TECHNICAL OVERVIEW OF VP8, AN OPEN SOURCE VIDEO CODEC FOR THE WEB

Jim Bankoski, Paul Wilkins, Yaowu Xu

Google Inc. 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway, Mountain View, CA, USA
{jimbankoski, paulwilkins, yaowu}@google.com

ABSTRACT
VP8 is an open source video compression format supported by a
consortium of technology companies. This paper provides a
technical overview of the format, with an emphasis on its unique
features. The paper also discusses how these features benefit VP8
in achieving high compression efficiency and low decoding
complexity at the same time.
Index TermsVP8, WebM, Video Codec, Web Video
1. INTRODUCTION
In May 2010, Google announced the start of a new open media
project WebM, which is dedicated to developing a high-quality,
open media format for the web that is freely available to everyone.
At the core of the project is a new open source video compression
format, VP8. The VP8 format was originally developed by a small
research team at On2 Technologies, Inc. as a successor of its VPx
family of video codecs. Compared to other video coding formats,
VP8 has many distinctive technical features that help it to achieve
high compression efficiency and low computational complexity for
decoding at the same time. Since the WebM announcement, not
only has VP8 gained strong support from a long list of major
industry players, but it has also started to attract broad interest in
the video coding research community from both industry and
academia.
This paper aims to provide a technical overview of the VP8
compression format, with an emphasis on VP8s unique features.
Section 2 briefly reviews VP8s design assumptions and overall
architecture; section 3 to section 7 describes VP8s key technical
features: transform and quantization scheme, reference frame
types, prediction techniques, adaptive loop filtering, entropy
coding and parallel processing friendly data partitioning; section 8
provides a short summary with experimental results and some
thoughts on future work.
2. DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS AND FEATURE HIGHLIGHTS
From the very beginning of VP8s development, the developers
were focused on Internet/web-based video applications. This focus
has led to a number of basic assumptions in VP8s overall design:
Low bandwidth requirement: One of the basic design
assumptions is that for the foreseeable future, available network
bandwidth will be limited. With this assumption, VP8 was
specifically designed to operate mainly in a quality range from
watchable video (~30dB in the PSNR metric) to visually
lossless (~45dB).
Heterogeneous client hardware: There is a broad spectrum of
client hardware connected to the web, ranging from low power
mobile and embedded devices to the most advanced desktop
computers with many processor cores. It must, therefore, be

possible to create efficient implementations for a wide range of

client devices.
Web video format: VP8 was designed to handle the image
format used by the vast majority of web videos: 420 color
sampling, 8 bit per channel color depth, progressive scan (not
interlaced), and image dimensions up to a maximum of
16383x16383 pixels.
The push for compression efficiency and decoder simplicity
under these design assumptions led to a number of distinctive
technical features in VP8 [1], relative to other known video
compression formats, such as MPEG-2 [2], H.263 [3] and
H.264/AVC [4]. The following list highlights the technical
innovations in VP8:
Hybrid transform with adaptive quantization: VP8 uses 4x4
block-based discrete cosine transform (DCT) for all luma and
chroma residual signal. Depending on the prediction mode, the DC
coefficients from a 16x16 macroblock may then undergo a 4x4
Walsh-Hadamard transform.
Flexible reference frames: VP8 uses three reference frames
for inter prediction, but the scheme is somewhat different from the
multiple reference motion compensation scheme seen in other
formats. VP8s design limits the buffer size requirement to three
reference frame buffers and still achieves effective de-correlation
in motion compensation.
Efficient intra prediction and inter prediction: VP8 makes
extensive uses of intra and inter prediction. VP8s intra prediction
features a new TM_PRED mode as one of the many simple and
effective intra prediction methods. For inter prediction, VP8
features a flexible SPLITMV mode capable of coding arbitrary
block patterns within a macroblock.
High performance sub-pixel interpolation: VP8s motion
compensation uses quarter-pixel accurate motion vectors for luma
pixels and up to one-eighth pixel accurate motion vectors for
chroma pixels. The sub-pixel interpolation of VP8 features a single
stage interpolation process and a set of high performance six-tap
interpolation filters.
Adaptive in-loop deblocking filtering: VP8 has a highly
adaptive in-loop deblocking filter. The type and strength of the
filtering can be adjusted for different prediction modes and
reference frame types.
Frame level adaptive entropy coding: VP8 uses binary
arithmetic coding extensively for almost all data values except a
few header bits. Entropy contexts are adaptive at the frame level,
striking a balance between compression efficiency and
computational complexity.
Parallel processing friendly data partitioning: VP8 can pack
entropy coded transform coefficients into multiple partitions, to
facilitate parallel processing in decoders. This design improves
decoder performance on multi-core processors, with close to zero
impact to compression efficiency and no impact to decoding
performance on single core processors.

