This article is about the genus of flowering plants known as lavender.

For the most widely cultivated

species in that genus, see Lavandula angustifolia.
"Lavender" redirects here. For the color, see Lavender (color). For other uses, see Lavender
(disambiguation).
Lavender

Lavender flowers with bracts

Scientific classification
Kingdom:

Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order:

Lamiales

Family:

Lamiaceae

Subfamily:

Nepetoideae

Tribe:

Lavanduleae

Genus:

Lavandula

Type species
Lavandula spica
L.

Synonyms[1]

Stoechas

Fabricia

Styphonia

Chaetostachys

Sabaudia

Mill.

Adans.

Medik.

Benth.

Buscal. &

Muschl.

Isinia

Rech.f.

Lavandula (common name lavender) is a genus of 39 known species of flowering plants in the
mint family, Lamiaceae. It is native to the Old Worldand is found from Cape Verde and the Canary
Islands, southern Europe across to northern and eastern Africa, the Mediterranean, southwest Asia
to southeast India. Many members of the genus are cultivated extensively in temperate
climates as ornamental plants for garden and landscape use, for use as culinary herbs, and also
commercially for the extraction of essential oils. The most widely cultivated species, Lavandula
angustifolia, is often referred to as lavender, and there is a colour named for the shade of the flowers
of this species.
Contents
[hide]

1 Description

2 Nomenclature and taxonomy

3 Etymology

4 Cultivation

5 Lavender oil

6 Culinary use

7 Medical uses

8 Health precautions
o

8.1 Gynecomastia

8.2 Skin irritant

8.3 Photosensitivity

9 Other uses

10 In history and culture

11 Taxonomic table

12 Gallery

13 See also

14 References

15 Sources

16 External links

Description[edit]
The genus includes annual or short-lived herbaceous perennial plants, and shrub-like
perennials, subshrubs or small shrubs.[2]
Leaf shape is diverse across the genus. They are simple in some commonly cultivated species; in
others they are pinnately toothed, or pinnate, sometimes multiple pinnate and dissected. In most

species the leaves are covered in fine hairs or indumentum, which normally contain the essential
oils.[2]
Flowers are borne in whorls, held on spikes rising above the foliage, the spikes being branched in
some species. Some species produce coloured bracts at the apices. The flowers may be blue, violet
or lilac in the wild species, occasionally blackish purple or yellowish. The calyx is tubular.
Thecorolla is also tubular, usually with five lobes (the upper lip often cleft, and the lower lip has two
clefts).[2][3]

Nomenclature and taxonomy[edit]

L. stoechas, L. pedunculata and L. dentata were known in Roman times.[4] From the Middle Ages
onwards, the European species were considered two separate groups or genera, Stoechas(L.
stoechas, L. pedunculata, L. dentata) and Lavandula (L. spica and L. latifolia),
until Linnaeus combined them. He only recognised five species in Species Plantarum (1753), L.
multifidaand L. dentata (Spain) and L. stoechas and L. spica from Southern Europe. L.
pedunculata was included within L. stoechas.
By 1790 L. pinnata and L. carnosa were recognised. The latter was subsequently transferred
to Anisochilus. By 1826 Frdric Charles Jean Gingins de la Sarraz listed 12 species in three
sections, and by 1848 eighteen species were known.[4]
One of the first modern major classifications was that of Dorothy Chaytor in 1937 at Kew. The six
sections she proposed for 28 species still left many intermediates that could not easily be assigned.
Her sections included Stoechas, Spica, Subnudae, Pterostoechas, Chaetostachys and Dentatae.
However all the major cultivated and commercial forms resided in the Stoechasand Spica sections.
There were four species within Stoechas (Lavandula stoechas, L. dentata, L. viridis and L.
pedunculata) while Spica had three (L. officinalis (now L. angustifolia), L. latifolia and L. lanata). She
believed that the garden varieties were hybrids between true lavender L. angustifolia and spike
lavender (L. latifolia). [5]
More recently work has been done by Upson and Andrews, and currently Lavandula is considered to
have three subgenera.

