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FLOW MEASURING APPARATUS

OBJECTIVES:
1. To demonstrate the characteristics of several different commonly used methods of
measuring fluid flow rates.
2. To determine the head losses associated with each flow measuring methods.
APPARATUS:
1) Flow measuring apparatus
2) Volumetric Hydraulic Bench/Water
3) Stop Watch
1. INTRODUCTION
The flow measuring apparatus is designed to accustom students to typical methods of
measuring the discharge of an essentially incompressible fluid, whilst at the same time giving
applications of the Steady Flow Energy Equation (Bernoulli's Equation). The discharge is
determined using a venturi meter, an orifice plate meter and a rotameter. Head losses
associated with each meter are determined and compared as well as those arising in a rapid
enlargement and a 90-degree elbow. The unit is designed for use with the Hydraulic Bench,
which provides the necessary liquid service and gravimetric evaluation of flow rate.
2. DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
Figure 1 shows the Flow Measuring Apparatus. Water from the Hydraulic Bench enters the
equipment through a venturi meter, which consists of a gradually-converging section,
followed by a throat, and a long gradually-diverging section. After a change in cross-section
through a rapidly diverging section, the flow continues along a settling length and through an
orifice plate meter. This is manufactured in accordance with BS1042 from a plate with a hole
of reduced diameter through which the fluid flows.
Following a further settling length and a right-angled bend, the flow enters the rotameter.
This consists of a transparent tube in which a float takes up an equilibrium position. The
position of this float is a measure of the flow rate.
After the rotameter the water returns via a control valve to the Hydraulic Bench and the
weigh tank. The equipment has nine pressure tapings as detailed in Fig. 2 each of which is
connected to its own manometer for immediate read out.

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Figure 1. Flow Measuring Apparatus.

Figure 2. Explanatory diagram of flow measuring apparatus.

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3. BACKGROUND
An effective way to measure the flowrate through a pipe is to place some type of restriction
within the pipe and measure the pressure difference between the low-velocity, high-pressure
upstream section (1) and the high-velocity, low-pressure downstream section (2) as shown in
Fig. 3. So the principle is an increase in velocity results in a decrease in pressure as the
famous Bernoullis equation states.

Figure 3. The steady-flow energy equation.

For steady, adiabatic flow of an incompressible fluid along a stream tube, as shown in Fig. 3,
Bernoulli's equation can be written in the form;
p1 V1 2
p
V2

z1 2 2 z 2 H 12
g 2 g
g 2 g

(1)

where p/g

is termed the hydrostatic head.

V / 2g
is termed the kinetic head ( V is the mean velocity i.e. the ratio of
volumetric discharge to cross-sectional area of tube).
z
is termed potential head.
p / g V 2 / 2 g z
represents the total head.
2

The head loss H12 may be assumed to arise as a consequence of vorticity in the stream.
Because the flow is viscous a wall shear stress then exists and a pressure force must be
applied to overcome it. The consequent increase in flow work appears as increased internal
energy. Also, because the flow is viscous, the velocity profile at any section is non-uniform.
The kinetic energy per unit mass at any section is then greater than V 2 / 2 g and Bernoulli's
equation incorrectly assesses this term. The fluid mechanics entailed in all but the very
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simplest internal flow problems is too complex to permit the head loss H to be obtained by
other than experiment means. Since a contraction of stream boundaries can be shown (with
incompressible fluids) to increase flow uniformity and a divergence correspondingly
decreases it, H is typically negligibly small between the ends of a contracting duct but is
normally significant when the duct walls diverge.
Principle of Rotameter
The cause of the pressure difference is the head loss associated with the high velocity of
water around the float periphery. Since this head loss is constant then the peripheral velocity
is constant. To maintain a constant velocity with varying discharge rate, the cross-sectional
area through which this high velocity occurs must vary. This variation of cross-sectional area
will arise as the float moves up and down the tapered rotameter tube.
From Fig. 4, if the float radius is Rf and the local bore of the rotameter tube is 2Rt then,

Rt2 R 2f 2R f = Cross sectional area

= Discharge / Constant peripheral velocity

Now = l, where l is the distance from datum to the cross section at which the local bore
is Rt and is the semi-angle of tube taper. Hence l is proportional to discharge. An
approximately linear calibration characteristic would be anticipated for the rotameter.

Figure 4. Principle of the rotameter.

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4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
a) Close the apparatus valve fully then open it by 1/3 open with the air purge closed.
b) Switch on the bench and slowly open its valve until the water starts to flow, allow the
apparatus to fill with water then continue to open the bench valve until it is fully open.
c) Close the apparatus valve fully.
d) Couple the hand pump to the purge valve and pump down until all the manometers read
approximately 280 mm.
e) Dislodge entrained air from the manometers by gentle tapping with the fingers.
f) Check that the water levels are constant. A steady rise in levels will be seen if the purge
valve is leaking.
g) Open the apparatus valve until the rotameter shows a reading of about 10 mm. When a
steady flow is maintained measure the flow with the Hydraulic Bench as outlined in Fig. 2.
h) During this period, record the readings of the manometers in a table of the form of Fig. 5.
i) Repeat this procedure for a number of equidistant values of rotameter readings up to a
maximum of approximately 220 mm.
5. RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS
1) Calculations of Discharge
The venturi meter, the orifice meter and the rotameter are all dependent upon Bernoullis
equation for their principal of operation.
a) Venturi meter
Since H12 is negligibly small between the ends of a contracting duct, the z terms, can be
omitted from Eq. (1) between stations (A) and (B).
From continuity, V A A A V B AB
(2)
The discharge, Q ABVB

(m3/s)

PA
2g
P

AB
B
2
1 AB / AA g g

1
2

(3)

Taking the density of water as 1000 kg/m3, the mass flow rate will be

1000 AB
m

2g

1 AB / A A

PA PB

g g

12

1
2

(kg/s)

(4)

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Figure 5. Form of results table.