3. HYBRID TRANSFORM WITH ADAPTIVE

QUANTIZATION
Similarly to previous image and video coding schemes [2-4], VP8
uses transform coding to code residue signal after intra or inter
predictions. A typical video image frame is divided into
macroblocks, each macroblock consists of one 16x16 block of
luma pixels (Y) and two 8x8 blocks of chroma pixels (U, V). VP8
further divides these luma and chroma blocks into 4x4 size blocks
in the transform and quantization processes. A discrete cosine
transform is applied on all 4x4 size luma and chroma blocks to
convert the residue signal into transform coefficients. For
macroblocks using 16x16 luma prediction modes, the DC
coefficients from each of the 16 4x4 luma blocks within the
macroblock are extracted and used to form a new 4x4 block, to
which a 4x4 Walsh-Hadamard transform (WHT) is applied. Hence
the 4x4 Walsh-Hadamard transform is used as a second order
transform to further reduce the redundancy among the DC
coefficients within the 16x16 luma area.
3.1. DCT
It is well known that the Karhunen Loeve Transform (KLT)
approximates to achieve the optimal energy compaction, but its
dependency on input content and its computational complexity
make its application in video coding rather difficult [5]. On the
other hand, the DCT is an orthogonal transform independent of
input signal and proven to be only slightly worse in energy
compaction than the KLT for natural video signals. In addition, the
two dimensional (2-D) DCT is separable and has fast
implementations. VP8 uses a 2-D DCT as the base for its transform
coding and defines a 4x4 inverse 2-D DCT process as part of its bit
stream format and decoding process. Essentially, the inverse 2-D
DCT process defined in VP8 is a 4x4 variant of the LLM
implementations as described in [6]. The signal flow graph of its
one dimensional (1-D) portion is shown in Fig. 1.

Where X and Y are the 4x4 size input and output and H is defined
as:

And HT is the transpose of H.

3.3. Adaptive Quantization
The quantizer of VP8 is designed to operate mainly in a quality
range from ~30dB to ~45dB. Within this range, VP8 defines 128
quantization levels in its scalar quantization process. For each
video frame, VP8 allows different quantization levels to be used
for six frequency components: 1st order luma DC, 1st order luma
AC, 2nd order luma DC, 2nd order luma AC, chroma DC and
chroma AC. In addition, VP8s design includes a simple and
effective region adaptive quantization scheme, in which the
bitstream provides the capability of classifying macroblocks within
a frame into 4 different segments, with each segment having its
own quantization parameter set.
By carefully selecting appropriate scaling factors in transform
and quantization design, VP8 can perform all the calculations
using 16-bit operations in the full pipeline of transform,
quantization, dequantization and inverse transform.
4. REFERENCE FRAMES
VP8 uses three types of reference frames for inter prediction: the
last frame, a golden frame (one frame worth of decompressed
data from the arbitrarily distant past) and an alternate reference
frame. Overall, this design has a much smaller memory footprint
on both encoder and decoder than designs with many more
reference frames.
4.1 Golden Reference Frame

Fig. 1. VP8 inverse DCTs 1-D signal graph

On most modern processors with SIMD capability, the inverse
DCT in VP8 can be implemented very efficiently. Provided that
such implementations are possible, VP8s transform scheme
provides slightly better energy compaction than the multiplicationless integer transform used in H.264/AVC [7], and is still
computationally competitive.
3.2. WHT
The second order transform in VP8 is a 4x4 Walsh-Hadamard
transform, which is designed to take advantage of the correlation
among the first order DC coefficients of the 16 4x4 blocks within
one macroblock. Similar to how the first order transform is defined,
VP8 specifies the inverse transform in its decoding process. The
inverse WHT used in VP8 can be described in matrix form as:

We have found experimentally that it is very rare for more than

three reference frames to provide significant quality benefit, but
the undesirable increase in memory footprint from the extra
reference frames is substantial. And very often, the most beneficial
reference frames are not the last three frames encoded. Depending
on content, a frame from the distant past can be very beneficial in
terms of inter prediction when objects re-appear after disappearing
for a number of frames. Based on such observations, VP8 was
designed to use one reference frame buffer to store a video frame
from an arbitrary point in the past. This buffer is known as the
Golden Reference Frame. The format also defines a number of
flags in the bitstream to notify a decoder when and how to update
this buffer.
VP8 encoders can use the Golden Reference Frame in many
ways to improve coding efficiency. It can be used to maintain a
copy of the background when there are objects moving in the
foreground, so that occluded regions can be easily and cheaply
reconstructed when a foreground object moves away. Together
with the last reference frame, the Golden Reference Frame may
also be used to create a background sprite. Such an arrangement is
helpful to compression efficiency in many video scenes. Another
use of the golden frame is the coding of back and forth cut of two
scenes, where the golden frame buffer can be used to maintain a
copy of the second scene. Finally, the golden frame can also be

used for error recovery in a real-time video conference, or even in

a multi-party video conference for scalability [8].
4.2 Alternate (Constructed) Reference Frame
Unlike other types of reference frames used in video compression,
which are always displayed to the user by the decoder, the VP8
alternate reference frame is decoded normally but may or may not
be shown in the decoder. It can be used solely as a reference to
improve inter prediction for other coded frames. Because alternate
reference frames have the option of not being displayed, VP8
encoders can use them to transmit any data that is helpful to
compression. For example, a VP8 encoder can construct one
alternate reference frame from multiple source frames, or it can
create an alternate reference frame using different macroblocks
from many different video frames. The flexibility in VP8
specification allows many types of usage of the alternate reference
frame for improving coding efficiency. Here are two illustrative
examples:
Noise-Reduced Prediction: The alternate reference frame is
transmitted and decoded similarly to other frames, hence its usage
does not increase computational complexity in the decoder.
However, in off-line applications the VP8 encoder is free to use
more sophisticated processing to create them. One application of
the alternate reference frame is for noise-reduced prediction. In this
application, the VP8 encoder uses multiple input source frames to
construct one reference frame through temporal or spatial noise
filtering. This noise-free alternate reference frame is then used to
improve prediction for encoding subsequent frames.
Improving Prediction without B-Frames: The lack of B
frames has led to discussion in the research community about
VP8s ability to achieve high compression efficiency. The VP8
format, however, supports intelligent use of the golden reference
and the alternate reference frames together to compensate for this.
The VP8 encoder can choose to transmit an alternate reference
frame assembled with content from many future frames using
sophisticated filtering. Encoding of subsequent frames can then
make use of information from the past (last frame and golden
frame) and from the future (alternate reference frame). Effectively,
this helps the encoder to achieve compression efficiency without
requiring frame reordering in the decoder.
5. PREDICTION TECHNIQUES
VP8 uses two classes of prediction modes: Intra prediction uses
data within a single video frame, and Inter prediction uses data
from previously encoded frames.
5.1 VP8 Intra Prediction Modes
VP8 intra prediction modes are used with three types of blocks:
4x4 luma
16x16 luma
8x8 chroma
Four common intra prediction modes are shared by these blocks:
H_PRED (horizontal prediction): Fills each column of the
block with a copy of the left column, L.
V_PRED (vertical prediction): Fills each row of the block
with a copy of the above row, A.
DC_PRED (DC prediction): Fills the block with a single
value using the average of the pixels in the row above A and the
column to the left of L.

