International Research Journal of Biological Sciences ___________________________________ ISSN 2278-3202

Vol. 1(7), 72-84, November (2012)

I. Res. J. Biological Sci.

Review Paper

Processing and Quality Characteristics of some major Fermented Fish

Products from Africa: A Critical Review
*

Anihouvi V.B. , Kindossi J.M. and Hounhouigan J.D.

1

Department of Nutrition and Food Science - University of Abomey-Calavi, 01BP 526 Cotonou, BENIN

Available online at: www.isca.in

Received 16th October 2012, revised 22nd October 2012, accepted 27th October 2012

Abstract
For many socio-economic and technical reasons, the fermentation is one of most important fish preservation methods used in
many parts of the world and mainly the coastal regions of African countries in particular. The fermentation processes
applied are generally indigenous and adaptable to the culture of the people. The main traditional fermentation techniques
used as low-cost methods for fish preservation in African countries, the quality characteristics of the various end-products
and the major constraints associated with the techniques used were discussed in this review. The lack of standardization of
the processing methods and hygiene during processing, with their detrimental effects on the quality and the safety of the endproducts are the major problems to overcome to ensure the promotion of fermented fish products sector in Africa. In this
respect, there is a need for new areas of research focused on the standardization of traditional fermentation techniques to
resolve the inconvenient associated with them and enhance further benefits of this technology. With increasing use of
bouillon cube range of condiments in African countries, greater understanding of factors contributing to the safety and
sensory quality of fermented fish products as perceived by the consumers would have significant commercial implications.
Keywords: Fish fermentation, ripening, salting, drying, microbial status, chemical characteristics.

Introduction
African countries require food processing technologies that will
meet the challenges of peculiar food security problems in the
continent. Such technologies should be low-cost to be
affordable by the poor sectors of the community and should be
able to address the problems of food spoilage and food borne
diseases which are prevalent in the continent. Fermentation is
one of important food processing technologies that meet these
challenges1. According to Parkouda et al2 fermentation is
generally carried out to bring diversity into the kind of foods
and beverage available; make otherwise inedible foods products
edible; enhance the nutritional value; decrease toxicity; preserve
food; decrease cooking time and energy requirements. The
fermentation methods are indigenous to African cultures and
have been used in many of these countries for centuries 1, 3, 4. Of
course these methods were artisanal in nature and obviously
developed at home and improvements were based on the
observations of actors. The activities are carried out mostly by
illiterate women as the major actors; in general, there is little
interest in knowing the role of microorganisms and the physical
and chemical changes that occur in the products. What is
recognized are changes in colour, odour and taste that result
from modifications of the process or variation in ingredients5-8.
Among the various fermented food processed in Africa, the
fermented fish products are one of the oldest and most
widespread used as condiments or main sources of protein of
animal origin throughout the world6,8-10. According to Beddows9
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salted, fermented and sun dried fish is generally known as

fermented fish since the processing methods usually involved
salting, fermentation and drying. This combination of such
processes is needed in tropical regions mainly because of
climate and the extreme perishability of fresh fish. Indeed, a key
factor limiting fish utilization is its extreme perishability due
especially to bacterial and autolytic spoilage which usually
occurs at the same time, after the death, during processing and
sometimes during storage, and both contribute to normal
spoilage processes10-12. As reported by Adams et al11, fish flesh
offers to microorganisms conditions of good nutrient
availability coupled with a moderate pH and high water activity.
In tropical regions, these conditions coupled with a high
ambient temperature and unsanitary conditions cause fish
spoilage within 12 hours11,13. The fermentation was also found
to be an important method for fish preservation particularly
because poor quality fish or unpopular species of fish are
usually processed in this way. For this reason, fermentation
helps to salvage fish which would otherwise have been thrown
away.
Campbell-Platt14 defines fermented foods as foods, which have
been subjected to the action of microorganisms so that desirable
biochemical changes cause significant modification of the food.
In tropical regions the ambient conditions (high temperature,
high humidity) provide ideal conditions for fermentation. Left
alone, most foodstuffs will ferment naturally, some with
desirable end results and others with less desirable and even
poisonous end-products15. In this respect, the traditional
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I. Res. J. Biological Sci.
fermentation of fish is qualified as natural or spontaneous
fermentation. According to Gram and Huss16 the fermentation
of fish is brought about by autolytic enzymes from fish and
microorganisms in the presence of salt. Various workers have
reported the use of salt in fresh fish preservation as selective
microbial agent5,16,17.

in Uganda, Gyagawere, Adjonfa and Adjuevan in Ivory Coast,

and Salanga in Chad6,7,24. The endogenous knowledge on
processing methods of some major fermented fish products
including Lanhouin, Momone, Guedj, and other are discussed in
the following sections.

using artisanal equipment which is readily available, easy to

fabricate and repair. Therefore, processors do not need a large
capital outlay to start operations. Rudimentary equipments such
as basket, old barrels, earthenware pots, old nets, locally-made
drying racks, mats, sack jute/ poly sacks and cans are the major
items used. Generally, these items are locally available and
affordable6,8,18. Consequently, a large number of people are
engaged in fish processing by fermentation because of a ready
domestic market and high demand for such product mainly at
national and sub-regional levels, and sometimes at international
level; therefore, there is a flourishing export potential6-8,19.

