PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY PERSPECTIVES

Christopher J. Kratochvil, M.D.

Assistant Editor

Review of ADHD Pharmacotherapies: Advantages,

Disadvantages, and Clinical Pearls
JOAN M. DAUGHTON, M.D.,

AND

Pharmacotherapy for the treatment of attention-deficit/

hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) originally consisted
primarily of stimulant medications in immediate-release
preparations dosed multiple times per day. Data demonstrating the efficacy of these stimulant medications for
the treatment of ADHD and their role in treating
children was well established by the 1970s. Multiple
formulations of the stimulant medications have subsequently been developed during the past 40 years.
Recent studies, including the NIMH Collaborative
Multisite Multimodal Treatment Study of Children
With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and
the Preschool ADHD Treatment Study, have helped
to clarify the role of stimulant medications in the
treatment of ADHD.1Y5 Significant data supporting
the use of nonstimulant pharmacotherapy have also
emerged in the last decade.1 This review summarizes
the recent advances in ADHD treatment, providing
advantages, disadvantages, and clinical pearls for the use
of these treatments.

Psychopharmacology Perspectives aims to discuss practical approaches to

everyday issues in pediatric pharmacotherapy. The discussions may address aspects
of clinical care related to psychopharmacology for which we do not have adequate applicable controlled trials, and includes discussions that are "off-label"
from the perspective of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Although we
fully appreciate that for virtually all disorders, medication is only one aspect of
comprehensive care, this column focuses primarily on psychopharmacological
management. These are not meant to be practice guidelines, but rather examples
of the thought process that may go into pharmacotherapy decision making.
Accepted November 23, 2008.
Drs. Daughton and Kratochvil are with the University of Nebraska Medical
Center.
Correspondence to Joan Daughton, M.D., 985584 Nebraska Medical Center,
Omaha, NE 68198-5584; e-mail: [email protected].
0890-8567/09/4803-02402009 by the American Academy of Child and
Adolescent Psychiatry.
DOI: 10.1097/CHI.0b013e318197748f

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CHRISTOPHER J. KRATOCHVIL, M.D.

SHORT-ACTING STIMULANT PREPARATIONS

Advantages: The stimulant medications have an

extensive database supporting their safety, robust
efficacy, and rapid onset of action. Studies of the
stimulant medications have consistently shown that
approximately two of every three patients treated with
stimulants respond, with an effect size generally cited at
around 1.0.3 Their absorption is rapid, with clinical
effects noticeable as early as 30 minutes after ingestion.
Disadvantages: The shorter duration of action limits
consistent efficacy as well as compliance because these
medications must be taken two to three times daily.
Helpful Hints:
In medications containing only the methylphenidate
d-enantiomer (e.g., d-methylphenidate [Focalin]), a
50% reduction in dose may be needed compared with
methylphenidate products containing both the d- and
l-isomers (methylphenidate [Ritalin]). Adderall contains d-amphetamine and l-amphetamine salts in the
ratio of 3:1; however, no recommendations are made
for converting the dosing of Adderall to a product
containing only d-amphetamine (d-amphetamine
[Dexedrine]).1
One immediate-release methylphenidate product
(Methylin) is available as chewable tablets as well as
an oral solution, for children who have difficulty
swallowing pills or capsules.
Growth should be regularly monitored during
treatment with stimulants because data from several
studies suggest that, as a group, consistently medicated children have a temporary modest slowing in
growth rate while taking stimulant medication.1Y4,6
Blood pressure and heart rate should be monitored
before and during stimulant treatment for every
patient. In addition to an individual and family health