TM_PRED (TrueMotion prediction): In addition to the

row A and column L, TM_PRED uses the pixel C above and to the
left of the block. Horizontal differences between pixels in A and
vertical differences between pixels in L are propagated (starting
from C) to form the prediction block.
For 4x4 luma blocks, there are six additional intra modes
corresponding to predicting pixels in different directions. As
mentioned above, the TM_PRED mode is unique to VP8. Fig. 2
uses a 4x4 block as example to illustrate how the TM_PRED mode
works:

Fig. 2. Illustration of intra prediction mode TM_PRED

In Fig. 2, C, A and L represent reconstructed pixel values from
previously coded blocks, and X00 through X33 represent predicted
values for the current block. TM_PRED uses the following
equation to calculate Xij:
Xij = Li + Aj - C (i, j=0, 1, 2, 3)
The TM_PRED prediction mode for 8x8 and 16x16 blocks works
in a similar fashion. Among all the intra prediction modes,
TM_PRED is one of the more frequently used modes in VP8. For
natural video sequences, it is typically used by 20% to 45% of all
intra coded blocks. Together, these intra prediction modes help
VP8 to achieve high compression efficiency, especially for key
frames, which can only use intra modes.
5.2 VP8 Inter Prediction Modes
In VP8, inter prediction modes are used on inter frames (non-key
frames). For any VP8 inter frame, there are typically three
previously coded reference frames that can be used for prediction.
A typical inter prediction block is constructed using a motion
vector to copy a block from one of the three frames. The motion
vector points to the location of a pixel block to be copied. In video
compression schemes, a good portion of the bits is spent on
encoding motion vectors; the portion can be especially large for
video encoded at lower data rates. VP8 provides efficient motion
vector coding by reusing vectors from neighboring macroblocks.
For example, the prediction modes NEAREST and NEAR
make use of last and second-to-last, non-zero motion vectors from
neighboring macroblocks. These inter prediction modes can be
used in combination with any of the three different reference
frames.
In addition, VP8 has a sophisticated, flexible inter prediction
mode called SPLITMV. This mode was designed to enable flexible
partitioning of a macroblock into sub-blocks to achieve better inter
prediction. SPLITMV is useful when objects within a macroblock
have different motion characteristics. Within a macroblock coded
using the SPLITMV mode, each sub-block can have its own
motion vector. Similar to the strategy of reusing without
transmitting motion vectors at the macroblock level, a sub-block
can also use motion vectors from neighboring sub-blocks above or
left of the current block without transmitting the motion vectors.
This strategy is very flexible and can encode any shape of submacroblock partitioning. Fig. 3 (a) shows an example of a

macroblock with 16x16 luma pixels that is partitioned to 16 4x4

blocks:

using a boolean arithmetic coder. The boolean arithmetic coder

encodes one boolean value (0/1) at a time. It is used to losslessly
compress a sequence of bools for which the probability of their
being 0 or 1 can be well-estimated.

(a)
(b)
Fig. 3. Illustration of VP8 inter prediction mode SPLITMV
In Fig. 3 (a), New represents a 4x4 bock coded with a new motion
vector, and Left and Above represent a 4x4 block coded using the
motion vector from the left and above, respectively. This example
effectively partitions the 16x16 macroblock into three different
segments with three different motion vectors (represented by 1, 2
and 3), as seen in Fig. 3 (b).
5.3 Sub-pixel Interpolation
VP8s motion compensation uses quarter pixel accurate motion
vectors for luma pixels. The sub-pixel interpolation of VP8
features a single-stage interpolation process and a set of high
performance six-tap interpolation filters. The filter taps used for
the six tap filters are:
[3, -16, 77, 77, -16, 3]/128 for pixel positions
[2, -11, 108, 36, -8, 1]/128 for pixel positions
[1, -8, 36, 108, -11, 2]/128 for pixel positions
Chroma motion vectors in VP8 are calculated from their luma
counterparts by averaging motion vectors within a macroblock, and
have up to one eighth pixel accuracy. VP8 uses four-tap bicubic
filters for the 1/8, 3/8, 5/8 and 7/8 pixel positions. Overall, the VP8
interpolation filtering process achieves optimal frequency response
with high computation efficiency.
6. ADAPTIVE LOOP FILTERING
Loop filtering is a process of removing blocking artifacts
introduced by quantization of the DCT coefficients from block
transforms. VP8 brings several loop-filtering innovations that
speed up decoding by not applying any loop filter at all in some
situations. VP8 also supports a method of implicit segmentation
where different loop filter strengths can be applied for different
parts of the image, according to the prediction modes or reference
frames used to encode each macroblock. For example it would be
possible to apply stronger filtering to intra-coded blocks and at the
same time specify that inter coded blocks that use the Golden
Frame as a reference and are coded using a (0,0) motion vector
should use a weaker filter. The choice of loop filter strengths in a
variety of situations is fully adjustable on a frame-by-frame basis,
so the encoder can adapt the filtering strategy in order to get the
best possible results. In addition, similar to the region-based
adaptive quantization in section 3, VP8 supports the adjustment of
loop filter strength for each segment. Fig. 4 shows an example
where the encoder can adapt the filtering strength based on content.
7. ENTROPY CODING AND DATA PARTITIONING
Except for very few header bits that are coded directly as raw
values, the majority of compressed VP8 data values are coded

