the beets stored in the pile to contain a slightly lower
concentration of sugar than those stored frozen. Since in most
cases the shrinkages were slightly different in the pile a n d in
the frozen condition, the ratios in the first column a p p r o x i m a t e
1.00. T h e ratio of sugar percentages, determined by actual
analysis, however, (corrected to the original weight of each
sample) shows that losses in percent sugar were appreciably
greater in the samples stored in the pile than in those stored
frozen, except in the case of the two samples, over 17 Brix a n d
small beets. T h u s , 0.081 (for example) more of the gross sugar
in the large beets disappeared in the pile than in the frozen
condition.
If there were no loss of sugar, the values in the two columns
would be identical. If there were no loss of sugar in the frozen
samples, one must conclude that samples slightly higher in sugar
were accidentally used in the case of "over Brix 17" a n d "small
Table 4.Bagged sugar per ton of original beets and clear juice purities of beets stored
at near freezing temperatures under water, under 2% brine, or in air, frozen, and in the
company pile.
Storage Method
Storage
period
Under water
32F.
Under 2% brine
32F.
In air
32F.
Frozen
Company pile
260
231
244
215
277
276
269
272
258
265
90.5
87.0
89.1
. 86.7
91.8
90.1
91.6
90.3
89.6
89.8
612
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
1940. A preliminary
report on the effect of temperature and beet conditions on respiration and loss of sugar from beets in storage. Proc. Am. Soc. Sugar
Beet Technol. 2 ( 1 ) : 52-65.
BROWN, R. T. and R. F. SERRO. 1954. A method for determination of
thin juice purity from individual mother beets. Proc. Am. Soc.
Sugar Beet Technol. 8 (2) : 274.
CARRUTHERS, A. and J. F. T. OLDFIELD. 1960. Methods of assessment
of beet quality. Proc Xlth Session of the commission internationale
technique de sucrerie. Frankfort, 1960. Elsevier Pub. Co. 1962.
DEXTER, S. T. 1963. Storing sugarbeet roots under cold water. Proc.
Eastern Regional Meeting Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol.
LARMER, F. C. 1937. Keep ; ng qualities of sugar beets as influenced by
growth and nutritional factors. J. Agr. Res. 54: 185-198.
PACK, DEAN A. 1926. The effect of moisture on the loss of sugar from
beets in storage. J. Agr. Res. 32: 1143-1152.
614
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
No.
Nutrient
Solutions
NOsN
Ca
Mg
Na
pH
Salinity
E . C . X 103
@ 25 C.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Check
2 X Check
Field**
2 X Field
Vt- Field
Vi Field
Field + K
100
200
60
120
30
15
60
16
32
16
32
8
4
16
100
200
20
20
20
20
40
150
250
80
160
70
60
100
40
60
50
100
25
15
50
12
24
40
80
20
15
50
7.4
7.4
7.6
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.6
1.60
2.60
1.00
1.53
0.70
0.55
1.10
*Minor
M i n o r eelements
l e m e n t s aadded
d d e d to all nnutrient
u t r i e n t s osolutions:
l u t i o: n s
B == 0.25,
= 0.25,
0.25 , Mn
Mn =
0.25 Zn = .028,
Cu = .01, Mo = .004, and Fe = 4.5 ppm.
** Field solution modified from check so as to produce beets chemically typical of those
found in commercial fields.
VOL,.
615
616
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
tive to the four nutrient solutions 14-F to 2-F. Sugar yield was
not necessarily depressed as a result of increasing the total concentration of nutrients in the root medium. T h e Ck solution
contained higher concentrations of nitrogen and potassium than
did solution F. T h e Ck solution also had a high electrical conductivity, yet it did not depress yields. However, when the Ck
solution ratio among nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium was
maintained but the total concentration of salts was increased
(as in 2-Ck), sugar yield was depressed significantly relative to
Ck treatment.
VOL.
13,
No. 7, OCTOBER
1965
617
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
618
6/25
7/16
8/6
9/20
IO/I5
VOL.
13, No.
7, OCTOBER
1965
619
620
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
1942.
Soil fertility
ALBERT,
DAVID
RIRIE,
F.
J.
HILLS,
ALAN
G.
GEORGE
and
1962.
Influence of nutrient
F.
Introduction
T h e replacement of multigerm sugar beet varieties by m o n o germ varieties is approaching completion in the USA (23) 2 . T h e
first phase of developing monogerm varieties, usually based on
application of the backcross method for incorporation of the
gene m (monogermity) into multigerm varieties is almost accomplished. At the present time, a second phase of breeding of m o n o germ varieties is starting. T h i s phase is the routine improvement
of monogerm sugar beets in different agronomic characters, including quality of the monogerm fruits themselves.
T h e weight of fruits and germs of monogerm beets has a
practical importance in agriculture as one of the factors d e t e r m i n ing the quality of seed (18). D u r i n g the past few years, utilization
of differences in the size of fruits were used in breeding a n d
seed p r o d u c t i o n in the U n i t e d States and in E u r o p e for different purposes. In the USA male-sterile monogerm beets
have been planted together with the multigerm pollinator to
obtain commercial monogerm hybrids. T h e harvested m o n o g e r m
seed (hybrid seed) has then been separated from the m u l t i g e r m
seed by screening (25,26). In Europe, seedballs of the m u l t i g e r m
sugar beets have been screened for size to increase the percent
of triploids in the commercial polyploid (anisoploid) varieties
(1,3,4,24).
Because the seedballs of tetraploids are larger, screening o u t
the small seedballs does eliminate a portion of the diploids. In
the variety Polybeta, for instance, seedballs 2 to 3 mm in diameter
contained 3 9 . 4 % diploids, whereas larger seedballs (5 mm in
diameter) contained only 16.3% diploids (22). Schneider (21)
reported that small seed contained 6 8 % diploids and the large
seed, 10.9%. According to Belgian data, small seed of Polybeta
contained 4 9 . 0 6 % diploids a n d the large seed (5 mm in diameter),
15.93% diploids (6,7). Therefore, retention of larger seedballs
decreased the percent of diploid beets in the anisoploid varieties.
1
Geneticists, Crops Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department
of Agriculture,
Salinas, California.
2
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
622
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL-
623
Weight of fruits and/or germs always designate weight of 1000 fruits or/and 1000
germs
624
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Diploid
Tetraploid
grams
15.70
26.60
11.17
grams
34.00
36.20
19.70
4 and more
Percent of seedballs
...
48
11
67
47
22
VOL.
1965
625
of
Number of flowers
per cluster
Large
Medium
Small
3
2
grams
4.75
4.26
grams
2.50
grams
0.65
3.45
626
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Fruits
Germs
Large
Small
grams
20.10
12.59
grams
4.70
2.90
VOL.
627
Factors
Total
Between populations
Between reps.
Experimental error
I>egree of
freedom
29
9
2
18
Calculated
5%
Level
1%
Level
1.0951
0.4768
2.46
3.55
3.60
6.01
Variance
3.0533
1.3295
2.7882
628
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
the same time the individual seed samples, even the seed samples
of the same variety, may differ in the weight of fruits, but these
differences are usually caused by the locations, or by the conditions of seed growing.
Other studies of variability were made of monogerm fruits
using self-fertile inbred lines obtained from selfing of backcross
hybrids between multigerm US 35/2 and the self-fertile monogerm inbred SLC 101. It was found that inbred monogerm lines
isolated from the backcross progeny of repeated backcrosses to
the same multigerm population differed in weight of fruits.
Presence of monogerm inbreds with different fruit weights
indicates that the original multigerm populations were heterogeneous in the genes determining fruit weight. Multigerm openpollinated varieties carry an intravarietial storage of genetic variability in genes determining weight of fruits. These genes are
maintained in a certain equilibrium in open-pollinated multigerm populations (14). By backcrossing of monogerm beets to
the multigerm populations this system of stored variability is
recovered in the same equilibrium in the backcross monogerm
populations.
Inbreeding applied to such backcross populations destroys
their genetic equilibrium and leads to isolation of genetic combinations and to the production of inbred lines differing in the
weight of fruits. T h e grade of differences in the weight of monogerm fruits, fixed by inbreeding, will be proportional to the
heritability of multigerm pollinators.