Lanhouin, Momone and Guedj are three fermented fish products

produced in Benin, Ghana and Senegal respectively. There are
all processed by fermentation associated with salting and
drying. These fermented fishery products remain whole and
firm after a fermentation period of 2 to 9 days6,8,25 in contrast to
some East Asian fermented fish products obtained after 3 to 9
months of fermentation, period after which, the fish is turned
into paste or completely liquefied and gave a sauce 26, 27.

Processing of fresh fish into Lanhouin, Momone

Fermentation is also a low cost method of fish preservation and Guedj

With the exception of fisher men who provided fresh fish to

processors, in most West Africa countries, females are the sole
actors involved in the processing and the commercialization of
fermented fish products6,8,20,21. However, in Central African
countries such as Chad and Sudan, the processors are also
males6. For most of processors, this activity constitutes their
main source of income 6-8. According to Essuman6 more income
is derived from fish fermentation than from smoking or drying
in most African countries. This means that there is a potential
for higher market value for superior quality fermented fish
products. A higher market value for superior quality fermented
fish products will improve the economic situation of the
processors who adopt improved technologies for fermented fish
processing; in addition the public will consume a healthy
product. The present review examines the traditional processing
methods in use in different regions of Africa and the quality of
various end-products in both microbiological and physicochemical aspects as well. The constraints limiting the promotion
of fermented fish products in Africa were also raised.

The main African traditional fermented fish

products and their processing methods
In most African countries, the traditional fermentation of fish is
carried out in artisanal way and the processing methods seem to
be the same from one country to another with however a slight
variants. Three basic methods were identified for fish
fermentation in Africa: fermentation with salting and drying,
fermentation with drying without salting and fermentation with
salting but without drying 6-8, 10 (figure-1) . The fermented fish
products in Africa are habitually whole or cut in pieces, and are
not a paste or sauce like in Southeast Asian countries6,8.
Different local names are attributed to fermented fish products
such as Lanhouin in Benin and in Togo8,22, Momone, Koobi,
Kako and Ewule in Ghana6,20,21,23, Guedj in Gambia,
Tambadiang, Yet and Guedj in Senegal, Djege and Jalan in
Mali, Fessiekh, Kejeick, Terkeen and Mindeshi in Sudan, Dagaa

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Lanhouin processing: The production of Lanhouin is

laborious, time consuming and procedures are based on
traditional knowledge on fermentation and experience. The raw
materials used for processing include the fish and the salt. There
are two different procedures employed for its production but
apparently both lead to the same end-product8. The process is
uncontrolled8 and consequently there is no standard for the
production. The duration of fermentation and storage problems
are the main constraints raised by the processors themselves.
However, based on observation, other major problems nonmentioned by the processors is the lack of hygiene during all the
steps of processing leading to poor end-product in both
microbiological and chemical aspects. According to Anihouvi et
al8, in the traditional procedure of Lanhouin processing, the first
step is the dressing which consists in scaling, gutting and
washing of fresh fish, followed by a period of 10-15 hours
(overnight) of ripening, period during which the fish is left in a
bowl without water (figure-1a). In some cases, the ripening step
may occur before scaling and gutting, but this is not adequate
because the fish is more subjected to autolytic spoilage resulting
from endogenous enzymes of fish and microorganisms activities
because of the presence of the guts which offer suitable
conditions for microbial growth28. For the processors the
ripening step is very significant because its influences the
texture and the aroma of the end product. After the ripening
step, the soft and dressed fish is usually washed with water from
well or sea water due to deficiency of potable water. Such types
of water are often polluted by domestic waste, making them a
possible source of chemical and microbial contamination. After
ripening, the fish is generally salted before been fermented. In
this respect, the salt is introduced into the belly cavity, the gill
and passed on all the fish body. The fish is salted once or twice
depending on the duration of fermentation. For the first salting,
the quantity of salt used varies between 20 and 35% of the
weight of fresh fish while for the second one the quantity of salt
accounts for approximately 15-25% of salt weight used in the
first salting. The salted fish is then arranged in all kind of
containers (basket, can, basket lined with cement, concret vat,
and earthenware jar) and wrapped with jute sacks or clothes, or

