ICPC Policy Brief

Human Security in
Africas Great Lakes
Region
Njoki Wamai

Table of Contents
1. Summary................................................................................................................
2. Introduction..........................................................................................................4
3. Conceptual Framework on Human Security.....................................................7
4. Human Security Challenges in the Great Lakes Region.................................11

Small Arms and Light Weapons and the Youth Bulge ......................................12
Refugees and IDPs..............................................................................................13
Natural Resource Governance.............................................................................16
Food (in) Security, Public Health and Environmental
Security.................................................................................................................18
Violence Against Women.....................................................................................21
Corruption and Lack of Rule of Law...................................................................23

5. Policy Recommendations and Priority Areas

Conclusion...........................................................................................................24
The Role of ICPC ............................................................................................... 25

ABBREVIATIONS
AU

Africa Union

CGLR

Conference of the Great Lakes Region

DDR

Disarmament, Demobilisation, Reintegration

DRC

Democratic Republic of Congo

EAC

East African Community

ECCAS

Economic Community of Central African States

ICGLR

International Conference of the Great Lakes Region

ICC

International Criminal Court

ICPC

International Centre for Policy and Conflict

IDPs

Internally Displaced Persons

R2P

Responsibility to Protect

SALW

Small Arms and Light Weapons

TJRC

Truth Justice and Reconciliation Commission

UNHDR

United Nations Human Development Report

Introduction
Since the end of the Cold War, the Great Lakes Region(GLR) has recorded the
most vicious conflicts in Africa. These conflicts have not only threatened the
national security of states in the Great Lakes but worse still the human security
of the people in the region. After the Rwandan Genocide genocide initiated an
exodus of unprecendented refugees in the region in 1994, the GLR has come
from one crisis to another.
The series of crisis have attracted various responses from regional and
international organisations leading to the emergence of normative frameworks
for conflict prevention such as Responsibility to Protect (R2P) and increased
attention to the International Criminal Court (ICC) which are both critical in
protecting and promoting human security.However, despite these developments
the international community is faulted for failing to respond effectively leading
to a cycle of the conflicts in the region which have so far claimed three million
lives.1
According to Khadiagala the term Great Lakes was formely a geographical
space which encompassed fresh water lakes and their river basins in the African
tropics.2However, today the GLR has assumed an analytical category while

1
2

Conference of the Great Lakes Region website.

Khadiagala (2007) p.1

retaining its geographical reach that combines East and Central Africa.3 Security
actors have since set up institutions to address political, security and economic
relationships in the GLR such as the International Conference of the Great Lakes
Region(ICGLR). According to Khadiagala, the core states of the Great Lakes
which

include DRC,Tanzania,Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi face similar

security challenges

in addition to other sorrounding states such as Kenya,

Zambia, Angola and Central African Republic. The GLR challenges are
inextricably linked although each has its own unique challenges. Events in one
country invariably affect the others, and often the wider region.
The GLR unlike other regional security systems in Africa has had a difficult
regional integration process. The Communaute Economique Des Pays des
Grands Lacs, the premier organisation failed because it was an organisation
only in name centred around the former Zairean dictator Mobutu Seseko.When
Mobutu died the organisation died with him. A number of other regional
communities have since emerged with the Economic Community of Central
African States(ECCAS), East African Community (EAC) and the ICGLR being
the most notable.
The ICGLR

organization is composed of eleven member states, namely:

Angola, Burundi, Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, Democratic

Republic of Congo, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda,South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania and
3

Ibid

Zambia.The ICGLR was launched in 1996 as a regional

response to the

interconnected and transnational nature of protracted conflict and resulting

security challenges in several of the core countries of the Great Lakes region.
For the purpose of this policy brief, the core states referred to by Khadiagala
will be considered in addition to Kenya and Zambia. They include Burundi,
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC),Uganda, Rwanda and Tanzania.This
policy brief attempts to identify the most pervasive human security challenges
in the region while identifying human security policy priorities which civil
society organisations such as the International Centre for Policy and
Conflict(ICPC) can partner with the ICGLR .
Specifically the policy brief seeks to answer the following questions.What is
human security? What are the most pervasive human security challenges in the
Great Lakes Region? What is the ICPCs role in addressing these security
challenges in concert with the regional security organisations? The next section
will now attempt to define the security concept while situating it within the
larger discourse on human security.