Comparison of the weight of fruits in 12 monogerm diploid
inbreds shows that the value of variance among inbreds eouals
19.46, whereas the variance between the blocks is only 2.37
(Table 6). T h e calculated value of F among inbreds is 9.25,
which is statistically significant. A high value of variance among
inbreds indicates the presence of significant stored heritability
in the diploid multigerm populations and the genetic differences
between monogerm inbreds isolated from these populations.
Table 6.Weight of fruits (in gram') in 12 sugar beet diploid monogerm self-fertile
inbreds. Analysis of variance.
F
Factors
Total
Between populations
Between reps.
Experimental error
* significant
Degree of
freedom
Variance
59
11
4
44
19.4601
2.3656
2.1026
Calculated
5%
Level
Level.
9.2553*
1.1251
2.01
2.58
2.68
3.78
VOL.
1965
629
Factors
Total
Reps.
Populations
(Ploidy level)
Isolations
Years
Ploidy - Isolations
Ploidy - Years
Error
Degree of
freedom
Variance
Level
1%
Level
5%
Calculated
179
2
33.28
8.88*
3.06
4.75
1
9
2
9
2
154
3281.60
22.48
171.12
6.60
6.70
3.75
875.70*
6.00*
45.66*
1.76
1.78
3.91
1.94
3.06
1.94
3.06
6.81
2.53
4.75
2.53
4.75
* significant
Table 8.Range of variation in weight of fruits (1000) in the sugar beet monogerm male-sterile equivalent of SIX 91 in different years, locations,
and at different ploidy levels.
During 3 years
Materials
grams
Diploid MS 91
Tetraploid MS 91
For all strains
9.9067
17.8467
13.88
In 10 locations
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
grams
100.00
100.00
100.00
12.5267
21.9300
17.2300
%
126.45
122.88
124.14
grams
9.5111
18.7111
14.09
Maximum
grams
grams
100.00
100.00
100.00
12.4889
22.8889
17.6900
131.31
122.33
125.55
11.1689
19.7044
100.00
176.42
VOL.
13,
No.
7, OCTOBER
1965
631
of
fruits
in
tetraploid
monogerm
self-sterile
lines
Eighteen tetraploid self-sterile lines were planted in overwinter p l a n t i n g in 2 replications together with the diploid check
and tetraploid male-sterile equivalent of m o n o g e r m i n b r e d SLC
91. T h e 18 self-sterile lines were derived from individual tetraploid plants isolated in an open-pollinated m o n o g e r m p o p u l a t i o n
and propagated by brother-sister m a t i n g for 2 generations.
W e i g h t of fruits was studied on 10 plants of each line in
each replication. Analysis of variance of the weight of fruits
shows that t h e m a i n factor of variability is the difference in
weight between d i p l o i d a n d tetraploid populations (Figure 1).
T h e calculated value of F highly exceeds its tabulated value at
the 1% p o i n t ( T a b l e 9).
632
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL. -13,
No.
7,
OCTOBER
1965
633
Table 9.Weight in fruits (in grams) in 18 sugar beet tetraploid monogerm self-sterile
lines and in diploid and tetraploid SLC 91. Analysis of variance.
F
Factors
Total
Between populations
Between blocks
Experimental error
(Interaction:
blocks-population)
Monogerm: 2n versus 4n
Among tetraploids
Degree of
freedom
399
19
1
19
Variance
Calculated
530.91
21.07
18.96*
Not
5%
Level
1%
Level
2.18
3.06
s i g n i f i c a n t
27.9950
4.38
2.21
8.18
3.12
* significant
634
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Factors
Total
Between p o p u l a t i o n s
Between blocks
Experimental error
(Interaction:
blocks-population )
M o n o g e r m : 2n versus 4n
Among tetraploids
Degree of
freedom
Variance
Calculated
399
19
1
237.4123
1.4641
19
12.1856
5%
Level
1%
Level
19.4830*
2.18
3.06
N o t s i g n i f i c a n t
G r o u p i n g of p o p u l a t i o n c o m p a r i s o n
1787.1280
146.6590*
1
18
151.3170
12.4177*
4.38
2.21
8.18
3.12
* significant
VOL.
13, N o . 7, OCTOBER
1965
635
636
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
twin
germs
VOL.
13,
N O . 7, OCTOBER 1965
637
638
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
will be genetically unlike the embryo developed from the fertilized egg cell. Only if a twin pair will arise from somatic cells
outside the embryo sac (nucellus, integument) in a result of
partogenesis, such twins will be identical. Polyembryony resulting from splitting of an embryo, or from a cleavage of a fertilized
egg cell is a rare appearance in angiosperms. A development of
a twin pair from somatic cells is also extremely rare. An intensive embriological study of sugar beets indicates that occurrence of identical twins in sugar beets should be extremely rare.
In his intensive study of twins in beets, Fisher (3) , using the
morphological analysis, found that twin seedlings grew from
2 ovules of the same flower as well as from a single ovule. Triple
seedlings were also observed. Some twin pairs grew from the
ovules which contained 2 separate perisperms, and some of the
ovules with a common perisperm. T h e latter twin pairs may
be represented by the identical twins. However, the majority
of twin pairs, even in this group, did not appear to be identical,
although the morphological resemblance of some twin plants
lead the author to the conclusion that identical twins are also
produced in Beta.
In monogerm beets the appearance of twin seedlings is caused
mainly by the development of 2 ovules in the ovary of a flower.
Some twins grew from the same ovule. In the majority of monogerm strains the percent of twins is not higher than in the multigerm strains. In self-sterile monogerm populations twin seedlings
VOL.
13, N o .
7, OCTOBER
1965
639
640
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13, N o . 7, OCTOBER
1965
641
642
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Presence of tetraploid monogerm strains raises the comparative genetic variability of monogerm diploid beets in the weight
of fruits and germs. This phenomenon was observed in selfsterile open-pollinated populations and in self-fertile inbred lines.
Tetraploidy results in an increase in weight of fruits in
populations, regardless of their origin. A new genetic variability
arises within autotetraploid populations. Therefore, tetraploid
lines with different weight of fruits were selected from the same
population.
Of the 3 factorsenvironment (years, locations), genetics,
and ploidy levelwhich determine the degree of variability in
weight of fruits in monogerm beets, ploidy level appeared to
be the most significant and universal. Increase in weight of
fruits in tetraploid beets may be caused by an increase in the
volume of nuclei and cells, a phenomenon manifested in all
tetraploid crops. Universality of the increase in the weight of
fruits and germs in tetraploid sugar beets may be caused by
this reason.
However, a new genetic variability of weight of fruits and
germs in monogerm tetraploid sugar beets is caused as directly
by chromosome doubling, as also by the shift from diploid to
tetraploid heredity (new mode of gene action, changes in
equilibrium of genes in populations, in segregation of hybrids,
in linkage and inbreeding effect).
Self-fertile and self-sterile tetraploid monogerm strains permit
breeding for the weight of fruits on a higher level than is possible
for the diploid monogerm beets. Diploid monogerm populations
did not provide as wide a range of genetic variability as tetraploid
monogerm populations in breeding for the weight of fruits.
Literature Cited
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
1957.
Unter-
VOL.
13,
No. 7,
OCTOBER
1965
643
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
SAVITSKY, V. F.,
G.
K.
RYSER,
G.
E. RUSH,
and C.
P.
PARRISH.
1954.
Interrelation between weight of seed and fruit and utilitarian characters in inbred lines and hybrids of monogerm sugar beets. Proc.
Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 8 (2) : 399-403.
SAVITSKY, V. F. 1958. Genetische Studien und Ziichtungsmethoden
bei monogermen Ruben. Zeitschr. fur Pflanzenzuchtung. 40: 1-36.
SAVITSKY, V. F. 1962. Sucrose and weight of root in tetraploid monogerm and multigerm sugar beet populations under different mating
systems. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 1 1 ( 8 ) : 676-711.
SCHNEIDER, H. 1960. Untersuchungen iiber die Beziehungen zwischen
Knauelgrdsse, Reifegrad, Keimfahigkeit und Ploidiestufe bei Zuckerriibensaatgut. Deutsche Akademie der Landwirtschaftswissenschaften
zu Berlin. Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen. 48: 39-46.
SEDLEMAYR, T. 1961. Untersuchungen uber den Einfluss verschiedener
Faktoren auf die Ploidiestufenanteile einer anisoploiden Zuckerrubensorte. Zuchter. 31 (7) : 310-317.