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buried in a 2 meters depth hole and allowed to ferment8. The
duration of the fermentation is 3 to 8 days, depending on the
local conditions and the kind of product desired8,19. At the end
of the fermentation, the fermented fish product is washed
slightly to remove a part of salt remaining on its body. At this
occasion, some drops of fuel may be added to the water to move
away the flies during drying. The fermented fish Lanhouin is
sun dried for 2 or 4 days to reduce its water content. At least 25
species of fish can be used to process Lanhouin but the ones
mainly used include: Cassava croaker (Pseudotolithus
senegalensis),
Lesser
African
threadfin
(Galeoides
decadactylus), Atlantic bumper (Chloroscombrus chrysurus),
kingfish/Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus tritor) and Crevalle
jack (Caranx hyppos).
Momone processing: The Momone is a Lanhouin-like
fermented fish product from Ghana18,21,23,29. It is also widely
used for its flavor enhancing properties. The processing of
Momone is similar to Lanhouin one (figure-1a); it is usually
carried out to salvage large quantities of fish which would
otherwise have been discarded due to poor quality. The main
species of fish used to process Momone include: catfish,
barracuda, sea bream, threadfin (Galeoides decadactylus),
Cassava croaker (Pseudotolithus senegalensis) barracuda
(Sphyraena spp), jack mackerel (Caranx hippos), Scad mackerel
(Caranx
rhoneus)
and
kingfish/Spanish
mackerel
(Scomberomorus tritor)6, 21. For Momone processing, the whole
fish may be used or cut into smaller pieces or split dorsally. The
dressed fish is thoroughly washed and left overnight before
salting or salted immediately after washing and allowed to
ferment for 3 to 8 days after which the fish is dried on the
ground, grass, nets, stones or raised platforms for 1 to 3 days6,21.
The salt ratio generally used range between 15-40 % by fish
weight. A second salting with of salt weight used in the first
salting is applied when the fermentation is proceeded more than
three days. Other Ghanaian fermented fish products such as
Koobi and Ewurefua are different from Momone by the duration
of fermentation which is 2 to 3 days for Koobi. In addition, the
main fish used to process Koobi is Tilapia. Ewurefua is a
product obtained from the fermentation of fish in tanks
containing saturated brine from previous salting; the duration of
fermentation varied from 12 to 24 hours6 but this method can
lead to cross contamination of the product due to the reuse of
brine30.
Guedj processing: Guedj is a Senegalese and Gambian
traditional fermented fish product, used as flavoring agent and
very appreciated by the local populations because of its
exceptional flavor and taste25. For Guedj processing, the raw
fish is often dressed, salted and allowed to ferment for about 2
to 3 days, followed by the drying step during which, the salted
and fermented fish is put on raised platforms for about 3 to 5
days (figure-1a). In another procedure, the raw fish is left
overnight to ferment before salting for 12-24 hours and drying.

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Other African fermented fish products

There are other many fermented fish products which have
received little scientific investigation (table-1). These products
are: Malian Djege/Djadan, Ivorian Gyagawere/Adjonfa,
Sudanese Fessiekh, Terkeen/Mindeshi and Chadian Salanga.
Djege/ Djadan processing: The local names Djege and Djadan
referred to two Malian traditional fermented and dried fish
products, with light brown colour and a mild fermented odour 6.
For processing, medium and large species of fish are washed,
dressed, headed, salted and then put into water in an
earthenware pot or oil drum and allowed to ferment for 12 hours
(figure-1a). The fermented fish is then immersed in a solution of
Gardona or K-Othrine for few minutes to prevent it from being
attacked by blowflies during drying. Concerning smaller
species, the fish is usually dried immediately after washing and
fermentation occurs during drying6. Fish species such as
Tilapia, Clarias spp., Alestes spp., Schilbe spp. and Hydrocynus
spp. are commonly used to process Djege and Djadan.

Gyagawere, Adjonfa processing

Gyagawere, Adjonfa or Adjuevan are Ivorian fermented fish
products used only as condiment but not eaten as food fish
because of its strong smell24. For processing, the raw fish is
dressed cut into pieces, when necessary and salted. The exudate
from the fish is retained in the vat and the fish is immersed in
this and allowed to ferment for 12 hours to 2 days according to
the ambient temperature (figure-1a). In another procedure, the
fish may also be left to ferment for about 12-24 hours before
salting 6. At the end of the fermentation, the fish is sun-dried for
2-7 days to achieve semi-dried final product or hard dried final
product.

Fessiekh, Terkeen/Mindeshi processing

Fessiekh, Mindeshi and Terkeen are three Sudanese fermented
fish products processed according to figure-1c. However unlike
to Fessiekh and Mindeshi, Terkin or Terkeen is fish product
which falls in category of sauces. They are all wet salted
product, soft in texture with a strong odour6,31-33. The processing
of Fessiekh is carried out in temporary sheds to provide shade or
a cool environment. Species of fish such as Alestes spp. and
Hydrocynus spp. are commonly used to process Fessiekh. In the
processing procedure, the fresh fish is washed, covered with salt
and arranged in alternate layers with salt either on a mat, in a
basket or in perforated drums to ferment for 3 to 7 days
depending on ambient temperatures. During this period, the
liquid from the fish is drained off. Afterwards the fish is
transferred into larger fermentation tanks where more salt and
new batches of fish are added. The fermentation tanks are
covered with jute sacks or polythene sheets and weights are
placed on top to press the fish. The fish is then fermented for a
further 10-15 days at temperatures ranging from 18C to
20C6,33.

