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STRATEGIC MATERIALS
A Resource Challenge for India
STRATEGIC MATERIALS
A Resource Challenge for India
Ajey Lele
Parveen Bhardwaj
INSTITUTE FOR DEFENCE STUDIES & ANALYSES

NEW DELHI
PENTAGON PRESS
Strategic Materials: A Resource Challenge for India

Ajey Lele and Parveen Bhardwaj
First Published in 2014
Copyright Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, New Delhi
ISBN 978-81-8274-786-9
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
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Disclaimer: The views expressed in this book are those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect those of the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, or the
Government of India.
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Contents
Acknowledgments
List of Figures and Tables
The Thought
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introduction
vii
ix
xiii
Strategic Materials: An Overview
12
Mineral Chemistry
Important Materials
Elucidating Strategic Minerals
12
14
15
Global Distribution of Strategic Mineral Resources
56
Africa
Australia
Brazil
China
India
United States
56
61
65
69
79
88
Risk Assessment of India
98
Indias Strategic Materials Resource Management Assessment

Broad Evaluation
In closing
100
111
123
Indias Import Dependency
126
DRC
Australia
Brazil
China
Russia
United States
127
132
133
135
136
137
vi
6.
7.
8.
9.
Challenges for the Indian Mining Sector
140
Environmental Impacts of Mining

Impacts of Open Pit Mining
Threat fromNaxalism
Illegal Mining
140
142
143
143
Rare Earth Materials
150
What are REEs?

Explicit REE Significance
Global REE Deposits and Mining Processes
REEs and China
Challenging the Chinese Monopoly
India and REEs
REEs on the Critical List
Wrapping up
150
152
153
155
157
158
161
163
Emerging Materials
165
Graphene
Germanane
Stanene
Metamaterials
3D Printing Technology
Molybdenum disulphide
New Solar Cells
Shape Memory Alloys
Self-Healing Artificial Material
Boron, Aluminium and Magnesium (BAM) Ceramic Alloy
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)
Qingsongite
166
168
169
169
170
171
171
171
172
173
174
174
Conclusion and Recommendations
178
APPENDICES
Appendix A: History of Mining and Evolution of Mineral Legislation in India
Appendix B: MMDR Act, 1957
Appendix C: MMDR Act, 1957; Amended up to 10th May, 2012
Appendix D: Press Release MMDR Bill, 2011, September 2011
Appendix E: Press Release MMDR Bill, August 2013
Index
187
189
192
193
196
199
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Dr Arvind Gupta, Director General IDSA for

encouraging us to undertake this work. We would also like to thank Mr Vivek
Kaushik, Ms Nidhi Pant, Mr Vivek Dhankar, Ms Asha Malik, Mr Sudhanshu
Sharma, Mr Shyam Hari and Mr Mukesh Jha for all the assistance provided
to bring out this work. The contents of this manuscript reflect our personal
views.
Ajey Lele
Parveen Bhardwaj
Figures
Figure 2.1:
Figure 2.2:
Figure 2.4:
Figure 2.5:
Figure 2.6:
Figure 2.7:
Figure 2.8:
Figure 2.9:
Figure 2.10:
Figure 2.11:
Figure 2.12:
Figure 2.13:
Figure 2.14:
Figure 2.15:
Typical Antinomy Usage Across the World

Typical Beryllium Usage Across the World in Different
Industries
Typical Bismuth Usage Across Different Industries in the
World
Typical Boron Usage in Different Industries of the World
Typical Chrome Usage in Various Industries
Typical Cobalt Usage in Different Industries of the US
Typical Gallium Usage in Industries
Typical Germanium Usage
Molybdenum Usage
Typical Flow Diagram of Molybdenum Processing
Typical Worldwide Usage of Nickel
Typical Worldwide Usage of Niobium
Breakdown of Silver Usage
Typical Tin Usage in Different Industries
Breakdown of Tungsten Usage in Different Industries
22
24
26
28
31
32
35
36
38
41
43
47
50
Figure 3.1:
Figure 3.2:
Figure 3.3:
Figure 3.4:
Figure 3.5:
Figure 3.6:
Figure 3.7:
Figure 3.8:
Figure 3.9:
Map of African Minerals

Chromium Production
Australian Mineral Map
Brazils Mineral Map
Brazils Mining Trade Balance Exports
Brazils Mining Trade Balance Imports
Production of Manganese in Brazil
Major Mines and Important Deposits in China
Aluminium Imports of China 2011
58
59
62
66
67
67
68
70
74
Figure 2.3:
16
20
Figure 3.10:
Figure 3.11:
Figure 3.12:
Figure 3.13:
Figure 3.14:
Figure 3.15:
Figure 3.16:
Figure 3.17:
Figure 3.18:
Figure 3.19:
Figure 3.20:
Figure 3.21:
Consumption of Aluminium in China

Cobalt Consumption in China
Copper Imports of China
Iron Imports and Steel and Iron Production in China
Indias Mineral Map
Antimony Imports of India
Fluorite Usage
2012 US Net Import Reliance
US Selected Mineral Map
Resources Risk Pyramid for the US
Chromium Consuming Sectors
Cobalt Consumption in Various Vital Sectors
75
76
77
78
80
84
86
89
90
91
93
93
Figure 4.1:
Figure 4.2:
Figure 4.3:
Figure 4.4:
A Representative Risk Assessment Model for Strategic

Minerals
Porters Five Force Model
Likerts Five-point Scale
Risk Factors Assigned on Likert Scale
99
104
114
115
Figure 5.1:
DRC Map
128
Figure 6.1:
Map of India Highlighting Naxal-affected States
144
Figure 7.1:
Figure 7.2:
Figure 7.3:
Basic Steps of Mining and Processing an REE

154
Location of Indias REEs
160
Widening Gap Between the Supply from China and the
Demand from the Rest of the World
162
Figure 8.1:
Figure 8.2:
Share of Graphite Producing Countries in World

Natural Graphite Supply and Demand
167
168
Tables
Table 2.1:
Table 2.2:
Table 2.3:
Table 2.4:
Table 2.5:
Table 2.6:
Table 2.7:
Composition of the Continental Crust

Antimony World Mine Production and Reserves
Applications of Beryllium
Beryllium World Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base
Bismuth World Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base
Boron World Production, Reserves and Reserve Base
Chromium World Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base
14
17
18
20
22
24
26
xi
Table 2.8:
Table 2.9:
Table 2.10:
Table 2.11:
Table 2.12:
Table 2.13:
Table 2.14:
Table 2.15:
Table 2.16:
Table 2.17:
Table 2.18:
Table 2.19:
Table 3.1:
Table 3.2:
Table 3.3:
Table 3.4:
Table 3.5:
Cobalt World Production, Reserves and Reserve Base

Germanium World Production, Reserves and Reserve Base
Indium World Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base
Molybdenum World Production, Reserves and Reserve
Base
Nickel World Production, Reserves and Reserve Base
Typical Niobium Usage
Niobium World Production, Reserves and Reserve Base
Silver World Production, Reserves and Reserve Base
Typical Tantalum Usage
Tantalum World Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base
Tin World Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base
Tungsten World Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base
29
32
33
35
38
40
41
43
45
46
48
50
Table 3.6:
Major Mineral Exports of Australia

Chinas Export Minerals in 2011
Chinas Import of Selected Minerals in 2011
India Imports of Selected Ores and Concentrates in 2012
Number of Mines and Shared Percentage Value
Distribution (State-wise)
Indias Cobalt Imports in 2011
63
71
73
81
82
85
Table 4.1:
Table 4.2:
Table 43:
Table 4.4:
Table 4.5:
Table 4.6:
Table 4.7:
Table 4.8:
Table 4.9:
Table 4.10:
Table 4.11:
Table 4.12:
Table 4.13:
Table 4.14:
Table 4.15:
Table 4.16:
Table 4.17:
Percentage Dependency of Imports on Various Countries