Manometric levels (mm)
Test
No.

Rotameter
(cm)

Water
mass
m
(kg)

m
Time
t (s)

Venturi
(4)

* Numbers between brackets refer to the equation numbers

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Orifice
(8)

(k/s)
Rotameter
Calibration
curve

H/inlet kinetic head

Weigh
tank
m/t

Venturi*
(10)/(11)

Orifice
(12)/(13)

Rotameter
(15)/(16)

Diffuser
(18)/(19)

Elbow
(21)/(22)

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b) Orifice Meter
From Fig. 6 between tapping (E) and (F), H12 in Eq. (1) is by no means negligible.
Rewriting the equation with the appropriate symbols
V F2 V E2 PE PF
H 12

2 g 2 g g g

(5)

i.e. the effect of the head loss is to make the difference in manometric height (hE-hF) less than
it would otherwise be.
An alternative expression is
P
VF2 VE2
P

K 2 E F
2g 2g
g g

(6)

where the coefficient of discharge, K, is given by previous experience in BS1042 (1943) for
the particular geometry of the orifice meter. For the apparatus provided K is given as 0.601.
The expression for the discharge of the orifice meter can be obtained in exactly the same way
as for venturi meter,
Q AFVF

The discharge,

PE
P

Q KAF
F
2
1 ( AF / AE ) g g
2g

1
2

(7)
Again the density of water is 1000 kg/m3, the mass flow rate will be

2g
1000 KAF
m
2
1 ( AF / AE )

PE
P

F
g g

1
2

(kg/s)

Figure 6. Construction of the orifice meter.

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(8)

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c) Rotameter
The mass flow rate is plotted as a function of rotameter scale reading as shown in Fig. 7. An
approximate linear calibration characteristic would be anticipated.

Figure 7. Typical rotameter calibration curve.

2) Calculations of Head Loss
By reference to Eq. (1) the dimensionless head loss associated with each meter can be
evaluated.
a) Venturi meter
Applying the equation between pressure tappings (A) and (C), the head loss is expressed as;
PA
P
C H AC
g g

i.e.

(9)

hA hC H AC

(10)

This can be made dimensionless by dividing it by the inlet kinetic head, VA2 / 2 g
2

Thus

PA PB
VA2 AB
1

2 g AA 1 AB / AA 2 g g

(11)

b) Orifice Meter
Applying Eq. (1) between (E) and (F) by substituting kinetic and hydrostatic heads would
give an elevated value to the head loss for the meter. This is because at an obstruction such as
an orifice plate, there is a small increase in pressure on the pipe wall due to part of the impact
pressure on the plate being conveyed to the pipe wall. BS1042 (Section 1.1.1981) gives an
approximate expression for finding the head loss and generally this can be taken as 0.83 times
the measured head difference.
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H EF 0.83 hE hF
Therefore
(mm)
(12)
The orifice plate diameter is approximately twice the venturi inlet diameter, therefore the
orifice inlet kinetic head is approximately 1/16 that of the venturi.
Thus

V E2
1 V A2

2 g 16 2 g

(13)

The dimensionless head loss can be calculated by dividing it by the inlet kinetic head of
orifice meter which is based on the venturi's inlet kinetic head.
c) Rotameter
For this meter, application of Eq. (1) gives
PH
P

z H I z I H HI
g
g

(14)

Then as shown in Fig. 8:

hH hI H HI

(15)

Figure 8. Rotameter head loss.

Since the connecting tube has a 26 mm bore the inlet kinetic head is as it is with the venturi meter.
Thus

V H2 V A2

2g
2g

(16)
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d) Wide-Angled Diffuser
The inlet to the diffuser may be considered to be at (C) and the outlet at (D).
Applying Eq. (1),
PC VC2
P
V2

D D H CD
g 2 g g 2 g

(17)

hC h D H CD

(18)

Since the area ratio, inlet to outlet, of the diffuser is 1:4, the outlet kinetic head is one
sixteenth of the venturi's inlet kinetic head.
Thus

VC2
1 V A2

2 g 16 2 g

(19)

e) Right-Angled Bend
The inlet to the bend is at (G) where the pipe bore is 51 mm and outlet is at (H) where the
bore is 26 mm. Applying Eq. (1);
PG VG2
P
V2

H H H GH
g 2 g g 2 g

(20)

hG h H H GH

(21)

The outlet kinetic head is now approximately sixteen times the venturi's inlet kinetic head.

Thus

VG2
V2
16 A
2g
2g

(22)

6. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Comment on the fluid discharge, head loss of various methods of measuring fluid flow rate.
REFERENCES:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Massey, B.S. (1989). Mechanics of Fluids. 6th Ed, Chapman & Hall.
White F.M. (1994). Fluid Mechanics. 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill.
Van Dyke M. (1982). An Album of Fluid Motion. Parabolic Press.
Coulson, J.M.; and Richardson, J.F. Chemical Engineering, Volume 1., 6th Ed.,
Butterworth-Heinemann.

Last updated on 9/2009 by Dr. Abdulkareem Sh. Mahdi

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Last updated on 8/2009 by Dr. Abdulkareem Sh. Mahdi