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Salanga processing
Salanga is a Chadian fermented and dried fish product, light
brown in color, firm texture and very strong odor. Usually,
Salanga is made with fish of poor quality or not suitable for
smoking. Salanga is processed according to figure-1b.
Generally, the raw fish (Alestes spp) is dressed and washed.
Larger species of fish are split dorsally and opened up. For the
first variant of processing, the dressed fish is dried immediately
after washing and fermentation takes place during drying 6.
Regarding the second processing variant, the fish is left to
ferment for 12-24 hours before drying. In Salanga processing,
salt is not used due to the scarcity and high cost.

Microbial diversity of African fermented fish

products
Various authors have reported a large range of microorganisms
involved in fish fermentation in African regions. According to
Anihouvi et al;17,34 a large number of microorganisms are
associated to the fermentation of Lanhouin. The microbial
population of Lanhouin consisted of a variety of Gram-positive
and Gram-negative bacteria. The Gram-positive were largely
halophilic types: Bacillus spp., Staphylococcus spp.,
Micrococcus spp., Streptococcus spp. and Corynebacterium spp.
However, Bacillus spp. and Staphylococcus spp. were the
predominant genera identified. Among these bacteria,
Staphylococcus spp. and Bacillus spp. are expected to be found
in fish from warm waters30. These organisms could also have
come from the salt used to treat the fish35. Streptococcus and
Corynebacterium species were present in very few numbers and
this could be due to the high salt concentration. The high salt
concentration leaves only salt tolerant microorganisms to
survive; salt concentration up to 7% results in the inhibition of
lactic acid bacteria30. Most Bacillus isolates were identified as
Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus megaterium,
Bacillus mycoides and Bacillus cereus; Staphylococcus species
consisted mainly of Staphylococcus lentus and Staphylococcus
xylosus (table-1). Similarly to Lanhouin, various species of
microorganisms
including
Bacillus,
Lactobacillus,
Pseudomonas, Pediococcus, Staphylococcus, Klebsiella,
Debaryomyces, Hansenula and Aspergillus involve in the
fermentation of Momone6,18,20,23,36 (table-1). But as for
Lanhouin, the predominant ones were Bacillus spp. and
Staphylococcus spp. Among the Bacillus species, B. subtilis, B.
licheniformis, B. megaterium, B. cereux and B. mycoides have
also been reported for Momone18. However in contrast to
Momone, species such as Klebsiella, Debaryomyces, Hansenula
or moulds such as Aspergillus were not detected in Lanhouin.
The predominant microbial populations associated with Guedj
fermentation were Proteus spp. Shewanella putrefaciens, and
Bacillus spp37. Since the solid substrate fermentation of fish is
usually an alkaline type, microorganisms such as Bacillus spp.,
Staphylococcus spp., Micrococcus spp, which constituted the
predominant genera involved in Lanhouin, Momone and Guedj
are expected36. The presence of similar genera of

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microorganisms has been reported for various other fermented

products obtained by alkaline fermentation. For example,
Bacillus species and coagulase negative staphylococci are
known to be involved in various vegetable38-41 and meat42
products fermentation.
In contrast, the recent work carried out by Koffi-Nevry et al24 on
Adjuevan a fermented fish from Cte d'Ivoire showed that the
fermentation is dominated by lactic acid bacteria, and the genera
and species isolated and identified were Leuconostoc lactis,
lactobacillus fermentum, Pediococcus sp. and Streptococcus sp..
These results agreed with the findings of various authors for
fermented fish products obtained with a mixture of fish and
carbohydrate source such as rice11 but not for fish fermented
without source of carbohydrate. Indeed, Asian fermented fish
products are usually prepared by mixing fresh fish, salt and rice.
For instance, Pla-ra and Pla-chom two fermented fish products
from Thailand are prepared by mixing freshwater fish, salt and
roaster rice and this mixture is allowed to ferment at room
temperature for 6-12 months43,44. According to Tanasupawat et
al45 the microorganisms responsible for the fermentation of Plara and Pla-chom were lactobacillus, leuconostoc, Pediococcus,
Enterococcus and staphylococcus. Similarly, Yachai et al44
isolated 11 strains of homofermentative, rod shaped lactic acid
bacteria and five strains of heterofermentative, sphere-shaped
lactic acid bacteria from Pla-ra and Pla-chom. They were
identified as new species and named Latobacillus acidipiscis sp.
nov. and Weissella thailandensis sp. nov. respectively. Such
lactic acid bacteria are expected in both Pla-ra and Pla-chom,
since these fermented fish products are prepared from a mixture
of fresh fish and roaster rice. The roaster rice added to fish meat
consisted a good source of carbohydrate, and consequently
enhanced the development of lactic acid bacteria and the
production of organic acids, mainly lactic acid which limited
the survival of non-acid tolerant bacteria.
So, with the exception of Streptococcus spp. reported by
Anihouvi et al17 in Lanhouin, the results of Koffi-Nevry et al24
disagreed with the findings of various authors who reported that
the microbial populations of various African fermented fish
products are mainly Bacillus spp. and Micrococcaceae since the
type of fermentation is an alkaline one6,17,18,23,36,46,47.