World Mineral Monopoly
Potential Substitutes
Computation of Risk Factor for Antimony (Sb)
Computation of Risk Factor for Boron (B)
Computation of Risk Factor for Cobalt (Co)
Computation of Risk Factor for Fluorite (CF2)
Computation of Risk Factor for Gallium (Ga)
Computation of Risk Factor for Germanium (Ge)
Computation of Risk Factor for Lithium (Li)
Computation of Risk Factor for Molybdenum (Mo)
Computation of Risk Factor for Nickel (Ni)
Computation of Risk Factor for Niobium (Nb)
Computation of Risk Factor for Selenium (Se)
Computation of Risk Factor for Tin (Sn)
Computation of Risk Factor for Tungsten (W)
Risk Factor for Various Minerals
105
107
108
116
116
116
117
117
117
117
118
118
118
118
119
119
119
xii
Table 4.18: Percentage Imports in 2011

123
Table 4.19: Imports and Exports of Minerals in 2010-2011
123
Table 6.1: Illegal Mining Cases and State-wise Loss to the Country 145
Table 7.1:
REE List, Application and Annual Growth
162
Table 9.1:
Strategic Minerals Found in Naxal-affected Regions

in India
181
The Thought
The March 26, 2011 issue of the Wall Street Journal published a report
pointing out that the car manufacturing giants like Ford Motor Co,
Volkswagen, BMW, Toyota, etc. were facing problems due to the nonavailability of the material Xirallic, which is used in metallic paints required
for glistening and shimmering the car appearance. The sole producer of the
pigmenta Japanese company located at the east coast of Japansuffered
significantly because of the March 11, 2011 tsunami and the subsequent
release of nuclear radiation from the Fukushima nuclear plant.
The Japanese plant was the only one feeding global demands. Therefore,
as production there crashed, the car manufacturers were not able to offer many
colours in the 2011 range, due to shortage of Xirallic. This subsequently
resulted in forcing them to make wholesale changes across the board:
brochures, dealer inventories, press photographs, touch-up paint kits, model
codes and so on.
The industry nevertheless tried to find a solution to this problem. A new
plant was opened in some other state. Also, many makers switched to
alternative pigments, due to the supply issues. Over a period of time, the
Onahama plant in Japan too restarted production.1 However, such an
incidence triggers various questions. First, is overdependence on a single source
correct? Second, will the alternative materials always be available? Third, in
case of non-availability of the alternative material, wouldnt a company having
monopoly manipulate the market? Fourth, can the possibilities of creating
artificial shortages (including industrial rivalry) be ruled out even though the
Xirallic short supply resulted because of a natural disaster?
The important question that ultimately follows is: what would happen
if suddenly the supply of an important material required for the production
of medical or military equipment gets discontinued? Based on this single
xiv
incidence, we can visualise the ramifications. In short, any brake in supply

chain of critical materials would possibly lead to disastrous consequences.
It is important for the states (or non-states) to have a plan to address the
issues in this regard. They need to appreciate the requirements of the materials
which could be critical in nature for their industries including important
strategic industries. Every state has a certain amount of dependency on foreign
sources in respect of procurement of technology, hardware and software
required to cater for their strategic industry needs. On occasions, industrial
houses do have technologies and expertise available with them to run their
industrial complex, but are dependent on various other agencies both within
and outside the country for the procurement of raw material. Such material
comes from the nature and is sold to the industry either in the natural or
processed form. Mostly, strategic and critical materials are found either beneath
the earth or under the sea. Obviously, owing to the inherent composition of
the mother earth, such materials are not available within the geographical
boundaries of every state. Hence, states depend on other natural resources
rich states for the procurement of such materials.
Various materials can be found in nature either in pure or composite
forms. Minerals are the substances which are naturally formed in the earth
and have specific chemical structure and composition and are found stable
at room temperatures. On various occasions, in the literature, the
terminologies strategic materials and strategic minerals are used
interchangeably. This could be probably because there is hardly any difference
between them, particularly, since the word strategic has been prefixed to
both materials and minerals.
This study attempts an analysis of strategic materials/minerals in the
Indian context. Here, the purpose is to study the availability, requirement,
utility and deficiency of strategic materials. Also, an attempt has been made
to identify the deficiencies and discover the dependence on other states. This
is a constricted study which essentially revolves around appreciating the
possible requirements of few major strategic sectors of technologies in respect
of strategic materials/minerals.
The basic limitation of this study arises from the limited availability of
the (specific) data in general. Also, in the Indian context, there is no detailed
information available to realise the nature of critical materials supply chain.
More importantly, strategic industry leaders are not ready to discuss the actual
requirements of the strategic materials and demand and supply patterns for
their industries for obvious reasons. Hence, this study attempts more of a
macro-level analysis based on various approximations.
The Thought
xv
The purpose behind undertaking this study is to identify the

vulnerabilities (if any) of the strategic industry and suggest a possible way
forward. The intention over here is not to get into any specificity, but to
attempt to understand the bigger picture. The work is entirely based on the
information available in the open sources. It is important to note that the
process for the successful management of a states strategic material needs
would involve a multi-disciplinary effort and require the contribution from
various government agencies, including science and technology, defence,
commerce and foreign affairs. The recommendations at the end of this work
take into account this fact.
NOTE
1.
http://www.richardaucock.com/xirallic-what-is-it/#sthash.8rabN3f5.dpuf (Accessed November

12, 2011).
1
Introduction
Since time immemorial states have been fighting wars amongst each other
for various reasons. One of the reasons has been to gain control of natural
resources. It has been observed that the survival of a nation rests upon
continued access to and use of natural resources. Access to water is essential
for everything: from the maintenance of a healthy population to agricultural
production and industrial development. Food, mineral deposits, forestry
resources and oil deposits provide a socioeconomic basis for the development
of a state. The crucial significance of various natural resources thus ensures
that threats to these resources become much politicised, sparking controversy,
and at times even leads to intrastate or interstate conflicts.1
Control over natural resources has been one of the key determinants of
wars in the past. An early study of causes of modern wars points out that
during 18781918, 14 of the 20 major wars had significant economic causes,
often related to conflicts over resources. The rise of industrialism has led to
the struggle for raw materials. There have been cases like the desire of Chile
to secure a share in the nitrate trade. Chile was up in arms against Bolivia
and Peru for the control of guano mineral deposits (War of the Pacific, 1879
1884).2 In recent times, the best example, in respect of conflicts over resources,
is the 1990 Gulf War. The United States (US) had justified fighting this war
by claiming that it was in tune with the Carter Doctrine.3 All this essentially
indicates that management of resources is a difficult art, and mismanagement could even lead to a war. Interestingly, particular types of resources are
required not only for undertaking the socio-economic development of a nation
but also for keeping its war-waging potential intact. For the development
and manufacture of various types of military hardware, different types of