J. AM. ACAD. CHILD AD OLE SC. P SYCHIATRY, 48: 3, MARCH 2009

PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY PERSPECTIVES

history, inquiries should be made regarding a history

of severe heart palpitations, fainting, exercise intolerance, chest pain, or family history of sudden death. A
physical examination focused on signs of cardiovascular disease should be performed before initiating
treatment as well.
Consultation with a cardiologist is recommended if
stimulants are considered a clinically necessary intervention in patients with cardiomyopathy, serious
heart rhythm abnormalities, or other serious cardiac
problems because sudden death has been reported
in patients with these conditions. The recent joint
advisory of the American Academy of Pediatrics
and the American Heart Association recommends
obtaining an electrocardiogram as part of the evaluation of patients with serious cardiac problems who
are being considered for ADHD pharmacotherapy.6
When to Use:
Short-acting stimulants may be used as initial treatment in children weighing less than 16 kg, for whom
sufficiently low doses do not exist in a long-acting
form.3
A short-acting medication can be useful as an
additional treatment when used in conjunction with
a long-acting stimulant. For example, early afternoon
is often when a long-acting medications effects are
starting to wear off, and a short-acting medication can
be given to resolve ADHD symptoms during homework time or other after-school activities that require
focus and concentration. Similarly, a short-acting
medication can be given upon awakening to help
reduce ADHD symptoms during the morning
routine and allow the long-acting medication to be
given before leaving for school to increase the
likelihood of its duration of action lasting throughout
the school day.
Inexpensive generic formulations of the immediaterelease stimulants are available (Fig. 1).7 Table 1
summarizes the short-acting methylphenidate and
amphetamine Food and Drug Administration
(FDA)Yapproved treatments for ADHD.
LONG-ACTING STIMULANT PREPARATIONS: PULSE,
PEARLS, PUMP, PATCH, AND PRODRUG

Table 2 summarizes the long-acting methylphenidate and amphetamine FDA-approved treatments for
ADHD.

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Advantages: The longer acting stimulants are equally

as efficacious as the short-acting stimulants and provide
a longer effective response that limits the need for
multiple daily doses. This also decreases the stigma of
having to receive medications within the school setting.
Disadvantages: Because of their longer duration of
action, if side effects do emerge, they may extend later
into the day. Cost is an important consideration when
choosing a medication, and many of the extendedrelease medications are more expensive. A cost comparison between all FDA-approved ADHD medications
can be found in Figure 1.
Helpful Hints:
One of the differences between the various longacting stimulant medications is the duration of action
(Table 2), which can be helpful in tailoring treatment
for each patient.
The long-acting stimulant medications require the
same caution as short-acting stimulants in regard to
cardiac as well as growth problems.
When to Use:
The long-acting stimulant preparations are considered first-line treatments for ADHD. Either the
methylphenidate or the amphetamine class may be
used because they have equal efficacy and similar
side-effect profiles.8,9
Pulse

Single-pulse sustained-release methylphenidate

products include Ritalin SR, Metadate ER, and
Methylin ER.
Helpful Hint:
These wax-matrix products must be swallowed whole
to retain the long-acting properties.
Pearls

These bead-filled capsules generally contain half the

dose as immediate-release beads and half as entericcoated delayed-release beads. This mimics the use of two
doses of immediate-release medication dosed 4 hours
apart. Products using this general type of technology
include Dexedrine Spansule, Ritalin LA, Focalin XR,
Adderall XR, and Metadate CD. Metadate CD is
slightly different from the other beaded formulations in

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DAUGHTON AND KRATOCHVIL

that 30% of the beads are immediately released, and

70% are released 3 hours later.
Helpful Hint:
The beaded formulations may be helpful for children
who have difficulty swallowing pills because the
capsules may be opened and the beads sprinkled into

applesauce, yogurt, or other soft foods. The beads

should not be chewed.
Pump

The osmotic-release oral system methylphenidate

capsule (Concerta) uses an osmotic delivery system in
which the tablet is coated with a 22% immediate-release
methylphenidate for initial dosing. The long-duration

Fig. 1 Cost comparison of Food and Drug AdministrationYapproved medications for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

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5, 10

Tablet

Tablet

Yes

Yes

Age Q3

Age Q6

Immediate release

Immediate release

Amphetamine
(Dexedrine)
Amphetamine
(Dextrostat)

Yes
Age Q3
Immediate release

component is delivered by an osmotic pump (osmoticrelease oral system) that gradually releases methylphenidate producing an ascending serum concentration
curve to approximate a three-times-daily dosing
schedule.
Helpful Hints:

Note: ADHD = attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; FDA = Food and Drug Administration; q.d. = medication delivered once per day.

4
40 mg
5 mg q.d. to b.i.d.