The Human Security Concept

According to the United Nations(UN) in its seminal United Nations Human
Development Report(UNHDR), human security means safety from chronic
threats such as hunger,disease and repression and protection from sudden and
harmful disruptions in the patterns of daily life.4Japan, Norway and Canada and
the World Bank have also embraced this concept in their foreign policies in
pursuit of freedom from want and freedom from fear.
The concept of human security makes human beings the referent for security
rather than states. According to Owen, human security and state security should
be symbiotic although he notes more often than not the states rights supersede
the individuals rights due to power imbalances between the two.5The state is an
important provider of human security though some states abuse their powers and
fail to provide the same security.Perhaps this scepticism among states especially
where their sovereignity is threatened informed the conspicous absence of
human security in the celebrated UN Report on High Level Panel on Threats,
Challenges and Change of 2004.6
Addtionally, the human security concept embraces new issues security
challenges such as food insecurity, climate change, epidemics,organised crime
and other vulnerabilities and threats to human beings into the security realm.
4

Bellamy and McDonald (2002),P.375

Owen (2008),p.449
6
Owen (2008),p.451
5

This broad defination has led to the argument by critics that the concept is too
broad to be a useful construct for security and for foreign policy. These critics
see this new approach as one that will replace traditional approaches such as
national security. For instance, Roland Paris has argued that human security
should be seen as an analytical category as opposed to a concept. He criticises
the human security concept for lacking defined analytical categories. According
to Paris, human security is a category of research into military and non-military
threats into societies, groups and individuals.7
Other critics have concerns that securitizing new security challenges such as
food insecurity, pandemics and natural disasters or migration, for example, may
have unintended consequences that do more harm than good.8They have also
argued that diluting the security concept and dissipating its meaning raises
questions about the future role for traditional security forces. 9Additionally,
there are competing definitions of human security and there is no agreement on
how best to implement the concept.10
Despite the conceptual challenges presented by the human security concept, this
concept continues to generate interest among analysts and citizens especially in
the GLR in Africa where it finds resonance.
7

Paris (2001) p.87-102

Freedman (1998 ) p. 50

Ibid

10

Ibid p. 87-102

Annan has argued that human security in its broadest sense,embraces far more
than the absence of violent conflict.It encompasses human rights, access to
education, healthcare and good governance and choices for every undividual to
fulfil his os her own potential.11
King and Murray have adopted multidimensional accounts of human security
that measure years lived outside a state of generalised poverty.12They have
argued that human security should be a measure of only those domains of
wellbeing that are important enough for human beings to fight over and put
their lives or property at great risk. 13
Thomas and Tow have argued that the human security approach has three
interlocking features.First, it recognises transnational threats and the role of
international norms. Second it asserts that states and individuals confronting
such vulnerabilites cannot address them adequately and thirdly, there is need for
a transnational approach through mobilisation of international civil society.14
Bellamy and McDonald have contested Thomas and Tows arguments that the
state and the international community should be the referent point for human
security. Bellamy and McDonald argue that a human security agenda has three
components. First, it must focus on the things that makes humans insecure such

11

Annan(2000) Press Release

King and Murray (2001-2002) p.592
13
Ibid p.593
14
Thomas and Tow (2002),p.178
12

as lack of food. The UNHDR provides seven sources of insecurity which

include:housing, healthcare, sanitation, food, political participation, protection
from persecution and clothing. Second, the role of the state in fulfilling and
protecting individuals security should also be interrogated.Thirdly,they argue
that the human security agenda can only be relevant if it is based on its ability to
interrogate, evaluate and criticise the practices that make people insecure.
The most conclusive defination of human security in this briefs opinion is by
Sabina Alkire. According to Alkire, the objective of human security is to
safeguard the vital core of all human lives from critical pervasive threats without
impeding long term human fulfilment.15Although the two are mutually
exclusive, human security is different from state security which is concerned
with a territorial unit and the people who dwell within it while human security
addresses that of people and groups. The next section will look at other inter
related concepts.
Human Security and Human Development
Human Development like human security is both multidimensional and people
centred. Alkire argues that human development is broader than human security