natural materials are used as raw materials.
Over the years, technologies have dictated the war-fighting doctrines of
various nation-states. Both the World Wars demonstrated the importance of
the transportation facilities and enormous quantities of equipment of all kinds
required to fight a war and also sustain waroperations. The experience brought
forth, as no human experience had ever done before, the value of minerals
and of the metals derived from them. Steel, copper, lead, zinc, coal, petroleum
and the common mineral products and many others little known or
appreciated before, such as tungsten, chromium, manganese, etc., all were in
unprecedented demand to keep the war-fighting formations operational.4 In
every quarter of the world, there was a scramble for supplies. This forced the
states to develop domestic mineral resources and take measures to import
these materials and, possibly, acquire control of foreign supplies. In the 21st
century, the war-fighting requirements of states should have shown a change
with the passage of time; however, the fundamental doctrine still remain the
same. Developments in technology have been a key to various changes in
warfare tactics, and that has led to increased dependence on strategic materials.
However, it important to note that materials of various kinds have always
been of great significance for human society as a whole, and not just for
militaristic reasons. In fact, since ancient times, materials have already
remained central to human progress. An archaeological system called ThreeAge System depicts the advancements of societies. The three-age system5 is a
periodisation of human prehistory into three consecutive time periods, named
for their respective tool-making technologies:
The Stone Age
The Bronze Age
The Iron Age
This system could be viewed as the most apt system towards describing
the progression of human society. It is important to appreciate that materials
have always been central towards depicting the progress of human society
since prehistoric times. Steel Age could also become part of such system to
depict the progression from the prehistoric to the present era.
This book focuses more on strategic materials, and hence the history of
materials discussed in the earlier paras is from the point of view of warfare.
Materials as such are the key elements for any form of industry. Strategic
materials are vital mainly for the Military Industrial Complexes for nationstates. No singular definition of strategic materials is possible because of the
diversity in respect of usage, necessity, production and procurement of such
Introduction
materials. This term gets used under particular circumstances and is also
governed by political and geographical parameters. A material which could
be of strategic relevance for one state need not necessarily be so for another
state. Hence, it is important to put the notion of strategic materials into a
broad context.
Essentially, the word strategic has a direct connotation with the military.
However, in the 21st century world, it has gained a wider sense. In any longterm plan in the different fields of lifefrom social aspects to business interests
to defence planningthe word strategic gets used copiously. Hence, various
considered frameworks of planning are found being employed in various
aspects of policymaking and schematising as Corporate Strategy, Social
Strategy, Defence Strategy, etc.
The term materials is viewed as an all-encompassing word. It includes
solids, liquids or even gases. Usually, the word material is synonymous with
matter which broadly means a physical substance like water, sand, wood,
rubber, coal, air, etc. Various kinds of materials are required to make or build
any form of apparatus, structure, equipment, product, etc. Broadly, most of
the materials usually discussed are solid in nature. At the same time, it needs
to be emphasised that oil and gas are also called materials at places.
When the word strategic gets prefixed to the word materials, then the
scope of subtext gets narrower. There may not be real consensus on the exact
ambit of strategic materials; however, its direct as well as circuitous association
with the military becomes obvious.
The subject materials is more of a multidisciplinary theme, and hence
could have different classifications based on the approach of analysis.
Traditionally, the three major classes of materials are metals (e.g., steel),
polymers (e.g., cloth) and ceramics (e.g., pottery). These classes usually have
different sources, characteristics and applications.6 Also, materials could be
classified as minerals, organics or advanced materials.7 Form the point of view
of industry, minerals are viewed as the most important components of
materials. In literature, the mineral materials have mostly been referred simply
as minerals or materials. Various publications available on strategic materials,
critical materials or strategic minerals have also been essentially debating
similar issues. This book also uses the terminologies strategic materials and
strategic minerals interchangeably. For the sake of clarity, in this book, the
words mineral and material imply the same.
Probably, the first attempt to define strategic materials was made by the
US Army and Navy Munitions Board following World War I. Two
classifications were identified: strategic materials and critical materials.

Strategic materials were distinguished by their essentiality to the national
defence, their high degree of important reliance in wartime and the need for
strict conservation and distribution control. Critical materials were considered
less essential and more available domestically, requiring some degree of
conservation.8 Post-1994, the US agencies have stopped using the terminology
critical materials, and identified them as either those materials being essential
in war or those that would require prior provisioning or stockpiling. In general,
the terminology critical materials has been rarely used in the literature.
Broadly, strategic materials could be defined9 as the material:
needed to supply the military, industrial and essential civilian needs of
a state during a national emergency
the material not found or produced in sufficient quantities to meet such
needs of the state.
In general, strategic materials are viewed as key resources that transcend
individual industries in their application.10 These materials are obtained from
several primary sources mainly by the extraction of natural minerals. They
are made usable by processing them further, and in certain cases, they are
mixed together to create a new material. It is difficult to have a universal
definition of strategic materials. This is because these materials are required
for the strategic industry, and every state could have a different perception
regarding the definition of strategic industry. Also, the nature of the military
hardware used by each country varies based its individual threat perceptions.
The availability of the materials with a particular state either in natural form
or otherwise also defines its criticality for that state. Hence, individual states
have their own outlook regarding the materials that are strategic to them.
There are diverse materials available in nature. It is essential for every
nation to device a comprehensive and coordinated policy first to identify the
most important strategic materials for them. The basic problem arises from
the lack of sufficient and exact knowledge about the end-user materials
requirements for strategic industry both in the short- and long-term. It is
important to note that any assessment about the nature of strategic materials
needs would involve contributions from many people belonging to different
branches of science and engineering besides the planners, lawyers and
policymakers. To develop a holistic understanding of the subject, it is
important to engage soil scientists, geologists, mining engineers, chemists,
environmental and climate scientists, defence scientists and planners and
economists.
Introduction
The entire gamut of the management of strategic material involves various

complex issues. The state agencies involved in this business require monitoring
the adequacy of resources and reserves and keeping a check on production
capacity and actual production cycle. They need to identify various constraints
on production like potential bottlenecks, disruption scenarios, local cost
structures, levels of political mortality, taxes and tariffs, incentives for further
processing, markets for raw and processed products, competition from other
producing countries, technological development impacting both supply and
demand for materials. To undertake long-term planning, they need to factor
in issues like the potential impact of embargoes, cartels, stockpiles and
monopolies of particular states or agencies. Moreover, government policies,
laws and regulations would affect the availability, reliability, and cost of
producing materials.
Strategic materials in their natural form are not evenly distributed all across
the globe. There are few regions in the world which are resources reach regions.
However, it would not be correct to conclude that only the presence or absence
of natural resources within a state makes that state prosperous. On the one
hand, there are reach and developed states without abundant natural resources.
On the other hand, there are poor, third world states in possession of abundant
natural resources. Further, the industrial revolution during the 19th century
played a major role in exploiting weak states with natural resources.
Nevertheless, over a period of time, industrialised states have mostly been
successful in managing the materials to cater for their needs.
Particularly, states from the regions like Asia, Africa and Latin America
are in the possession of abundant natural resources; however, for many years,
industrial development has taken place outside these regions. This unequal
distribution of natural resources continues to exist. Various international
economic and trade policies have been covertly designed to suit the
requirements of the big states. Also, there exists possibility that big states do
undertake their stockpile planning by factoring the geopolitical realities in
mind and would be building on their strategic materials reserves. It is also
possible that each country could develop its own approach to address this
issue mainly based on its needs for materials. It is important to appreciate
that all materials could have some kind of strategic utility from industry
perspective. However, amongst various known materials only a limited few
(may be 2025 in number) are viewed to have actual utility for the defence
industry. Naturally, based on scale of use (military and non-military needs),
level of import dependence and economic implications, individual states
would take their own decisions on stockpile goals. This list of 20/25 types of
materials could change based on the changes in the manufacturing processes