Main modifications occurring during the

spontaneous fermentation of African fermented
fish products
Biochemical changes: Various authors have studied the
biochemical pattern occurring during the spontaneous
fermentation process of fish. In this respect, changes in
moisture, protein, free fatty acids, total volatile nitrogen, and
histamine were observed during the fermentation period.

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I. Res. J. Biological Sci.
Table-1
Some major fermented fish products from Africa and microorganisms involved in their production
Products local
Fermentation
Types of fish
Country
Microorganisms involved
References
name
duration
Catfish, croaker,
meagre,
shark,
Lactic
acid
bactria Nerquaye-Tetteh
mullet, skate, rays,
Leuconostoc
lactis et al20; Essuman6;
triggerfish, horse Gyagawere,
6 hours to 3 days
et
Lactobacillus
fermentum Koffi-Nevry
Ivory coast
mackerel, octopus, adjuevan
with salting
Pediococcus sp, streptococcus al18
tuna, sole, Spanish
sp
mackerel,
seabream, herring,
B. subtilis, B. licheniformis,
B.megaterium, B. cereux, B.
Cassava
mycoides
Micrococcus
3 - 8 days with
croaker/Cassava
Lanhouin
Benin
luteus., Staphylococcus lentus, Anihouvi et al17
salting
fish , kingfish
Staphylococcus
xylosus.,
Streptococcus;
Corynebacterium spp.,
Catfish,
B. subtilis, B .licheniformis,
barraccuda,
Nerquaye-Tettch
B.megaterium, B. cereux, B.
et al20;
seabream,
mycoides,
Micrococcus
threadfin, croaker,
Yankah23;
Overnight to 3 luteus., Staphylococcus spp,
grouper,
bonito, Momone,
Ghana
Oronsaye36
days with salting
Lactobacillus, Pseudomonas,
mackerel, herrings,
Essuman6; Sanni
Pediococcus,
Klebsiella,
squid,
octopus,
et al18
Debaryomyces,
Hansenula
bumper, snapper,
and Aspergillus
ribbon fish

Djegue, jalan

Mali

Overnight,
salting

no

Alestes Nile perch,

parch

Aku

NdokwaEast
in
Southern
Nigeria

Overnight,
little salt

with

Mackerel,
seabream,
threadfin, croaker,
mullet,
catfish,
meagre, herrings,
skate, rays, shark,
Bonito

