INFILTRATION

MECAG309

Infiltration
1. Definitions
2. Factors affecting Infiltration
3. Methods of Measurement
Rainfall simulators
Flooding infiltrometers
Basin
Ring
Watershed

4. Infiltration equations

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INFILTRATION

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INFILTRATION
1Definitions

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Infiltrationreferstothedownwardmovementofwaterintosoilsandmaybedefinedforrain
orpondedconditions(Richards1952)as:
"Themaximumrateatwhichasoil,inagivenconditionatagiventime,canabsorbrain."or
"Therateatwhichasoilwillabsorbwaterpondedonthesurfaceatashallowdepthwhenthe
pondedareaisinfinitelylargeorwhenadequateprecautionsaretakentominimizetheeffectof
divergentflowattheborders."

Infiltrabiity (m/s)

-2

Cumulative Infiltration (m m )

Infiltration"isthevolumeofwaterpassingintothesoilperunitofareaperunitoftimeand
hasthedimensionsofvelocity."(L3L2T1).Theterminfiltrabilityreferstotheinfiltration
rateresultingwhenwateratatmosphericpressureismadefreelyavailableatthesoilsurface
(Hillel1982).Infiltrabilityisthusdependentuponsoilconditions(surfacecontrolled),such
asmoisture,matricpotential,poresizedistribution,whereastheinfiltrationrateissupply
controlled. The infiltration rate can be greater than the infiltrability if water is ponded
sufficientlydeeponthesoilsurfaceortheinfiltrationratecanbesmallerifwaterissupplied
atalowerratethantheinfiltrability.Ifashallowlayerofwaterisinstantaneouslyapplied
and maintained at the surface of an initially unsaturated soil, the full range of soil
infiltrabilitymaybemeasured(Fig.1).Theinfiltrationratedecreaseswithtimetoaconstant
steady rate while the cumulative infiltration (the time integral of the infiltration rate)
increaseswithtimebutwithadecreasingslope(Hillel1982).

Decreasing infiltrability

steady infiltrability

Time (s)

s t ead y

i n fi l tra

b i l it y

Time (s)

Fig.1Timedependenceofinfiltrabilityandofcumulativeinfiltration(adaptedfromHillel1982).

Thedeterminationoftheinfiltratibilityofasoilisanimportantparameterforirrigation,
erosionstudies,andmanyengineeringprojects.
Infiltrationcanbeconsideredasathreestepsequence:surfaceentry,transmissionthrough
the soil, and depletion of storage capacity in the soil (Chou 1964). Surface entry is
influencedbysuchpropertiesassurfacevegetation,soiltexture,porosity,structure,andthe
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waterstabilityofthesoilaggregates.Transmissionratesdependupontexture,porosity,pore
size distribution, soil stratification, antecedent soil moisture content, salinity, and biotic
activity.Storagecapacitydependsuponporosityandchangesinporesizedistributioninthe
soilprofile.

2FACTORSAFFECTINGINFILTRATION

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Theinfiltrationrateofasoilprofileistheresultoftheinteractionofnumeroussoil,biotic,
andhydrologicproperties.
Porosityandporesizedistributionarethemaindeterminationsofinfiltration.Thesurface
area,size,andshapeofsoilparticlesinfluenceporesize,shapeandcontinuitywithother
pores. Although particle size and particle distribution may be a major determinate of
infiltrationrates(Table.1)theporesizedistributionismodifiedbyorganicmattercontent,
aggregation,tillage,andcompaction. Compactionloadsassmallasapersonwalkingcan
significantlyreduceinfiltrationrates. Compactionfromtrucksbeingdrivenoverasandy
loamjustafterarain,reducedinfiltrationratesfrom15to0.3cm/h(AkramandKemper
1979).
Table1.Infiltrationratesforcertainparticlesizeclasses(FAO1979).

Textural
Class

Infiltrationrate(cm/h)
Minimum
Mean

Maximum

Clay
SiltyClay
ClayLoam
Loam
SandyLoam
Sand

0.01
0.03
0.25
0.8
1.3
2.5

0.05
0.25
0.8
1.3
2.5
5.0

0.1
0.50
1.5
2.0
7.6
25.0

In general any profile discontinuity, such as a change in texture, that affects pore size
distribution,willresultindifferingsoilporositysizedistributionandthusdecreasedwater
movementbetweenhorizons.Whereacoarsetexturedmaterialsuchassandoverliesafiner
texturedmaterialsuchasaloam,theinfiltrationratewillbedependentupontheloamlayer
andwaterwillaccumulateinthesandlayer. Whereafinertexturedmaterialoverliesa
coarsematerialtheinitialinfiltrationratewillbegovernedbythesurfacelayer,thenwill
reducewhenthewettingfrontencountersthelargerporesinthecoarselayer.Waterwillnot
enter the larger pores until it has accumulated in the fine layer to a point where it can
overcometheadhesiveandcohesiveforcesofthefinerporesinthefinelayerandflowcan
thentakeplaceintothelargerporesoftheunderlyingcoarselayer(Miller1973,Gardner
1979).