5, 7.5, 10, 12.5,

15, 20, 30
Tablet

Yes
Ages 6Y17
Immediate release

d-Methylphenidate
(Focalin)
Mixed amphetamine
salts (Adderall)

Yes
No
Age Q6
Age Q6
Methylphenidate (Ritalin)
Methylphenidate
(Methylin)

Immediate release
Immediate release

Tablet

5, 10, 20
5, 10, 20 tablets 2.5, 5,
10 chewable tablet,
5 mg/5 mL and
10 mg/5 mL solution
2.5, 5, 10
Tablet
Tablet, chewable
tablet, solution

Lesser of 1 mg/kg/
day or 20 mg
Lesser of 1 mg/kg/
day or 40 mg
2.5 mg b.i.d.

40 mg

4
4
60 mg
Lesser of 2 mg/kg/
day or 60 mg
5 mg
5 mg

3Y5 y: 2.5 mg q.d.;

Q6 y: 5 mg q.d.
to b.i.d.
2.5 mg q.d.

Duration of
Action, h
Maximum Dose
Per Day
Typical Starting
Dose3
Doses, mg
Available
Preparations
Generic
FDA
Approval
Mode of Delivery
Medication (Trade Name)

TABLE 1
FDA-Approved Short-Acting Stimulant ADHD Pharmacotherapies

PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY PERSPECTIVES

J. AM . ACAD. CHILD ADOLESC. PSYCH IAT RY, 48:3, MARCH 2 009

This capsule should not be opened or chewed.

Clinicians should notify parents and youths that the
capsule is passed through the gastrointestinal tract
and into the stool intact.
Children with reduced gastrointestinal absorption or
intestinal resections may not receive the full benefit
from this medication because of decreased absorption
or transit time.
Patch

The transdermal delivery system for methylphenidate

(Daytrana) contains methylphenidate in a multipolymeric adhesive layer attached to a transparent backing.
Methylphenidate is steadily absorbed after application of
the patch, but levels do not peak until 7 to 9 hours later,
with a noticeable reduction of symptoms by the end of
the first 2 hours. Mild skin reactions to the patch are
common, and insomnia is often reported when worn
for more than 9 hours.
Helpful Hints:
The patch may be particularly useful for those who
cannot swallow pills and are unable to tolerate the oral
form or for those requiring more flexible duration
of dosing.
More methylphenidate is bioavailable because the
drug does not go through first-pass metabolism.
Although this methylphenidate preparation is recommended to be worn for 9 hours, a recent study
suggests that the duration of the effect on ADHD
symptoms is related to the amount of time the patch
is worn such that early removal of the patch allows for
a controlled duration, ending approximately 2 to
3 hours after the patch is removed.
Prodrug

Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate (Vyvanse) is a therapeutically inactive prodrug in which d-amphetamine is

pharmacologically activated after oral ingestion. This
medication has been shown in two recent studies to be
well tolerated, effective, and long-lasting (10 hours).

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Gradually released from

wax matrix
Beaded delivery systemV30%
immediate release and 70%
3 h later
Beaded delivery systemV50%
immediate release and 50%
4 h later
Beaded delivery systemV50%
immediate release and 50%
4 h later
OROS delivery systemV18%
immediate release outer coating
and 82% gradually released
osmotically; designed to
replicate t.i.d. immediate release
Patch worn up to 9 h per day,
gradually releasing
methylphenidate
Beaded delivery systemV50%
immediate release and 50%
4 h later
Beaded delivery systemVinitial
dose released immediately and
remainder gradually released
Amphetamine with lysine attached,
activated in gastrointestinal
tract when lysine is cleaved

Methylphenidate
(Methylin ER)Vpulse
Methylphenidate
(Metadate CD)Vpearls
No

No

Age Q6
Age Q6

No

No

No

No

Ages 6Y12
Age Q6
Age Q6

Ages 6Y12
and adults

No

No

Age Q6

Age Q6

No

Age Q6

No

No

Age Q6

Age Q6

Generic

10, 20

10, 20

20

Doses, mg

10, 15, 20, 30

18, 27, 36, 54

10 mg

18 mg

5 mg

20 mg

20 mg

10 mg

10 mg

10 mg

Typical
Starting
Dose3

Lesser than
1 mg/kg/day
or 30 mg
Lesser than
2 mg/kg/day
or 72 mg

Lesser than
2 mg/kg/day
or 60 mg
60 mg

Lesser than
2 mg/kg/day
or 60 mg
60 mg

60 mg

Maximum Dose
Per Day

Lesser than
1 mg/kg/day
or 30 mg
Capsule (may be 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 10 mg q.d. Lesser than
opened and
1.0 mg/kg
sprinkled)
or 30 mg
Capsule
5, 10, 15
5Y10 mg q.d. Lesser than
to b.i.d.
1.0 mg/kg
or 40 mg
Capsule
20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 30 mg q.d. Lesser than
1.0 mg/kg
or 70 mg