and advent of new technologies.
Many strategic materials require substantial amount of energy for their
processing. This may be in the form of electricity, coal, oil or gas depending
on the type of processing or the location. The availability and the cost of
energy can be critical to many mining and mineral producing ventures.11 Also,
at times the availability of water is important closer to the mining/processing
site. States which are able to manage the resources and technologies for the
purposes of mining and processing always stand to gain. In very many cases,
it has been observed that the states that physically own the mines actually
end up in engaging the developed states for the purposes of managing those
mines.
The military industrial complex of a state is expected to make a significant
contribution towards maintaining the security and defence of a state. In the
present era, it would be incorrect to link only the organisations producing
the guns, ships, missiles, aircraft and tanks as net contributors towards
developing security infrastructure. Some industries could be directly
supporting the security architecture, while some industries could be producing
the dual-use technology. For example, the industries associated with
information and communication technology (ICT) and agencies dealing with
satellite technologies play an important role in various aspects of nation
development including defence. More importantly, in the 21st century, the
idea of security has expanded significantly, and its focus has widened from
military security to energy security to environmental security. This change in
sensitivities in regard to identifying what security means to a state in the
present era also impacts the consideration about categorisation and
identification of materials which are strategic for nation-states.
For the purpose of this book, essentially, the areas of the strategic interests
for a nation-state have been acknowledged (obviously, with an India bias),
and then subsequently a board identification has been done in respect of the
materials required for such industries of strategic importance. Roughly, the
materials required for strategic industries are viewed as strategic materials.
Also, it is important to factor in the availability factor of such materials. There
could be a case when a particular material required for a strategic industry is
abundantly available with the geographic limits of the state, and the state has
got the (affordable) wherewithal to extract and process this material. Under
such circumstances that particular material may not fall under the category
of strategic for that state.
Introduction
In addition, the materials identified as strategic are based on literature

survey, availability factor and discussions with the experts. Few states have
officially identified the materials which they consider strategic or the industries
which they view as strategic. Such information also allows making a judgment
for classification of the materials.
Aerospace industry is one of the most vital industries from the defence
and economic standpoints. This sector also includes many industries related
to electronics and sensor devolvement sectors. Avionics is at the heart of any
aerospace industry. Air power for any nation-state constitutes aircraft and
helicopters available on the inventory of defence forces and the air assets with
the civilian sector (put in use during national emergencies). Moreover, satellite
technologies are essentially dual-use technologies with both civilian and
military utility. Aerospace sector also deals with manufacture of robotic
technologies like unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) of different kinds. The
space constituent of this sector mainly constitutes rockets, satellites, radars,
sensors, etc. As a whole, the aerospace industry is a strategic industry. This
industrial sector is one of the largest consumers of a variety of materials,
including many which are considered strategic.
Various materials used in defence industry are obviously viewed as strategic
materials. This industrial sector involves two main components: one dealing
with the production of military platforms like ships, tanks, missiles, etc. (a
major component of aerospace industry is viewed as defence industry), and
the other dealing with the manufacture of fighting equipment like guns,
various types of weapons, ammunition, etc. Also, allied industries are involved
in making items required for the usage of soldier like batteries, tents, uniforms,
shoes, etc. Such items are available in the commercial domain too; however,
the requirements of armed forces are of a specific nature because they operate
in harsh and unfriendly terrain and weather conditions. Depending on the
nature of warfare (mountain warfare, desert warfare, amphibious operations,
etc.), the requirements of weapon systems as well as personal clothing differ.
Hence, even a specific type of leather could be of strategic importance to a
state.
Strategic significance of nuclear industry is obvious. Heavy metals such
uranium, thorium, radium, plutonium and lithium are sources of nuclear
energy. Uranium is the most important among these metals. The main ores
of uranium are pitchblende, uranite, samarskite and thorianite. All over the
world, there are some important geographical areas of uranium deposits. As
compared to uranium, the geographical distribution of thorium is much more
restricted. Main ores of thorium are monazite, allanite and thorianite.
Beryllium (obtained from beryl, which is found in association with feldspar

and mica in pegmatites), zirnium (found in zircon in beach sands) and
ilimenite (foll in the concentrated form in the beach sands) are other important
nuclear minerals.12 Broadly, nuclear power is generated mainly using uranium,
which is a metal mined in various parts of the world. It is important to note
that some military ships and submarines operate on nuclear power. For the
production of nuclear weapons (bombs), uranium or plutonium is used. All
this indicates that the nuclear policies (energy or military) of the country are
heavily dependent on the availability of various kinds of materials. Apart from
such materials required to perform the core functions, there are various other
hardware requirements in respect of running a nuclear reactor and remaining
in the state of readiness for demonstrating the capability to launch a nuclear
attack.
Since the Second World War, the nuclear politics is found dominating
the global security discourse, and any investment even in the nuclear energy
sector also gets heavily scrutinised in respect of intent, nature of programme
and the sources from which the materials required for the production of energy
are procured. Nuclear material is the most controlled entity in the world and
is controlled by a global nuclear regime. There are various rules, regulations
and legal mechanisms concerning production, processing, use, reprocessing,
control, safety standards, etc. in regard to such materials. The International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an international organisation responsible
to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and controls nuclear materials.
In general, the management of nuclear materials is a peculiar subject having
varying geopolitical and technical subthemes. This book avoids debating the
core materials required for the nuclear sector. This is because such materials
could be considered as a special category of materials, and they require a
different approach for assessment. However, the materials that play an
important role in the other hardware requirements in connection with the
nuclear energy and nuclear weapons industry are discussed here.
Energy/Green technologies are fast emerging as the technologies of the
modern era. Energy is essential to human civilisation, and the production of
energy is dependent on a range of technologies, which, in turn, depend on a
multitude of materials. Serious scarcities of any of these materials would limit
our choices in the production and use of energy.13 The increasing relevance
and necessity of the energy and green technologies from the socioeconomic
perspective makes this technology strategically important. Obviously, the
materials needed to sustain this technology assume greater significance and
could be described as strategic materials.
Introduction
Particularly, post 1991, the Gulf War and the subsequent military conflicts
have ended up making many states in the world conscious about the
importance of strategic materials. Presently, the world is witnessing a rising
phenomenon called Resource Nationalism. This form of nationalism depicts
the tendency of people and governments to assert control over natural
resources located within their territory. It has been observed that states hosting
large reserves of natural resources try to secure greater economic benefit from
their exploitation or leverage political gain through restricting supplies. Such
an approach has operational and financial implications and also could lead
to instability for the global markets. This issue is gaining importance
particularly in the states which are poor and have problems regarding
governance.14 The general public perception in such states is that natural
resource companies (both state owned and private) exploit the local population
and the excavation sites for profits.
For any strategic industry, selecting the proper materials for a structural
component is critical to engineering design. Materials selection is governed
by many factors, some of which are in opposition. The principal selection
factors include the service requirements and design life of the product; the
availability of candidate materials and the appropriate data on applicationspecific properties for them; the companys make or buy decision for the system
components; the customer preferences and, most importantly, the total lifecycle cost. Hence, it is important to have the current materials-property data,
knowledge of factors such as materials options and life-cycle costs and available
materials for a design based on experience derived from previous product
developments.15
Against this backdrop, this book undertakes primary investigation of
strategic materials with specific reference to India. It is understood that every
state has different approaches towards its economic, foreign and strategic
properties. Broadly, the scope of this work is restricted to studying the
importance of strategic materials/minerals. No specific assessment has been
carried out about the individual materials/minerals policies of the states and
that of the status of materials/minerals industry.
The book has two overarching themes. First, it presents an overview of
strategic minerals in general, and second, it undertakes India as a case study.
Some of the chapters are informative in nature to set the tone for further
analysis.
Majority of data collected and used for this work (the Indian context) is
gathered from publications, annual reports, policy documents, and bilateral
agreements, etc. of the following agencies:
10
Indias department of Mines