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INFILTRATION

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Cumulative infiltration (m 3 m-2 )

Vegetation and land use can influence infiltration rates through modification of the soil
porosityand poresizedistribution (aggregation, organic matter, compaction, tillage) and
throughinterceptionoftheraindropsbytheplantcanopy(Fig.2).Generallyforagricultural
soilsthegreaterthevegetativecoverandthegreaterthetimesincedisturbancethehigherthe
cumulativeinfiltration.Wheresoilhasbeendisturbedbyplowingandcoverdoesnotprotect
the soil fromdirect raindropimpact, thepores tend tobecome cloggedbysilt andclay
particlesastheaggregatesbreakdown.Organicmatterinthesoilnotonlyservestocreate
largerporespacesduetoincreasedaggregationitalsoprovidesastronger'glue'tobindthe
aggregatestogether.

Old pasture,
not grazed

Pasture,
lightly grazed

5
Pasture
heavily grazed

4
3

Stripped cropped
or mixed cover

Grain
Recent tilled

Bare ground,
crusted

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Time (minutes)
Figure 9.2. Cumulative infiltration curves for different land uses for a silt loam soil
(adapted from Holtan and Kirkpatrick 1950)

3METHODSOFMEASUREMENT

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Introduction
Numerousmethodshavebeendevelopedformeasuringinfiltrationratesofsoilsinthefield.
Thesemethodsmaybeclassifiedintothreegroups:
1.

Rainfallsimulatorsinwhichinfiltrationisdeterminedasthedifferencebetweenwaterapplied
andrunoff.

2.

Instrumentswhichimpoundwaterinaconfinedarea,maintainingaconstantheadofwater;

3.

Watershedmethodswhichallowdeterminationofinfiltrationfromrainfallandrunoffdata.

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MECAG309

INFILTRATION

RainfallInfiltrometers
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Basicallyarainfallinfiltrometersimulatesrainfallwiththeuseofspecialspraynozzlesseta
certaindistance(usually2to3m)abovethesoilsurface.Thesoilsurfacetestedisusually
enclosedsothatoncerunoffcommencesitcanbecollectedatanopeningandthevolume
measuredwithtime.Thedifferencebetweentheapplicationrateandtherunoffrateistaken
tobetheinfiltration. Bernard(1965)listsfourconditionsthatshouldbemettoproduce
accurate and representative measurements of the soil infiltration rate using rainfall
infiltrometers:
1.

Thedistributionofdropsizesmustbeuniformovertheplotarea;

2.

Theartificialrainfallmustbesimilartothenaturalrainfallbeingsimulatedinrespectofdrop
size,dropvelocity,intensityrange,andtotalenergyvalue.

3.

Theplotareamustbelargeenoughtosamplethepopulationandgivereproducibleresults
(approximately1m2);and

4.

Theartificialrainfallmustbeappliednotonlytotheplotbutalsotoanadequatebufferarea
aroundtheplot.

Manyoftheseinstruments,originallydesignedtomeasuretheerosivityofasoil,havebeen
redesignedtoapplywateratlowerratessothatrunoffisminimized.Simulatorsrangefrom
simpletelephoneboothsizedinstallationstoonesthatrequireasemitrailertrucktomove.
Costcanbeexpensiveespeciallyifraincharacteristics suchasintensity,dropsize,drop
distribution,andvelocityaretobeaccuratelysimulated.Thenormallengthofaninfiltration
testemployingarainfallinfiltrometeris30to120minuteswiththeinfiltrationratebecoming
constantafter20to60minutes.
Themainadvantagewithrainfallinfiltrometersisthattheysimulatetheactionofrainupon
thesoilsurface. Unprotectedsoilsurfaceswillthusreflectsurfacesealingeffects,while
those with vegetation will reflect the interception of the rain by the canopy (Parr and
Bertrand1960).
FloodingInfiltrometers
top
Introduction. Floodinginfiltrometersencloseanareaandpondwatertoaspecifieddepth.
Theinfiltrationrateiscalculatedfromthedropinwaterlevelperunittimeortheamountof
waterrequiredtomaintainthespecifieddepthorheadofwaterperunittime. Flooding
infiltrometers measure the maximum rate of entry of water into the soil. They do not
simulateraindropactivity;theymeasurewaterpenetrationratherthanrainfallinfiltration.
Usuallythereisabufferzoneofwateraroundaninnercompartmentofwatertocorrectfor
lateralmovementofwater(duetomatricpotential);thustheinnercompartmentwillbea
measurementofthetrueverticalinfiltrationrate.Basicallytherearetwotypesofflooding
infiltrometers; the basin infiltrometer which uses earth retaining walls; and the ring
infiltrometerwhichusesmetalringsinsertedintothegroundtoretainthewater.
Basin Infiltrometer. The basin infiltrometer uses soil from the outside of the basin to
constructthepaireddykes,thusnotdisturbingthesoilwithinthedykedareas.Thesizeof
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INFILTRATION