644
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
PEAY2
Procedure
646
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
were applied to individual plants as they revolved on a turntable. All materials were tested at the rates of 1/4, 1/2 1, a n d 2
p o u n d s of toxicant in 35 gallons of water. T h e plants were
sprayed with a DeVilbiss 5 spray g u n at 10 psi, with 5 cc of spray
p e r plant, which is approximately 35 gallons per acre. F o u r
plants treated with each of the four concentrations of each
material a n d four u n t r e a t e d plants constituted a test, a n d each
test was replicated twice.
O n e day and again 1 week after spraying, five t h i r d to fourthinstar beet w e b w o r m larvae were caged on each plant. Larval
mortality counts were m a d e 4, 8, 24, 48, a n d 72 h o u r s after
larvae were placed on the plants.
T h e r e were 33 materials tested, of which 17 were proprietary
products, as follows:
Bayer 25141
0,0-diethyl
o [p-(methylsulfinyl)phenyl] phosphorothioate
Bayer 37289 0-ethyl 0-2,4,5-trichlorophenyl ethyl phosphonothioate
Bayer 38156
0-ethyl
S-p-tolyl e t h y l p h o s p h o n o d i t h i o t e
Bayer 41831 0,0-dimethyl #~4-nitro-m-tolyl phosphorothioate
Bidrin
3-hydroxy-iV, i V - d i m e t h y l - c i s - c r o t o n a m i d e dimethyl phosphate
Ciodrin
alpha-methylbenzyl 3 - h y d r o x y c r o t o n a t e d i methyl phosphate
EPN
0-ethyl 0-p-nitrophenyl p h e n y l p h o s p h o n o t h i o a t e
Ethyl Guthion 0,0-diethyl S - ( 4 - o x o - l , 2 , 3 - b e n z o t r i a z i n - 3 ( 4 H ) ylmethyl) p h o s p h o r o d i t h i o a t e
Guthion
0,0-dimethyl S-(4-oxo-l,2,3-benzotriazin-3(4H)ylmethyl) p h o s p h o r o d i t h i o a t e
Perthane
a m i x t u r e of 1, l-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-ethylphenyl)
e t h a n e (95%) a n d related reaction products
(5%)
Shell SD-8280 2-chloro-l-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)vinyl d i m e t h y l
phosphate
Shell SD-8436 2-chloro-l-(2,4-dibromophenyl)vinyl d i m e t h y l
phosphate
Shell SD-8447 2-chloro-l-(2,4,5-trichlorophenyl)vinyl dimethyl
phosphate
Shell SD-8448 2-chloro-l-(2,4,5-trichlorophenyl)vinyl d i e t h y l
phosphate
5
VOL.
647
Telodrin
Zectran
Zinophos
l,3,4,5,6,7,8,8-octachloro-l,3,3a,4,7,7a-hexahydro-4,7-methanoisobenzouran
4-dimethylamino-3,5-xylyl methylcarbamate
0,0-diethyl 0-2-pyrazinyl phosphorothioate
Table 1.Materials, minimum dosages that gave the best control, and the mortality
of the beet webworm in 48 a hours when the larvae were caged on the plants 1 day anil
1 week after spraying. Twin Falls, Idaho, 1963.
Larvae caged on plants
1 day after s p r a y i n g
Material
Bayer 25141
Bayer 37289
Bayer 38156
Bayer 41831
Bidrin
Diazinon
Dimethoate
EPN
Guthion
Guthion-Ethyl Guthion
Mevinphos
Naled
Phosphamidon
Shell SD-8280
Shell SD-8436
Shell SD-8447
Shell SD-8448
Telodrin
Trichlorfon
Zinophos
Untreated check
DDT
Endrin
Toxicant
per acre
Pounds
.50
.25
Mortality
Mortality
Percent
Pounds
Percent
.50
.25
1.OOb
1.00
.25
2.00b
.25
.50
1.00
1.00
.25
.25
.50
.25
.25
.25
.25
100
100
95
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
95
100
100
100
95
100
95
100
2.00
.25
95
100
1.00
1 week after s p r a y i n g
Toxicant
per acre
.50
1.00
2.00
2-00
2.00
2.00b
1.00
.50
2.00b
2.00
2.00
2.00b
2.00
2.00
.25
2.00
.25
.50
2.00
2.00
98
100
70
85
100
95
100
100
93
95
85
20
40
100
100
100
100
100
93
98
1
2.00
1.00
95
100
Fortv-eight hours seemed to be the optimum time to use. In many cases the larvae
were moribund but not dead in 24 hours; and if they lived more than 48 hours, they did
considerable feeding.
b
T h e materials at these dosages caused plant burning.
Discussion of Results
T h e materials that gave as good control o the beet webworm as D D T and endrin, which were used as standards, are
shown in Table 1.
Several materials gave 100-percent mortality with as little as
0.25 pound per acre 1 day and also 1 week after the beets were
sprayed. T h e quickest kills were obtained with Shell SD-8436
and EPN. They gave good control in 8 hours. Bayer 37289,
Bidrin, mevinphos, naled, Shell SD-8436, and Telodrin gave
very good control in. 24 hours.
648
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
DORST2
Control of certain insects in sugar beets by seed or soil treatm e n t has b e e n reported by various workers. For control of sugar
beet root maggot [Tetanops myopaeformis ( R o d e r ) ] , Jones et
al. (1) 3 r e p o r t e d that aldrin a n d heptachlor were effective, applied
dry at 1/2 a n d 14 p o u n d respectively per 100 p o u n d s of seed.
Callenback et al. (3,4) found these insecticides were not effective
unless seed was pelleted with wettable powder of the insecticide,
to give 1 p o u n d of toxicant per 100 p o u n d s of seed. A l l e n et al.
(6) in 1957 showed that heptachlor seed treatments increased
yields, b u t a l d r i n a n d d i e l d r i n did not.
Morrison (5) reported soil treatments to be superior to seed
t r e a t m e n t s for control of the garden symphylan [Scutigerella
immaculata
(Newport)].
Hills et al. (2,8) a n d Dorst (7) reported the effectiveness of
p h o r a t e a n d Di-Syston [0,0-diethyl S-[2-(ethylthio)ethyl] phosp h o r o d i t h i o a t e ] on sugar beet seed for beet leafhopper control
on sugar beets grown for seed.
M o n o g e r m sugar beet seed, which has almost entirely replaced the larger m u l t i g e r m seed, was developed by the p l a n t
breeders to p r o d u c e single plants to permit mechanical t h i n n i n g .
Precision p l a n t i n g involved in this operation has sometimes req u i r e d that the seed be pelleted to make a more u n i f o r m size.
Insecticides a n d fungicides added to the exterior of seed as
dry material or slurries for insect or fungus control, sometimes
fail to a d h e r e to the seed when handled a n d their value is often
lost. Because of the smaller size of the m o n o g e r m seed, it is
difficult .to m a k e e n o u g h of the insecticide adhere to the seed
surface.
Pelleting sugar beet seed provides an inexpensive m e t h o d of
a d d i n g insecticides. In 1962 studies were conducted in n o r t h e r n
U t a h to d e t e r m i n e whether the sugar beet root maggot, t h e
garden symphylan, a n d the beet leafhopper [Circulifer tenelhis
(Baker)], could be controlled on sugar beets a n d w h e t h e r such
control w o u l d increase yields a n d reduce curly top disease. A
factor considered was w h e t h e r effective concentration of t h e
1
2
3
650
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13, N o . 7, OCTOBER
1965
651
Number of
thinned
plants per
100 feet
Number of plants
killed by maggot
per 100 feet
Number of
symphylans
per 7 samples
each plot
69
69
75
65
12
1.7
0.7
1.0
1.5
1.0
3.7
4.7
27
31
26
25
0.2
2.2
2.5
19.7
3.3
4.0
3.2
3.0
6.5
1.8
24
24
26
22
4
66
70
68
60
14.6
Yield
tons
per
acre
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
652
Table 2.Beet leafhopper control on sugar beets in field plots with insecticide incorporated in the pelleted seed or granules applied in a 6-inch band of row. Two fields,
Gardner and Johnson. Delta, Utah. 1962.