Indian Geological Survey
Ministries of Defence, External Affairs and Commerce
Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
Depart of Atomic Energy (DAE)
Indian Rare Earths Limited
Official reports, newspaper reports, research papers on various related
issues, etc.
The data consists of:
Production cycle
Exports/imports statistics
Supply/demands details
Information on Stockpiles/reserves
Due care has been taken for the identification of strategic materials. A
group of materials has been identified as strategic, and no order of precedence
among this group has been identified. The work also presents a brief on the
new materials and their possible utility. Appendices provide relevant
information in respect of rules and regulations formulated by the Government
of India.
NOTES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Ashley Hamilton, Resource Wars and the Politics of Abundance and Scarcity, Dialogue, 1
(3), 2003, pp. 2738.
Daron Acemoglu, et al., A Dynamic Theory of Resource Wars, The Quarterly Journal of
Economics, Oxford University Press, 2012, 127(1), pp.283331.
The Carter Doctrine was a policy proclaimed by the US President in his State of the Union
Address on January 23, 1980, which stated that the US would use military force if necessary
to defend its national interests in the Persian Gulf region. The doctrine was a response to the
threat posed by the Soviet troops in Afghanistan to the free movement of Middle East oil.
H. Foster Bain, World Mineral Production and Control, Foreign Affairs, 11 (4), July 1933,
pp. 706710.
Princeton University, Three-age system, at http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/
wiki100k/docs/Three-age_system.html (Accessed September 2, 2013).
University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, Classification of Materials, at http://www.uwosh.edu/
faculty_staff/mihalick/materials/CHAPTER1.pdf (Accessed July 9, 2013).
It may also be noted that for structuring this chapter the authors have also used two hearings
before the US subcommittee on Science, Technology and Space and the subcommittee on
Energy and Mineral Resources, Serial No. 9744 (Jun 24, 1981) and Publication No. 9714
(Apr 1,7 and 9, 1981), US Government Printing Office, Washington, 1981.
Homeland Security Digital Library (HSDL), Strategic Materials, at http://www.hsdl.org/
?view&did=1794 (Accessed July 9, 2013).
Kenneth A. Kessel, Strategic Minerals: U.S. Alternatives, National Defence University Press,
Washington, DC, 1990, pp. 1314.
Rae Weston, Strategic Materials, Rowman & Allanheld, New Jersey, 1984, p. 1.
Introduction
11
10. Homeland Security Digital Library (HSDL), No. 7.

11. W.C.J. van Rensburg (Sred), Strategic Materials, 1, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1986, p. 5.
12. Minerals Knowledge: Nuclear Minerals, at http://mineralsknowledge.blogspot.in/2009/11/
nuclear-minerals.html (Accessed July 14, 2013).
13. University of Augsburg, Materials critical to the energy industry: An introduction, at http:/
/www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/STAGING/global_assets/e_s_assets/
e_s_assets_2010/downloads_pdfs/Materials_March2012.pdf (Accessed July 14, 2013).
14. Maplecroft, New Products and Analysis, at http://maplecroft.com/about/news/
resource_nationalism_index_2012.html.
The European, Kirchner Joins the Resource Wars, at http://www.theeuropean-magazine.com/
381-hammond-joseph/682-global-resource-nationalism (Accessed September 10, 2013).
15. Computer-aided Materials Selection during Structural Design, Committee on Application of
Expert Systems to Materials Selection During Structural Design, Commission on Engineering
and Technical Systems, National Research Council, National Academies Press, p. 1, at http:/
/www.nap.edu/catalog/4829.html (Accessed January 1, 2014).
2
Mineral Chemistry
Mineralogy is probably the oldest branch of material science, and is also
considered the oldest branch of geology. For several centuries, mineralogy
dealt with materials that appear in nature as minerals, and it still continues
to provide inspiration to material chemists in the synthesis of new materials.1
Various minerals have been used as materials ever since the earliest days of
mankind. Early usages were certainly restricted to the minerals as found in
nature, or at best as primitively processed species. However, this situation
did not last for too long, and various changes were observed with the
beginning of the era of pre-industrial processes like ore smelting or sintering
of ceramics, thereby extending the application fields of representatives of the
mineral kingdom. A more or less smooth evolution over centuries driven by
the great inventions of chemistry and physics has allowed a gradual
development of technology, and continues to do so.2
Broadly, minerals are identified as naturally occurring, crystalline solid
substances, of inorganic origin, with specific (but not necessarily fixed)
chemical compositions.
In the above definition, to be crystalline indicates that the atoms within
a solid are arranged in a geometric pattern that is unique to that mineral.
Any change in this structure in any way results in the creation of a new
mineral. Additionally, substances formed from the other phases of matter,
namely liquid and gas, are not minerals. For that reason, ice from a glacier is
a mineral, while liquid water, steam, and ice cubes are not. The minerals are
13
of inorganic origin means they are not organic compounds such as amino
acids, peptides or enzymes.3 Most importantly, each mineral has a unique
chemical composition. It is, therefore, possible to write a unique chemical
formula for any mineral.4
Largely, minerals can form under a variety of conditions, such as:5
During the cooling of molten materials (steel, from lavas, igneous rocks)
During the evaporation of liquids (salt, sugar)
The cooling of liquids (saturated solution)
At high temperatures and pressures new crystals may grow in solid
materials (diamonds from coal, metamorphism)
No matter what process is involved, a particular mineral cannot form
unless the chemical ingredients necessary to make the mineral are present.
Thus, the most common minerals have a chemical composition made of the
common elements found in their environment.
Various types of minerals are classified into different groups based on
their chemical composition. These groups are as follows:
Elements (carbon [diamond], sulphur, zinc, gold, etc.)
Halides (element and halogens, such as chlorine, bromine or iodine;
one example is table salt [sodium chloride])
Oxides (element and oxygen, e.g., hematite [iron oxide])
Sulphides (element and sulphur, e.g., pyrite [iron sulphide], galena [lead
sulphide])
Elements and complex ions (ion not just a single charged atom); common
examples are:
a) Carbonates (CO32) (calcite, egg shells)
b) Sulphates (SO42) (gypsum)
c) Silicates (SiO44 ) (feldspar, quartz)
Most observable minerals occur is the Earths crust. The Earths crust is
made up of about 95 per cent igneous and metamorphic rocks, 4 per cent
shale, 0.75 per cent sandstone, and 0.25 per cent limestone. Table 2.1 provides
information in regards to the approximate weight fractions of elements in
the crust.
Table 2.1 indicates that oxygen is the most abundant element. Elements
from oxygen to magnesium make up 98.5 per cent of the crust and are called
major elements. The elements that make up the remaining 1.5 per cent are
called the minor elements (abundance some tenth of a per cent) and the trace
elements (abundance measured in parts per million [ppm]). In general, it is
concluded that there are more than 3,000 known minerals known till date
14
and about 20 are very common and only nine of these constitute 95 per cent
of the crust.
Table 2.1: Composition of the Continental Crust
Element
Approximate percentage by weight
Oxygen (O)
Silicon (Si)
Aluminium (Al)
Iron (Fe)
Calcium (Ca)
Sodium (Na)
Potassium (K)
Magnesium (Mg)
All other
46.6
27.7
8.1
5.0
3.6
2.8
2.6
2.1
1.5
Total
100
Source: Mineralogy by Prof. Stephen A. Nelson, Tulane University.
Historically, it has been observed that minerals do contribute to the

affluence and influence of nation-states. States do trade in various materials/
minerals for economic and strategic purposes. It is important to note that
the relevance of minerals is dynamic in nature. It depends on various factors,
and the importance of these factors could also change over time. Following
are the materials which have wider utility in various industrial sectors:
Important Materials
Alumina
Aluminium
Antimony
Arsenic
Asbestos
Barytes
Bauxite
Bentonite
Beryl
Bismuth
Borates
Bromine
Cadmium
Chromium
Coal
Cobalt
Copper
Manganese
Mercury
Mica
Molybdenum
Natural gas
Natural sodium carbonate
Nephelinesyenite
Nickel
Niobium
Perlite
Petroleum
Phosphates
Platinum
Potash
Pyrites
Rare earths
Salt
Diamond
Diatomite
Feldspar
Ferro alloys
Fluorspar
Fullers earth
Germanium
Gold
Graphite
Gypsum
Iodine
Iron ore
Iron and steel
Kaolin
Lead
Lithium
Magnesite
Magnesium
Fluorite
15
Selenium
Silicon
Sillimanite
Silver
Strontium
Sulphur
Talc
Tantalum
Tellurium
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten
Uranium
Vanadium
Vermiculite
Wollastonite
Zinc
Zirconium
The following is a smaller list of key materials having strategic utility:

Vital Strategic Minerals
Antimony
Borates
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Diamond
Germanium
Lithium
Molybdenum
Nickel
Rare earths
Silver
Titanium
Tungsten
Vanadium
Zinc
Elucidating Strategic Minerals

In this section, the characteristics and usage of the above-mentioned vital
strategic materials have been discussed.6
Antimony
Antimony is derived from the Greek word anti monos which means never
found alone.7 Antimony is a silvery, white, brittle, crystalline solid that
exhibits poor conductivity of electricity and heat. Its the member of group
V element of the periodic table with atomic number of 51.8 Antimony is a
16
chalcophile, occurring with sulphur and the heavy metals copper, lead and
silver.
Uses
During the First World War, antimony was used as alloying material for lead
to produce munitions that capable of armour plate penetration.9 It is mainly
used in photographic material, electroplating cosmetic, plastics and textile
industries. Antimony is extensively used worldwide to harden and increase
the mechanical strength of lead; hence, it has applicability in the battery
industry. It is used in glass production as a decolourising agent mainly for
optical glass production used for cameras, photocopiers, binoculars and
spectacles, and in fluorescent light glass tubing. Antimony as antimony trioxide
is most commonly used as a synergist to improve the performance flame
retardants; hence it is used in making aircraft overhead and seat covers.10
Another wide usage is in semiconductors for making infrared detectors and
diodes which have multiple defence applications. Presently, the scientific
community is working towards the development of Phase-change Random
Access Memory (PRAM) chips which can process data faster. Many such
developments are likely to increase the demand of this mineral. Antimony
semiconductors also have possible usage in aircraft night vision systems.
Figure 2.1 represents typical worldwide distribution of antimony.
Figure 2.1: Typical Antinomy Usage Across the World
Glass
4%
Others
4%
Chemical
10%
Transportation
including batteries
10%
Flame Retardant
72%
Source: Compiled from the metallurgy of antimony by Corby G. Anderson MIT, Geological Survey
of America, Department of Natural Resources & Energy, and Fredericton, New Brunswick,
Canada.
17
World Production and Reserve

Antimony has been produced from ores in over 15 countries (see Table 2.2).
China is the leading producer accounting 90 per cent of world production,11
and 95 per cent of world production and reserve together with South Africa,
Bolivia and Russia.
Table 2.2: Antimony World Mine Production and Reserves (data in metric tons)
Countries
Production
Reserve
China
South Africa
Bolivia
Russia (recoverable)
Tajikistan
Others
150,000
5,000
4,000
33,000
2,000
13,1000
950,000
27,000
310,000
350,000
50,000
150,000
World Total
180,000
1,800,000
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2013.
Mineral Processing12
In China, manual processes have been adopted for antimony production. This
is possible because of the cheap and sufficient labour availability. Although,
some processing is also being done by processing units, but hand separation
is still popular. These methods include primarily conventional crushing and
grinding followed by combined gravity concentration and flotation. In the
first stage, the ore is manually separated on the feeder belt and then sent to
another unit where crushing takes place. In the second stage, after the material
is crushed to 150 mm in size, it enters the heavy medium separator where
the gangue (or a portion of it) is discarded, and the material is ground to
10mm. The third stage provides the final ore by going through a series of
conjunctions. During this process, the heavy product is sent to the grinding
section where it is prepared for flotation. Bulk flotation is performed with
natural pH13 on the ore ground to 60 per cent. Overall 33 per cent of the ore
is treated by hand sorting, 7 per cent by heavy media separation and 60 per
cent by flotation.
Substitutes
Combination of tin, calcium, copper, selenium, cadmium, strontium and
sulphur could be possible substitutes. To a certain extent antinomy could be
replaced by organic compounds or hydrated aluminium oxide in flame
retardants.
18
Recycling
Recycling of antimony from flame retardant material is practically impossible;
hence it cannot be recovered. Most secondary recycling is done by lead acid
batteries, and this recovered material is reused locally by the same industry.
Beryllium (Be)
Beryllium (Be) with atomic number 4 is a steel-grey, hard and light metal. It
is lighter and almost six times stronger than the steel. In addition to the
properties of steel and aluminium, Beryllium is non-magnetic and has
excellent thermal conductivity with very high melting point. Its exceptional
ability to forms alloys with many important materials has increased its
importance in the strategic equipment development and production industry.
It has been declared as a critical and strategic mineral by many countries
including the US, EU and China.
Uses
Because of its unique properties and exceptional qualities, beryllium has wide
applications, some which is as listed in Table 2.3. In addition, Figure 2 shows
typical beryllium usage across industries in the world.
Table 2.3: Applications of Beryllium
Areas
Uses
Technical Attributes
Electronics &
In flawless functioning of fibre
Communications
optic cables
In mobiles and telephone
equipment
In battery contacts and
electronic connectors
For repeated and constant usage
and fatigue-free electrical
connections
Beryllium-copper often referred as

super-bronze is an exceptional
copper-based alloy in terms of
strength, hardness, durability,
thermal conductivity and corrosion
resistance, and has wide electronic
applications.
It resists highly corrosive sea water
and extreme pressures
It has low electrical resistance and
high thermal conductivity.
It supports denser layers on highfrequency circuits
Transport system To improve vehicle fuel

efficiency
For traction controls
In transmissions system
In electric motors
In anti-lock braking and fuel
injection systems
In aircraft to reduce exhaust
emissions
It has compressive and wear forces.

Nickel-beryllium alloy are used in
making tools and forming
permanent moulds for casting.
19
Areas
Uses
Technical Attributes
In navigation technology such as
Global Positioning System
(GPS) for air-traffic control and
air route surveillance
In air bag sensors
In engine control electronic systems
Defence &
Aerospace
In nuclear weaponry
As lightweight alloys in fighter
jets, helicopters and satellites
In missile gyroscopes and
gimbals
As sensors in satellites and
optical systems
As mirrors in infra-red and
surveillance equipment
As skin panels for rocket
boosters (e.g., Agena)
For inner stage joining of
elements in missile systems (e.g.,
Minuteman)
In rocket nozzles
In explosive ordnance disposal
equipment
In Real-time imagery and
targeting on surveillance
In heavily loaded brushing in
steel mill equipment and
housing of submarine cables
It is stiff.
It is lightweight.
It is six times lighter and stronger
than steel reducing weight which is
critical to speed and
manoeuvrability.
It has the ability to maintain its
strength at high temperatures.
Medical
In pacemakers
In CAT scanners
In Magnetic Resonance Imagery
(MRI) machines
In laser scalpels
In springs and membranes for
surgical instruments
In medical lasers
It provides thermal conductivity,

strength and dielectric properties.
Nuclear
To make efficient nuclear fuel

In nuclear industry for
moderating and reflecting
neutrons
In X rays and radiationmeasuring equipment
High scattering cross section,

making it an ideal neutron
moderator. It is also an excellent
reflector, it reflected back the
neutrons from the fission reaction,
thereby preventing leakage
It scatters leaked neutrons back
into the core hence an excellent
component for making blast shields
Source: Compiled using Beryllium Science & Technology Association, Hard assets and other blogs
Industrial, Transportation and commercial Aeropspace
20

Figure 2.2: Typical Beryllium Usage Across the World in Different Industries
Energy
11
Industrial, Transportation and Commercial
Aerospace
15
Consumer
Electronics and
Telecom
59
Defence
15