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theplots,1m2 upto0.2hausuallyaccountsforanylocalsoilvariationthusreducingthe
needforreplication(BertrandandParr1960).Thesesizesalsoreduceerrorsduetolateral
flow especially when a buffer compartment is built. The disadvantages to this type of
infiltrometer is the site disturbance and the necessary power equipment and labour to
constructthebasinsandtosupplythewater.
RingType Infiltrometer. The ring infiltrometer is perhaps the most common type of
infiltrometerused.Itisinexpensivetoconstructandoperate,itrequiresrelativelylittlewater
comparedwiththebasininfiltrometer,andonlyonepersoncansetupandrunseveraltests
simultaneously.Thesimplicityofitsdesignallowsforeaseinreplicationandoperation.
Twoconcentric ringsofstainless steelarecommonly employed, thelarger ringforms a
buffercompartment aroundtheinnertoaccountforlateralflow(Fig.3). Theringsare
jackedorhammeredintotheground5to10cm.Careistakentominimizedisturbanceofthe
soilsurfaceandthesoilstructureduringinstallation.Aspecificandconstantheadofwater
(lessthan5cmofdepth)ismaintainedinbothrings,whiletherateofwaterusuagefromthe
innerringismeasured.Thelengthoftimerequiredtoachievesteadyinfiltrationrateranges
from2to6hoursdependinguponsoiltype,texture,andantecedentsoilmoistureconditions.
Minimum diameter of outer ring 0.6 m
Preferred diameter of
inner ring: 0.2 m - 0.4 m
constant head
water level
2 - 5 cm
rings installed 5-10 cm
into soil

inner ring
outer ring

wetting front
from outer ring
wetting front
from iner ring
Fig.12.3.DoubleRingInfiltrometer.

Lateralflowisthemostseriouslimitationtotheuseofringinfiltrometers(Hills1971).The
proportionoflateral flowtovertical flowis dependentuponringssizes,antecedent soil
moisture,texture,stratification,soilstructure,andtime. Higherantecedentsoilmoisture
contentsresultinthegravitationalpotentialhavingalargerrelativeeffectonflow(vertical)
thanmatricpotential(verticalandlateral).Finertexturesandthepresenceofstratification
resultsinincreasesoflateralflowrelativetoverticalflow.Thedoubleringsystemproviding
themostaccurateresults(whilecorrectingforlateralflow),whileatthesametimepermitting
easyportabilityandinstallationisonewithanoutsideringdiameterof0.60mandaninside
ringdiameterbetween0.20mand0.40m(SwartzendruberandOlson1961).Largerringsdo
providegreateraccuracybutaretoocumbersomeforonepersontomoveandinstall.

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MECAG309

INFILTRATION

Aseriouslimitationtotheuseofringinfiltrometersisthemethodofplacement.Hammering
orjackingtheringsintothegroundcanresultinshatteringofthesoilstructure(fordrysoils)
orcompression(formoistsoils).Shatteredsoils,morecommonlycausedbyhammering,can
disturbtheinterfacebetweenthesoilandthemetalringresultinginleakageandabnormally
highandvariableinfiltrationrates.Jackingtherings(insertionofatruckjackundertheback
bumper)isthepreferredmethod.
Fieldresearchhasshownthatthedoubleringmethodusuallyhashigherinfiltrationrates
thanthatofthebasininfiltrometerandthatoftherainfallsimulator.Aseriesoftestsdoneon
similarsoilsbyBedwanyandSchumacher(1979)foundthatinfiltrationratesforthedouble
ringwasupto10timesgreaterthanthatofthebasin,thedifferencebeingduetolateral
seepageandsoilcracking.Chou(1964)reportsdatainwhichthedoubleringinfiltrometer
gaverates8timeslargerthanarainfallinfiltrometerforovergrazedpastureand2times
largerforlightlygrazed.Apparentlytheraindropimpactresultedinaggregatedisruptionand
blockageofconductingpores.