15

Alkire (2003) p.8

10

since it aims to ensure that individuals in their homes and communities

flourish.16
In contrast they differ as far as focus is concerned according to Alkire. While
human development focuses on the growth with equity, human security focuses
on making people secure. Additionally, human security is preemptive and both
short-term and long-term while human development is long term.17
Human Security and Human Rights
The concept of human security and human rights are inextricably connected
since both attempt to identify a core of fundamental human rights which
should be respected, protected and fulfilled.
However, since human security focuses on vital and pervasive threats it may not
prioritise all human rights equally as the human rights concept does.
Additionally, when it comes to implementing these rights different insititutions
will prioritise some rights compared to others as noted elsewhere.18The next
section reviews the most vital and pervasive threats that threaten human security
in the Great Lakes region. These include:ploriferation of small arms and light
weapons (SALW) and the youth bulge, refugees and internally displaced
persons (IDPs), natural resource exploitation, food insecurity and environmental

16

Ibid.p.6
Ibid
18
See Alkire and Abass
17

11

degradation, public health challenges, women rights violation, corruption and

lack of the rule of law.
1. Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) and Youth Bulge
Although accurate figures are hard to obtain, it is estimated that 100 million
small arms exist in Africa, especially around the Horn which includes Somalia,
Ethiopia, Southern Sudan and the Great Lakes Region.19
SALW is a human security challenge in the GLR because its interaction with
other security challenges such food

insecurity, corruption and governance

challenges and the youth bulge leads to armed conflict and ultimately other
security challenges. Youth bulge is a youth crisis that results from an increase in
youthful population without corresponding socio-economic and political
opportunities for youth resulting to exclusion which can trigger conflict where
grievances exist.
Ploriferation of SALW in the GLR can be traced to a number of factors in the
region. First, the prolonged humanitarian crisis in the region from the Sudan
Wars of Liberation to seven military coups in Uganda, intrastate conflict with
the Lords Resistance Army, the Rwandan Genocide, Burundian Civil War and
conflicts in the DRC have all increased availability of illegal SALW.
Additionally, inadequate and ineffective Disarmament, Demobilisation and

19

Mbugua (2007),p.5

12

Reintregration(DDR) progammes in the region have failed to address this

security challenge.
Second, pastoral communities in the region own SALW due to lack of state
capacity and consequent protection in the borderlands. This has turned cattle
rustling into a deadly confrontation between communities in Kenya, Sudan,
Ethiopia, Uganda, DRC and Zambia. Similary in urban areas,weak state capacity
and corruption has exacerbated insecurity and crime in the region as citizens
turn to illegal firearms for protection.
Third, state failure in Somalia and its sorrounding porous borders provided
SALW for the region. During Siad Barres regime, many citizens were in
possession of small arms as the former dictator urged them to stockpile for
armed struggle in creating a greater Somalia. After the fall of his regime and
demise of the Somalia state, the SALW found ready market in the GLR through
Kenyas porous and corruption infested borders.
Fourth, low human development and the youth bulge has also led to increased
crime as youths acquire guns as a source of livelihood to commit various crimes
such as robberies, hijackings,burglaries, drug trafficking, gang-related violence,
money laundering and cattle rustling.

13

SALW has led to diversion of development funds such as health care and
education to equipping police to fight crime in the Great Lakes region. 20
By managing the GLR porous borders effectively, implementing

DDR

programmes, reducing poverty, crime and corruption the availability of SALW

in the region can be countered. The Nairobi Protocol For The Prevention,
Control and Reduction of Small Arms And Light Weapons in the Great Lakes
Region and the Horn of Africa of 2004, is a policy framework which civil
society should hold governments accountable to.
Additionally, increased opportunities for youth in the GLR while considering
the gendered dimension in education, employment and political participation
will reduce the likelihood of excluded youth constituting a pool for recruits in
armed conflicts and terrorist networks which threaten to continue the cycle of
insecurity in the region.
2. Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons as a Human Security
Challenge
The Great Lakes Region has the largest population of displaced people and
refugees in Africa. The region with eleven member states hosts 2 million
refugees and 10 million IDPs.21 These influx of people in the region especially

