Educational emphases

Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner of Harvard has identified seven distinct intelligences. This theory has
emerged from recent cognitive research and "documents the extent to which students
possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember, perform, and
understand in different ways," according to Gardner (1991). According to this theory,
"we are all able to know the world through language, logical-mathematical analysis,
spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to
make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves.
Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences - the so-called profile of
intelligences -and in the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and combined to
carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in various domains."
Gardner says that these differences "challenge an educational system that assumes
that everyone can learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform,
universal measure suffices to test student learning. Indeed, as currently constituted, our
educational system is heavily biased toward linguistic modes of instruction and
assessment and, to a somewhat lesser degree, toward logical-quantitative modes as
well." Gardner argues that "a contrasting set of assumptions is more likely to be
educationally effective. Students learn in ways that are identifiably distinctive. The broad
spectrum of students - and perhaps the society as a whole - would be better served if
disciplines could be presented in a numbers of ways and learning could be assessed
through a variety of means." The learning styles are as follows:
Visual-Spatial - think in terms of physical space, as do architects and sailors. Very
aware of their environments. They like to draw, do jigsaw puzzles, read maps,
daydream. They can be taught through drawings, verbal and physical imagery. Tools
include models, graphics, charts, photographs, drawings, 3-D modeling, video,
videoconferencing, television, multimedia, texts with pictures/charts/graphs.
Bodily-kinesthetic - use the body effectively, like a dancer or a surgeon. Keen sense of
body awareness. They like movement, making things, touching. They communicate well
through body language and be taught through physical activity, hands-on learning,
acting out, role playing. Tools include equipment and real objects.
Musical - show sensitivity to rhythm and sound. They love music, but they are also
sensitive to sounds in their environments. They may study better with music in the
background. They can be taught by turning lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically,
tapping out time. Tools include musical instruments, music, radio, stereo, CD-ROM,
multimedia.

Interpersonal - understanding, interacting with others. These students learn through

interaction. They have many friends, empathy for others, street smarts. They can be
taught through group activities, seminars, dialogues. Tools include the telephone, audio
conferencing, time and attention from the instructor, video conferencing, writing,
computer conferencing, E-mail.
Intrapersonal - understanding one's own interests, goals. These learners tend to shy
away from others. They're in tune with their inner feelings; they have wisdom, intuition
and motivation, as well as a strong will, confidence and opinions. They can be taught
through independent study and introspection. Tools include books, creative materials,
diaries, privacy and time. They are the most independent of the learners.
Linguistic - using words effectively. These learners have highly developed auditory
skills and often think in words. They like reading, playing word games, making up poetry
or stories. They can be taught by encouraging them to say and see words, read books
together. Tools include computers, games, multimedia, books, tape recorders, and
lecture.
Logical -Mathematical - reasoning, calculating. Think conceptually, abstractly and are
able to see and explore patterns and relationships. They like to experiment, solve
puzzles, ask cosmic questions. They can be taught through logic games, investigations,
mysteries. They need to learn and form concepts before they can deal with details.
At first, it may seem impossible to teach to all learning styles. However, as we move into
using a mix of media or multimedia, it becomes easier. As we understand learning
styles, it becomes apparent why multimedia appeals to learners and why a mix of media
is more effective. It satisfies the many types of learning preferences that one person
may embody or that a class embodies. A review of the literature shows that a variety of
decisions must be made when choosing media that is appropriate to learning style.
Visuals: Visual media help students acquire concrete concepts, such as object
identification, spatial relationship, or motor skills where words alone are inefficient.
Printed words: There is disagreement about audio's superiority to print for affective
objectives; several models do not recommend verbal sound if it is not part of the task to
be learned.
Sound: A distinction is drawn between verbal sound and non-verbal sound such as
music. Sound media are necessary to present a stimulus for recall or sound recognition.
Audio narration is recommended for poor readers.
Motion: Models force decisions among still, limited movement, and full movement
visuals. Motion is used to depict human performance so that learners can copy the
movement. Several models assert that motion may be unnecessary and provides
decision aid questions based upon objectives. Visual media which portray motion are

best to show psychomotor or cognitive domain expectations by showing the skill as a

model against which students can measure their performance.
Color: Decisions on color display are required if an object's color is relevant to what is
being learned.
Realia: Realia are tangible, real objects which are not models and are useful to teach
motor and cognitive skills involving unfamiliar objects. Realia are appropriate for use
with individuals or groups and may be situation based. Realia may be used to present
information realistically but it may be equally important that the presentation
corresponds with the way learner's represent information internally.
Instructional Setting: Design should cover whether the materials are to be used in a
home or instructional setting and consider the size what is to be learned. Print
instruction should be delivered in an individualized mode which allows the learner to set
the learning pace. The ability to provide corrective feedback for individual learners is
important but any medium can provide corrective feedback by stating the correct
answer to allow comparison of the two answers.
Learner Characteristics: Most models consider learner characteristics as media may
be differentially effective for different learners. Although research has had limited
success in identifying the media most suitable for types of learners several models are
based on this method.
Reading ability: Pictures facilitate learning for poor readers who benefit more from
speaking than from writing because they understand spoken words; self-directed good
readers can control the pace; and print allows easier review.
Categories of Learning Outcomes: Categories ranged from three to eleven and most
include some or all of Gagne's (1977) learning categories; intellectual skills, verbal
information, motor skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies. Several models suggest a
procedure which categorizes learning outcomes, plans instructional events to teach
objectives, identifies the type of stimuli to present events, and media capable of
presenting the stimuli.
Events of Instruction: The external events which support internal learning processes
are called events of instruction. The events of instruction are planned before selecting
the media to present it.
Performance: Many models discuss eliciting performance where the student practices
the task which sets the stage for reinforcement. Several models indicate that the elicited
performance should be categorized by type; overt, covert, motor, verbal, constructed,
and select. Media should be selected which is best able to elicit these responses and
the response frequency. One model advocates a behavioral approach so that media is
chosen to elicit responses for practice. To provide feedback about the student's
response, an interactive medium might be chosen, but any medium can provide

feedback. Learner characteristics such as error proneness and anxiety should influence
media selection.
Testing which traditionally is accomplished through print, may be handled by electronic
media. Media are better able to assess learners' visual skills than are print media and
can be used to assess learner performance in realistic situations.
from "The Distance Learning Technology Resource Guide," by Carla Lane

Like most teachers, you're probably familiar with Howard Gardner's theory on multiple intelligences that there are
eight different types of intelligence and that these intelligences guide the way we learn and process information. What
you may not be as familiar with is how to apply a multiple intelligence approach to learning in your classroom.
Start with this checklist. Use it to refresh your memory on each of the intelligences and pinpoint learning activities that
will appeal to your students based on their particular strengths. To involve students in identifying their multiple
intelligences, invite them to complete The Connell Multiple Intelligence Questionnaire for Children. They will find
it exciting to see the areas they are strongest in, and to understand how these might be affecting their schoolwork.

Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smart)

Description: Verbal-linguistic students love words and use them as a primary way of thinking and solving problems.
They are good writers, speakers, or both. They use words to persuade, argue, entertain, and/or teach.
Learning Activities and Project Ideas:

Completing crossword puzzles with vocabulary words.

Playing games like Scrabble, Scrabble Junior, or Boggle.
Writing short stories for a classroom newsletter.
Writing feature articles for the school newspaper.
Writing a letter to the editor in response to articles.
Writing to state representatives about local issues.
Using digital resources such as electronic libraries, desktop publishing, word games, and word processing.
Creating poems for a class poetry book.
Entering their original poems in a poetry contest.
Listening to a storyteller.
Studying the habits of good speakers.
Telling a story to the class.
Participating in debates.

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (Math Smart)

Description: Logical-mathematical students enjoy working with numbers. They can easily interpret data and analyze
abstract patterns. They have a well-developed ability to reason and are good at chess and computer programming.
They think in terms of cause and effect.
Learning Activities and Project Ideas:

Playing math games like mancala, dominoes, chess, checkers, and Monopoly.
Searching for patterns in the classroom, school, outdoors, and home.
Conducting experiments to demonstrate science concepts.
Using math and science software such as Math Blaster, which reinforces math skills, or King's Rule, a logic
game.

Using science tool kits for science programs.

Designing alphabetic and numeric codes.
Making up analogies.

Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)

Description: Students strong in spatial intelligence think and process information in pictures and images. They have
excellent visual receptive skills and excellent fine motor skills. Students with this intelligence use their eyes and
hands to make artistic or creatively designed projects. They can build with Legos, read maps, and put together 1,000piece jigsaw puzzles.
Learning Activities and Project Ideas:

Taking photographs for assignments and classroom newsletters.

Taking photographs for the school yearbook, school newsletter, or science assignments.
Using clay or play dough to make objects or represent concepts from content-area lessons.
Using pictorial models such as flow charts, visual maps, Venn diagrams, and timelines to connect new
material to known information.
Taking notes using concept mapping, mind mapping, and clustering.
Using puppets to act out and reinforce concepts learned in class.
Using maps to study geographical locations discussed in class.
Illustrating poems for the class poetry book by drawing or using computer software.
Using virtual-reality system software.

Musical Intelligence (Music Smart)

Description: Musical students think, feel, and process information primarily through sound. They have a superior
ability to perceive, compose, and/or perform music. Musically smart people constantly hear musical notes in their
head.

Learning Activities and Project Ideas:

Writing their own songs and music about content-area topics.