Insecticide and dosage
in ounces per acre in
pelleted seed and pounds
per acre in granules
Number of
thinned
plants per
100 feet
Percentage
obvious
curly top
In Pelleted Seed
.25
Phorate
.5
Phorate
1.0
Phorate
2.0
Phorate
.9*
Di-Syston
2.0
V-C 13
4.0
V-C 13
76
76
77
58
75
72
67
7
7
7
5
9
6
5
69
69
69
74
67
70
74
2.80
2.78
2.88
2.92
2.72
2.93
3.02
Ganules in Soil
2.0
Phorate
Check
LSD at 5 percent
81
73
8
7
33
3
70
63
5
2.89
2.56
0.07
Pounds of
raw
sugar beets
per 45 feet
Net sugar
tons
per acre
Summary
In field e x p e r i m e n t s in U t a h in 1962 low dosages of V-C 13,
Di-Syston, a n d p h o r a t e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the coating m a t e r i a l of
pelleted sugar beet seed gave p r o m i s i n g results in the control
of the sugar beet root maggot, the garden symphylan, a n d the
beet leafhopper on sugar beets. Similar treatments with aldrin
were also promising against the root maggot a n d symphylan.
Indications were t h a t phytotoxicity may be a l i m i t i n g factor in
this type of t r e a t m e n t .
VOL.
13, N o .
7, OCTOBER
653
1965
Literature Cited
(1)
1952.
of sugar beet seed with systemic insecticides for control of the beet
leafhopper. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 9 ( 2 ) : 124-128.
(3)
beet root maggot in North Dakota. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol.
9 (4) : 300-304.
(4) CALLENBACK, J. A. and W. L. GOJMERAC. 1957. Biology and control
of sugar beet root maggot. North Dakota Agr. Exp. Sta. Unpublished
Rept.
(5) MORRISON, H. E. 1957. Controlling symphylins. Oregon Agricultural
Experiment Station Circular 574.
(6)
HILLS,
ORIN
A.,
A.
C.
VALCARCE,
H.
K. JEWELL
and D.
C.
COUDRIET.
1960. Beet leafhopper control in sugar beets by seed or soil treatments. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 11 (1): 15-24.
JOURNAL
of the
American Society of Sugar
Beet Technologists
Volume 13
Number 8
January 1966
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title
Author
Helen Savitsky
K. W. R. Schoenrock
J. R. Johnson
G. V. Heyndrickx
On the nature
schachtii. I I I .
activity
655
... 662
681
687
of hatching of Heterodera
P r i n c i p l e s of h a t c h i n g
Notes Section
Page
D. R. Viglierchio
P. K. Yu
698
Robert R. West
Robert S. Gaddie
716
E. F. Sullivan
H. L. Bush
721
George K. Ryser
727
.. 748
SAVITSKY 1
Introduction
Study of some characteristics of leaves such as chromosome
n u m b e r (7,11,19) 2 , size of stomata cells (2,12,14,16), n u m b e r of
nucleoli chromocenters (15), a n d n u m b e r of chloroplasts (3,4,5,
7,10,12) is widely used at present time for d e t e r m i n a t i o n of ploidy
levels. Except for e x a m i n a t i o n of chromosome n u m b e r , the most
used m e t h o d involves d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the n u m b e r of chloroplasts in the g u a r d cells of stomata.
Mochizuki a n d Sueoka (13) first indicated that diploid, triploid a n d tetraploid sugar beets differ in the n u m b e r of chloroplasts in the stomata cells of leaf epidermis ( T a b l e 1).
Table 1.Average number of chloroplasts per stoma.
According to
Mochizuki
and Sueoka
Ploidy
levels
Diploids
Triploids
Tetraploids
14
20
25
(12-16)
(17-22)
(22-28)
Butterfass
14.23 0.10
20.34 0.07
25.36 0.17
Graf
Margara
and Touvin
Savitsky
17.09 0.25
20.74 0.19
24.42 0.36
14.74 + 0.32
18.97 0.36
25.98 0.54
14.57 0.28
20.87 0.37
25.90 C.57
656
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
VOL.
13,
No.
8,
JANUARY
1966
657
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
658
Corresponding to
designation
Diploids
Tetraploids
537
201
171
127
509
573
202
17
5
8
1
3
43
23
4
5
13
15
3
45
19
Total
Percent
Intermediate-Between
Diploids and Tetraploids
2
3
3
4
7
1
21
9-33
104
46.22
100
44.44
Corresponding to
designation
Diploids
Tetraploids
Intermediate-Between
Diploids and Tetraploids
537
201
171
127
509
573
202
8
2
4
0
1
16
6
42
46
57
30
9
69
22
14
6
10
3
3
7
6
37
10.2
275
76.2
Total
Percent
49
13.6
659
E x p e r i m e n t a l Results
O n l y 44.4 percent of diploid plants (with small pollen grains)
h a d the n u m b e r of chloroplasts characteristic of diploids ( T a b l e
2). Forty-six percent (46.2%) of plants in this g r o u p showed
chloroplast n u m b e r s corresponding to tetraploids a n d in 9 . 3 %
of plants t h e n u m b e r of chloroplasts exceeded t h e n u m b e r of
chloroplasts peculiar to diploids. T h u s , 5 5 . 5 % of the diploid
p o p u l a t i o n h a d larger n u m b e r of chloroplasts in leaves t h a n
should be present in diploids. T h i s indicated that the epidermal
tissue was affected by colchicine to a greater degree than the
s u b e p i d e r m a l tissue.
As a consequence, d o u b l i n g of chromosomes occurred m o r e
often in the epidermis t h a n in the tissues which produce sexual
cells.
A m o n g tetraploid plants (with large pollen grains) 7 6 . 2 %
of plants h a d the n u m b e r of chloroplasts corresponding to tetraploids ( T a b l e 3). O n l y 10.2% had the n u m b e r of chloroplasts
corresponding to diploid plants. Also, 13.6% of the plants showed
lower n u m b e r s t h a n tetraploids h a d to have. T h e r e f o r e , if selection of tetraploids h a d been made on the base of chloroplasts
n u m b e r , 23.8 percent of the tetraploid plants w o u l d have been
discarded.
At t h e same time, the g r o u p of tetraploid plants, selected
from the whole p o p u l a t i o n (586 plants), w o u l d have consisted
of 275 t r u e tetraploids a n d 104 (27.4%) diploids. T h i s g r o u p
of d i p l o i d plants would very highly contaminate the tetraploid
p o p u l a t i o n . Instead of o b t a i n i n g a C 1 progeny with a high percent of tetraploid plants, the C 1 generation will contain many,
if n o t a majority, of diploid a n d triploid plants which w o u l d
necessitate extensive screening to eliminate plants with undesirable c h r o m o s o m e n u m b e r s .
660
JOURNAL OF THE A. S.
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(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
1946. F u r t h e r studies
661
1964
VOL.
13,
No.
8,
JANUARY
1966
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were condetermined
throughout
cumulative
of the log
conditions.
VOL.
13,
No.
8, JANUARY
1966
667
assembly. The two side necks were used for a reflux condenser
and a thermometer, respectively. Constant temperature water
was circulated through the jacket of the flask. The flask was
placed in a full size electric heating mantle to minimize radiation
loss, and to support the output of the constant temperature
water bath if needed. Temperature of recirculation water was
controlled through a thermistor regulated constant temperature
water bath.
T h e flask was charged with the appropriate molasses sample
of a predetermined nonsugar/water ratio. Temperature was maintained at 0.01 C. When thermal equilibrium was reached an
adequate amount of coarse sugar, 16 + 34 mesh, was added
to provide a safe excess of sugar at saturation. The molasses/sugar
mixture was then agitated for at least two hours at the test
temperature. The necessary high nonsugar/water ratio in the
molasses was either obtained by distilling off excess water from
normal molasses or by sampling a crystallizer early in the cycle
when nonsugar/water ratios were still sufficiently high to avoid
evaporation of excess water. The latter method was finally adopted
since a host of problems was associated with the former procedure.
A Carver Press fitted with a home made jacketed cylinder
assembly was used to separate the mother liquor from excess
crystals. The Carver press assembly was equipped with controlled
electric heating platens. Constant temperature water from the
water bath was also circulated through the jacket of the cylinder
to keep the massecuite at temperature equilibrium during the
pressing operation. The heavily supported screening section
allowed the use of any filtering media. Tightly woven linen cloth
was normally employed as a primary filter. The expressed mother
liquor was collected in a jar and aliquot parts were used for
the purity and viscosity determinations. Viscosity was determined
with the Brookfield-Synchro-Lectric Model RVT viscometer and
purities were determined via the single acid true purity method.