The world production of beryllium is dominated by US producing 90 per
cent of world production followed by China (see Table 2.4). Due to escalated
demand internationally, in recent times, the US has been developing private
partnerships with the industry for creation of more facilities to increase the
production.
Table 2.4: Beryllium World Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base
(all data is in metric tons)
Countries
US
China
Other countries
World total (rounded)
Production
Reserve
200,000
25,000
3000
230,000
15,200
-
Source: US Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2013.
Processing14
Two typical ores of Beryllium are beryl (Be3Al2(SiO 3)6) and bertrandite
(Be4Si2O7(OH)2). It can also be extracted by-products of molybdenum or
lithium.
The process for treating both the ores is almost similar. Due to extra
hardness beryl ore is melted in electric arc, and the slag is converted into
power called frits, while bertandite is crushed to form frits. On treating with
sulphuric acid, frits are converted to form water soluble sulphate. Diluted
with water, the solution is transferred to a tank containing hydrophobic
21
organic chemical to retain the iron and aluminium impurities. Process is

repeated until the desired beryllium content is obtained.
For highly enriched Beryllium, the hydroxide form is dissolved in
ammonium bifluoride and heated to above 1652F (900C) to obtain its
fluorides. The concentrate is further mixed with molten magnesium in
crucibles and heated. The separated beryllium contains 97 per cent of pure
beryllium.
Substitution
Due to the high cost, beryllium is used in areas where the special properties
of beryllium are crucial for production. For some applications, certain metal
matrix or organic composites, high-strength grades of aluminum, pyrolytic
graphite, silicon carbide, steel, or titanium may be substituted for beryllium
metal or beryllium composites. In some cases, copper alloys containing nickel
and silicon, tin, titanium, or other alloying elements or phosphor-bronze alloys
(copper-tin-phosphorus) could be used as substitutes.15 It has been observed
that the substitution many a time reduces the effective usage resulting in
substantial reduction in performance.
Bismuth (Bi)
Bismuth (Bi) is a hard, brittle, lustrous, and coarsely crystalline material and
has atomic number 83. In ancient times, the metal was often confused with
lead and tin, which share some of its physical properties. It has the lowest
thermal conductivity among all metals, and it is the most diamagnetic of all
metals. It is also the useful element type-metal alloy and also used of for
castings purposes due to its unique property to expand after solidification.
Uses
Uses of bismuth are as follows (also see Figure 2.3):16
Bismuth is mostly used as an ingredient in pharmaceutical products.
It is used in solders and fire detection due to low melting point.
A specific isotope of bismuth is used for treating patients with leukaemia.
It is used as a carrier for two uranium isotopes in nuclear reactors.
Bismuth telluride is used in mobile refrigerators and for cooling computer
processors.
Bismuth-tellurium oxide alloy is used in making semiconductor devices.
China with more than 80 per cent of world production holds the monopoly
in production of bismuth followed by Mexico (Table 2.5).
22

Figure 2.3: Typical Bismuth Usage Across Different Industries in the World
Fusible alloys
7
Metallurgical Industry
26
Pharmaceuticals and
Chemicals
67
Table 2.5: Bismuth World Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base

(all data is in metric tons)
Countries
China
Mexico
Canada
Bolivia
Other countries
Production
Reserve
6000
1000
100
100
200
7,400
240,000
10,000
5,000
10,000
50,000
320
Source: US Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2013.
Processing17
Extraction of bismuth from its ores is hardly done as it is rarely economical.
Only 0.5 per cent of bismuth is extracted from its original ore; most of it is
a by-product of the smelting process of metals such tungsten, zinc, tin, copper,
antimony and lead.
The processing and extraction is done mainly by one of two processes:
the Betterton-Kroll Process and the Betts Process.
In the Betterton-Kroll process, the bismuth is separated from the molten
solution of lead and bismuth; the solution is heated by adding calcium or
magnesium into it. Due to its light weight, molten lead rises to the surface as
dross (solid impurities). It is then treated with chlorine at temperatures of
around 572-932F (380-500C) which removes the magnesium and calcium
leaving behind bismuth.
The Betts Process involves electrolytic refining of lead bullion. Pure lead
deposits on the anode, while impurities in the form of bismuth settle at bottom
of the vessel. Additional pure bismuth can be extracted by melting the slag
left behind under the presence of carbon.
23
Substitutes
Bismuth can be replaced in pharmaceutical applications by alumina,
antibiotics and magnesia. Titanium dioxide-coated mica flakes and fish scale
extracts are substitutes in pigment uses. Indium can replace bismuth in low
temperature solders. Free-machining alloys can contain lead, selenium or
tellurium as a replacement for bismuth.
Boron (B)
Boron is the Group III A (13) element in the periodic table, occurs as borates
and borosilicates in the earth crust. These borates are generally defined as
compound containing boric acid (B2O3). China was known to have used these
compounds in 300 BC to make ceramics, and it has been found that during
8th century they were used primarily as a flux for assaying and refining gold
and silver.18
Uses
Boron is the second hardest element after diamond and is widely used in
industries. The amorphous boron is used as additives in pyrotechnic mixtures,
solid rocket propellant fuels and explosives. High-purity boron (>99.99 per
cent) is used in electronics.19 Following are some of the primary uses of
boron:20
Glass and porcelain industries are the major consumers of borax and
boric acid.
Borax is used in medicine (boric powder).
It is used in adhesive and leather processing.
It is also used in corrosion inhibition.
It is used in ferrous wire manufacture, flame-proofing and timber
preservation.
Borax used as a flux in the manufacture of artificial gems. Cubic boron
nitride (commercially called Borazon), equals diamond in hardness,
and boron carbide, titanium boride and tungsten boride are next to
diamond in hardness.
As a fluxing agent, it is used in brazing, welding and soldering.
Other than industries, Boron and its compounds have wide defence and
space applications. In the Vietnam War, it was used as light hard bulletproof
armour for helicopters and tanks. In space application, diborane (gas),
pentaborane (liquid) and decaborane (solid) are used in rocket propellant
fuels and also in the processing of shield of space shuttle. In aircraft, oxganosodium borate (liquibor) is used in hydraulic brake fluids.21 Figure 2.4 shows
typical Boron usage across industries.
24
Boron is also a vital element for nuclear application due to its neutron
absorbing properties. Boron has two principal isotopes, 10B and 11B and
the effectiveness of boron as neutron absorber is due to the high absorption
cross sections. The former Metallurgy Division and the present Materials
Processing Division have developed processes for the production of boron, its
compounds and components for application as control/shutoff rods in nuclear
reactors, sensors for neutron counting, shapes for neutron shielding etc.22
Figure 2.4: Typical Boron Usage in Different Industries of the World
Others
20%
Glass and Ceramics

Industries
80%
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2012

The estimated world reserves of Boron are about 210 million tonnes in terms
of boric oxide. In terms of world production, Turkey is the leading producer
followed by the US; however, the US processed products have less impurities.
Table 2.6 shows the production and reserves of Boron.
Table 2.6: Boron World Production, Reserves and Reserve Base
(data in thousand metric tons of boric oxide (B2O3))
Countries
Production
Reserve
Turkey
United States
Chile
Argentina
Russia
China
Bolivia
Kazakhstan
Peru
Iran
2,500
1230
500
600
400
100
140
30
300
1
60,000
40,000
35,000
2,000
40,000
32,000
NA
NA
4,000
1000
World Total
4,600
210,000
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2013.
25
Processing23
Processing technique differs depending on the ore type, but the end product
is generally boric acid. Borax-kernite ores (Boron, Kirka, Tincalayu) are
crushed to 2.5 cm and then dissolved in hot water/recycled borate liquor.
Resultant product is thicker which is fed to vacuum crystallisers, centrifuged
and then dried. The final product is refined borax decahydrate or pentahydrate, dehydrated or fused anhydrous borax, which can later be used as feed
for boric acid production.
Air dried ulexite combined with local sulphuric acid produces low-grade
boric acid. Colemanite concentrates can be used directly, while magnesium
borates are generally concentrated, which is then dissolved in acid to remove
the magnesium, and then converted to boric acid or sodium borates, which
later converted into boric acid. The brine, which is generally produced in
China, is recovered by evaporation or carbonisation. The brine is usually
bubbled by carbon dioxide and fed to a vacuum crystalliser leading to crystals.
In the evaporation process, a rapid, controlled cooling selectively crystallises
the various salts. These crystals are dehydrated which can be treated to form
boric acid.
Substitutes
Substitutions for boron minerals in several applications except glass products
are in vogue. Some enamel can use other glass-producing substances, such as
phosphates.
Chromium (Cr)
Chromium (Cr) is a steely-grey, lustrous, hard and brittle metal with atomic
number 24. Its ability to impart special properties to steel makes it a vital
element for making super alloys. Chromium metal has proven of high value
because of its high corrosion resistance and hardness.
Uses24
Majorly, chromium is used in making steel. It is also used for making special
steel alloys, chrome metal super alloys, chrome chemicals and chrome-based
refractory products. Figure 2.5 shows chromium usage across different
industries. Some of its uses are as follows:
Making stainless corrosion resistant steel.
Making carbon steels, full alloy steels, bearing and high speed steels,
high-strength low-alloy steels and tool steels, and in some cast irons,
superalloys and welding materials.
26
Making superalloys used in nuclear reactors.