Subgenus Lavandula is mainly of woody shrubs with entire leaves. It contains the principal
species grown as ornamental plants and for oils. They are found across the Mediterranean
region to northeast Africa and western Arabia.

Subgenus Fabricia consists of shrubs and herbs, and it has a wide distribution from the
Atlantic to India. It contains some ornamental plants.

Subgenus Sabaudia constitutes two species in the southwest Arabian peninsula and Eritrea,
which are rather distinct from the other species, and are sometimes placed in their own
genus Sabaudia.

In addition there are numerous hybrids and cultivars in commercial and horticultural usage. [2]

Etymology[edit]
The English word lavender is generally thought to be derived from Old French lavandre, ultimately
from the Latin lavare (to wash), referring to the use of infusions of the plants. [6] The botanic
name Lavandula as used by Linnaeus is considered to be derived from this and other European
vernacular names for the plants. However it is suggested that this explanation may be apocryphal,
and that the name may actually be derived from Latin livere, "blueish".[7]
The names widely used for some of the species, "English lavender", "French lavender" and "Spanish
lavender" are all imprecisely applied. "English lavender" is commonly used for L. angustifolia, though
some references say the proper term is "Old English Lavender". [8] The name "French lavender" may
be used to refer to either L. stoechas or to L. dentata. "Spanish lavender" may be used to refer to L.
stoechas, L. lanata or L. dentata.

Cultivation[edit]

A bee on a lavender flower

The most common form in cultivation is the common or English lavender Lavandula
angustifolia (formerly named L. officinalis). A wide range ofcultivars can be found. Other commonly
grown ornamental species are L. stoechas, L. dentata, and L. multifida (Egyptian lavender).

Because the cultivated forms are planted in gardens worldwide, they are occasionally found growing
wild as garden escapes, well beyond their natural range. Commonly such adventitious establishment
is apparently harmless at best, but in some cases Lavandula species have become invasive. For
example, in Australia, Lavandula stoechas has become a cause for concern; it occurs widely
throughout the continent, and has been declared a noxious weed in Victoria since 1920. [9] It also is
regarded as a weed in parts of Spain.[10]
Lavenders flourish best in dry, well-drained, sandy or gravelly soils in full sun. [11] All types need little
or no fertilizer and good air circulation. In areas of high humidity, root rot due to fungus infection can
be a problem. Organic mulches can trap moisture around the plants' bases, encouraging root rot.
Gravelly materials such as crushed rocks give better results.[12]

Lavender oil[edit]
Main article: Lavender oil
Commercially the plant is grown mainly for the production of essential oil of lavender. This
has antiseptic[13][14] and anti-inflammatory[15] properties. These extracts are also used as fragrances for
bath products.
English lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) yields an essential oil with sweet overtones, and can be
used in balms, salves, perfumes, cosmetics, and topical applications. Lavandin, Lavandula
intermedia (also known as Dutch lavender), yields a similar essential oil, but with higher levels
of terpenes including camphor, which add a sharper overtone to the fragrance.
The lavandins Lavandula intermedia are a class of hybrids of L. angustifolia and L. latifolia.[16] The
lavandins are widely cultivated for commercial use, since their flowers tend to be bigger than those
of English lavender and the plants tend to be easier to harvest, but lavandin oil is regarded by some
to be of a lower quality than that of English lavender, with a perfume less sweet. [17]

Culinary use[edit]