Guedj,
tambadiang,
yeet

Gambia,
Senegal

Tiggerfish;
Nile
perch,
Tilapia,
parch

Fessiekh,
Terkeen/
Mindeshi

Carp, threadfish

Alestes Nile perch,

parch

Salanga

unknown

Essuman 6

unknown

Azeza99;
Nwabueze
and
Nwabueze100

Overnight to 2
days with salting

Proteus
spp.,
Shewanella,putrefaciens,
Bacllus spp

Essuman6; Diop37

Sudan

10-20 days with

salt

unknown

Essuman6

Chad

12-24 hours with

salting or 4 to 5
days
without
salting

unknown

Essuman 6

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Changes in pH, moisture, proteins and free fatty acid: The
physico-chemical characteristics of some of the African
fermented fish products discussed in this review are summarized
in table 2. The pH values of Lanhouin are generally above78,17,34.
Similar higher values of pH were reported on Momone18,20,21,23.
In contrast for Adjuevan, pH values ranging between 5.2 and
6.10 were reported by Koffi-Nevry et al24. No literature on the
recommended pH range of African fermented fish products is
available. Similar fermented fish known as Pedah siam is
processed in Thailand. For this product fresh fish is fermented
unlike the partially deteriorated fish used for Lanhouin,
Momone, Guedj or other fish products obtained by spontaneous
fermentation in solid substrate. The standard pH requirement for
Pedah siam is 6.0 - 6.4 with a pH of 6.5 or higher considered as
indicative of poor quality48. But, since in the processing of
African fermented fish products, a seemingly deteriorated fish
must be used, the high pH values around 7 or above 7 obtained
is expected and may be considered as the usual pH value for
these fermented fish products. Such pH fit well with the strong
but not repugnant smell which characterise the majority of
African fermented fish products6,18,49.
It was observed that during fermentation, the moisture content
of fermenting fish varied considerably according to the type of
fish (lean or fatty fish), the duration of the fermentation, the
quality of salt used and the amount of salt as well. For example,
Anihouvi et al49 observed that the moisture content in cassava
fish decreased from 73 to 46.9% after 8 days of fermentation for
Lanhouin, while a decrease range from 78 to 57.6% was noted
for Momone (table- 2). The decrease in moisture content
become emphasize during the sun drying which is the final step
of the processing except for certain types of wet fermented fish
products. Sun-drying step is not always sufficient to stabilize the
fermented fish products. This step which is normally combined
with salting (by addition of NaCl) has dual effects such as the
lowering of the water activity (aw) level and a specific
inhibitory effect on the growth of some species of
microorganisms through the Na+ ion. So, the two steps (salting
and drying) are interrelated to reduce the moisture sufficiently.
The decrease in moisture is due to osmotic migration of salt into
and water out of the fish30,50. Decrease in moisture led to
increase in salt content and consequently extend shelf life of the
products30,51,52.
Variation in protein content was also observed and depends on
enzymatic and microbial activities during the fermentation.
Decrease in protein content has been reported by various
authors during the spontaneous fermentation of various fish
products including Lanhouin, Momone, Guedj and Adjuevan
and other fermented fish products6,21,24,49. In this regard
Anihouvi et al49 reported that the protein content in cassava fish
decreased from 75.6 to 54.8 % dried weight basis (dwb) after 8
days of fermentation during Lanhouin processing; this revealed
a loss of 27.5 % of the initial protein content of fresh fish.
Similar decrease has also been reported by Abbey et al21 for
Momone, a Lanhouin-like fermented fish product. Regarding

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Adjuevan, protein content of the fermenting fish decreasing

from 53.93 to 25.66 % was observed24. This gives a protein loss
of 52.4%. The decrease in protein content of the fermenting fish
samples was explained by proteolysis effect during which
proteins are broken down into peptides and amino acids which
could be lost in the exudates (extracted water) from the fish. In
this respect, Abbey et al21 have reported a protein content of 12
% in the exudates collected during the fermentation of Momone.
Free fatty acids (FFA) value is a measure of the extent of
oxidative deterioration in oily fish, but it can fall further at latter
stages of fish spoilage53. A high level of FFA is characteristic of
product that have undergone both microbial and biochemical
spoilage30,54. FFA contents ranging from 11 to 14% oleic acid,
and 27.2 to 36.6 % oleic acid were recorded on market samples
of Lanhouin obtained from cassava fish (Pseudotolithus sp.) and
king fish (Scomberomorus tritor) respectively. Similar increase
in FFA contents during the fermentation of Momone and the
ripening of salted Anchovies has also been reported by Abbey et
al21 and Hernndez-Herrero et al55. The increase in FFA showed
that salt did not inhibit lipases responsible for the liberation of
free fatty acids. Such liberation has been indicated by Roldan et
al56 and Perez-Villareal and Pozo57. This may indicate that
greater proportions of unsaturated fatty acids were liberated and
were subjected to oxidative splitting at the double bonds. The
resulting substances, mostly ketones and aldehydes, appear to be
largely responsible for flavor, odour and taste of the fermented
fish products58.
Changes in total volatile nitrogen and production of
biogenic amines: Chemical compounds such as total volatile
nitrogen (TVN) and biogenic amines (e.g. histamine) which
normally did not exist in fish muscle are mostly formed in the
fermented fish products as the result of autolysis and microbial
spoilage of fish during processing6,49,59-63. In this respect, total
volatile nitrogen (TVN) contents varying between 294.5374.5mg N/100g and 295.4-394.8 mg N /100g were recorded in
Lanhouin and Momone respectively21,34,49. High level in TVN
resulted from the formation of nitrogenous basic compounds,
such as ammonia, due to the protein degradation through
microbial and enzymatic activities12. Similarly histamine
contents ranging between 17.4-39.7 mg/100g and 101-167
mg/100g have also been reported for Lanhouin and Momone
respectively21,34 (table-2). In general, these levels of histamine
content exceeded the recommended level of 20 mg/kg fish
muscle stipulated by the Food and Drug Administration (USA),
the European Economic Community (EEC) and the Australian
Food Standards Code64-66. Investigations on fish sauce, fish
paste and dried fish imported from Asian countries confirmed
high levels of biogenic amines67. Dried fish products contained
80.3mg/100g of histamine were also reported by Wootton et
al67.
Formation of aroma compounds: The general use of
fermented fish product as condiment in many African and Asian
countries is due to their pleasant taste and peculiar aroma. Thus