Fig. 4. Loop filter strength adaptive to image content

Most symbol values in VP8 are binarized into a series of
boolean values using a pseudo Huffman Tree scheme. In such a
scheme, a binary tree is first created for a set of symbols similarly
to how a Huffman coding tree is created, and any symbol in the set
can be represented by a series of binary values generated by
traversing the binary tree from the root node to the corresponding
leaf node. Each non-leaf node in the binary tree has a probability
assigned based on the likelihood of taking the left (0) branch for
traversing. Through such a binarization scheme and storing data in
pseudo Huffman tree structures, the encoding/decoding style in
VP8 is very consistent for all the values in the bitstream, such as
macroblock coding modes, reference frame types, motion vectors,
quantized coefficients, and so on. Such a scheme improves module
reusability in both hardware and software implementations of VP8
entropy encoder or decoder.
7.1 Frame Adaptive Entropy Context
VP8 uses conditional probability distribution to model the context
used for entropy coding of information such as macroblock coding
modes, motion vectors, and quantized transform coefficients, and
so on. For the purpose of decoding simplicity, VP8 keeps the
probability distributions for entropy coding stable within one frame,
and supports distribution updates on a per-frame basis. On a key
frame, all probability distributions are reset to the default baseline,
and then on each subsequent frame, these probabilities are
combined with individual updates for use in coefficient coding
within the frame. The bitstream also has mechanisms to signal how
the updated probabilities affect the baseline distributions for
decoding the subsequent frames. On the one hand, the combined
probability distributions may become the new baseline for
decoding of subsequent frame; on the other hand, the probability
updates can also be discarded after decoding of the current frame
and the baseline probability distributions prior to the updates are
then used for decoding of subsequent frames. Compared to
context-based binary arithmetic coding in H.264/AVC [9], the
design of frame-level adaptive entropy context achieves lower
complexity in decoder implementations, and also allows better
error recovery in decoders.

Deocding speed in Frame/second

One of the recent trends in micro-processor development is

processors having multiple cores. To make effective use of the
computational power of multi-core processors, VP8 has data
partitioning features that support parallel processing. In essence,
the VP8 bitstream first separates the compressed data into two
categories, one for macroblock coding modes and motion vectors
and one for quantized transform coefficients. In addition, VP8
allows transform coefficients to be packed into more than one
partition without changing the inter macroblock dependency in
coding. For example, in the FOUR_TOKEN_PARTITION mode,
transform coefficients from macroblock row 0, 4, 8, , are packed
into the first coefficient partition; coefficients from macroblock
row 1, 5, 9, , are packed into the second coefficient partition, and
so on. Though the transform coefficients are packed into different
partitions, the entropy contexts used to encoding them are the same
as the case where all transform coefficients are packed into a single
partition with all macroblocks coded in raster scan order.
Hence, VP8 allows decoders to make efficient use of multiple
cores to decode several macroblock rows at the same time. The
separation of mode/motion vector data from the transform
coefficients allow reference data prefetching in many hardware
platforms and the coefficient data partitioning in VP8 supports the
parallel decoding of more than one macroblock rows. VP8
supports up to eight token partitions in any given frame, which
enables a decoder to efficiently use as many as eight cores. The
number eight is not an arbitrary number, but based on research into
technology trends and predictions by leading micro-processor
vendors, the vast majority of processors in the coming decade will
have no more than eight cores.