Lavender infused cupcakes

It is grown as a condiment and used in salads and dressings. [18] Flowers yield abundant nectar from
which bees make a high-quality honey.Monofloral honey is produced primarily around
the Mediterranean, and is marketed worldwide as a premium product. Flowers can be candied and
are sometimes used as cake decorations. Lavender flavours baked goods and desserts (it pairs
especially well with chocolate), and is also used to make "lavender sugar". [19] Lavender flowers are
occasionally blended with black, green, or herbal teas.
Though it has many other traditional uses in southern France, lavender is not used in traditional
southern French cooking. It does not appear at all in the best-known compendium of Provenal
cooking, J.-B. Reboul's Cuisinire Provenale [20] In the 1970s, a blend of herbs called herbes de
Provencewhich usually includes lavender was invented by spice wholesalers, [21] and lavender has
more recently become popular in cooking.
Lavender lends a floral and slightly sweet flavour to most dishes, and is sometimes paired with
sheep's-milk and goat's-milk cheeses. For most cooking applications the dried buds, which are also
referred to as flowers, are used. Some chefs experiment with the leaves but only the buds contain
the essential oil of lavender, from which the scent and flavour of lavender are derived. In the United
States, both lavender syrup and dried lavender buds are used to make
lavender scones and marshmallows.

Medical uses[edit]

Bunches of lavender for sale, intended to repel insects

See also: Therapeutic uses section of lavender oil article

The essential oil was used in hospitals during World War I.[11]
Lavender is used extensively with herbs such as chamomile and aromatherapy. Infusions are
believed to soothe insect bites, burns, and headaches.[citation needed] Bunches of lavender repel insects. In

pillows, lavender seeds and flowers aid sleep and relaxation.[11][medical citation needed] Aninfusion of flowerheads
added to a cup of boiling water is used to soothe and relax at bedtime [citation needed]. Lavender oil (or
extract of lavender) is used to treat acne when diluted 1:10 with water, rosewater, or witch hazel; it
also treats skin burns and inflammatory conditions.[citation needed]
A study published in 2010 investigated anxiolytic effects and influence on sleep quality. Lavender oil
with a high percentage of linalool and linalyl acetate, in the form of capsules, was generally well
tolerated. It showed meaningful efficacy in alleviating anxiety and related sleep disturbances.[22][non-primary
source needed]

Lavender oil is approved for use as an anxiolytic in Germany under the name Lasea.[23][24] A survey
paper on lavender and the nervous system published in 2013 states that, "there is growing evidence
suggesting that lavender oil may be an effective medicament in treatment of several neurological
disorders."[25]
Lavender may be very effective with wounds;[medical citation needed] however, lavender honey (created from
bees feeding on lavender plants), instead of lavender essential oil has the best effects of uninfected
wounds.[26]

Health precautions[edit]
The U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) states that lavender is considered likely safe in food
amounts and possibly safe in medicinal amounts. NIH does not recommend the use of lavender
while pregnant or breast-feeding because of lack of knowledge of its effects. It recommends caution
if young boys use lavender oil because of possible hormonal effects leading togynecomastia, and
states that lavender can cause skin irritation.[27][28]

Gynecomastia[edit]
See also: Contraindications section of lavender oil article
A study was published in 2007 on the use of lavender and gynecomastia in prepubescent boys.
[29]

Three young boys developed gynecomastia while using products containing lavender.[30]The boys

stopped using the products, and the gynecomastia went away. The researchers found that lavender
and tea tree oil can cause estrogenic and antiandrogenic activities in cell cultures, and the paper
states that "repeated topical exposure to lavender and tea tree oils probably caused prepubertal
gynecomastia in these boys." After the study was published The New England Journal of
Medicine received letters disputing the paper's findings, and the authors were allowed to respond. [31]

The Aromatherapy Trade Council of the UK and the Australian Tea Tree Association have published
rebuttals.[32][33]
The Aromatherapy Trade Council's rebuttal states among other things that:

It isn't likely that there would be sufficient lavender in the personal care products used in the
three cases to cause an endocrine effect.