Putting original poems to music, and then performing them for the class.
Setting a poem to music, and then performing it for the class.
Incorporating a poem they have written with a melody they already know.
Listening to music from different historical periods.
Tape recording a poem over "appropriate" background music (i.e., soft music if describing a kitten, loud
music if they are mad about pollution).
Using rhythm and clapping to memorize math facts and other content-area information.
Listening to CDs that teach concepts like the alphabet, parts of speech, and states and capitals
(i.e.,Schoolhouse Rock!).

Bodily-Kinesthetic (Body Smart)

Description: Bodily-kinesthetic students are highly aware of the world through touch and movement. There is a
special harmony between their bodies and their minds. They can control their bodies with grace, expertise, and
athleticism.
Learning Activities and Project Ideas:

Creating costumes for role-playing, skits, or simulations.

Performing skits or acting out scenes from books or key historical events.
Designing props for plays and skits.
Playing games like Twister and Simon Says.
Using charades to act out characters in a book, vocabulary words, animals, or other content-area topics.
Participating in scavenger hunts, searching for items related to a theme or unit.
Acting out concepts. For example, for the solar system, "student planets" circle around a "student sun."
Students line up appropriately to demonstrate events in a history timeline.
Participating in movement breaks during the day.
Building objects using blocks, cubes, or Legos to represent concepts from content-area lessons.
Using electronic motion-simulation games and hands-on construction kits that interface with computers.

Interpersonal (People Smart)

Description: Students strong in interpersonal intelligence have a natural ability to interact with, relate to, and get
along with others effectively. They are good leaders. They use their insights about others to negotiate, persuade, and
obtain information. They like to interact with others and usually have lots of friends.
Learning Activities and Project Ideas:

Working in cooperative groups to design and complete projects.

Working in pairs to learn math facts.

Interviewing people with knowledge about content-area topics (such as a veteran to learn about World War
II, a lab technician to learn about life science, or a politician to understand the election process).
Tutoring younger students or classmates.
Using puppets to put on a puppet show.

Intrapersonal Intelligence (Self Smart)

Description: People with a strong intrapersonal intelligence have a deep awareness of their feelings, ideas, and
goals. Students with this intelligence usually need time alone to process and create.
Learning Activities and Project Ideas:

Writing reflective papers on content-area topics.

Writing essays from the perspective of historical figures, such as Civil War soldiers or suffragettes.
Writing a literary autobiography, reflecting on their reading life.
Writing goals for the future and planning ways to achieve them.
Using software that allows them to work alone, such as Decisions, Decisions, a personal choice software, or
the Perfect Career, a career choice software.
Keeping journals or logs throughout the year.
Making a scrapbook for their poems, papers, and reflections.

Naturalistic Intelligence (Nature Smart)

Description: This intelligence refers to a person's natural interest in the environment. These people enjoy being in
nature and want to protect it from pollution. Students with strong naturalistic intelligence easily recognize and
categorize plants, animals, and rocks.

Caring for classroom plants.

Caring for classroom pets.
Sorting and classifying natural objects, such as leaves and rocks.
Researching animal habitats.
Observing natural surroundings.
Organizing or participating in park/playground clean-ups, recycling drives, and beautification projects.

Technology and Multiple Intelligences

What are the multiple intelligences?
What do they have to do with technology?
How can I incorporate these ideas into teaching and learning?

In his 1983 book called Frames of Mind, Howard Gardner of Harvard University identified seven
intelligences we all possess. Because our understanding of the brain and human behavior is constantly
changing, the number of intelligences is expanding. Two to three new intelligences
had been added recently. Gardner claims that we all have all the intelligences, but
that no two people are exactly alike.
Read Concept to Classroom: Multiple Intelligences.This web project answers a
series of common questions about Howard Gardner's Multiple
Intelligences.
Go to Project Zero to learn more about Howard Gardner's projects at Harvard. Then
learn more about Howard Gardner. For some insights into the way the theory has
evolved, read his PDF article titled Multiple Intelligences after Twenty Years.
Originally, Gardner developed the list as a theoretical model about the psychology of the mind, rather than
a practical way to address individual differences. However, by understanding a student's strengths and
weaknesses in each intelligence, we can help students become more successful. He also notes that
integrating multiple intelligences into the classroom involves changing our idea about teaching and
learning. It requires addressing individual differences and providing a range of activities and experiences
to facilitate learning.
Technology can be used to facilitate learning in each intelligence area. There is no "right way" to integrate
intelligences or technology into the classroom. The key is to provide the most effective learning
environment for students.
Read The Key Learning Community: Cultivating "Multiple Intelligences" from Edutopia. Watch the
Quicktime videos. You'll need aQuickTime player to view videos.
Currently, Howard Gardner has identified nine intelligences. Click on each intelligence below to learn
more about it and technology tools that support classroom activities (Teacher Tap Pages.

Verbal-Linguistic

Logical/Mathematical

Visual/Spatial

Bodily/Kinesthetic

Musical/Rhythmic

Intrapersonal

Interpersonal

Naturalist

Existentialist

Multiple Intelligence
If you'd like to learn more about Multiple Intelligence, use the following resources.
Creating 'Windows into Learner's Minds': Multiple Intelligences and Portfolios - This article
highlights a new book and provides some examples.
Project Zero - About Howard Gardner - This page provides basic information about Howard Gardner
and his ideas
M.I. Smart! Program - This is the best place to start your exploration of Multiple Intelligences. It contains
a great overview, links to each intelligence, a MI Diagram and Links to Multiple Intelligence articles.
Multiple Intelligences - This single page site provides an overview of each intelligence and examples for
teachers and parents.
Multiple Intelligences: A Theory for Everyone - This Education World page provides an overview of
Multiple Intelligences.
Multiple Intelligences: It's Not How Smart You Are, It's How You're Smart! - Another Education World
Article:
NEA Today Interview with Howard Gardner - This interview provides a nice overview of the model and
the perspectives of Howard Gardner.
Research Results of a Multiple Intelligences Classroom by Bruce Campbell - This short article
provides an overview of research in multiple intelligences in the classroom.
Some MI Links - This page provides some great links.
Tapped Into Multiple Intelligences - This online workshop takes you through descriptions, examples,
and discussion.
Use All Your Smarts: Multiple Intelligences for Diverse Library Learners - This website by Katherine
Holmes of Lesley University Library explores how to use multiple intelligences to address diverse needs.

Technology and Multiple Intelligences

Activity Chart - Explore this Multiple Intelligences activity chart.
Do Technology Based Lessons Meet the Needs of Student Learning Styles? - This article focuses on
learning styles, technology, and lesson planning.
How Technology Enhances Howard Gardner's Eight Intelligences - This article focuses on each
intelligence and provide technology ideas.
Match Multiple Intelligences with Technology - This page was designed for a workshop in matching
multiple intelligences with technology.
Multimedia and Multiple Intelligences - In this excellent 1996 article, Shirley Veenema and Howard
Gardner describe the potential of technology and multiple intelligences.
Multiple Intelligences Activities - Lesson plans with lots of ideas.

Multiple Intelligences and Technology - Find ways to link technology and multiple intelligences
Multiple Intelligences and Technology - This online article focuses on the theory behind multiple
intelligences and technology.
Science, Multimedia, & Multiple Intelligences - This page defines multimedia and multiple intelligences
and gives examples of these in the classroom.
Using Multiple Intelligences in Project-based Learning - This website provides checklists, ideas, and
assessments related to multiple intelligences and project-based learning.

Student Projects and Lessons Based on Multiple Intelligences Ideas

A Journey through the Rainforest - Explore this elementary project about the rainforest that
incorporates aspects of multiple intelligences.
Best Practices of Technology Integration - This Michigan project contains wonderful, technology-rich
lessons for all grade levels.
Harvard Project Zero - This Harvard University Project focuses on understanding learning and
specifically multiple intelligences. The research project section contains links to information about to past
and present research projects.
Multiple Intelligences by Lesson - This website provides great examples of combining multiple
intelligences and technology into meaningful lessons.
Project SUMIT (Schools Using Multiple Intelligence Theory) - This website documents how schools
are using multiple intelligence theory.
Utilizing Technology to Address the Multiple Intelligences - This project was done by teacher
education students to demonstrate how multiple intelligences and technology could be integrated into the
a project on the Civil War.

Multiple Intelligences Surveys

Multiple Intelligences Self-Profile

Playground Games Project

Teacher Inventory

Build A Project
Select a topic and brainstorm outcomes and technology-rich activities that fit all the
intelligences.

Multiple Intelligences Chart

How do you ensure all of your students' intelligences are being tapped? Here is a list of activities that
speak to each intelligence.