20
21

Ibid
Bernstein and Bueno (2007) p.73

14

in the early nineties was as a result of failed governance in many states which
led to catastrophic results such as the Rwandan genocide.
The challenging issue of refugees in the GLR can be traced back to the 1950s
when the Tusti refugees fled persection and war in Rwanda for Uganda . In the
1990s, Tutsi and modertate Hutus fled again after persectuion by the Hutu
leadership and later Hutu refugees fled Rwanda due to fear of reprisal attacks
from genocidaires. The Hutu refugees who fled to Goma in Eastern DRC and
Tanzania were intimidated by the Hutu genocidaires and militants who fled with
them.
Refugees and IDPs raise a number of security threats to the host country and to
the the refugees themselves. According to Mills and Norton, refugees impact on
three types of security: Human security, societal security and national security of
the host country.
Firstly, refugees have had a profound impact on state security in the great lakes
region. As earlier noted state security or national security is about territorial
integrity, political autonomy, internal stability and economic wellbeing. Refugee
populations may harbour rebels leaders who continue to plunder and instigate
armed conflict in the host country as evident in Eastern DRC where former Hutu
genocidaires patnered with local rebel causing insecurity.

15

Secondly, human insecurity is the motivation for the refugee crisis since people
become refugees when they fear for their personal safety.22 Displacement also
makes people vulnerable to other humans security threats such as lack of access
to food, healthcare,water, shelter,lack legal and physical protection from
physical violence and

sexual violence. Rwandese refugees suffered many

threats to human security including persecution from the genocidaires who

instilled fear in them. May refugee populations such as those in Daadab in
Kenya continue to face these challenges.
Thirdly, refugees have had effects on regional security in the great lakes with
increased stress on food security , energy security and social welfare in the
regions poor states. Increased terrorist attacks in Kenya and Uganda from
extremists who are thought to sometimes reside among refugee populations also
shows the regional security challenges posed by this human security
challenge.The region should implement the celebrated Great Lakes Protocol on
Internally Displaced Persons.
3. Natural Resource Exploitation as a Human Security Challenge
Mismanagement of natural resources causes insecurity in communities whose
natural resources are supposed to benefit them. Alao has identified a number of
human security issues that emerge from natural resource mismanagement such

22

Mills and Norton (2007),p.13

16

as acrimonius group relations , corruption, youth vulnerablity and exclusion and

civil wars. 23
Similary Kameri Mbote argues that natural resources influence conflicts in
three ways. First, as sources of the conflict when ownership of natural resources
is contested due to conflicting land systems such as customary and modern
laws.24Additionally, natural resources become a source of conflict when
productive land is isolated for extraction of natural resources by the government
or multinationals threatening the human security of those that depended on the
land for food.
Second, natural resources sustain conflict by providing financial resources for
rebl groups and the government during conflict. For instance, the Banyamulenge
a faction in the DRC financed itself with continued extraction of Coltan in the
Kivu province with repurcusions on peace and human security since they
abandoned the peace proccess.
Third, natural resources have been used to end conflicts by rewarding different
factions to persuade them to consider alternative livelihoods as the Lome Peace
Process in Sierra Leone did. However, the peace process was not sustainable and
there is need to focus on the structural causes of the violence.

23
24

Alao (2010),p.103
Kameri-Mbote( )p.7

17

The DRC is the couldron of human security challenges in the GLR. After the
end of the Cold War, the local and international groups descended on an
unstable DRC, with interests in its natural resources. Alao notes that at one stage
there were up to ten interrelated conflicts simultenously taking place in
DRC.25These include:DRC government vs assorted rebels groups;Rwandan
government vs Rwandese insurgents; Rwandan government vs DRC
government;the Ugandan government vs Sudanese supported rebels; the
Ugandan and Rwandan government vs Zimbabwean and Angolan governments;
Ugandan government vs Rwandese government; Rwandan government backed
DRC rebels vs Ugandan backed DRC rebels; Burundian government vs
Burudian rebel factions; Angola government vs UNITA and any group
supporting UNITA; the Mai Mai elements vs Rwandan government and the
RCD ( Rally for the Congolese Democracy); the Sudanese government vs
Ugandan government. Although a peace process championed by Mbeki in 2003
restored relative stability, the country is yet to attain sustainable peace and
achieve human security.
Although processes like the Kimblerly Process and the Extractive Industry
Transparency Iniatiative (EITI) have been introduced as international policy
initiatives to address human security concerns, stability of the country and the
region rests with improved governance at national and regional level.The next