The gyncomastia might have come from another source. The rebuttal states that although
endocrine disruptors such as medications, oral contraceptives, marijuana and soy products were
considered other disruptors such as organochloride pesticides, PCBs, polychlorinated dioxins,
alkyl phenols, pthalates, and parabens were not. The paper states that it is not clear that the
lavender and/or tea tree oil caused the gynecomastia but say that, "other components in these
products may also possess endocrine-disrupting activity that contributed to the gynecomastia,
but those components were not tested because we chose to evaluate only the component that
was found in all the products used by the patients (lavender oil) and a chemically similar
component that was found in some of the products (tea tree oil)."[30]

The rebuttal points out that lavender is in widespread use saying, "considering that some
200 tonnes per annum are produced of both lavender and tea tree oil, that most of this goes into
personal care products, and that very little of the evidence presented for these 3 cases is
convincing, the press reports of caution are premature."

The Australian Tea Tree Industry Association rebuttal states that various other plants have estrogen
inducing effects in essential oil form, including, "soy, hops, garbanzo beans, red clover, lentils,
flaxseed, sunflower seeds, alfalfa sprouts, liquorice, and ginseng."[33]
A study published in 2010 from the Research Institute for Fragrance Materials did not find estrogenic
activity from lavender oil in laboratory animals.[34] A newer version of the paper became available in
2013.

Skin irritant[edit]
In 2004 a study was published which found that, "lavender oil is cytotoxic to human skin cells in
vitro".[35] On the other hand, aromatherapist Robert Tisserand points out in a blog post that: "Any type
of in vitro test is only suggestive of a possible effect. You can never assume that the same effect will
take place in the living body."[36]

A review published in 2005 on lavender essential oil states that, "Lavender is traditionally regarded
as a 'safe' oil and, although it was recently reported that lavender oil, and its major constituent linalyl
acetate, are toxic to human skin cells in vitro, contact dermatitis to lavender oil appears to occur at
only a very low frequency."[37]

Photosensitivity[edit]
A study was published in 2007 which looked a the relationship between various fragrances
and photosensitivity. The study stated that lavender is known "to elicit cutaneous phototoxic
reactions". However, the research did not find that lavender induced photohaemolysis.[38]

Other uses[edit]

Lavender products for sale at the San Francisco Farmers Market.

Flower spikes are used for dried flower arrangements. The fragrant, pale purple flowers and flower
buds are used in potpourris. Lavender is also used extensively as herbal filler inside sachets used to
freshen linens. Dried and sealed in pouches, lavender flowers are placed among stored items of
clothing to give a fresh fragrance and to deter moths. Dried lavender flowers have become recently
popular for wedding confetti. Lavender is also popular in scented waters and sachets.

In history and culture[edit]

The ancient Greeks called the lavender herb nardus, after the Syrian city of Naarda (possibly the
modern town of Dohuk, Iraq). It was also commonly called nard.[39] The species originally grown
was L. stoechas.[2]
Lavender was one of the holy herbs used in the biblical Temple to prepare the holy essence,
and nard ('nerd' in Hebrew) is mentioned in the Song of Solomon (4,14)
nard and saffron,[40]
calamus and cinnamon,

with every kind of incense tree,

with myrrh and aloes,
and all the finest spices.[41]
During Roman times, flowers were sold for 100 denarii per pound, which was about the same as a
month's wages for a farm laborer, or fifty haircuts from the local barber. Its late Latin name
was lavandrius, from lavanda (things to be washed), from the verb lavre (to wash).[42] The Greeks
discovered early on that lavender if crushed and treated correctly would release a relaxing fume
when burned.[citation needed]
In medieval times powdered lavender was used as a condiment. [43]

Taxonomic table[edit]

Different lavender cultivars grown atSnowshill, Cotswolds.

This is based on the classification of Upson and Andrews, 2004.

Lavender field in Carshalton, London Borough of Sutton.

I. Subgenus Lavandula Upson & S.Andrews subgen. nov.

i. Section Lavandula (3 species)

Lavandula angustifolia Mill.

subsp. angustifolia from Catalonia and the Pyrenees.

subsp. pyrenaica from southeast France and adjacent areas of Italy.

Lavandula latifolia Medik native to central and eastern Spain, southern France,
northern Italy.

Lavandula lanata Boiss. native to southern Spain.