Verbal-Linguistic

Logical-Mathematical

Visual-Spatial

Bodily-Kinesthetic

choral speaking

problem solving

graphing

hands on experiments

declarizing

measuring

photographing

activities

storytelling

coding

making visual
metaphors

changing room
arrangement

retelling

sequencing
critical thinking

making visual
analogies

creative movement

speaking
debating

predicting

mapping stories

presenting

playing logic games

making 3D projects

physical education
activities

reading aloud

collecting data

painting

crafts

dramatizing

experimenting

illustrating

dramatizing

book making

solving puzzles

using charts

using cooperative
groups

nonfiction reading

classifying

using organizers

going on field trips

dancing
researching

using manipulatives

visualizing

listening

learning the scientific

model

sketching
patterning

process writing
using money

visual puzzles

writing journals
using geometry

Musical

Interpersonal

Intrapersonal

Naturalistic

humming

classroom parties

personal response

reading outside

rapping

peer editing

individual study

cloud watching

playing background
music

cooperative learning

personal goal setting

identifying insects

sharing

individual projects

building habitats

patterns

group work

journal log keeping

identifying plants

form

forming clubs

personal choice in
projects

using a microscope

playing instruments

peer teaching

dissecting
independent reading

tapping out poetic

rhythms

social awareness

going on a nature walk

conflict mediation

build a garden

discussing

studying the stars

cross age tutoring

bird watching

study group

collecting rocks

brainstorming

making bird feeders

rhyming
singing

going to the zoo

Naturalist Intelligence
Students with naturalist intelligence are those who seem to be in love with the
natural world. They like to spend time there, they thrive there, they are skilled and
confident and comfortable there, and they learn best there in short, they are
nature smart.
Helping all students develop their "nature smarts" is a transformative gift we
teachers can give to the world.

Many educators know of young students who know all there is to know about dinosaurs,
butterflies, fish, rocks, etc. They have a deep interest in and fascination with something in
nature and are driven to investigate and become an "expert" in a particular natural subject.
These are the students who exhibit naturalist intelligence.
Karen Roth, in The Naturalist Intelligence: An Introduction to Gardner's Eighth
Intelligence

In 1983, Harvard University's Howard Gardner proposed a theory that there are multiple
intelligences, seven in all. He has since added an eighth, the naturalist intelligence (and
more recently, the "existential intelligence": the ability and proclivity to pose and ponder
questions about life, death, and ultimate realities).
1.

verbal/linguistic intelligence or "word smart"

2.

bodily/kinesthetic intelligence or "body smart"

3.

logical/mathematical intelligence or "number smart"

4.

visual/spatial intelligence or "art/design/space smart"

5.

interpersonal intelligence or "people smart"

6.

intrapersonal intelligence or "self smart"

7.

musical/rhythmic intelligence or "music smart"

8.

naturalist intelligence or "nature smart"

9.

existential intelligence or "spirituality smart"

There are three main reasons for understanding multiple intelligences:

1.

teachers can extend their teaching repertoire to honour all the intelligences, and
teach in ways that help students develop strength in all the intelligences

2.

the curriculum can be broadened to give value and status to all the intelligences (not
just verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical)

3.

every student's gifts can be validated by recognizing their unique pattern of

intelligences (again, not just those gifted in literacy and numeracy)

Students demonstrate naturalist intelligence when they

are very comfortable outdoors

are aware of their natural surroundings

feel a definite sense of connection to the rest of nature

have an affinity for natural habitats such as forests, deserts, oceans/lakes or

streams, wetlands

feel renewed by visiting these natural settings

discriminate different flora and fauna

recognize patterns and colours

are good at sorting and classifying

have keen observational skills and observe patiently

feel satisfaction in learning names of flowers, trees, rocks and minerals, dinosaurs,
birds, volcanoes, cloud formations, etc.

enjoy exploring and touching outdoors, including "yucky things"

understand and can explain natural phenomena

show a sense for detail, noticing and delighting in the smallest of nature's gifts

nurture living things, through gardening or taking care of pets or bringing home
stray animals

set up bird feeders and other feeding stations for animals

choose to read books and watch programs about animals and ecosystems

seek music related to nature

make crafts and projects out of natural materials (using shells, driftwood, plant
presses)

like using equipment to find out more about the natural environment (butterfly nets,
water and soil quality testing kits)

readily follow cyclic patterns in nature such as tides, seasons, moon phases, and
climate

enjoy collections of rocks, leaves, flowers, shells, feathers, etc.

name zoos, farms, wildlife parks, aquariums and pet stores as "special places" for
them

enjoy recreational activities in the outdoors, such as hiking, rock climbing, cross
country skiing, camping, sailing, scuba diving, etc.
(adapted from Discovering the Naturalist Intelligence: Science in the School Yard, with
thanks to Jenna Glock, Susan Wertz and Maggie Meyer)

Students show they are nature smart when they have a keen awareness of the
natural world and phenomena, discriminate natural items like animals, insects,
birds, fish, rocks, minerals, plants, trees, flowers, stars, [or] planets.... They often
learn best when the content may be sorted and classified or is related to the

natural world.
Kagan Publishing, Multiple Intelligences Smart Card

Strategies for Teaching to the Naturalist Intelligence

Naturalist learning is experienced through

relating

discovering

uncovering

observing

digging (literally and metaphorically)

planting

collecting

sorting

comparing

displaying
Teachers can help their students develop or enhance their naturalist intelligence
by providing learning experiences that encourage:

OBSERVING

using the senses

watching animal behaviour (squirrels or birds in the schoolyard?)

using a microscope, telescope, binoculars or hand lens

discerning changes outdoors over the course of the school year (weekly
walkabouts are wonderful for these students)

keeping an eye on nests or dens

watching the weather (to learn weather forecasting)

noticing ecological principles in action (for example, the decomposition of

plant or animal material over time)
RECORDING OBSERVATIONS

keeping a Nature Journal

imitating a biologist or ecologist doing field studies

listing data about characteristics (size, colour, form, function, habitat, etc.)

keeping data in a log, blog or diary

drawing, sketching, photographing, videotaping natural phenomena

modelling, measuring or drawing to scale plants, animals or outdoor settings

documenting changes, stages, phases, metamorphoses, transformations

CLASSIFYING AND CATEGORIZING

collecting (literally or ticking off on a list) and identifying plants, leaves,

berries, birds, feathers, nests, and so on

pointing out similarities and differences

grouping, ranking, separating, adding up natural objects according to
observed characteristics

identifying sounds in the natural world (for example, bird calls)

WORKING AND LEARNING IN OR WITH THE NATURAL WORLD

growing things (plants, gardens)

establishing nature trails, viewing platforms, outdoor classrooms

going on hikes and field trips

performing role plays or skits about cycles in nature, animal behaviour, plants
growth, etc.

reading stories or articles about the natural world or the fields of biology and
ecology

Falling in love with the earth is one of

life's great adventures. It is an affair of the heart like no other; a rapturous
experience that remains endlessly repeatable throughout life. This is no fleeting
romance, it's an uncommon affair, one unconstrained by age or custom, and
strengthened rather than diminished through sharing. The more
one gives it away, the stronger it grows.
Steve Van Matre, Institute for Earth Education

Multiple Intelligences In The Classroom

Of the seven different ways we learn, schools focus on only two.
Add the other five, and you increase the chances of success
By Bruce Campbell
One of the articles in The Learning Revolution (IC#27)
Originally published in Winter 1991 on page 12
Copyright (c)1991, 1996 by Context Institute
The story of much recent innovation in education follows a familiar pattern: the theory of
an innovative thinker (in this case, Harvards Howard Gardner) gets applied by an
innovative practitioner (third grade teacher Bruce Campbell), who puts the flesh of action
on the bones of thinking. Along the way, theories get substantiated, the subjects of the
successful experiment benefit greatly and, as Bruce Campbell reports in this selfinterview, the experimenter is forever altered.
Bruce, together with his wife Linda MacRae-Campbell and Dee Dickinson (Dee and Linda
are guest editors for this issue), is currently co-authoring a book titled LearningWorks:
Teaching and Learning through the Multiple Intelligences. Contact the Campbells at 19614
Soundview Drive, Stanwood, WA 98292, 206/652-9502.
If we are to achieve a richer culture, rich in contrasting values, we must recognize the
whole gamut of human potentialities, and so weave a less arbitrary social fabric, one in
which each diverse human gift will find a fitting place.
- Margaret Mead
In recent years, new definitions of intelligence have gained acceptance and have
dramatically enhanced the appraisal of human competencies. Howard Gardner of Harvard
University in his book, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, suggests that
there are at least seven human intelligences, two of which, verbal/linguisticintelligence
and logical/mathematical intelligence, have dominated the traditional pedagogy of western
societies.
The five non-traditional intelligences, spatial, musical, kinesthetic,
interpersonal andintrapersonal, have generally been overlooked in education. However, if
we can develop ways to teach and learn by engaging all seven intelligences, we will increase

the possibilities for student success and create the opportunity to, in Margaret Meads
words, "weave a social fabric in which each diverse human gift will find a fitting place."

How can the Multiple Intelligences be implemented in the classroom?

To implement Gardners theory in an educational setting, I organized my third grade
classroom in Marysville, Washington, into seven learning centers, each dedicated to one of
the seven intelligences. The students spend approximately two-thirds of each school day
moving through the centers 15 to 20 minutes at each center. Curriculum is thematic, and
the centers provide seven different ways for the students to learn the subject matter.
Each day begins with a brief lecture and discussion explaining one aspect of the current
theme. For example, during a unit on outer space, the mornings lecture might focus on
spiral galaxies. In a unit about the arts of Africa, one lecture might describe the Adinkra
textile patterns of Ghana. After the morning lecture, a timer is set and students in groups
of three or four start work at their centers, eventually rotating through all seven.

What kinds of learning activities take place at each center?

All students learn each days lesson in seven ways. They build models, dance, make
collaborative decisions, create songs, solve deductive reasoning problems, read, write, and
illustrate all in one school day. Some more specific examples of activities at each center
follow:

In the Personal Work Center (Intrapersonal Intelligence), students explore the

present area of study through research, reflection, or individual projects.