25

Ibid ,110

18

section reviews food security,public health and environmental security as a

human security challenge.
4. Food Insecurity, Public Health and Environmental Degradation as a
Human Security Challenge

Civil strife and lack of governance in the GLR have exacerbated food insecurity
in the region by eroding farming bystems and rural livelihoods. 85% of the
population in the GLR depends on agriculture for their livelihoods. Apart from
Kenya which constantly suffers draughts and famine, the GLR has fertile soils
which attract migrants to the region.
The region has so far recorded one of the highest population densities in the
world in Rwanda and Burundi. Armed conflict has also led to increased
population in the region with Rwanda leading with 600 people per square
kilometer.26The high population density in the GLR has increased vulnerability
to environmental security challenges as the number of people depending on
scarce resources for food, housing and energy increases through practices such
as deforestation.
The Great Lakes Declaration on Peace, Security and Democracy identifies
evironmental security as a challenge of the GLR and proposes equitable and

26

Bantekas Ilas (2010),p.51

19

well managed land reform programmes which can enable food security and
arrest resource scarcity conflicts.

Despite improving health conditions in the Great Lakes region, the region faces
a desperate humanitarian crisis and most countries in the region have the
greatest maternal and child mortality rates. Additionally, HIV/Aids among other
sexually transmitted infections is highly prevalent partly due to the transient
nature of IDPs and refugees in the region in addition to sexual violence which
many women and children face during armed conflict.
The advent of HIV/Aids in the region has exacerbated household food insecurity
in affected households.27 In 2000 alone, 18 million people died from disease as
compared to 300,000 who died from conflicts.28Threats such as HIV/Aids have
killed more people more than conflicts since the end of the Cold War, yet few
states and international organisations have accepted public health concerns as a
security challenge.29The GLR has some of the leading prevalence rates of HIV
in world. These are: Kenya (6.3%), Uganda (6.5%), Rwanda (2.9%), Burundi
( 3.3%), Zambia (13.5%) and Tanzania (5.6%) all 2009 estimates from the
CIA.The next section will review how certain groups of the population face
human security challenges.
27

Ibid
Owen (2008),p.446
29
Owen (2008),p.447
28

20

5. Violence Against Women

Women in the great lakes region face multiple types of discrimation either
socially, economically or politically. Politically, little progress has been made
except in Rwanda and Uganda where womens representation in parliament
accounts for 48.8% and 33% respectively.30

Despite the significant achievements made in the quest for gender equality
through norm setting such as the ratification of the Convention on Elimination
of all Forms of Discrimination against Women(CEDAW) and the Womens
Protocol to the Africans Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, women in the
GLR continue to face gross human rights violations and ultimately their human
security is threatened. For instance, during armed conflict rebel groups and
national armies use rape as a weapon of war, prompting the UN to pass Security
Council Resolution 1820 which identifies sexual violence as a crime against
humanity.

Apart from discrimination based on sex and the consequent threats to their
human security, women in the great lakes region experience discrimination
based on economic status, ethnic group, birth, age, disability, marital status,

30

CIA Fact Book 2009

21

refugee or migrant status which results to multiple disadvantages as noted

elsewhere.31These compounding of rights violations has increased vulnerability
to other human security challenges for women. For instance,women refugees in
the DRC lack access to Anti-Retroviral Therapy(ART) and have challenges
accessing servies offered in the Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission
(PMCT) in the HIV Programme.32

Similary, discrimination of women within customary law is rampant in the Great

Lakes region especially in the areas of citizenship, inheritance, marriage and
divorce which threatens the human security of

women. For instance the

Zambian constitutional court in the Longwe case, where a woman was denied
entry into a hotel because she was unaccompanied shows that discrimination of
women based on citizenship is common in the GLR.33Additionally, other courts
in Uganda and Kenya have ruled to prevent discrimination of women based on
cultural practices such as inheritance.
States should ensure traditional, historic, religious and cultural attitudes are not
used to justify violations of womens right to equality before the law and to
equal enjoyment of rights as noted by the Human Rights Council.