Results and Discussion
T h e differences in solubility between the values of Grut;
Brown & Nees; and Twin Falls material for the 62-63 campaign
are illustrated in Figure 1. It is easily seen that the Twin Falls
material dissolves more sugar for a given nonsugar/water ratio
than either the Grut or Brown & Nees values would indicate.
The solubility values were applied to an actual crystallizer run
to show the difference in supersaturation. Figure 2 illustrates
the difference in supersaturation when using either Grut's solubility values and actually determined solubilities respectively.
668
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Xhe interesting part of this comparison is that the high supersaturation when based on Grut's tables made it difficult to properly schedule crystallizer operation and to justify in particular
the purity rise in mother liquor which is usually experienced
during the reheating period at the end of the crystallizer cycle.
On the assumption of being sufficiently safe, operators raised
temperatures and added water to improve purging. As we see
from the actual supersaturation the mother liquor was already
undersaturated at that point and sugar was redissolved. A second
deception is the belief that a supersaturation of 1.5 or so should
be maintained in low raw massecuite to secure acceptable crystallization velocity. It was found by testing a large number of
crystallizers that a supersaturation of 1.25 was maximum for
smooth operation.
The results for sucrose solubility in beet molasses from different areas are shown in Figure 4.
VOL.
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1966
669
for
low
purity
liquors
670
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
Y
Y
Y
0.713
Y
Y
Y
0.704
0.697
0.809
0.722
Nampa 1962-63
Nampa Early 1963-64
Nampa Late 1963-64
Y
Y
Y
0.777
= 0.750
0.722
0.724
0.699
0.804
0.780
Nyssa 1962-63
Nyssa Early 1963-64
Nyssa Late 1963-64
Y
Y
Y
= 0.802
0.702
Y = 0.741
0.717
0.745
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
r (xy;
0.230 X
0.232 X
0.240 X
0.984
0.998
0.996
0.234 X
0.991
0.228 X
0.241 X
0.167 X
0.976
0.989
0.987
0.220 X
0.955
0.212 X
0.218 X
0.201 X
0.988
0.995
0.943
0.210 X
0.984
0.186 X
0.225 X
0.218 X
0.952
0.998
0.992
0.211 X
0.989
0.217 X
0.979
Differences are not significant @ 19:1 odd in Y-intercept or slope between factories or
sample time.
Observe Twin Falls for 1963-64 which has a lower slope than normal and the same for
Nyssa 1962-63. Even with these values included we find the curve for combined data to possess
a high degree of correlation C vs A. According to this we can assume that a single curve
Will suffice for solubility work without a high degree of error.
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1966
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that the rate of gain in supersaturation decreases during progressive cooling while the rate of gain in viscosity increases on
a nearly logarithmic scale over the same temperature range.
Thusly, viscosity and not supersaturation becomes the controlling factor in the lower temperature range because continued
crystallization does not allow a significant build up of supersaturation during a normal cooling cycle. Water addition need
To solve for the unknown: Connect points on the inside scales via a straight line; A second
straight line connecting points of the outside scales must intersect the first straight line on
the reference line.
Example:
Number of vessels
=
4
(Scale M)
Maximum available
=
1300
cu ft
(Scale L)
Daily workload
=
9500
cu ft
(Scale O)
time
13.1
hours
(Scale T)
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Figure 11.Alignment chart illustrating the relationship between cooling rate in C/hours, available cooling time, and temperature spread
between highest and lowest temperature.
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v i d u a l j u d g m e n t of t h e o p e r a t o r is still t h e d e c i d i n g factor
u n t i l a satisfactory viscosity a n d b r i x sensing device may
control this function automatically. T e m p e r a t u r e of dilut i o n water should be at least as high as t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
of t h e massecuite.
13. D e t e r m i n e p u r g i n g t e m p e r a t u r e b y u s i n g b r i x a n d perc e n t p u r i t y of molasses in F i g u r e 7. F o r a u n i f o r m operat i o n these values will r e m a i n fairly constant from day
to day. Massecuite should be r e h e a t e d in t h e r a w m i x e r
to the t e m p e r a t u r e thusly found p r i o r to p u r g i n g .
Acknowledgment
T h e a u t h o r s wish to acknowledge the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of P a u l
K u n k e l , w h o performed most solubility d e t e r m i n a t i o n s for t h e
63-64 c a m p a i g n samples, a n d J a m e s M. Peterson, w h o assisted
in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e a l i g n m e n t charts.
Literature Cited
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
ASSELBERGS,
C.
P., P.
W. VAN
DER POEL,
M.
L.
A.
VERHAART and
N.
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(15) ROUNDS, G. H . a n d F. N . RAWLINGS. Theory a n d economics of diffusion. 1954. Proc. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. VIII (2) : 289-297.
(16) SCHLIEPHAKE, D. 1963. On the structure of aqueous sucrose solution.
Zucker. 16(19) : 523-528.
(17) SCHNEIDER, F. and D. SCHLIEPHAKE. 1963. Behaviour of nonsugars
during sugar extraction. Zucker. 16(18): 503-509.
(18)
1959.
A b o u t the effect of
1960.
of sucrose.
Investigations con-
1962.
C o n c e r n i n g the
(22)
Influence of beet
1961.
Influence of
1963. F u n d a m e n t a l s
1963.
On the viscosity
1963.
Viscometric in-
K.,
D.
DABROWSKA
and
Cs.
DABROWSKI.
1960.
Fast
1961. Solubility
1961.
Quanti-
1962.
Problems
1964.
Influence
of foaming of low grade massecuite on the viscosity and exhaustionof molasses. Zschrt. Zuckering. 1 4 ( 3 ) : 133-135.
(34) WIKLUND, O. 1946. Melasproblemet. Socker. 2: 65-140.
V.
HEYNDRICKX1
Introduction
T h e quantitative estimation of calcium in sugar-house products, such as raw juice, clarified juice, syrup, molasses a n d raw
sugar is very i m p o r t a n t in sugar manufacturing. Many m e t h o d s
for this estimation exist in the literature p o i n t i n g to t h e importance of the calcium content, b u t also to the complexity
of the p r o b l e m . Since the standard analytical oxalate m e t h o d
is c u m b e r s o m e , many r o u t i n e methods have been proposed. T h e
eldest of these is the soap m e t h o d of Spengler a n d Brendel (4) 2
which gives an estimate of the total q u a n t i t y of calcium a n d
magnesium, with doubtful accuracy, however.
Several workers have developed in recent years m o r e elegant
methods based on the E D T A (ethylenediamine tetra acetate) reaction. In these methods the sugar solution is titrated with a
solution of E D T A in the presence of eriochrome black [ H o n i g
(1), Saunier a n d L e m a i t r e (3)]. T h e a m o u n t of E D T A employed
is a measure of the calcium plus magnesium content. W h e n t h e
calcium c o n t e n t is desired, a second titration is carried o u t on
the sugar solution after precipitation of the calcium, or a n o t h e r
indicator such as m u r e x i d e [Ramaiah, Vishnu a n d C h a t u r v e d i
(2)] is used, which, however, requires a photometric titration
a p p a r a t u s . T h e great disadvantage of the E D T A titrations, even
with a p h o t o m e t e r , is the troubles which occur on e x a m i n i n g
stark colored solutions like raw juice and molasses. It is significant that in the 1964 edition of the I C U M S A methods of
sugar analysis, a m e t h o d for determination of calcium is n o t
mentioned.
T h e present c o m m u n i c a t i o n reports a simple, sensitive a n d
accurate m e t h o d for estimation of calcium, which is elaborate
by T r i n d e r (5) for blood, b u t so far is not applied to sugarhouse products.
Materials and Methods
In the proposed hydroxamate method, the calcium is precipitated as its naph-thalhydroxamate. After centrifugation, t h e
unwashed precipitate is dissolved and the color intensity of the
1
2
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centrifuging, washing with ammonia water and again centrifuging, the precipitate is dissolved in warm dilute sulfuric acid
and titrated with 0.01 N potassium permanganate.