Hybrids

Lavandula chaytorae Upson & S. Andrews nothosp. nov. (L. angustifolia subsp. angustifolia L.
lanata )

Lavandula intermedia Emeric ex Loisel. (L. angustifolia subsp. angustifolia L. latifolia )

ii. Section Dentatae Suarez-Cerv. & Seoane-Camba (1 species)

Lavandula dentata L. from eastern Spain, northern Algeria and Morocco, southwestern
Morocco.

var. dentata (rosea, albiflora), candicans (persicina) [Batt.]

iii. Section Stoechas Ging. (3 species)

Lavandula stoechas L.

subsp. stoechas from mostly coastal regions of eastern Spain, southern France, western
Italy, Greece, Mediterranean Turkey, Levantine coast, and most Mediterranean islands.
subspp. luisieri native to coastal and inland Portugal and adjacent Spain.

Lavandula pedunculata Mill.(Cav.)

subsp. pedunculata Spain and Portugal.

subsp. cariensis from western Turkey.
subsp. atlantica from montane Morocco.
subsp. lusitanica southern Portugal and southwestern Spain.
subsp. sampaiana from Portugal and southwest Spain.

Lavandula viridis L'Her. native to southwest Spain,

southern Portugal, and possibly also to Madeira.

Intersectional hybrids (Dentatae and Lavendula)

Lavandula heterophylla Viv. (L. dentata L. latifolia )

Lavandula allardii

Lavandula ginginsii Upson & S. Andrews nothosp. nov. (L. dentata L. lanata )
II. Subgenus Fabricia (Adams.) Upson & S. Andrews, comb.nov.

iv. Section Pterostoechas Ging. (16 species)

Lavandula multifida L. is native to a wide range including Morocco, southern Portugal

and Spain, norther Algeria, Tunisia, Tripolitania, Calabria and Sicily, with isolated
populations in the Nile valley.

Lavandula canariensis Mill., from the Canaries.

subsp. palmensis from La Palma.

subsp. hierrensis from El Hierro.
subsp. canariensis from Tenerife.
subsp. canariae from Gran Canaria.
subsp. fuerteventurae from Fuerteventura.
subsp. gomerensis from La Gomera.
subsp. lancerottensis from Lanzarote.

Lavandula minutolii Bolle Canary Isles.

subsp. minutolii
subsp. tenuipinna

Lavandula bramwellii Upson & S. Andrews from Gran

Canaria.

Lavandula pinnata L. from the Canaries and also

Madeira.

Lavandula buchii Webb & Berthel. Tenerife.

Lavandula rotundifolia Benth. Cape Verde Islands.

Lavandula maroccana Murb. Atlas mountains of

Morocco.

Lavandula tenuisecta Coss. ex Ball Atlas mountains

in Morocco.

Lavandula rejdalii Upson & Jury Morocco.

Lavandula mairei Humbert Morocco.

Lavandula coronopifoliaPoir. This has a wide

distribution, from Cape Verde across North Africa,
the northeast of tropical Africa, Arabia to eastern
Iran.

Lavandula saharica Upson & Jury southern Algeria

and nearby regions.

Lavandula antineae Maire central Sahara region.

subsp. antinae
subsp. marrana
subsp. tibestica

Lavandula pubescens Decne. from

Egypt and Eritrea, Sinai, Israel and
Palestine, Jordan, western Arabian
peninsula to Yemen.

Lavandula citriodora A.G. Mill.

southwestern Arabian peninsula.

Hybrids

Lavandula christiana Gattef. & Maire (L. pinnata L. canariensis)

v. Section Subnudae Chaytor (10 species)

Lavandula subnuda Benth. from the mountains of Oman and the United Arab Emirates.

Lavandula macra Baker southern Arabian peninsula and northern Somalia.

Lavandula dhofarensis A.G. Mill. from Dhofar in southern Oman.

subsp. dhofarensis
subsp. ayunensis

Lavandula samhanensis Upson & S. Andrews sp. nov. Dhofar, Oman.