Transdermal film

Tablet

Capsule (may be 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60

opened and
sprinkled)
10, 20, 30, 40
Capsule (may be
opened and
sprinkled)
Capsule
5, 10, 15, 20

Tablet

Tablet

Tablet

Available
Preparations

10 h

10 h

10 h

12 h

Up to 12 h

Up to 12 h

7Y9 h1

8Y9 h1

7Y8 h

7Y8 h

Up to 8 h

Duration
of Action

Note: ADHD = attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; FDA = Food and Drug Administration; OROS = osmotic-release oral system; q.d. = medication delivered once per day.

Lisdexamfetamine
(Vyvanse)Vprodrug

Amphetamine (Dexedrine
Spansule)Vpearls

Mixed amphetamine salts

(Adderall XR)Vpearls

Methylphenidate
(Daytrana)Vpatch

Methylphenidate
(Concerta)Vpump

d-Methylphenidate
(Focalin XR)Vpearls

Methylphenidate
(Ritalin LA)Vpearls

Gradually released from

wax matrix
Gradually released from
wax matrix

Mode of Delivery

Methylphenidate
(Ritalin SR)Vpulse
Methylphenidate
(Metadate ER)Vpulse

Medication (Trade Name)

FDA
Approval

TABLE 2
FDA-Approved Long-Acting Stimulant ADHD Pharmacotherapies

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PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY PERSPECTIVES

Helpful Hint:
It is hypothesized that this medication may be
associated with diminished risk for abuse because of
its decreased and/or delayed release after intravenous or
intranasal administration and delayed blood level spike
after ingestion, decreasing any immediate effects.
NONSTIMULANT PREPARATIONS

One overall advantage of nonstimulant medications is

the decreased substance abuse liability.
Atomoxetine

Atomoxetine (Strattera) is a nonstimulant approved

by the FDA for the treatment of ADHD (Table 3). It
works by blocking presynaptic uptake at noradrenergic
neurons. Atomoxetine is well absorbed after oral administration and is metabolized primarily through the
cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) pathway.
Advantages: Possible advantages of atomoxetine over
stimulants include a lower potential for abuse, longlasting therapeutic effects, and the fact that it is not a
controlled substance.
Disadvantages: The efficacy of atomoxetine seems
to be less than that of the stimulants. In one metaanalysis,8 atomoxetines effect size was 0.62, in comparison to 0.91 for immediate-release stimulants and
0.95 for sustained-release stimulants. Furthermore, the
initial therapeutic effects of atomoxetine are gradual,
developing a peak efficacy during 2 to 6 weeks. Atomoxetine holds a bolded warning for increased potential for suicidal ideation, at a rate of 3.7 cases per 1,000
children compared with none in placebo-treated children. Patients and their families should be educated

about this risk, and patients should be monitored closely

for suicidality during the first few months of treatment
and during any dose changes. There is another bolded
FDA warning stating atomoxetine should be discontinued if a patient develops jaundice or laboratory evidence of liver injury develops. Although no reports of
liver injury occurred during clinical trials with atomoxetine, liver injury recurred on rechallenge in one
patient and is likely a rare side effect of the drug.
Studies show acute growth effects but limited longterm effects on growth parameters with atomoxetine.1Y3
Helpful Hints:
Taking atomoxetine with food may help to avoid the
common side effects of nausea or upset stomach.
Dosing may be started as a split dose or initially given
near bedtime to diminish the effects of tiredness or
drowsiness, which is more apt to be present during
initiation and titration of the medication.
Doses of atomoxetine should initially be reduced if
administered with agents that inhibit the cytochrome
P450 2D6,(CYP2D6) enzyme, such as paroxetine or
fluoxetine, because of the potential for significant
increases in atomoxetine blood levels.
When to Use:
In general, atomoxetine is considered after trials of
methylphenidate and amphetamine have been ineffective or poorly tolerated.
Atomoxetine may be first-line treatment in children
with a history of substance abuse or dependence and
with significant anxiety symptoms or based on family
preference.