Results and Discussion
The results obtained with the hydroxamate method and with
the oxalate method on 5 samples of raw juice, 3 samples of
clarified juice, 3 samples of syrup, 3 samples of molasses and
1 sample of raw sugar, with and without digestion, are mentioned in Table 1. In order to establish if the difference between
the calcium content found with the four methods is significant,
Table 2.P levels at which the difference between the mean calcium content, obtained
with four methods, is significant.
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d r o x a m a t e a n d with the oxalate m e t h o d applied on t h e 15 u n digested a n d digested samples attains the value of 3.0 - 3.3 - 3.6
a n d 3.7 respectively, which are only slightly different. F r o m all
these results it can be concluded that there are no great differences between the reproducibility of the four m e t h o d s applied.
Since the hydroxamate m e t h o d gives results which are n o t
significantly different from these obtained with the oxalate
m e t h o d a n d with a practical equal precision, this m e t h o d may
be r e c o m m e n d e d . T h e hydroxamate m e t h o d is m u c h less time
c o n s u m i n g t h a n the oxalate m e t h o d and at least 25 times m o r e
sensitive. T h e hydroxamate m e t h o d can be applied on the various
sugar-house products w i t h o u t digestion or defecation, even on
raw juices, which is n o t the case for the oxalate m e t h o d . It is
interesting to r e m a r k here that the complexometric titration
with eriochrome black or with m u r e x i d e is also m u c h less sensitive t h a n the hydroxamate m e t h o d and gives troubles with d a r k
solutions like raw juice a n d molasses. W i t h these solutions it
is necessary to clarify with lead reagent, with subsequent precipitation of the excess of lead. W i t h molasses this procedure is
even n o t sufficient a n d decolorization with adsorptive carbon
is necessary.
All these cumbersome manipulations are superfluous with
the h y d r o x a m a t e method, which is so sensitive that the molasses
may be d i l u t e d to 2 Brix a n d the resultant color has no influence
on the precipitated calcium. T h e simple complexometric t i t r a t i o n
on clarified juice is somewhat less time consuming t h a n t h e
h y d r o x a m a t e method, b u t this advantage disappears w h e n defecation a n d decolorization is necessary. Finally, a high sensitive m e t h o d like the hydroxamate m e t h o d is very interesting
on e x a m i n i n g samples with low calcium content like refined
sugars. It is o u r conviction that the hydroxamate m e t h o d is a
reliable a n d convenient m e t h o d a n d may be successfully applied
in the sugar industry.
Summary
A simple colorimetric micro m e t h o d for calcium determination in sugar-house products is described. T h e m e t h o d consists
essentially in a precipitation of the calcium with n a p h t h a l hydroxamic acid, which is separated by centrifuging, dissolved
in an alkaline solution, after which the color reaction with
ferric ions is measured in a simple colorimeter. F r o m the
statistical calculations, it appears that the hydroxamate m e t h o d
JOURNAL OF THE A.
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Literature Cited
(1) HONIG, P. 1952. Calcium and magnesium in cane juices and sugars.
Repts. West Indies Sugar Corp. No. 2.
(2)
RAMAIAH,
N.
A.,
VISHNU
and
R.
K.
CHATURVEDI.
1958.
simple
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Table 1.The frequency of 2n, 4n and greater than 4n cells in heart leaves at three
growth stages.
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Post-bolting
Growth
T h e 32 plants m e n t i o n e d plus 26 plants that were analyzed
at less t h a n 5 growth stages received the photo-thermal i n d u c t i o n
treatment. On the basis of the last heart leaf sampled 26 plants
were classified as 4n, 20 as chimeras a n d 12 of the 2n plants
were included for a control. T h e data obtained from the floral
heart leaves, pollen m o t h e r cells, pollen measurements, chloroplast counts a n d root tip analysis are presented in T a b l e s 2, 3
a n d 4. T h e last heart leaf analysis for the chimera g r o u p is also
included.
T h e floral heart leaves of 25 of the 26 4n plants were completely 4n ( T a b l e 2). Only one plant (No. 49) was a c h i m e r a
at this stage a n d it p r o d u c e d a diploid inflorescence. T h i s p l a n t
was eliminated from the 4n g r o u p before anthesis on the basis
of floral leaf cytology. T h e P M C ' s of the other 24 plants were
all 4n. Seed set on the 4n plants was generally poor a n d very
variable. However, of the 250 progeny analyzed all were at the
4 n level, 2 0 % b e i n g aneuploids ranging i n chromosome n u m b e r
from 34 to 38.
T h e floral h e a r t leaves of 16 of the 20 chimera plants ( T a b l e
3) were chimeral, three were totally 4n (Nos. 10, 26 and 52)
a n d one was diploid (No. 22). PMC's of 16 of these plants were
analyzed. O n e inflorescence was chimeral (No. 24), 12 were 2n
Table 3.Data from the analysis of the last heart leaves, floral heart leaves, pollen
mother cells, root tips, pollen diameter and chloroplast number from 20 plants whose last
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Table 4.Data from the analysis of the floral heart leaves, pollen mother cells, root
tips, pollen diameter and chloroplast number from 12 plants found to be totally 2n in the
last heart leaf counted.
Frequencies of 4n:2n Cells
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Introduction
T h e step, in the life cycle of animals, in which the developed
e m b r y o emerges from an egg m e m b r a n e or egg case to c o n t i n u e
its growth a n d development is a relatively c o m m o n event in the
a n i m a l world, a n d in nematodes as in o t h e r animals this transition may be a relatively inconspicuous incident in the n o r m a l
sequence of events. In p l a n t parasitic nematodes of the Heterodera
species, however, emergence from the cyst assumes a special
significance, for the cyst stage can serve as a survival form capable
of e n d u r i n g adverse e n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions.
T h i s aspect of nematology received considerable a t t e n t i o n
especially after the observation of Baunacke ( l ) 3 that leachings
of host plant roots stimulated larval emergence. T h e emergence
of larvae from cysts of Heterodera has b e e n the subject of a recent extensive review (12). T h e r e is a wealth of data concerned
with the stimulation of hatching, the h a t c h i n g factors in root
diffusates a n d the physical effects on the h a t c h i n g assay. T h e
available information is the p r o d u c t of n u m e r o u s workers in
various laboratories using different populations of animals, different sources of h a t c h i n g stimulation, a n d different conditions
a n d methods of assay. As a result n u m e r o u s apparently contradictory reports have arisen.
Investigations i n t o the h a t c h i n g process have consisted for
the most p a r t of descriptions of the physical parameters, the
testing of a n u m b e r of diverse Substances from n a t u r a l or synthetic sources for hatching factor activity a n d attempts at the
identification of a naturally occurring hatch active substance.
It was clear from previous reports (11,17,18) that if hatch data
were to be useful as a manifestation of t h e n a t u r e of hatching
it w o u l d n e e d to be o b t a i n e d from r e p r o d u c i b l e assays conducted
in a standard fashion with animals of as similar an e n v i r o n m e n t a l
history as possible a n d with hatch factor source materials prepared in a similar fashion.
T h e relative unspecificity of hatch factor sources, that is
1
Research funds for this study were contributed in part by the Beet Sugar Development Foundation.
2
Associate Nematologist and Assistant Research Nematologist, respectively, Department
of Nematology, University of California, Davis, California.
8
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
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700
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4 5 6 7 8
9
CYST AGE (month*)
10
II
VOL.
1966
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j^3
tZ
JT
Concentration
IOO
20
(mg/ml. x I0" 2 )
.8
IOO
ZO
.8
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Vitamins and Related Compounds Biotin, d-calcium pantothenate, folic acid, ascorbic acid, and thiamin could possess
stimulatory activity comparable to leachate (Figure 4). Riboflavin
and taurine appeared to be less active whereas glutathione,
pyridoxine and nicotinic acid were completely inactive in these
experiments. Repeated tests with biotin, d-calcium pantothenate
and folic acid confirmed that whereas biotin could be inactive,
d-calcium pantothenate and folic acid could be very inhibitory.
The hatch curves indicated that encysted larvae could be sufficiently sensitive to detect concentrations of vitamins on the
order of 0.1 ppm.
Amino Acids The L-amino acids as a group appeared relatively inactive in hatch stimulation tests (Figure 5 and 6). Of
some 25 amino acids tested only L-lysine, L-tryptophan, Laspartic acid and perhaps L-glutamic acid possessed some ability
to stimulate larval emergence from cysts. Some of the more
active acids appeared to possess stimulatory power at concentrations on the order of 0.01 ppm. L-lysine was the only amino
acid consistently active.