WatershedMethods
top
Watershedhydrography(i.e.,measurementofrainfallandrunofffromagivenarea)isoften
usedtocalculateinfiltrationrates. Thewatershedareaisbasicallythedrainagebasinas
definedbytopographicboundaries,allrunoffwaterscollectsandflowsoutofonestream.
Precipitation is measured using rainfall collectors and snow measurements. Runoff is
measuredfromaweir.Themaindisadvantageisthedifficultyofconductingsimultaneous
comparativestudiesonsuchfactorsassoiltype,densitiesofvegetativecoverandtillage
practicessincefewwatershedsaresimilarenoughtocompare.Watershedhydrographyisthe
commonunitofmeasurementinforestedenvironments.
4.InfiltrationEquations(Juryetal.,1991)

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HortonEquation
iH=if+(ioif)et

whereiHistheHortoninfiltrationrate,ioistheinitialinfiltrationrate,i fisthefinal
constantinfiltrationratethatisachievedatlargetimes,andBisasoilparameterthat
describestherateofdecreaseofinfiltration.
PhilipEquation
iP=1/2St1/2+Kp

whereiPisthePhilipinfiltrationrate,S=S(o,i)iscalledthesorptivityandisa
functionoftheboundaryandinitialwatercontents,o,andi.Itisconstantduring
agivenexperimentinwhichtheinflowendoftheuniformhorizontalsoilcolumnis
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MECAG309

INFILTRATION

heldataconstantwatercontent.Sorptivitymaybemeasuredsimplybydetermining
theslopeofIversust1/2 atinitialvaluesoft. Theparameter Kp,withcertain
assumptions,maybetakentobesaturatedhydraulicconductivityorthatofsteady
infiltrability.
5.FieldExamples
Frozensoils
Frozenmoistureplugspores;thehigherthefrozenmoisturecontentthelowertheinfiltration
rateuponmeltasthelargeporesareplugged.
Prairiesoilsstayfrozenuntilallthesnowhasmelted.Thesoilisfrozentoodeeptothawfirst
beforemelt(asoccursintheeast).
Midwintermeltscanespeciallyreduceinfiltrationduringspringmelt.Themidwintermelt
willfreezeintoanicylayeronthesoilorjustinthesoilsurfaceandformanimpentrable
layertofuturemelts.
Thedryerthesoilgoingintothewinter,therougherthesurface(increasesurfacestorage),
themore'cracked'thegreaterwillbespringmeltinfiltration.
Roughruleofthumb;halfthesnowpackwillrunoff,lessifthesoilisdryandcracked,more
iftherewasawetfall.
Directseedingmightincreaserunoffduetohighersurfacedensitiesoritmightdecrease
surface runoff through more larger continuous pores from undisturbed root and insect
channels

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INFILTRATION

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Infiltration and Runoff into Frozen Soils

Water in snowpack before melt: SWE = 75 mm

75
Runoff
(mm)

INF = 5(1 - p)SWE0.584

50
25
0

Infiltration
(mm)

25
50
75

0.60

0.40

0.20

cracked

Relative saturation of soil (p)

Gray, 1991

2.Sodicsoils
Solonetizicsoilsarenotoriousforpoorinfiltrability. Thisisduetotheirabilitytoswell
whenwet.Infiltrationcanbeimprovedthroughdeepripping(below40cm),deepplowing
andlayerinversion,gypsumapplications,properNadditionsandselectionofappropriate
grassesorcrops. Shouldconsiderthatdeeprippingisatemporaryeffect(severalyears).
Definiteresultsfromchemicalandplantmanagementmightnotshowfor50years.