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Vol. 1(7), 72-84, November (2012)
I. Res. J. Biological Sci.
Anihouvi et al49 have reported the presence of 94 aroma
compounds in Lanhouin samples fermented over eight days of
fermentation period. These compounds mainly consisted of
aliphatic hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, esters, ketones,
acids, alcohols, amines, amides, aldehydes, pyrroles, thiazoles,
furans and phenols; however aliphatic hydrocarbons, aldehydes,
alcohols, esters and ketones comprised the majority of them.
Aliphatic hydrocarbons, aldehydes and alcohols mainly derived
from oxidative deterioration of polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA)68-70 while ketones derived from amino acid
degradation71,72. The major groups of compounds detected in
Lanhouin have also been reported by other workers on various
fermented fish products, mainly for the South Asian ones73-75.
The development of such compounds in fermented fish products
is attributed to both enzymatic and microbial activity68,69,75.
Various species of microorganisms including Bacillus spp.,
Staphylococcus spp., Micrococcus spp., and some gramnegative species, such as Pseudomonas spp. have been evoked
in the development of volatile aroma compounds10,17,76. In other
studies, the development of various aroma volatile compounds
was also attributed to the metabolic activities of Bacillus spp.
during the fermentation77-79. But for other authors the
development of specific aroma in fermented fish sauces and
pastes is not due to the action of microorganisms9,80. Beddows9,
isolated halotolerant organisms such Bacillus spp. and used
them in pure culture but none of them produced the typical fish
sauce aroma. Adam80 also concluded that microorganisms
played little or no part in aroma production. So, further studies
focused on the role of predominant organisms on chemical
changes and aroma development during the fermentation of fish
products need to be undertaken.
Health hazards associated with the consumption of
fermented fish products: A number of practices observed
during processing of traditional fermented fish products
constitute health hazards to consumers. These practices are
related to the processing technique itself, the environment in
which the fish is processed, the waste disposal of the fish, the
unhygienic nature of processing materials and improper
packaging of the product as well. During the dressing step, the
fish may be held under the foot on the ground. This practice can
lead to microbial contamination of fresh fish. The lack of
potable water constitutes a problem during washing step. Thus,
water from lagoons, rivers, lakes or sea is generally used to
wash the fish6-8,37. These water bodies are often polluted by all
kind of waste making them a possible source of chemical and
microbial contamination. The traditional fermented fish
products are often dried on the ground or on dirty materials.
Drying fish in such conditions is source of contamination with
sand and microorganisms. The fish is subjected to blowflies and
other types of insects attack especially for unsalted fish. These
types of problems led to the illegal use of substances such as
petroleum and insecticides6 8,21. Processors usually packaged the
products in various types of traditional containers or recycled
containers during fermentation, storage and when transporting
the product to the market. The unhygienic nature of these

International Science Congress Association

materials could be potential sources of microbial or other types

of contamination. Consequently, in the artisanal fish industry
where technology and standard are very low, fermented fish
products could be considered as potential vehicles for
transmission of food borne diseases. Investigations on various
fermented fish products confirmed high levels of biogenic
amines mainly histamine8,21,67. When the foods are contaminated
with bacteria containing decarboxylase enzymes, these free
amino acids undergo decarboxylation to produce biogenic
amines60,61,63. For instance, histidine is decarboxylated to
produce histamine; lysine is decarboxylated to produce
cadaverine and putrescine62,81,82. In general, most amines are
heat stable and some decarboxylases remain active even after
pasteurisation. This implies that the amount of amine once
formed will not be reduced during cooking. Thus, despite a lack
of information on food poisoning caused by African traditional
fermented fish products, there is a potential for sporadic amine
poisoning. Ingestion of food containing small amounts of
histamine has little effect on humans, but in larger amounts
histamine can be toxic62,83,84. The incubation period of histamine
poisoning is short; poisoning effects can occur within several
minutes to a few hours following ingestion of a meal containing
high levels of histamine62,83,84. The duration of illness is usually
short and, in most cases, symptoms such as flushing, oral
burning or a blistering sensation and perspiration pass within a
few hours. Less frequent symptoms include vomiting, diarrhoea,
stomach pain, headaches, swelling of the tongue, facial swelling
and dizziness85,86. In conclusion, despite a lack of official
reports on food poisoning caused by the consumption of
fermented fish products, there is a potential for more than just
sporadic amine poisoning, since that many food poisoning cases
in African countries do not reach official channels.
Used of starter culture to control the fermentation of fish
products: The traditional fermented fish products are produced
by spontaneous and largely uncontrolled fermentation. Like
other African fermented food products, fermented fish are
currently produced largely on a traditional small-scale basis
under highly variable conditions6-10,18. The quality of the
product is unpredictable and shelf-life is short. With increasing
urbanization and demand of high quality traditional products,
there is a need for controlled fermentation process and to
minimize the variation in product quality encountered during the
spontaneous fermentation at cottage industry level. In this
respect, the use of starter cultures to promote the processing of
fermented fish products is necessary. The use of starter cultures
to promote traditional processing has been suggested by various
workers6,87-91. A starter culture can be defined as a microbial
preparation of large numbers of cells or at least one
microorganism to add to a raw material to produce a fermented
food by accelerating and steering its fermentation process87.
According to Yin et al92 the use of starter cultures to ferment
minced mackerel could suppress the growth of spoilage bacteria
and pathogens, and substantially inhibit the development of
volatile basic nitrogen. Rapid decline of pH not only gives the
products unique lactic acid flavor, but also increases firmness,