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IOO
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Fatty Acids The higher fatty acids C12 and above, whether
saturated or unsaturated, were inactive in hatch test (Figure 8).
The inhibitory activity at the higher concentration could be
attributed to the high alkalinity necessary to keep the fatty acid
in solution. The lower members of the fatty acid series, acetic,
propionic, and butyric acids could be inert and/or inhibitory
to larval emergence. Caproic, caprylic and capric acids were
able to stimulate a larval emergence comparable to leachate.
706
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a>
13,
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1966
r DL-Coniine*H(
took-^^J
I F
Figure 10.
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compounds could be very active in high concentrations as /?mercaptoethylamine, mildly active as thiodiglycolic acid and
mercaptoacetic acid at low concentrations or inhibitory at higher
concentrations as mercaptoacetic acid. Cholic acid, inert at 100
ppm, increased in activity with dilution approaching the maximum o leachate at 0.1 ppm.
VOL.
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Discussion
The cumulative larval hatch curves indicating emergence
due to water and leachate with respect to cyst age (Figure 1) are
a function of rearing conditions, method of purification, technique of drying and conditions of storage. The ordinate intercept
can be varied greatly by the technique of drying; if the conditions are drastic and the desiccation takes place quickly, cumulative larval hatch can be reduced to an insignificant value. Gradual
drying over a period of 3 to 5 days maintains a high initial
cumulative hatch. The drying is conducted at 5 C to prevent
the high emergence normally occurring at higher temperatures.
710
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712
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1966
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1958.
Effect of
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
R. T O D D .
1949.
T h e potato-
715
(10) ROVIRA, A. D. and J. R. HARRIS. 1961. Plant root excretions in relation to the rhizosphere effect. Plant and Soil 14: 199-214.
(11) SHEPHERD, A. M. 1962. T h e emergence of larvae from cysts in the
genus Heterodera. Technical Communication No. 32 of the Commonwealth Bureau of Helminthology.
(12) SHEPHERD, A. M. 1962. Dyes as artificial hatching agents for beet
eelworm, Heterodera schachtii Schm. Nature 196: 391-392.
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
ing plants with aseptic roots for collection of root exudates and
C 0 2 . Plant Physiol. 37: 332-341.
VIGLIERCHIO, D. R. 1959. Collection and selection of cysts of the
sugar beet nematode, Heterodera schachtii. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet
Technol. 1 0 ( 4 ) : 318-329.
VIGLIERCHIO, D. R. 1960. Heterodera schachtii, hatching properties
of field importance. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 11 (4) :
294-301.
VIGLIERCHIO, D. R. 1961. A simplified technique for hatching tests
of Heterodera schachtii. Phytopathology 51: 330-332.
VIGLIERCHIO, D. R. 1963. On the nature of hatching of Heterodera
schachtii. Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Wash. 30: 195-198.
VIGLIERCHIO, D. R. and P. K. Yu. 1965. On the nature of hatching
of Heterodera schachtii. II. Natural sources of hatching stimuli.
J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 13(4): 354-361.
WALLACE, H. R. 1956. T h e emergence of larvae from cysts of the
beet eelworm, Heterodera schachtii Schmidt, in aqueous solutions
of organic and inorganic substances. Ann. appl. Biol. 44: 274-282.
WALLACE, H. R. 1957. T h e stimulatory properties of some organic
substances on cysts of the beet eelworm, Heterodera schachtii
Schmidt. Ann. appl. Biol. 45: 251-255.
WINSLOW, R. D. 1959. A note on anhydrotetronic acid as a hatching
agent of the beet eelworm, Heterodera schachtii Schmidt. Nematologica 4: 237-238.
R O B E R T S.
GADDIE1
1
Head Chemist, General Laboratory and General Chemist, respectively.
Sugar Company, Salt Lake City, Utah.
Utah-Idaho
VOL.
717
1:
2:
3:
4:
Difference
Difference
Difference
Difference
with
with
with
with
JOURNAL OF THE A. S.
718
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1 2 4 817
1 2 4 8 1735
To
o b t a1.Results
i n consistent
results approximately
in odor measurements,
is necesFigure
of testing
100 days ofit production
at six that
factories
1963.
sary
the during
analyst
always observe a t e c h n i q u e somewhat as
follows:
1. Some practice is necessary to develop consistent threshold
sensitivity. T h i s consistency can be readily developed in most
individuals. An acute sense of smell is n o t essential.
2. A reliable a n d a d e q u a t e supply of odor-free
carbon treated) water is r e q u i r e d .
(activated
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At this date we have found only one positive correlation between odor a n d operating conditions at the six factories. In every
case, as the campaign progressed and as storage periods increased,
u n d e r the same average operating conditions, the o d o r in sugar
increased in direct proportion. Figure 3 illustrates this a n d while
720
JOURNAL OF T H E A.
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F.
SULLIVAN AND H.
L.
BUSH2
Introduction
In many herbicide screening experiments, visual numerical
ratings of effectiveness are used to evaluate the relative differences
a m o n g treatments. T h e accuracy of these visual estimates of weed
control is d e p e n d e n t on the skill and objectivity of the investigator, particularly regarding the assessment of the density
a n d species composition of the sample. N u m e r o u s investigators
acknowledge the fact that visual estimates of weed control contain errors as high as 20 percentage points, and that valid interpretation of subjective data is difficult unless consistently large
differences are apparent.
T h e results of experimentation conducted at the Great
Western Agricultural Experiment Station (3) 3 indicated the need
for a statistical m e t h o d of interpretation of plant-count data
obtained from variable-dosage experiments. It was proposed that
a suitable statistical method existed which would allow predictions and practical recommendations to be made from variable-dosage data, particularly when small differences were expected. T h e probit analysis method was examined as a possible
tool for the interpretation of dosage-response relationships in
weed control. Heretofore, the direct method of variance analysis
was applied to variable-dosage data with reservations regarding
the validity of the interpretations.
Materials and Methods
Field
Procedure
In this study, the method of direct graphical interpretation
of the dosage-response relationships of P E B C (n-propyl ethyl-nbutylthiolcarbamate), diallate (2-3-dichloroallyl diisopropylthiolcarbamate) a n d the mixture, PEBC + diallate, was examined.
T h e introductory studies on probit theory and practice by Finney
(2) a n d Gowing (1) were consulted to formulate method.
A 12 l b / A initial dosage of active ingredient was used for
each herbicide, although the PEBC + diallate combination was
i Contribution of the Great Western Agricultural Experiment Station, Longmont,
Colorado. From a paper given at the Proc. Thirteenth General Meeting, Am. Soc. Sugar
Beet Technol., February, 1964.
"Agronomist and Agronomist-Statistician, respectively.
8
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
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b
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1963.
W e e d control
screening on
1964.
sugar beets,
K.
RYSER 1
Introduction
Many factors affect the yield and quality of the sugar beet.
Researchers have studied various factors separately and others
collectively. T h e ultimate in sugar production cannot be attained
until all the important factors of growth and their interactions
are recognized, measured and controlled.
Multiple regression procedures can be used to establish an
equation for the prediction of maximum sugar yields. Modern
computers can easily handle complicated multiple models involving large matrices including linear and nonlinear relationships a n d interaction terms (7) 2 .
In 1958 a n d 1959, the Nyssa-Nampa Beet Growers Association
made sugar determinations on tare samples of roots from each
load delivered to the Doles Station, Nyssa, Oregon. T h i s was
an u n d e r t a k i n g of the growers in the district with the major
objective of determining some factors influencing the sugar percent of the sugar beet.
Materials and Methods
For the harvest seasons of 1958 and 1959, Dr. J. H. Roblyer 3
set up a laboratory close to the Doles station and each tare sample
of roots was analyzed for sucrose percent. A sample of 26 gm
of p u l p was digested in 177 mm of water, cleared with H o m e ' s
lead subacetate and filtered. T h e sugar percent of the clear solution was determined by use of a saccharimeter 4 . Average suo^ir
percent was calculated for each field from these root samples.
Yield of roots was obtained from factory records. Acreable yield
of roots and gross sugar were calculated for each grower.
All growers were asked to supply information on each field
of sugar beets delivered to the station. In 1959 the questioni Research Agronomist, Crops Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S.
Department of Agriculture, Logan, Utah.
2
Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited.