In the Working Together Center (Interpersonal Intelligence), they develop

cooperative learning skills as they solve problems, answer questions, create learning
games, brainstorm ideas and discuss that days topic collaboratively.
In the Music Center (Musical Intelligence), students compose and sing songs about

the subject matter, make their own instruments, and learn in rhythmical ways.
In the Art Center (Spatial Intelligence), they explore a subject area using diverse art

media, manipulables, puzzles, charts, and pictures.

In the Building Center (Kinesthetic Intelligence), they build models, dramatize

events, and dance, all in ways that relate to the content of that days subject matter.
In the Reading Center (Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence), students read, write, and
learn in many traditional modes. They analyze and organize information in written
form.

In the Math & Science Center (Logical/ Mathematical Intelligence), they work
with math games, manipulatives, mathematical concepts, science experiments,
deductive reasoning, and problem solving.

Following their work at the centers, a few minutes are set aside for groups and individual
students to share their work from the centers. Much of the remainder of the day is spent
with students working on independent projects, either individually or in small groups where
they apply the diverse skills developed at the centers. The daily work at the seven centers
profoundly influences their ability to make informative, entertaining, multimodal
presentations of their studies. Additionally, it is common for parents to comment on how
much more expressive their children have become at home.

What are some of the results of this program?

During the 1989-1990 school year, an action research project was conducted in my
classroom to assess the effects of this multimodal learning format. A daily teachers journal
was kept with specific entries recording the following:

general daily comments

a daily evaluation of how focused or "on-task" students were

an evaluation of the transitions between centers

an explanation of any discipline problems

a self-assessment how the teachers time was used

tracking of three individuals, previously identified as students with behavior
problems.

In addition, a Classroom Climate Survey was administered 12 times during the year, a
Student Assessment Inventory of work at the seven centers was administered nine times
during the year, and a Center Group Survey was administered eight times during the year.
The research data revealed the following:
1. The students develop increased responsibility, self-direction and independence over the
course of the year. Although no attempt was made to compare this group of students with
those in other third grade classes, the self-direction and motivation of these students was
apparent to numerous classroom visitors. The students became skilled at developing their
own projects, gathering the necessary resources and materials, and making well-planned
presentations of all kinds.

2. Discipline problems were significantly reduced. Students previously identified as having

serious behavior problems showed rapid improvement during the first six weeks of school.
By mid-year, they were making important contributions to their groups. And by years end,
they had assumed positive leadership roles which had not formerly been evident.
3. All students developed and applied new skills. In the fall, most students described only
one center as their "favorite" and as the one where they felt confident. (The distribution
among the seven centers was relatively even.) By mid-year, most identified three to four
favorite centers. By years end, every student identified at least six centers which were
favorites and at which they felt skilled. Moreover, they were all making multimodal
presentations of independent projects including songs, skits, visuals, poems, games,
surveys, puzzles, and group participation activities.
4. Cooperative learning skills improved in all students. Since so much of the center work
was collaborative, students became highly skilled at listening, helping each other, sharing
leadership in different activities, accommodating group changes, and introducing new
classmates to the program. They learned not only to respect each other, but also to
appreciate and call upon the unique gifts and abilities of their classmates.
5. Academic achievement improved. Standardized test scores were above state and national
averages in all areas. Retention was high on a classroom year-end test of all areas studied
during the year. Methods for recalling information were predominantly musical, visual and
kinesthetic, indicating the influence of working through the different intelligences. Students
who had previously been unsuccessful in school became high achievers in new areas.
In summary, it is clear that students learning improved. Many students said they enjoyed
school for the first time. And as the school year progressed, new skills emerged: some
students discovered musical, artistic, literary, mathematical and other new-found capacities
and abilities. Others became skilled leaders. In addition, self-confidence and motivation
increased significantly. Finally, students developed responsibility, self-reliance and
independence as they took an active role in shaping their own learning experiences.

What is the teachers role in a Multiple Intelligences program?

The teachers role also transforms in this type of program. I developed skills different from
those I would develop by standing in front of a class lecturing each day. I need to observe
my students from seven new perspectives. In planning the centers, I find I am pushing my
students from behind rather than pulling them from in front. Also I am working withthem,

rather than for them. I explore what they explore, discover what they discover, and often
learn what they learn. I find my satisfaction in their enthusiasm for learning and
independence, rather than in their test scores and ability to sit quietly. And most
importantly, because I am planning for such a diversity of activities, I have become more
creative and multimodal in my own thinking and my own learning. I can now comfortably
write and sing songs. I am learning to draw and paint. I see growth and development within
myself. I sometimes wonder who is changing the most, my students or myself.

Why is a Multiple Intelligences model successful?

The reasons for the academic and behavioral success of the program appear to be twofold.
First, every student has an opportunity to specialize and excel in at least one area. Usually,
however, it is three or four. In the two years since this program was initiated, I have not had
one student who was unable to find an area of specialty and success. Secondly, each student
learns the subject matter in a variety of different ways, thereby multiplying chances of
successfully understanding and retaining that information.
Many student needs are met through this program. Their intellectual needs are met by
constantly being challenged and frequently exercising their creativity. At the same time,
their emotional needs are met by working closely with others. They develop diverse
strengths, and they understand themselves better as individuals.
The emphasis in such a program is upon learning rather than teaching. The students
interests and developmental needs dictate the direction of the program. Such a model
adapts to students, rather than expecting students to adapt to it. From my own classroom
experiences, I believe that teaching and learning through the multiple intelligences helps
solve many common school problems and optimizes the learning experience for students
and teachers alike. Again following Margaret Mead, if we educate to engage the "whole
gamut of human potentialities" in the classroom, society will benefit by enabling "each
diverse human gift to find its fitting place."

Four Factors In Educational Reform

by Howard Gardner
Many of us interested in efforts at educational reform have focused on the learner or
student, be she a young child in preschool or an adult bent on acquiring a new skill. It is

clarifying to have such a focus and, indeed, any efforts at reform are doomed to fail unless
they concentrate on the properties and potentials of the individual learner. My own work on
multiple intelligences has partaken of this general focus; colleagues and I have sought to
foster a range of intellectual strengths in our students.
But after several years of active involvement in efforts at educational reform, I am convinced
that success depends upon the active involvement of at least four factors:
Assessment * Unless one is able to assess the learning that takes place in different
domains, and by different cognitive processes, even superior curricular innovations are
destined to remain unutilized. In this country, assessment drives instruction. We must
devise procedures and instruments which are "intelligence-fair" and which allow us to look
directly at the kinds of learning in which we are interested.
Curriculum * Far too much of what is taught today is included primarily for historical
reasons. Even teachers, not to mention students, often cannot explain why a certain topic
needs to be covered in school. We need to reconfigure curricula so that they focus on skills,
knowledge, and above all, understandings that are truly desirable in out country today. And
we need to adapt those curricula as much as possible to the particular learning styles and
strengths of students.
Teacher Education * While most teacher education institutions make an honest effort to
produce teaching candidates of high quality, these institutions have not been at the forefront
of efforts at educational improvement. Too often they are weighted down by students of
indifferent quality and by excessive and often counterproductive requirements which
surround training and certification. We need to attract stronger individuals into teaching,
improve conditions so that they will remain in teaching, and use our master teachers to help
train the next generation of students and teachers.
Community Participation * In the past, Americans have been content to place most
educational burdens on the schools. This is no longer a viable option. The increasing
cognitive demands of schooling, the severe problems in our society today, and the need for
support of students which extends well beyond the 9-3 period each day, all make it essential
that other individuals and institutions contribute to the educational process. In addition to
support from family members and other mentoring adults, such institutions as business, the
professions, and especially museums need to be involved much more intimately in the
educational process.

Too often, Americans have responded to educational needs only in times of crisis. This is an
unacceptable approach. Education works effectively only when responsibility is assumed
over the long run. We have made significant progress in this regard over the past decade.
There is reason to be optimistic for students of the future, as dedicated individuals continue
to collaborate in solving the challenging educational problems of our time.

Dr. Howard Gardner is a Professor of Education and Co-chair of Project Zero at Harvard
University. He is the author of nine books, including Frames of Mind: The Theory of
Multiple Intelligences (1983), and To Open Minds: Chinese Clues to the Dilemma of
Comtemporary Education (1989).

How do I apply multiple intelligences (M.I.) theory in my

classroom?
There are many different ways to apply multiple intelligences theory in the classroom. You probably
employ a variety of intelligences already.
At all levels of education, teachers are transforming subject-specific lessons and curriculum units into
meaningful M.I. experiences.

History courses study period music and art.

Science units incorporate visual, musical and kinesthetic experiences.

Language arts classes reading Civil War literature visit re-enactments and build a
topographical map.

As educators explore more effective methods of assessment, they frequently encourage their students
to demonstrate understanding through M.I. activities.

Elementary school students compose and perform songs about math concepts which satisfy
the rubrics they and their teachers have developed.

Middle school students create multimedia presentations combining animations, MIDI

compositions, and writing to satisfy interdisciplinary unit requirements.

High school students demonstrate mastery of self-formulated research questions through art,
writing portfolios, and giving speeches before panels of local citizens.

While you look at the following grid, think of

Other events, artifacts, content and activities you might incorporate into the subject matter
you teach.

A variety of appropriate ways students in your classroom might demonstrate understanding.