3.Tillage
Directseedingandleavingstrawonthesurfaceimprovesinfiltrationforraineventssothat
surfacerunoffandassociatederosionbecomesalmostzero. Directseeding(zerotillage)
disturbsonlyabout30%ofthesurfaceeachyearthuslargechannelscausedbyrootsand
burrowinginsects/animalsremainopenfromthesurfacetodeepwithinthesoil.Thuswaters
caninfiltratefaster. Strawprotectsthesoilsurfacefromraindropimpactwhichcancause
crustingandresultingrunoff

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INFILTRATION

MECAG309

No-till 5 yr
No-till 10 yr
No-till 13 yr
Conservation tillage
Summerfallow

Infiltration rate (cm/hr)

10
8
6
4
2
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Time from commencement of rain (minutes)

Infiltrationratesmeasuredwitharainfallsimulatoron5fieldsnearIndianHead,Sk

4.Baresoilandcrusting
Baresoilespeciallyonconstructionsites,roadsides,andagriculturalsoilsthathavelosttheir
topsoilareespeciallypronetorunoffanderosion. Organicmatterisessential togluing
togethersoilparticlesintowaterstableaggregatesthatareresistanttoraindropimpact. A
plant canopy also intercepts raindrops thus protecting the surface from crusting. Any
exposedsoilwithoutorganicmatterandvegetationneedssomeformofprotectionforrunoff
control.

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INFILTRATION

MECAG309

No-till for 5 yrs

No-till for 10 yrs
No-till for 13 yrs
Conservation tillage
Conventional Summerfallow

Soil Organic Matter (%)

6
5
4
3
2
1
20

30
40
50
60
70
80
Cumulative infiltration (mm) after 60 minutes

Cumulativeinfiltrationasrelatedtosoilorganicmatterin5agriculturalfieldsnearIndianHead,Sk

5.Rangeland
Infiltrationcapacityisreducedwithincreasedgrazingintensityandreducedrangecondition,
mainly through vegetation and litter removal, soil structure deterioration, and
compaction. ...Livingplantmaterialandassociatedlitteraremoresignificantlycorrelated
withinfiltrationthananyothermeasuredvariable.Plantmaterialincreasesinfiltrationrates
bydecreasingtheimpactofraindrops,improvingsoilstructurethroughformationoflarger
soil aggregates, and creating a rougher microtopography that increases infiltration
opportunity(Naethetal.,1990)

REFERENCES
Akram,M.andW.D.Kemper.1979.Infiltrationofsoilsasaffectedbythepressureand
watercontentatthetimeofcompaction.SoilSci.Am.J.43:10801086.
Bedwany, A.L. and A.E.S. Schumacher. 1976. A comparitve study of two methods of
infiltrationratemeasurementsonsomesoilsinLesotho.MontrealEngineeringCompany
Limited,Calgary,Alberta.11pp.
Bertrand,A.R.1965.Rateofwaterintakeinthefield.In:MethodsofSoilAnalysis,Part1;
PhysicalandMineralogicalProperties,IncludingStatisticsofMeasurementandSampling.
Black,C.A.(ed.).No9intheseriesAgronomy.Amer.Soc.ofAgron.pp197209.

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DeptofAgricultural&BioresourceEngineering,Univ.ofSaskatchewan

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INFILTRATION

Chou, V. 1964. Handbook of Applied Hydrology: A Compendium of Water Reservoir

Technology.McGrawHillBookCompany.NewYork.
FoodandAgriculturalOrganizationoftheUnitedNations.1979.SoilSurveyInvestigations
forIrrigation.PreparedbySoilResources,Man.andCons.Serv.LandandWaterRev.
Div.Rome,Italy.
Gardner,W.H.1979.Howwatermovesinthesoil.CropsandSoils.32:1318.
Hillel,D.1982.IntroductiontoSoilPhysics.AcademicPressInc.
Hills, R.C. 1971. Lateral flow under cylinder infiltrometers: A graphical correction
procedure.J.Hydrology13:153162.
Holtan,H.N.andM.H.Kirkpatrick.1950.Rainfall,infiltration,andhydraulicsofflowin
runoffcomputation.Trans.Am.Geophys.Union31:771779.
Miller,D.E. 1973. Waterretention andflow inlayered soilprofiles.In:Bruce,R.R.,
K.W.Flack,andH.M.Taylor(eds.)FieldSoilWaterRegime. Soil. Sci.Soc. Special
Publications:107117.
Parr,J.F.andA.R.Bertrand.1960.Waterinfiltrationintosoils.Adv.Agron.12:311363.
Richards, L.A. 1952. Report of the subcommittee on permeability and infiltration,
Committeeonterminology.SoilSci.Soc.Am.Proc.16:8588.
Swartzendruber,D.andT.C.Olson.1961.Modelstudyofthedoubleringinfiltrometeras
affectedbydepthofwettingandparticlesize.SoilSci.92:219225.

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DeptofAgricultural&BioresourceEngineering,Univ.ofSaskatchewan