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Vol. 1(7), 72-84, November (2012)
I. Res. J. Biological Sci.
texture and palatability due to the acid denaturation of muscle
protein93. The formation of biogenic amines in fermented fish
products has been reported by various authors8,21,49,82,94. In this
respect, the use of amine-negative starter cultures to prevent
biogenic amines formation has been suggested by Taylor and
Speckhard95 and Holzapfel87. However, there is a controversy
about the inhibitor effect of starter culture on biogenic amines
formation. According to Rice96 the use of Pediococcus
cerevisiae and Lactobacillus plantarum caused no difference in
tyramine contents. Bauer et al97 also reported that the addition
of starter culture did not affect the formation of biogenic
amines. Furthermore, work carried out by Maijala et al98
showed that aminenegative Pediococcus pentosaceus added as
starter culture decreased the levels of histamine, tyramine and
cadaverine formed during ripening of dry sausages. These
results therefore support the use of starter culture to decrease
formation of biogenic amines. It is expected that, the use of the
starter cultures for fish fermentation may also reduce the
fermentation time, enhance inhibition or elimination of food
borne pathogens, and improve shelf life and sensory quality of
products in terms of taste, aroma, appearance and texture. Many
of these desirable attributes are associated with spontaneous
food fermentation; however the extent and quality of products
are not predictable or controllable.

Conclusion
Through this review it appears that the use of fermentation as a
low-cost method of fish preservation is commonly practised in
Africa and other parts of the world and remote areas where
access to sophisticated equipment is limited. Following, critical
review of the entire process, a summary of the main steps for
fermented fish production and major associated constraints has
been developed. This provides comprehensive knowledge which
will facilitate the improvement of the traditional operations to a
level where it can be integrated into the formal sector of the
food industry in the processing countries. The lack of
standardization of the processing methods and hygiene impair
the quality and the safety of the products as well. In addition
packaging of the end-products needs to be improved. The
development of local food industries through the Improvement
of traditional fermentation technologies is one of the appropriate
solutions to enhance value-added products and the market share
of traditional products. In this regard, the culture, the culinary
traditions and the current level of development of the processing
methods in each concerned country should be taken into
account. This is necessary for the success of any action that will
be undertaken for the improvement of traditional Lanhouin
technologies.

Table- 2
Physico-chemical and nutritional composition of some fermented fish products from Africa
Content (per 100g sample) (wwb)1
FFA NaCl TVN
Hist
Ca
mg
mg
mg

Type of
fish

Products
name

Moist

Prot

Cassava
croaker/
Cassava
fish

Momone

57.6

26.2

20.8

Lanhouin

51.1

26.5

12.5

7.3

56.6

24.6

31.9

5.2

25.2

30.8

5.8

1.7

Lanhouin

5.7

Spanish
mackerel/
king fish
Momone

54.8

Atlantic
bumper

Adjuevan

70.6

25.6

Tigger
fish

Turkeen

40.0

23.8

Fe
mg

P
mg

pH

Aw

References

7.5

0.65

Essuman6;
Abbey et al21;
Anihouvi et
al34, 49

318.3

130.5

294.5

21.4

7.3

0.71

374.5

33.1

7.6

0.77

336.1

143.0

7.8

0.73

5.3

4.1

5.7

Koffi-Nevry
et al18

410

78

160

6.1

Mohammed33

Essuman6 ;
Abbey et al21;
Anihouvi et
al34

Wet weight basis; Moist: moisture; Prot: protein; FFA: free fatty acids; TVN: total volatile nitrogen base; Aw: water activity; Hist:
histamine; P: phosphorus; Ca: calcium; Fe: iron

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Vol. 1(7), 72-84, November (2012)
I. Res. J. Biological Sci.

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Vol. 1(7), 72-84, November (2012)
I. Res. J. Biological Sci.
Raw material (fresh fish)

Dressing (scaling, gutting,

removal of gills)

Washing with seawater

or well water

Dressing (scaling, gutting,

removal of gills)

Washing with seawater

or well water

Dressed fish
Dressed fish

Ripening overnight (1015 hrs) in container or

buried in the ground

Dressed and Soft

fish

Salting (Application of
dry salt)

Salting (Application
of dry salt)

Salted fish

Fermentation (10 20
days) exudates drains

Fermentation in water from sea,

well, lagoon, lack (6 - 12 hrs)

Fermented fish
Sun-drying
(2-7 days)

Soft and salted

fish

Fermentation (38 days)

Rinsing with Sea

water or lack-water,
water from well

Fermented fish

Sun-drying
(2-4 days)

End product

End product

End product

i. Fermentation with salting and drying6,8, ii. Fermentation and drying without salting6, 25, iii. Fermentation with salting without drying6, 7.

Figure-1
Flow diagram of traditional processing of fermented fish products in Africa

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