Verbal-Linguistic

Books, stories, poetry,

speeches, author visits

Writing stories, scripts,

poems, storytelling

Mathematical-Logical

Exercises, drills, problem

solving

Counting, calculating,
theorizing, demonstrating,
programming computers

Musical

Tapes, CD's, concert going

Performing, singing, playing,

composing

Visual-Spatial

Posters, art work, slides,

charts, graphs, video tapes,
laser disks, CD-ROMs and
DVDs, museum visits

Drawing, painting,
illustrating, graphic design,
collage making, poster
making, photography

Bodily-Kinesthetic

Movies, animations,
exercises, physicalizing
concepts, rhythm exercises

Dance recital, athletic

performance or competition

Interpersonal

Teams, group work,

specialist roles

Plays, debates, panels,

group work

Intrapersonal

Reflection time, meditation

exercises

Journals, memoirs, diaries,

changing behaviors, habits,
personal growth

Naturalist

Terrariums, aquariums, class

pets, farm, botanical garden
and zoo visits, nature walks,
museum visits

Collecting, classifying,
caring for animals at nature
centers

Existential

Working on causes, charity

work, astrology charts

Community service

The ultimate goal of M.I. theory -- to increase student understanding -- is something for which good
teachers have long striven. Excellent educators have always addressed the needs of their variously
intelligent students. In this sense the real values of M.I. theory are:

To legitimize the powerful and wide-reaching curricula many teachers have always delivered.

To systematize and broadcast the theory and methodology of an enriched curriculum.

Classroom activities frequently activate and utilize more than one of the multiple intelligences. Now
consider how you would add to and interpret the items on the following list:

Group discussion - Verbal-Linguistic; Interpersonal

Journal writing - Intrapersonal; Verbal/Linguistic

Choreography - Musical-Rhythmic; Verbal-Linguistic; Interpersonal

Constructing timelines - Logical-Mathematical; Visual-Spatial

Putting on a play - Musical-Rhythmic; Verbal/Linguistic; Interpersonal; Visual-Spatial

Making a video - Logical-Mathematical, Musical-Rhythmic; Verbal/Linguistic; Interpersonal;

Visual-Spatial

Writing a report or essay - Verbal-Linguistic

Making graphs - Logical-Mathematical; Visual-Spatial

Designing posters - Verbal-Linguistic, Visual-Spatial

Communicating with peers or experts online - Verbal-Linguistic; Interpersonal

Hands-on experimentation - Kinesthetic; Logical/Mathematical

Composing a song - Musical/Rhythmic; Verbal-Linguistic

Building a model or 3-D displays - Kinesthetic; Logical-Mathematical

Introduction
Various theories on learning have been developed with increasing frequency in the last few decades. In
order to understand the relationship between these theories, Curry's onion model (Curry, 1983) was

developed with four layers -- personality learning theories, information processing theories, social learning
theories, and multidimensional and instructional theories.
Personality learning theories define the influences of basic personality on preferences to acquiring and
integrating information. Models used in this theory include Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which measures
personality in dichotomous terms -- extroversion versus introversion, sensing versus intuition, thinking
versus feeling, and judging versus perception, and the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, which classifies
people as rationals, idealists, artisans, or guardians.
Information processing theories encompass individuals' preferred intellectual approach to assimilating
information, and includes David Kolb's model of information processing, which identifies two separate
learning activities: perception and processing.
Social learning theories determine how students interact in the classroom and include Reichmann's and
Grasha's types of learners: independent, dependent, collaborative, competitive, participant, and avoidant.
Multidimensional and instructional theories address the student's environmental preference for learning
and includes the Learning Style Model of Dunn and Dunn and the multiple intelligences theory of Howard
Gardner. This chapter focuses on this type of learning theory by Howard Gardner.

Multiple Intelligences Section

Caption: This is a questionnaire created with Flash to give users a profile of their multiple intelligences. It assesses
the eight intelligences that are fully accepted by educators in the classroom. The eight intelligences are verbal,
logical, spatial, kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic. The ninth would be Existential, but
this is not a confirmed intelligence. This is NOT a scientific assessment. There is no validity to this test at all. We
include it to simply help you think about your own abilities. By Myung Hwa Koh, Li Zhu and Seow Chong Wong
(2003).

Multiple Intelligences Scenario

Ms. Cunningham, a seventh grade American History Teacher, is preparing a unit on the American Civil
Rights Movement of the 1950's and 1960's. The teacher has created a succession of lessons to be
completed over a two-week period to enhance her students' understanding of the events, organizations,
and individuals that were crucial to the movement. When the unit is over, Ms. Cunningham wants her
students to have a complete picture of the historical period. She designs a variety of activities that give
the students the opportunity to explore historical and cultural aspects of the 1950's and 1960's, and to
fully identify with those who were involved in the Movement. In order to reach her instructional goals, the
students will read selected excerpts from the textbook and listen to various lecturers about the Movement.
In addition to the aforementioned, the students will complete several exploratory tasks about the Civil
Rights movement as well.
To begin the unit the teacher uses a KWL chart on the overhead to spur discussion and start the students'
"juices" flowing. A KWL chart is a visual representation of what students already know, what they want to

know, and what they learned at the end of a lesson. This activity is completed as a class. The students
take turns sharing the tidbits of information that they already know about the Civil Rights movement. This
information is on major figures, events and places involved in the Civil Rights movement. Upon
establishing what basic prior knowledge the students possess, it is now time to begin discovering new
information and confirming previously held information about the Civil Rights movement. Ms. Cunningham
then lectures on the basic events, people, and places involved in the majority of the Civil Rights
movement in order to provide students some framework within which to begin placing their new
information.
She closes the first lesson by asking the students to create a timeline using the dates of events she has
provided. This will be a working outline to be used throughout the unit. During a subsequent lesson,
students are asked to share their outlines with their classmates in small groups. They should make
corrections and comments on the outlines as needed. Ms. Cunningham gains class consensus of the
proper order for their working outline as she places an enlarged version on the classroom wall.
The culmination of this unit will be a final project in which students create a portfolio containing work on
three mini-projects. All students will listen to the same guest lecturers, view the same video taped footage
and participate in the same class discussions during the first half of each class. The remainder of each
class period will be reserved for work on personal exploration pertaining to their portfolio pieces. Ms.
Cunningham has provided a list of possible activities and a rubric for each suggested activity in order to
support and to guide the student's work. She has also arranged her room so that "art" materials are in a
central location; mapping and graphing information is grouped together and there is a section replete with
reading and research materials.
Mrs. Cunningham's students will have many options for creating something chat can be included in their
portfolios. Students will have the option to write letters to members of the community who were teenagers
during the Civil Rights Movement, asking them to share their memories and experiences about life during
the time period. Students may work in teams to prepare speeches based on period issues for their fellow
classmates. Students may consult with the school's Media Specialist or more knowledgeable other to find
resources for the class, including popular music from the time period. They may also learn and share
dances that were popular during the 1950's and 1960's. If they choose, students may include music in the
plays they write and act out for their classmates. With the assistance of the Art instructor, students may
opt to work together to create a mural that represents key figures of the Civil Rights Movement such as
Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr., with accompanying biographical information about each leader.
Students may also create a map representing key events. Students may also work in groups to prepare
short plays to enact for the class based on the readings and what they learn from the guest speakers.
Afterwards, Mrs. Cunningham will moderate discussion sessions about the plays. All students will keep a
record of their thoughts and feelings about the mini-lessons they completed. This journaling process will
provide a synthesis of the materials with which they dealt. As one final measure, students present their
portfolios to their classmates.
James, a student whose proclivities lean towards creative visual projects expresses interest in working on
the mural of Civil Rights leaders. Mrs. Cunningham feels that James needs to shift gears and concentrate
on other activities in the classroom. The teacher suggests that James work on creating the map and / or
timeline. At the teacher's encouragement, James begins to work on the other projects, but his attention

continues to drift towards the students painting the mural. He contributes some excellent ideas and shows
so much interest in the details and creation of the mural, that the teacher allows him to shift his focus
back towards the visual project.
In another seventh grade classroom, Mr. Smith taught a unit on the Civil Rights Movement by assigning
textbook readings and lecturing the students on the historical events surrounding the Movement. Students
were given sentence completion pop quizzes throughout the course of the lesson. The teacher showed
videotaped programs to the class and each student wrote a short research paper about a Civil Rights
leader or prominent figure. At the end of the unit, students were given a multiple choice and essay test.

What is Multiple Intelligences Theory?

Howard Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences utilizes aspects of cognitive and developmental
psychology, anthropology, and sociology to explain the human intellect. Although Gardner had been
working towards the concept of Multiple Intelligences for many years prior, the theory was introduced in
1983, with Gardner's book, Frames of Mind.
Gardner's research consisted of brain research and interviews with stroke victims, prodigies, and
individuals with autism. Based on his findings, Gardner established eight criteria for identifying the seven
(he has subsequently added an eighth and is considering a ninth) separate intelligences. The eight
criteria used by Gardner to identify the intelligences are listed below:

Isolation by brain damage/neurological evidence

The existence of prodigies, idiot savants, and exceptional individuals

Distinguishable set of core operations

Developmental stages with an expert end state

Evolutionary history and plausibility

Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system

Support from experimental psychological tasks

Support from psychometric research

For a more detailed look at these eight criteria, visit http://surfaquarium.com/MI/criteria.htm.

Originally, the theory accounted for seven separate intelligences. Subsequently, with the publishing of
Gardner's Intelligence Reframed in 1999, two more intelligences were added to the list. The intelligences
are Verbal/Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Visual/Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal,
Intrapersonal, Naturalistic, and Existential.