therefore the decoding speeds may reflect the intrinsic decoding

complexity. As shown in Fig. 6, the decoding speeds of VP8
encoded files are consistently faster, average around 30%, than
those of H.264 encoded files at a similar bitrate across the two
different hardware platforms.
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100

VP8
H.264 High Profile

Night 720p
2000kbps

Sheriff 720p
2000kbps

Tulip 720p
2000kbps

(a) Intel Core i7 3.2GHz

Decoding Speed in Frames/Second

7.2 Parallel Processing-Friendly Coefficient Partitioning

45
VP8
H.264 High Profile

40
35
30
25
20
Night 720p
2000kbps

Sheriff 720p
2000kbps

Tulip 720
2000kbps

(b) Intel Atom N270 1.66GHz

Fig. 6. Decoding speed test results

Fig. 5. VP8 coefficients partitioning and parallel decoding

8. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
As a result of the many advanced coding features, VP8 can make
the best use of computation power in modern hardware for
improving compression efficiency while maintaining fast decoding
speed on majority devices connected to the web.
Figure 6 shows the decoding speed test results on two different
hardware platforms for video files encoded in VP8 and H.264
(high profile) at similar bitrates. The WebM Project libvpx
reference encoder and x264 software encoder were used to produce
the VP8 and H.264 files, respectively. For decoding, the latest
FFmpeg decoder software (version SVN-r264000) with libavcodec
(version 52.108.0) was used for both VP8 and H.264 in the test. By
using the same software decoder, one can expect the level of
optimization for performance to be similar for both VP8 and H.264;

Fig. 7 shows the results of encoding quality comparison between

VP8 and H.264 (high profile) on a number of standard video test
clips. For VP8, the encoder software used was the libvpx software
from the WebM Project. For H.264 high profile, the encoder
software used was the latest x264 encoder software, which is
arguably the best encoder implementation for H.264/AVC. The
H.264 encoding setting used was recommended by x264
developers and tuned to produce the best possible PSNR results.
The x264 encoder used options:
--preset=veryslow --tune psnr

The WebM VP8 encoder used options:

-p 2 --best --auto-alt-ref=1 --minsection-pct=0
--maxsection-pct=800 --lag-in-frames=25 --kf-min-dist=0
--kf-max-dist=99999 --static-thresh=0 --min-q=0
--max-q=63 --drop-frame=0 --bias-pct=50 --psnr
--arnr-maxframes=7 --arnr-strength=6 --arnr-type=3

Please refer to the respective project websites for detailed

description of the options used above. As shown in Fig. 7, the
reference encoder implementation of VP8 achieves very
competitive quality results against the H.264/AVC encoder.
It is not difficult to conclude from the test results that, in the
designed operating range of web video, VP8 can achieve
compression efficiency that is competitive to the best H.264/AVC

encoder available. At the same time, however, the low complexity

design of the VP8 format enables decoder implementations to
achieve much faster decoding speeds than H.264/AVC on various
platforms.
The VP8 reference encoder implementation from the WebM
Project is not yet making full use of all the VP8 features described
in this paper. In addition, many techniques used in other modern
video encoders, such as advanced rate control strategies, rate
distortion optimization methods, motion estimation methods and so
on, are directly applicable to VP8. As a result, there is great
potential for innovations in future versions of VP8 encoder and
decoder.

(a) Hall Monitor

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Prof. Bastiaan Kleijn at the School
of Electrical Engineering at KTH (the Royal Institute of
Technology) in Stockholm, Sweden for reviewing early drafts, the
paper has benefited a great deal from his valuable feedback. This
paper has also benefited from helpful comments by our colleagues
at Google, Dr. Pascal Massimino and Mr. John Luther, as well as
insightful comments from four anonymous reviewers.
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(b) Highway

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(d) Deadline
Fig. 7. Encoding quality test results

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