TABLE 3
FDA-Approved Nonstimulant ADHD Pharmacotherapy
Medication
(Trade Name)
Atomoxetine
(Strattera)

Mode of Delivery
Immediate releaseVgenerally
dosed q.d. but can be
dosed b.i.d.

FDA
Approval
Age Q6

Available
Generic Preparations
No

Capsule

Doses, mg
10, 18, 25, 40,
60, 80, 100

Typical Starting
Dose3

Maximum
Dose Per
Day

<70 kg: 0.5 mg/kg/ Lesser than

1.4 mg/kg
day for 4 days,
or 100 mg
then 1 mg/kg/day
for 4 days, then
1.2 mg/kg/day;
970 kg: 40 mg/day

Note: ADHD = attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; FDA = Food and Drug Administration; q.d. = medication delivered once per day.

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Typically dosed b.i.d.;

mimics bupropion
given three
times daily
Typically dosed q.d.;
mimics bupropion
t.i.d. and bupropion
SR b.i.d. dosing
Immediate release;
q.d. dosing

Bupropion SR

Immediate release for

oral tablet; 2Y3 days
for results with
transdermal film

Clonidine
(Catapres)

No

NoVconcerns of rash
characteristic of
Stevens-Johnson
syndrome
Approvability letter
received

No

No

No

FDA Approval

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Generic

Tablet; 7-day
extended-release
transdermal film

Tablet

Tablet

Tablet

Film-coated tablet

Film-coated tablet

Available
Preparations

<45 kg: 0.5 mg;

945 kg: 1 mg

Unknown

Lesser than 3 mg/kg

or 150 mg/day

Lesser than 3 mg/kg

or 150 mg/day

Lesser than 3 mg/kg

or 150 mg/day

Typical Starting
Dose3

Tablet: 0.1, 0.2, 0.3; <45 kg: 0.05 mg;

film: 0.1/24 h,
945 kg: 0.1 mg
0.2/24 h, 0.3/24 h

1, 2

100, 200

150, 300

100, 150, 200

75, 100

Doses, mg

Note: ADHD = attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; FDA = Food and Drug Administration; q.d. = medication delivered once per day.

Results seen within

1 wk

Guanfacine
(Tenex)

Modafinil
(Provigil)

Bupropion XL

Immediate release

Mode of Delivery

Bupropion
(Wellbutrin/
Zyban)

Medication
(Trade Name)

TABLE 4
NonYFDA-Approved Medications Used in ADHD Pharmacotherapy

27Y40.5 kg: 2 mg;

40.5Y45 kg: 3 mg;
945 kg: 4 mg
27Y40.5 kg: 0.2 mg;
40.5Y45 kg:
0.3 mg; 945 kg:
0.4 mg

Lesser than 6 mg/kg

or 300 mg/day
(no single dose
9150 mg)
Lesser than 6 mg/kg
or 300 mg/day
(no single dose
9150 mg)
Lesser than 6 mg/kg
or 300 mg/day
(no single dose
9150 mg)
200 mg

Maximum Dose
Per Day

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PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY PERSPECTIVES

See Table 4 for all nonYFDA-approved medications. See

Figure 2 for a cost comparison for all nonYFDAapproved medications summarized below.
Alpha Agonists (Not FDA Approved for ADHD)

Clonidine (Catapres) and guanfacine (Tenex) are

alpha agonists, which seem to stimulate inhibitory
presynaptic autoreceptors in the central nervous system
at lower doses. They have demonstrated use alone or
in combination with stimulants.1
Advantages: The alpha agonists may be useful for core
symptoms of ADHD, as well as associated sleep and tic
disorders.
Disadvantages: Their half-lives may necessitate multiple daily doses. Because of their antihypertensive properties, use of these medications may lead to hypotension
and orthostasis. There have been several case reports of
unexpected sudden death in children taking the combination of clonidine and methylphenidate, although a
controlled study of the combination of these two
medications found no evidence of cardiac toxicity.
Helpful Hints:
Clonidine is available in a patch, allowing once-daily
dosing.