Gardner's theory challenges traditional, narrower views of intelligence. Previously accepted ideas of
human intellectual capacity contend that an individual's intelligence is a fixed entity throughout his lifetime
and that intelligence can be measured through an individual's logical and language abilities. According to
Gardner's theory, an intelligence encompasses the ability to create and solve problems, create products
or provide services that are valued within a culture or society. Originally, the theory accounted for seven
separate intelligences. Subsequently, with the publishing of Gardner's Intelligence Reframed in 1999, two
more intelligences were added to the list. The nine intelligences are outlined in more detail in the section
below. Listed below are key points of Gardner's theory:

All human beings possess all nine intelligences in varying degrees.

Each individual has a different intelligence profile.

Education can be improved by assessment of students' intelligence profiles and designing

activities accordingly.

Each intelligence occupies a different area of the brain.

The nine intelligences may operate in consort or independently from one another.

These nine intelligences may define the human species.

Gardner, a Professor of Education at Harvard University, and other researchers and educators continue to
work towards a more holistic approach to education through Project Zero. For more information on the
projects and research involved in Project Zero, visit the website at http://www.pz.harvard.edu.
Although the theory was not originally designed for use in a classroom application, it has been widely
embraced by educators and enjoyed numerous adaptations in a variety of educational settings Teachers
have always known that students had different strengths and weaknesses in the classroom. Gardner's
research was able to articulate that and provide direction as to how to improve a student's ability in any
given intelligence. Teachers were encouraged to begin to think of lesson planning in terms of meeting the
needs of a variety of the intelligences. From this new thinking, schools such the Ross School in New York,
an independent educational institution, and the Key Learning Community, a public magnet school in
Indianapolis emerged to try teaching using a Multiple Intelligences curriculum. The focus of this part of the
chapter will be on lesson design using the theory of Multiple Intelligences, and providing various
resources that educator's may use to implement the theory into their classroom activities.

The Eight Intelligences

Verbal/Linguistic
Verbal/Linguistic intelligence refers to an individual's ability to understand and manipulate words and
languages. Everyone is thought to possess this intelligence at some level. This includes reading, writing,
speaking, and other forms of verbal and written communication. Teachers can enhance their students'
verbal/linguistic intelligence by having them keep journals, play word games, and by encouraging

discussion. People with strong rhetorical and oratory skills such as poets, authors, and attorneys exhibit
strong Linguistic intelligence. Some examples are T.S. Elliot, Maya Angelou, and Martin Luther King Jr.
Traditionally, Linguistic intelligence and Logical/Mathematical intelligence have been highly valued in
education and learning environments.

Logical/Mathematical
Logical/Mathematical intelligence refers to an individual's ability to do things with data: collect, and
organize, analyze and interpret, conclude and predict. Individuals strong in this intelligence see patterns
and relationships. These individuals are oriented toward thinking: inductive and deductive logic,
numeration, and abstract patterns. They would be a contemplative problem solver; one who likes to play
strategy games and to solve mathematical problems. Being strong in this intelligence often implies great
scientific ability. This is the kind of intelligence studied and documented by Piaget. Teachers can
strengthen this intelligence by encouraging the use of computer programming languages, critical-thinking
activities, linear outlining, Piagetian cognitive stretching exercises, science-fiction scenarios, logic
puzzles, and through the use of logical/sequential presentation of subject matter. Some real life examples
people who are gifted with this intelligence are Albert Einstein, Niehls Bohr, and John Dewey.

Visual/Spatial
Visual/Spatial intelligence refers to the ability to form and manipulate a mental model. Individuals with
strength in this area depend on visual thinking and are very imaginative. People with this kind of
intelligence tend to learn most readily from visual presentations such as movies, pictures, videos, and
demonstrations using models and props. They like to draw, paint, or sculpt their ideas and often express
their feelings and moods through art. These individuals often daydream, imagine and pretend. They are
good at reading diagrams and maps and enjoy solving mazes and jigsaw puzzles. Teachers can foster
this intelligence by utilizing charts, graphs, diagrams, graphic organizers, videotapes, color, art activities,
doodling, microscopes and computer graphics software. It could be characterized as right-brain activity.
Pablo Picasso, Bobby Fischer, and Georgia O'Keefe are some examples of people gifted with this
intelligence.

Bodily/Kinesthetic
Bodily/Kinesthetic intelligence refers to people who process information through the sensations they feel
in their bodies. These people like to move around, touch the people they are talking to and act things out.
They are good at small and large muscle skills; they enjoy all types of sports and physical activities. They
often express themselves through dance. Teachers may encourage growth in this area of intelligence
through the use of touching, feeling, movement, improvisation, "hands-on" activities, permission to squirm
and wiggle, facial expressions and physical relaxation exercises. Some examples of people who are
gifted with this intelligence are Michael Jordan, Martina Navratilova, and Jim Carrey.

Naturalistic
Naturalistic intelligence is seen in someone who recognizes and classifies plants, animals, and minerals
including a mastery of taxonomies. They are holistic thinkers who recognize specimens and value the

unusual. They are aware of species such as the flora and fauna around them. They notice natural and
artificial taxonomies such as dinosaurs to algae and cars to clothes. Teachers can best foster this
intelligence by using relationships among systems of species, and classification activities. Encourage the
study of relationships such as patterns and order, and compare-and-contrast sets of groups or look at
connections to real life and science issues. Charles Darwin and John Muir are examples of people gifted
in this way.

Musical Intelligence
Musical intelligence refers to the ability to understand, create, and interpret musical pitches, timbre,
rhythm, and tones and the capability to compose music. Teachers can integrate activities into their
lessons that encourage students' musical intelligence by playing music for the class and assigning tasks
that involve students creating lyrics about the material being taught. Composers and instrumentalists are
individuals with strength in this area. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Louis Armstrong are examples.

Interpersonal
Although Gardner classifies interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences separately, there is a lot of
interplay between the two and they are often grouped together. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to
interpret and respond to the moods, emotions, motivations, and actions of others. Interpersonal
intelligence also requires good communication and interaction skills, and the ability show empathy
towards the feelings of other individuals. Teachers can encourage the growth of Interpersonal
Intelligences by designing lessons that include group work and by planning cooperative learning activities.
Counselors and social workers are professions that require strength in this area. Some examples of
people with this intelligence include Gandhi, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton.

Intrapersonal
Intrapersonal Intelligence, simply put, is the ability to know oneself. It is an internalized version of
Interpersonal Intelligence. To exhibit strength in Intrapersonal Intelligence, an individual must be able to
understand their own emotions, motivations, and be aware of their own strengths and weaknesses.
Teachers can assign reflective activities, such as journaling to awaken students' Intrapersonal
Intelligence. Its important to note that this intelligence involves the use of all others. An individual should
tap into their other intelligences to completely express their Intrapersonal Intelligence. Authors of classic
autobiographies such as Jean Paul Satre and Frederick Douglas are examples of individuals who
exhibited strong Interpersonal Intelligence in their lifetimes.
There is a ninth intelligence that has yet to experience full acceptance by educators in the classroom.
This is Existential intelligence, which encompasses the ability to pose and ponder questions regarding the
existence -- including life and death. This would be in the domain of philosophers and religious leaders.
The table below summarizes the strengths, learning preferences, and needs that correspond to the
intelligences.

Table 1. Summary of the Eight Intelligences

Intelligence
Area

Verbal /
Linguistic

Strengths

Writing, reading,
memorizing dates,
thinking in words,
telling stories

Preferences

Write, read, tell

stories, talk,
memorize, work
at solving
puzzles

Visual /
Spatial

Needs

Hearing and seeing

words, speaking,
reading, writing,
discussing and
debating

Books, tapes, paper

diaries, writing tools,
dialogue, discussion,
debated, stories, etc.

Working with
relationships and
patterns,
classifying,
categorizing,
working with the
abstract

Things to think about and

explore, science
materials, manipulative,
trips to the planetarium
and science museum,
etc.

Draw, build,
design, create,
daydream, look
at pictures

Working with
pictures and colors,
visualizing, using
the mind's eye,
drawing

LEGOs, video, movies,

slides, art, imagination
games, mazes, puzzles,
illustrated book, trips to
art museums, etc.

Touching, moving,
knowledge through
bodily sensations,
processing

Role-play, drama, things

to build, movement,
sports and physical
games, tactile
experiences, hands-on
learning, etc.

Sing-along time, trips to

concerts, music playing
at home and school,
musical instruments, etc.

Question, work
Math, logic, problemMathematical/
with numbers,
solving, reasoning,
Logical
experiment,
patterns
solve problems

Maps, reading charts,

drawing, mazes,
puzzles, imagining
things, visualization

Learns best
through

Bodily /
Kinesthetic

Athletics, dancing,
crafts, using tools,
acting

Move around,
touch and talk,
body language

Musical

Picking up sounds,
remembering
melodies, rhythms,
singing

Rhythm, singing,
Sing, play an
melody, listening to
instrument, listen
music and
to music, hum
melodies

Interpersonal

Leading, organizing,
understanding
people,
communicating,
resolving conflicts,
selling

Intrapersonal

Recognizing
strengths and
Work alone,
weaknesses, setting reflect pursue
goals, understanding interests
self

Naturalistic

Understanding
nature, making
distinctions,
identifying flora and
fauna

Comparing,
Talk to people,
relating, sharing,
have friends, join
interviewing,
groups
cooperating

Friends, group games,

social gatherings,
community events, clubs,
mentors/
apprenticeships, etc.