31

Ssenyonjo(2010),p. 176
Ibid.p.193
33
Ibid. P.209
32

22

6.Corruption as a Threat to Human Security

Corruption is a leading human security challenge in the GLR. Various reasons
such as weak political institutions and poor wages have been identified as the
causes of corruption.
Corruption has various effects. First, it leads to poverty and underdevelopment.
An estimated US20 billion is lost to corruption every year in Africa.34 Secondly,
corruption undermines democractic governance in society. Thirdly, corruption is
a threat to the human security when funds meant for improving livelihoods in
public health, infrastructure development and food security are siphoned for
private gain. In dire cases political and economic corruption has triggered
conflict which has led to loss of lives as the Kenyan and Zimbabwean electoral
malpractice shows.
The main forms of corruption in the region include: Bribery, embezzlement,
fraud, abuse of office, nepotism and other forms of abuse of office.Pervasive
corruption is a great challenge in the GLR especially in Kenya,
Uganda,Tanzania, Burundi and the DRC, which has led to loss of millions of
lives through electrol malpractice and embezzlements of development funds.

34

Durojaye(2010),p. 219

23

Conclusion
This policy brief has identified the most pervasive human security threats in the
GLR. These include Small Arms and Light Weapons and the Youth Bulge,
Refugees and IDPs, Natural Resource Governance, Food (in) Security, Public
Health and Environmental Security,Violence Against Women, Corruption and
Lack of Rule of Law.

These different security challenges call for different yet interconnected and
regional policy priorities for effectiveness. For instance, implementation of
regional policies on IDPs or SALW should accompany improved governance
and zero tolerance to corruption while arresting impunity.

There is need for increased vigilance and partnership within civil society in the
GLR if the human security challenges presented are to be addressed. ICPC and
other civil society organisations can assist the GLR states in various
peacebuilding priorities which include accountability

for human security

friendly policies and norms. Though suggestions can be made on policy

priorities, the ICPC is best suited to determine its policy direction within its
human security programme based on its strategic priorities and resource
constraints. That being said, the brief has made some suggestions below:

24

Addressing Youth SALW and Youth Bulge

ICPC could encourage regional organisations such as ICGLR and GL
states to implement gender sensititve DDR programmes through
increased monitoring and training of the five post conflict states.
ICPC can hold states accountable on the implementation of the Nairobi
Protocol For The Prevention, Control and Reduction of Small Arms And
Light Weapons in the Great Lakes Region and the Horn of Africa of
2004.
ICPC could also promote labour intensive works schemes to reduce the
youth bulge in the region while initiating a youth policy dialogue in the
region that addresses youth challenges from a gendered and
multidimensional perspective.
Refugees and IDPS
ICPC should work with other stakeholders in the region to promote
implementation of the celebrated Great Lakes Protocol on Internally
Displaced Persons.
ICPC should also join other stakeholders in developing a refugee policy
and using it to demand accountability from GLR states.

25

Governance, Corruption and Rule of Law

The Great Lake states should implement the AUs Convention on
Corruption while encouraging consitutionalism to end impunity with
increased vigilance from civil society.
Civil society organisations such as ICPC should assess the extent that
states in the GLR have systems to arrest corruption. ICPC can also
produce a corruption index for the GLR.
ICPC should encourage the GLR states to employ transitional justice
mechanisms which are victim centred to address economic crimes.These
can include trials, TJRCs, vetting, reparations and traditional justice
mechanisms.
Natural Resource Exploitation
On natural resources, ICPC could lobby the great lakes states to join the
Extractive Industry Transparency Act (EITA) while educating citizens on
the linkages between natural resource governance and corruption to
enable them hold their governments accountable.
ICPC should also encourage the eleven states that are part of the Pact on
Security, Stability and Development in the Great Lakes Region to

26

implement this protocol that has instituted a regional certification system

for Coltan,Cassiterite, Coltan,Wolframite and Gold.

Violence Against Women

Encourage

the ICGLR states to ensure reporting and prosecution of

sexual offences and set up gender desks with trained police officers.ICPC
should also lobby the regional ICGLR to make punishments for sexual
violence harsher.
Gender sensitive transtional justice mechanisms and processes should be
instituted for sexual violence among other violations faced by women in
the region. Individual and communal reparations should be encouraged
for women who have suffered.
Lobby the great Lakes Forum on Peace (AMANI Forum), which is
comprised of parliamentarians in the region to pass laws that will end
violence against women such Sexual Offences Acts while domesticating
the Maputo Protocol.

27

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