An extended-release guanfacine preparation has

recently received a letter of approvability by the FDA.
When to Use: Their current role in the treatment of
ADHD is primarily as adjunctive medication in those
patients who do not respond to and/or those who
cannot tolerate the FDA-approved treatments.
Bupropion (Not FDA Approved for ADHD)

Bupropion (Wellbutrin, Wellbutrin SR, and Wellbutrin XL) is an antidepressant that acts via dopamine
and norepinephrine.
Advantages: Although its therapeutic effect seems to be
less than that of stimulants or atomoxetine, it does have
demonstrated efficacy in the treatment of ADHD.3
Disadvantages: Common side effects include irritability, anorexia, insomnia, and, less commonly,
development of tics. The risk for drug-induced
seizures increases 10-fold at dosages greater than
450 mg/day.
Helpful Hint:
It is also approved for smoking cessation (Zyban).
When to Use:
This is another medication that is primarily adjunctive treatment or after first-line treatments have failed.

Fig. 2 Cost comparison of nonYFood and Drug AdministrationYapproved medications.

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DAUGHTON AND KRATOCHVIL

It may have a role in patients with co-occurring mood

disorders, substance abuse, or smoking.
NONYFDA-APPROVED STIMULANT

Modafinil (Provigil) is an antinarcoleptic stimulant

agent that is believed to produce a wakeful effect by
activating the cortex and may be useful for enhancing
general arousal, attention, and motivation.
Advantages: Modafinil demonstrated efficacy in three
double-blind placebo-controlled studies of ADHD in
children.
Disadvantages: Commonly reported side effects include insomnia, decreased appetite, and headache. This
medication was not approved by the FDA for the
treatment of ADHD because, at least in part, of safety
concerns about a rare but serious rash (e.g., erythema
multiforme) characteristic of Stevens-Johnson syndrome.1 Lastly, the cost of this medication often limits its use.
Helpful Hint:
Studies have shown increased efficacy doses in the
range of 340 to 425 mg/day.
When to Use:
This medication, if used at all, should be used with
great caution because of the risk for StevensJohnsonYlike rash.
RESOURCES
Parents and Clinicians

http://www.Chadd.org
http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/
Parents

http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/adhd/
complete-publication.shtml
http://www.parentsmedguide.com/pmg_adhd.html
Clinicians

http://www.massgeneral.org/schoolpsychiatry/screeningtools_
table.asp
DISCUSSION

1. Short-acting stimulant medications may be useful in

lower weight children, in conjunction with a longacting stimulant, and when cost is a limiting factor.

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2. Differences between long-acting stimulant preparations that influence treatment planning include duration of action, cost, ability for children to swallow
pills, and abuse risk.
3. Nonstimulant medications are effective as primary as
well as adjunctive treatments for ADHD.
4. NonYFDA-approved medications can be used effectively and safely as adjunctive treatments for ADHD
or when first-line treatments have failed.
5. Awareness of the various characteristics of each
medication that has been studied in the treatment of
ADHD allows for optimal care for each individual
patient.

Disclosure: Dr. Kratochvil receives research funding from NIMH

Grant 5K23MH06612701A1. He receives grant support from Eli
Lilly, McNeil, Shire, Abbott, Somerset, and Cephalon; is a consultant
for Eli Lilly, AstraZeneca, Abbott, and Pfizer. He is the editor of the
Brown University Child & Adolescent Psychopharmacology Update,
a member of the REACH Institute Primary Pediatric Psychopharmacology Steering Committee, a member of the American Professional Society for ADHD and Related Disorders Board of Directors,
and on the CME Outfitters Professional Advisory Board. He receives
study drugs for an NIMH-funded study from Eli Lilly. The other
author reports no conflicts of interest.

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Pediatrics. 2005;115:e749Ye757 (doi:10.1542/peds.2004<2560).
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with ADHD: understanding for whom and how interventions work.
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Psychiatry. 2008;47:977Y980.
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Thomson Healthcare; 2008:203Y804.
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