Working alone,
Secret places, time
having space,
alone, self-paced
reflecting, doing
projects, choices, etc.
self-paced projects

Working in nature,
Be involved with exploring living
nature, make
things, learning
distinctions
about plants and
natural events

Order, same/different,
connections to real life
and science issues,
patterns

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom

There are many ways to incorporate Multiple Intelligences theory into the curriculum, and there is no set
method by which to incorporate the theory. Some teachers set up learning centers with resources and
materials that promote involving the different intelligences. For example, in the above scenario, Ms.
Cunningham creates an area with art supplies in her classroom. Other instructors design simulations that
immerse students into real life situations. Careful planning during the lesson design process will help to
ensure quality instruction and valuable student experiences in the classroom.
Other instructional models, such as project-based and collaborative learning may be easily integrated into
lessons with Multiple Intelligences. Collaborative learning allows students to explore their interpersonal
intelligence, while project-based learning may help structure activities designed to cultivate the nine
intelligences. For instance, Ms. Cunningham uses aspects of project-based learning in her classroom by
allowing students to plan, create, and process (through reflection) information throughout the Civil Rights
unit, while also integrating activities that teach to the intelligences. This particular instructional model
allows students to work together to explore a topic and to create something as the end product. This
works well with Multiple Intelligences theory, which places value on the ability to create products. By
collaborating with the Media Specialist to give students the opportunity to choose from a variety of
resources to complete their assignments, Ms. Cunningham uses aspects of resource-based learning, an
instructional model that places the ultimate responsibility of choosing resources on the student.

It is important for teachers to carefully select activities that not only teach to the intelligences, but also
realistically mesh with the subject matter of the lesson or unit. Multiple Intelligences theory should
enhance, not detract from what is being taught.
Disney's website entitled Tapping into Multiple Intelligences suggests two approaches for implementing
Multiple Intelligences theory in the classroom. One is a teacher-centered approach, in which the instructor
incorporates materials, resources, and activities into the lesson that teach to the different intelligences.
The other is a student-centered approach in which students actually create a variety of different materials
that demonstrate their understanding of the subject matter. The student-centered approach allows
students to actively use their varied forms of intelligence. In a teacher-centered lesson, the number of
intelligences explored should be limited to two or three. To teach less than two is nearly impossible since
the use of speech will always require the use of one's Verbal/Linguistic intelligence. In a student-centered
lesson, the instructor may incorporate aspects of project-based learning, collaborative learning, or other
inquiry-based models. In such a case, activities involving all nine intelligences may be presented as
options for the class, but each student participates in only one or two of the tasks.
Ms. Cunningham incorporates both student-centered and teacher-centered activities into her unit on the
Civil Rights Movement. The teacher-led lecture is a standard example of a teacher-centered activity. The
lecture teaches to students' Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence. The viewing of the videotape is another
example of a teacher-centered activity. This activity incorporates Visual/Spatial Intelligence into how the
unit is learned. It is important to note that many activities, although designed to target a particular
intelligence, may also utilize other intelligences as well. For example, in Ms. Cunningham's classroom the
students may work together on creating a mural of Civil Rights Leaders. This is a student-centered activity
that directly involves Visual/Spatial intelligence, but also gives students a chance to exercise their
Interpersonal Intelligence. The journal assignment, also a student-centered activity, is designed to
enhance students' Intrapersonal Intelligence by prompting them to reflect on their feelings and
experiences in relation to the Civil Rights movement. This activity also taps into Verbal/Linguistic
Intelligence. The timeline and map assignments are student-centered activities that are designed to
enhance students' Logical/Mathematical Intelligence, but they also delve into Visual/Spatial Intelligence.
Students must collect and organize information for both the timeline and the map therefore using their
Logical/Mathematical intelligence. In creating these items, students must think visually as well. By
incorporating dance into one lesson, Ms. Cunningham is able to promote awareness of her students'
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence. By showing videos of popular dances from the time period, or inviting an
expert from the community to talk about the social aspects of dance, Ms. Cunningham might incorporate
a teacher-centered activity. Having students learn and perform dances is a student-centered way of
teaching through Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence. The short plays that students prepare involve BodilyKinesthetic intelligence, as well as Interpersonal and Verbal/Linguistic intelligences. Class discussions
provide an opportunity for students to exercise both areas of their personal intelligences, as well as to
reinforce the subject matter.

Planning and Implementing Student-Centered Lessons

This type of lesson revolves around student created materials. The types of activities and assignments
that support student-centered lessons can be easily designed in concert with many of the inquiry-based
models discussed in the text of this book. One of the most important aspects of student-centered lessons

is allowing students to make choices. Teachers should encourage students to exercise their weaker
intelligences, but allow them to explore their stronger areas as well. In Ms. Cunningham's class, the
student named James is very strong in Visual/Spatial Intelligence and always leans towards this type of
project. The teacher encourages James to participate in other activities, but when it is obvious that his
interest lies in working on the mural Ms. Cunningham allows him to work on the project.
Listed below are steps to implement a student-centered lesson or unit:

Carefully identify instructional goals, objectives, and instructional outcomes.

Consider activities that you can integrate into the lesson or unit that teach to the different
intelligences. Teachers need not incorporate all nine intelligences into one lesson.

When gathering resources and materials, consider those which will allow students to explore their
multiple intelligences.

Specify a timeframe for the lesson or unit.

Allow for considerable element of student choice when designing activities and tasks for the
intelligences

Design activities that are student-centered, using inquiry-based models of instruction.

Provide a rubric for student activities. You might consider having students help create rubrics.

Incorporate assessment into the learning process.

In an effort to maximize students' interest in both the subject matter and their own learning proclivities,
teachers may wish to teach their students a little bit about Multiple Intelligences. Teachers can brief the
class about each type of intelligence and then follow up with a self-assessment for each student. In this
way, students will be able to capitalize on their strengths and work on their weaker areas. Disney's
Tapping Into Multiple Intelligences website includes a self-assesment.

Planning and Implementing a Teacher-Centered Lesson

Structured, teacher-centered activities provide an opportunity for teachers to introduce material and
establish prior knowledge and student conceptions. Teachers may lecture students, show informational
videos and posters, perform drills, pose problem-solving exercises, arrange museum visits, and plan
outings to concerts. There are all examples of teacher-centered activities. All of these activities integrate
the Multiple Intelligences into the subject matter being taught. Teacher-centered lessons should be limited
to a few activities that provide a foundation for students to later complete more exploratory tasks in which
they can demonstrate understanding of the material. A teacher may choose to start an instructional unit or
lesson with teacher-centered activities and then follow up with subsequent student-centered lessons.
Teachers may follow these steps when designing and implementing a teacher-centered lesson:

Identify instructional goals and objectives

Consider teacher-centered activities that teach to students' Multiple Intelligences. In a teachercentered lesson, limit the number of activities to two or three.

Consider what resources and materials you will need to implement the lesson. For example, will
you need to schedule a museum visit or to consult the Media Specialist for videos or other media?

Specify a timeframe for the lesson or unit.

Provide an opportunity for reflection by students

Provide a rubric to scaffold student activities

Integrate assessment into the learning process

Assessment is one of the biggest challenges in incorporating Multiple Intelligences in the classroom. Ms.
Cunningham's students are given the option of working on several mini-projects during the course of the
Civil Rights unit. At the end of the unit, their performance is assessed through a portfolio that represents
their work on these projects. It is very important for assessment to be integrated into the learning process.
Assessment should give students the opportunity to demonstrate their understanding of the subject
matter. One of the main goals of acknowledging and using Multiple Intelligences in the classroom is to
increase student understanding of material by allowing them to demonstrate the ways in which they
understand the material. Teachers need to make their expectations clear, and may do so in the form of a
detailed rubric.

Benefits of Multiple Intelligences

Using Multiple Intelligences theory in the classroom has many benefits:

As a teacher and learner you realize that there are many ways to be "smart"

All forms of intelligence are equally celebrated.

By having students create work that is displayed to parents and other members of the community,
your school could see more parent and community involvement.

A sense of increased self-worth may be seen as students build on their strengths and work
towards becoming an expert in certain areas

Students may develop strong problem solving skills that they can use real life situations

Multiple Intelligences: Classroom Application (Table added by Brandy Bellamy and Camille Baker, 2005)

Table 2. Multiple Intelligences: Classroom Application (Table added by Brandy Bellamy and
Camille Baker, 2005)

Teacher Centered

Student Centered

Student Presents Material

Students read content and

Present content verbally

Ask questions aloud and look

prepare a presentation for his/her

for student feedback

classmates

Verbal/Linguistic

Interviews

Students debate over an

issue

Provide brain teasers or

Students categorize
information in logical sequences

challenging questions to begin

for organization.

lessons.

Make logical connections

Students create graphs or

charts to explain written info.

between the subject matter and

Logical/Mathematical

authentic situations to answer the

Students participate in
webquests associated with the

question "why?"

content

Use props during lecture

Provide tangible items

Students use computers to

research subject matter.

pertaining to content for students

to examine

Students create props of their

own explaining subject matter
(shadow boxes, mobiles, etc...)

Bodily/Kinesthetic

Review using sports related

examples (throw a ball to
someone to answer a question)

Students create review

games.