Lavandula setifera T. Anderson from coastal regions of Yemen and Somalia.

Lavandula qishnensis Upson & S. Andrews sp. nov. southern Yemen.

Lavandula nimmoi Benth. from Socotra.

Lavandula galgalloensis A.G. Mill. northern Somalia.

Lavandula aristibracteata A.G. Mill. northern Somalia.

Lavandula somaliensis Chaytor northern Somalia.

vi. Section Chaetostachys Benth. (2 species)

Lavandula bipinnata (Roth) Kuntze from the Deccan peninsula and central north India.

Lavandula gibsonii J. Graham Western Ghats, India.

vii. Section Hasikenses Upson & S. Andrews, sect. nov. (2 species)

Lavandula hasikensis A.G. Mill. Oman.

Lavandula sublepidota Rech. f. Far, in southern Iran.

III. Subgenus Sabaudia (Buscal. & Muschl.) Upson & S. Andrews, comb.
et stat. nov.

viii. Section Sabaudia (Buscal. & Muschl.) Upson & S. Andrews, comb. et stat. nov. (2 species)

Lavandula atriplicifolia Benth. western Arabian peninsula, Egypt.

Lavandula erythraeae (Chiov.) Cufod. from Eritrea.

Gallery[edit]

Lavender flower

Flower of cultivated lavender; Lavandula stoechas

Lavander garden, India

A field of lavender in France

A field of lavender on the edge of the London Borough of Sutton, England

Lavender and honeybees outside Aix-en-Provence, France

See also[edit]

Lavender oil

Lavender (color)

References[edit]
1.

Jump up^ Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families

2.

^ Jump up to:a b c d e Upson T, Andrews S (2004). The Genus Lavandula. Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew 2004. ISBN 9780881926422. Retrieved 2012-03-30.

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Jump up^ L. H. Bailey. Manual of Cultivated Plants. MacMillan Publishing Company.

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^ Jump up to:a b Lis-Balchin M, ed. (2002). Lavender: The genus Lavandula. Taylor and
Francis.ISBN 9780203216521.

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Jump up^ Chaytor D A. A taxonomic study of the genus Lavandula. 1937

6.

Jump up^ Concise Oxford Dictionary

7.

Jump up^ The alternative derivation of the name lavender from Latin livere and medieval
Latin lavindula is given in Upson and Andrews, where it is presented as a conjecture. The problems
with the standard derivation are also described; such as that there is no knowledge of the common
use of lavender for washing by Greeks and Romans.

8.

Jump up^ Hillier

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Jump up^ Carr, G.W, Yugovic, J.V and Robinson, K.E.. `Environmental Weed Invasions in
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Harvesting Curing and Uses (ENGLISH). Orange Judd Company.

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(2010). "Silexan, an orally administered Lavandula oil preparation, is effective in the treatment of
'subsyndromal' anxiety disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial".International
clinical psychopharmacology 25 (5): 27787.doi:10.1097/YIC.0b013e32833b3242. PMID 20512042.

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Jump up^ Catriona Jones (November 2011). "The efficacy of lavender oil on perineal trauma:
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2012. Retrieved 2013-11-05.

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Alternative Medicine. March 2007. Retrieved 2013-11-05.

29.

Jump up^ Miranda Hitti; Reviewer Louise Chang MD (31 January 2007). "Lavender Oil May
Spur Breasts in Boys". WebMD, LLC. Retrieved 2013-11-06.

30.

^ Jump up to:a b Henley, Derek V.; Lipson, Natasha; Korach, Kenneth S.; Bloch, Clifford A.
(2007)."Prepubertal Gynecomastia Linked to Lavender and Tea Tree Oils". New England Journal of
Medicine 356 (5): 479 85. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa064725. PMID 17267908.

31.

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Boys". Aromatherapy Trade Council. 3 April 2007. Retrieved 2013-11-06.

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^ Jump up to:a b "ATTIA refutes gynecomastia link". Australian Tea Tree Industry Association.
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34.