3
Head, Chemistry Department, College of Idaho, Caldwell, Idaho, and Chemist for
Nyssa-Nampa Growers Association.
* Loaned to the Nyssa-Nampa Growers Association under Memorandum of Understanding with the Crops Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.
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Table 3.Means of groups on soil type and crop rotation, Doles Station, 1958.
Six variables t h a t seemed to be the most accurate a n d apparently to have some influence on t o n n a g e or sugar p e r c e n t
were selected for the regression study. C o n s i d e r a t i o n also was
given each year to only those fields w h e r e i n c o m p l e t e information for t h e six variables was available. T h i s r e d u c e d the observations to 85 for 1958 a n d to 83 for 1959. T h e six i n d e p e n d e n t
variables w e r e : (A) acres harvested; (B) u n i t s n i t r o g e n applied;
(C) u n i t s P 2 O s a p p l i e d ; ^D) n u m b e r of irrigations, coded 1 to
4 in increasing o r d e r (1959) or d a t e of first i r r i g a t i o n coded 1
to 4 earliest d a t e first (1958); (E) date of p l a n t i n g g r o u p e d 0 to
7, 0 assigned to earliest d a t e a n d 7 to the latest; a n d (F) total
n u m b e r of g r o w i n g days. T h e g r o w i n g days were estimated as
t h e days from p l a n t i n g to the date t h a t the greatest n u m b e r of
loads of beets was delivered to t h e w e i g h i n g station.
Xo o b t a i n a regression m o d e l , the first step w o u l d be to
study two-dimensional a n d three-dimensional scatter diagrams.
A m o r e realistic m o d e l can be w r i t t e n w h e n these are observed,
a n d a t t h e same t i m e m u c h a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n can b e obt a i n e d a b o u t t h e i n d e p e n d e n t variables.
In o r d e r to project a regression m o d e l as precisely as possible,
a three-dimensional g r a p h i c analysis was m a d e 5 (8). T h e p u n c h e d
cards t h a t carried values for t h e six i n d e p e n d e n t variables a n d
for the d e p e n d e n t variables (Yx, gross sugar p e r acre, Y 2 , tons of
roots p e r acre a n d Y 3 , sugar p e r c e n t ) were sorted i n t o ascending
5
Machine method developed by Dr. Rex Hurst, Head, Applied Statistics Department,
Utah State University, Logan, Utah.
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Table 5.Means of groups on five different cultural tretatments, Doles Station, 1959.
73!
Table 6.Means of groups on six additional cultural treatments, Doles Station, 1959.
E x p e r i m e n t a l Results
General observations from means for 1958
T h e scatter diagram of average tons roots per acre and average sugar percent shows the production of each field with respect
to the general m e a n of the two variables in 1958 (Figure 1).
Of the 5 0 % of the fields that produced below-average tons of
beets p e r acre (quadrants 2 and 3), 3 2 % had the highest sugar
percent (mean 16.9) b u t produced only 3.963 tons of gross sugar
per acre ( T a b l e 1). T h e other 1 8 % had a mean sucrose of 15.7%
sugar a n d 4.210 tons of gross sugar per acre. T h e fields (quadrants
2 a n d 3) with the highest and lowest average sugar percent also
p r o d u c e d the lowest and next to lowest average gross sugar per
acre.
Of the 5 0 % of all the field that produced above-average
tons of roots per acre, 2 9 % (quadrant 4) produced below-average
percent (15.68) a n d produced next to the highest gross sugar
per acre (5.235 tons). T h e other 2 1 % (quadrant 1) produced
the highest tons of roots p e r acre with above-average sugar
percent (16.72) and highest gross sugar per acre (5.384 tons).
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Planting
date
T h e dates of planting in 1958 ranged from March 1 to
April 25. T h e earliest plantings, however, did show some improvement over the latest in average tonnage a n d average gross
sugar. Intermediate dates of planting, March 21 to April 3,
gave the highest yield of roots and gross sugar ( T a b l e 2).
Other
observations
Soil type was difficult to judge from simple observations.
M e d i u m to heavy soil types with 32.6 tons of roots per acre
and 15.83% sugar produced the highest gross sugar or 5.134
tons ( T a b l e 3).
Beets following grain produced 30.7 tons of roots per acre
with 16.32% sugar. Beets following potatoes ranked next with
30.4 tons of roots per acre and 16.15% sugar (Table 3).
General observations from means for 1959
T h e scatter diagram (Figure 2) shows how the respective
fields placed in relation to the mean yield of tons per acre and
sugar percent of all the fields in 1959. Q u a d r a n t 1, which is
above average for both sugar percent and tons per acre, yielded
5.160 tons of gross sugar per acre and 31.2 tons roots per acre
with 16.5% sugar (Table 4). Eighty-seven percent of the acres
in q u a d r a n t 1, which comprised 20% of the total in 1959, was
planted before March 21. T h i s gave an average growing season
of 229 days, or the longest growing season of all quadrants. A
good stand of beets was also maintained in these fields. T h e
; 26 >27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 33 36 37 38 39 40 4) 42
TONS PER ACRE
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H
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* Signifirant at 5% point.
** Significant at 1 % point.
1 Single d.f. mean square is that which would not have been accounted for by regression
had the variable been omitted.
>
* Significant at 5% point.
** Significant at 1% point.
1
Single mean (d.f. mean) square is that which would not have been accounted for by regression had the variable been omitted.
CO
C/J
* Significant at 5% point.
** Significant at 1% point.
1
Single d.f. mean square is that which would not have been accounted for by regression had the variable been omitted.
744
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OF THE A.
S.
S.
B.
X.
1959.
T h e effect of
DUDLEY,
JOHN
W.
and
LEROY
POWERS.
1960.
Population
FINKER, R.
E., J. F.
SWINK,
C. W.
DOXTATOR,
R.
F.
genetic
(Beta vulgaris).
OLSON
and
P.
C.
HANZAS. 1959. Changes in raffinose content and other characteristics of sugar beet varieties during six different harvest dates. J.
Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol. 1 0 ( 5 ) : 459-465.
(4)
1963.
Correlations
HADDOCK, J. L., P. B. S M I T H , A.
R.
DOWNIE,
J.
T.
ALEXANDER,
B.
E.
EASTON and VERNAL JENSEN. 1959. T h e influence of cultural practices on the quality of sugar beets. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Tech.
10(4) : 290-301.
(6) HADDOCK, J. L. 1963. T h e interrelationships between nitrogen a n d
potassium on the quality of sugar beets. 14th A n n u . Fert. Conf.
Proc. of the Pacific Northwest, Idaho Falls, Idaho (Mtg.) : 77-88.
(7) HURST, R. L. 1963. Model building in multiple regression. 1620
general program library 06.0084, December 1963.
(8) HURST, R. L. and M. W. PEDERSEN, 1964. Alfalfa seed production as a
function of genetic a n d environmental characteristics. Advancing
frontiers of p l a n t sciences. VIII: 41-54.
(9)
OWEN,
F.
V.,
MYRON
STOUT,
ALBERT
M.
MURPHY,
C.
H.
SMITH
and
RYSER,
GEORGE
K.,
MYRON
STOUT, ALBERT U L R I C H
and
F.
V.
OWEN.
1952.
A d a p t a t i o n of t h e
STOCKINGER,
K. R., A. J .
M A C K E N Z I E a n d E. E.
CARY.
Proc. Am.
1963.
Yield
J. Am.
747
(14) STOUT, MYRON. 1954. Determining respiration rate and sampling for
chemical analysis of sugar beets. J. Agr. and Food Chem. II (26) :
1324-1328.
(15) T O L M A N , BION. 1964. Let's grow more pure sugar per acre of beets
planted. Idaho Farmer, July 2, 1964.
(16) ULRICH, ALBERT. 1961. Variety climate interactions of? sugar beet
varieties in simulated climates. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol.
11 (5) : 376-387.
(17) ULRICH, ALBERT. Variability of sugar beet plants grown in pots without competition for light, water and nutrients. J. Am. Soc. Sugar
Beet Technol. 11 (7) : 595-604.
(18) WOOLEY, D. G. and W. H. BENNETT. 1962. Effect of soil moisture,
nitrogen fertilization, variety, and harvest date on root yields and
sucrose content of sugar beets. J. Am. Soc. Sugar Beet Technol.
12(3) : 233-237.
NOTES SECTION