When presenting the information, use
visuals to explain content:</br>

individually or in groups to create

visuals pertaining to the
information:

PowerPoint Slides, Charts, Graphs,

cartoons, videos, overheads,
Visual/Spatial

smartboards

Have students work

Posters; timelines; models;

powerpoint slides; maps;
illustrations, charts; concept
mapping

Play music in the classroom

the content embedded for

during reflection periods

Show examples or create

musical rhythms for students to

Musical

Create a song or melody with

memory

Use well known songs to

memorize formulas, skills, or test

remember things

content

Encourage collaboration
among peers

Be aware of body language

and facial expressions

Group work strengthens

interpersonal connections

Offer assistance whenever

needed

Interpersonal

Peer feedback and peer

tutoring

Encourage classroom
discussion

Encourage journaling as a

Students present to the class

Encourage group editing

Journaling

Individual research on content

Students create personal

positive outlet for expression

Introduce web logging (blogs)

Make individual questions

welcome

Intrapersonal

portfolios of work
Create a positive

environment.

Take students outside to enjoy

nature while in learning process

Students organize thoughts

using natural cycles

(lecture)

Compare authentic subject

among content and the natural

matter to natural occurrences.

Naturalistic

Students make relationships

environment (how has nature had

an impact?)

Relate subject matter to

stages that occur in nature

(plants, weather, etc)

Students perform community

service

Learning Styles Section

Scenario
A group of four city planners in Boston is working on a project to improve the methods of repairing streets.
They have spent a lot of time in the field looking at streets and learning about the stresses they receive,
how engineers currently deal with those problems, and the public's perceptions of street conditions. Some
improvements have been made including a new system of diagnosing problems and new methods of
repairing the streets. The final stage of their project is to determine how to educate the city's employees
on these improvements.
Jessica believes that showing maps of where the various sidewalks in various states of decay would be
helpful. She also wants to use a flow chart to represent the new repair process. Maybe a computer
instruction guide could be utilized in the employee education program.
Patrick feels that the planners need to discuss these improvements with the city's employees. A question
and answer session could also be implemented in an attempt to answer any questions concerning the
new system of diagnosing problems and new methods of repairing the streets.
Will has already begun work on an extensive training manual, which will provide a concrete resource to
guide employees in training and for later reference. The manual will be available in hard copy and on the
web.

Claire thinks that the city employees would benefit the most from a multimedia presentation as well as a
CD-ROM with links to other useful information. She also wants the employees to go into the field and see
some of the streets that were used as models in the new program. If that is not possible, pictures could be
provided as examples to give the employees a concrete idea of the improvements.

Learning Styles
The term "learning styles" is commonly used throughout various educational fields and therefore, has
many connotations. In general, it refers to the uniqueness of how each learner receives and processes
new information through their senses. The National Association of Secondary School Principals defines
learning style as, "the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve
as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning
environment." Other phrases are used interchangeably with learning styles. Some include perceptual
styles, learning modalities, and learning preferences.
Each person is born with certain preferences toward particular styles, but culture, experience, and
development influence these preferences. The four most common learning styles are visual, aural,
reading/writing, and kinesthetic/tactile. Most people learn through all modalities, but have certain
strengths and weaknesses in a specific modality. Some people have an equal propensity for more than
one style, which is titled as the multimodal style. This preference can be determined through various
testing instruments. Once a person's learning style is ascertained, accommodations can be made to
increase academic achievement and creativity, as well as improve attitudes toward learning.
What is your learning style? Take the VARK Questionnaire!

The Visual Learning Style

Visual learners process information most effectively when the information is seen. Depictions can include
charts, graphs, flow charts, and all the symbolic arrows, circles, hierarchies and other devices that
instructors use to represent what could have been presented in worlds. These learners think in pictures
and have vivid imaginations. Most people are classified as visual learners.
Jessica is a visual learner. Her suggestions focus on the use of visual aids to increase information
processing.

The Aural Learning Style

Aural learners process information most effectively when spoken or heard. These learners respond well to
lectures and discussions and are excellent listeners. They also like to talk and enjoy music and dramas.
When trying to recall information, aural learners can often "hear" the way someone told them the
information.
Patrick is an aural learner. His need to discuss the new improvements points to the benefits of obtaining
information in an oral language format.

The Reading/Writing Learning Style

Reading/Writing learners process information most effectively when presented in a written language
format. This type of learner benefits from instructors that use the blackboard to accent important points or
provide outlines of the lecture material. When trying to recall information, reading/writing learners
remember the information from their "mind's eye." Many academics have a strong preference for the
reading/writing style.
Will is a reading/writing learner. His comprehensive training manual allows the employees to utilize the
written language format.

The Kinesthetic/Tactile Learning Style

Kinesthetic/Tactile learners process information actively through physical means. Kinesthetic learning
refers to whole body movement while tactile learning refers only to the sense of touch. These learners
gesture when speaking, are poor listeners, and lose interest in long speeches. Most students that do not
perform well in school are kinesthetic/tactile learners. The crux of this learning style is that the learner is
connected to real situations through experience, example, practice, or simulation.
Claire is a kinesthetic/tactile learner. Her method of instruction utilizes "hands on" demonstrations and
field experiences.

Learning Strategies for Each Learning Style

The Visual Learning Style

Replace words with symbols or initials.

Translate concepts into pictures and diagrams.

Underline or highlight your notes or textbooks with different colors.

Practice turning your visuals back into words.

Make flashcards of key information with words, symbols, and diagrams.

The Aural Learning Style

Attend lectures and tutorials.

Discuss topics with your instructor and other students.

Put summarized notes on tape and listen to them.

Join a study group or have a "study buddy."

Tape record your lectures.

When recalling information or solving problems, talk out loud.

The Reading/Writing Learning Style

Write out important information again and again.

Read your notes silently.

Organize any diagrams into statements.

Rewrite the ideas and principles in other words.

Make flashcards of words and concepts that need to be memorized.

The Kinesthetic/Tactile Learning Style

Sit near the instructor in classroom situations.

Read out loud from your textbook and notes.

Copy key points onto large writing surfaces (i.e. chalkboard or easel board).

Copy key points using word processing software.

Listen to audiotapes of your notes while exercising.

Take in information through field trips, laboratories, trial and error, exhibits, collections, and
hands-on examples.

Put real life examples into your notes summary.

Recall experiments and role-play.

Use pictures and photographs that illustrate an idea.

Click Here to Play the Presentation Caption: This PowerPoint presentation shows several concrete
examples of the VARK learning styles applied to math, language arts, social studies and science.. By
Rebecca Homan, Troy Perkins, Jean Pirkle, and Kathy Traylor (2005)

Educational Implications for Learning Styles

Teachers that rely on learning styles have opened their classrooms to more than one approach to
intellectual work. The activities planned by these teachers are more student-centered than traditional
activities and have engaged in learning-style based instruction.
The first step in implementing learning style-based instruction is diagnosing the individual learning styles
of each student. A variety of methods exist for testing learning styles in a relatively quick manner. Many
are available online, like the VARK Questionnaire listed above.
The second step is profiling group preferences and weaknesses. Are most of the students visual
learners? Does your class have very few kinesthetic/tactile learners?
The third step is assessing current instructional methods to determine whether they are adequate or
require more flexibility. If modifications need to be made, various activities can be developed and/or
adapted to conform with learning styles. Three techniques have been proposed.
1. Teachers can add alternative activities that could replace or supplement ones. This could create
increased opportunities for students to use different styles. For example, hands on activities can
be conducted after a lecture to confirm abstract concepts.
2. Teachers can also challenge students to develop skills in other areas by completing assignments
that utilize all learning styles. For example, the students can complete multidimensional packets,
which contain activities from each learning style.
3. Another approach to include learning styles in an education curriculum is to organize activities
around complex projects. These projects would require that students use all learning styles. An
example of a complex activity would be a project-based learning project.
When teaching an individual, teachers should present the most difficult concepts in the preferred style.
Easier concepts should be introduced in a different style. When teaching an entire class, teachers should
use all learning styles in their presentations if they are to reach every student. This can be fairly simple.
For example, Mrs. Erwin, a fifth grade teacher is going to teach a unit on Charlotte's Web. In order to
accommodate all learning styles, she will have the students read sections of the book silently and out loud
to others, act out various scenes, and complete a timeline of events on the bulletin board. Mrs. Erwin
understands that students must be exposed to the concepts in a variety of ways to ensure full
comprehension.

References
Armstrong, T. (1994). Multiple Intelligences in the classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development.

Campbell, L., & Campbell, B. (1992). Teaching and learning through Multiple Intelligences. Seattle, WA:
New Horizons for Learning.
Curry, Lynn. (1983). An organization of learning style theory and constructs. ERIC Document, 235, 185.
Dunn, R., and Dunn, K. (1978). Teaching students through their individual learning styles. Reston, VA:
Reston Publishing Company, Inc.
Fogarty, R. (1997). Problem-based learning and other curriculum models for the Multiple Intelligences
classroom. Arlington Heights, IL: IRI/Skylight Training and Publishing.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: the theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st century. New York, NY: Basic
Books.
Zhang, Li-Fang. (2002). Thinking styles: Their relationships with modes of thinking and academic
performance. Educational Ps
Websites:
Concept to Classroom: Cooperative and Collaborative Learning
Concept to Classroom: Tapping into Multiple Intelligences
Education World: Multiple Intelligences: A Theory for Everyone
Gardner's Eight Criteria for Identifying Multiple Intelligences
Multiple Intelligences
Project Zero
Technology and Multiple Intelligences

Citation
APA Citation: Giles, E., Pitre, S., Womack, S. (2003). Multiple intelligences and learning styles. In M. Orey
(Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved <insert date>,
from http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/