Jump up^ Politano, VT.; McGinty, D.; Lewis, EM.; Hoberman, EM; Christian; Diener, RM; Api,
AM (MarApr 2013). "Uterotrophic assay of percutaneous lavender oil in immature female
rats.".International journal of toxicology 32 (2): 123
9. doi:10.1177/1091581812472209.PMID 23358464. |first6= missing |last6= in Authors list
(help)

35.

Jump up^ Prashar, A.; Locke, IC.; Evans, CS. (Jun 2004). "Cytotoxicity of lavender oil and its
major components to human skin cells.". Cell Prolif 37 (3): 2219. doi:10.1111/j.13652184.2004.00307.x. PMID 15144499.

36.

Jump up^ Tisserand, Robert (25 August 2011). "Lavender oil skin savior or skin irritant?
Robert Tisserand". Retrieved 2013-11-06.

37.

Jump up^ Cavanagh, Heather MA; Wilkinson, Jenny M (March 2005). "Lavender essential
oil: a review"(PDF). Australian Infection Control (CSIRO Publishing). Retrieved 2013-11-06.

38.

Jump up^ Placzek, M.; Frmel, W.; Eberlein, B.; Gilbertz, KP.; Przybilla, B. (2007).
"Evaluation of phototoxic properties of fragrances.". Acta Derm Venereol 87 (4): 312
6. doi:10.2340/00015555-0251 (inactive 2015-01-01). PMID 17598033. Also, oils of lemon, lavender,
lime, sandalwood and cedar are known to elicit cutaneous phototoxic reactions, but lavender,
sandalwood and cedar oil did not induce photohaemolysis in our assay...Lavender oil and sandalwood
oil did not induce photohaemolysis in our test system. However, a few reports on photosensitivity
reactions due to these substances have been published, e.g. one patient with persistent light reaction
and a positive photo-patch test to sandalwood oil (20).

39.

Jump up^ The origin of most of these quotes comes from Dr. William Thomas Fernie, in his
book "Herbal Simples" (Bristol Pub., 1895. ASIN: B0014W4WNE). A digital copy of the book can be
read online via google books. 'By the Greeks the name Nardus is given to Lavender, from Naarda, a
city of Syria near the Euphrates, and many persons call the plant "Nard." St. Mark mentions this as
Spikenard, a thing of great value. In Pliny's time, blossoms of the Nardus sold for a hundred Roman
denarii (or L.3 2s. 6d.) the pound. This Lavender or Nardus was called Asarum by the Romans,
because it was not used in garlands or chaplets. It was formerly believed that the asp, a dangerous
kind of viper, made Lavender its habitual place of abode, so that the plant had to be approached with
great caution.'

40.

Jump up^ "Song of Solomon". Bible Gateway.

41.

Jump up^ The assumption of the history of Lavender, originating from Naarda, along with the
facts about the price in Roman time, are quoted widely throuout the web (over 350 entries in a google
search) calling the city Naarda, Nerdus or Nardus. The Bible has many mentions of a fragrant plant
called "Nerd" and the Mishna recited daily in Jewish prayers, refers to "Shibolet Nerd" (Hebrew for
"Nard Spike") as one of the herbs used for making the holy essence at the biblical Temple. Dr. Fernie
is the first known to link "Nard" with the city of Nerdus Naarda, one of the major cities of Jewish
study and origin of the Talmud, during the years A.D. 1501100. Since Naarda or Neharde'a river of
'A was on a canal between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, it could never have been a Syrian city,
but rather in present day Iraq, somewhere in the Baghdadarea. Dr Fernie refers widely to Jewish
studies, probably quoted from a former botanist Robert Turner.

42.

Jump up^ "Oxford English Dictionary" (second ed.). 1989. |chapter= ignored (help) Note
however that Upson and Andrews refer to research on bathing in the Roman Empire, and state that
there is no mention of the use of lavender in works on this subject.

43.

Jump up^ Grieve

Sources[edit]