Reused in speciality steel for making tools, injection moulds, camshafts,
dies, bearings, etc.
Resistance to wear and tear and high temperature make it a vital
component for defence and aerospace industries.
Used in refractories and foundries such as iron and steel, cement, glass,
ceramics, machinery, etc.
Used in metallurgical industries such as stainless steel, alloyed steel, nonferrous alloys, etc.
Figure 2.5: Typical Chrome Usage in Various Industries
Refractories and
Foundaries
5%
Chemicals
5%
Metallurgical Industry
90%
Sources: U.S. Geological Survey, January 2012 and the International Chromium Development
Association (ICDA)

According to a survey, world resources have greater than 12 billion tons of
shipping-grade chromite, which is sufficient to meet the current demands of
the world. South Africa is the highest producer of chromite followed by India
and Kazakhstan (also see Table 2.7).
Table 2.7: Chromium World Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base
(data in thousand metric tons)
Countries
Production
Reserve
India
Kazakhstan
South Africa
Other countries
3,800
3,800
11,000
5,300
54,000
210,000
200,000
NA
24,000
>460,000
27
Processing25
Chromite ore (FeCr2O4) is the basic ore from which primary chromium is
extracted. Ferrochrome is most widely used component of chromium in the
metallurgical industry. The chromite ore is heated in the electric furnace at
about 2800C and is reduced in the presence of coke and coal through
carbothermic reaction. After smelting, the molten metal is drained out and
solidified in large castings before being crushed.
The pure chromium metal is produced by Aluminothermic production,
which accounts for more than 95 per cent of pure chromium metal. In this
process, sodium chromate containing calcine is obtained by roasting chromite
ore in the presence of soda and lime at 1000C (2000F). The waste material
is separated by leaching, and the remaining material is further reduced to
precipitate chromic oxide (Cr2O3). This oxide is mixed with aluminium and
Barium peroxide and magnesium powder, and spread on to the mixture. The
mixture is ignited; the oxygen present in the chromic oxide reacts with
aluminium to form aluminium oxide liberating molten chromium metal that
is 97-99 per cent pure.
Substitutes
Because of its vital properties, chromium has no substitutes instainless steel
production, the leading end use, or in superalloys, the major strategic end use.
Cobalt (Co)
Cobalt (Co) with atomic number 27 in the periodic table is a brittle, hard,
silver-grey transition metal found in association with copper, nickel and arsenic
ores.26 Its alloys possess useful properties such as high temperature melting
point (1493C), ferromagnetic, multivalent, etc. It has the ability to retain
its strength and properties even at high temperatures. Cobalt is a vital and
strategic alloying material because of its irreplaceable properties and utility in
a wide range of industries. Superalloys made of cobalt have improved strength
and wear and corrosion-resistance characteristics at elevated temperatures.
Uses
Cobalt is a strategic and critical metal used in diverse industrial and military
applications (Figure 6). Some of the critical uses are listed as follows:27
In renewable energy and reusable energy storage systems
Cobalt-based super alloys are used in turbines and compressors of jet
engine
In precision guided munitions, such as smart bombs28
In Radar systems
28
For stealth technology

In magnets
In binder material
In thermal spray coatings
In orthopaedics
In rechargeable batteries
Catalyst in desulphurising crude oil and as a catalyst in hydrogenation,
oxidation, reduction and synthesis of hydrocarbons
In Gas to Liquid Technology (GLT)
Other usesas a drying agent in paints, de-colorisers, dyes, pigments
and oxidisers, and for promoting adherence of enamel to steel, and steel
to rubber in steel belted radial tires
Other than in industries and aerospace technologies, cobalt is also an
essential material for nuclear industries. Elemental Cobalt-60 (radioactive
isotope, a production of atomic pile) is used in industrial radiography and
therapeutics.29
Figure 2.6 gives a glimpse of the typical consumption of Cobalt in
different industries.
Figure 2.6: Typical Cobalt Usage in Different Industries of the US
Chemical Application
28%
Super Alloys
47%
Metallic Application
16%
Carbide
9%

Table 2.8 shows that Congo has the largest production and reserve, but China
is the world leading producer of refined cobalt. Most of its cobalt rich ore
and partially refined cobalt is imported from Congo.
29

Table 2.8: Cobalt World Production, Reserves and Reserve Base
(all data in metric tons)
Countries
Congo (Kinshasa)
Australia
Canada
Zambia
Russia
Brazil
China
Cuba
Morocco
Other countries
World Total (rounded)
Production
Reserve
60,000
4,500
6,700
3,000
6,300
1,700
7,000
3,700
1,800
9,000
3,400,000
1,200,000
140,000
270,000
250,000
87,000
80,000
500,000
20,000
1,100,000
110,000
7,500,000
Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2013.
Processing30
Cobalt is always found as a co-product of mining, mainly nickel and copper;
hence, its processing depends on the extraction of the primary material.
From Nickel and Copper
During the final conversion of blister copper, cobalt is smelted with the copper
concentrate and oxidised along with iron. Cobalt is recovered by reduction
with carbon to a copper-iron-cobalt alloy, and treated in an electric funnel.
In the case of nickel concentrate, cobalt is recovered in the form of cobalthydroxide during the electrolytic refining of nickel smelting. But, cobalt get
oxidised before nickel, and can be converted from the final slag. Cobalt can
also be recovered from electrowinning after some purification of the
concentration formed by the leaching of nickel matte with chloride.
From Ore31
In a copper cobalt ore, cobalt sulphide is treated and heated with sulphide
concentrate in a controlled condition so as to convert it into soluble sulphate,
while minimising the copper and iron into water soluble states. The product
is leached, and the resulting solution is treated in order to remove copper
and iron, and the cobalt is finally recovered by electrolysis.
Cobalt concentrate from arsenide ore could be obtained by removing
arsenic trioxide by the roasting method, as described above for removing the
sulphide.
30
Substitutions
Cobalt is used in specialised applications and cannot be substituted easily.
Potential substitutes include barium or strontium ferrites, neodymium-ironboron or nickel-iron alloys in magnets; nickel, cermets or ceramics in cutting
and wear-resistant materials; nickel-based alloys or ceramics in jet engines;
nickel in petroleum catalysts and rhodium in hydroformylation catalysts.
Gallium (Ga)32
Gallium is a soft, silvery metallic element with atomic number of 31 and the
chemical symbol Ga. Gallium was first used in high-temperature
thermometers and in designing metals that melt easily because of its unique
temperature properties. Ga melts at a low temperature (29.75C) just about
3C above the room temperature and has an unusually high boiling point
(~2,204C). Presently, Gallium has wide applications from manufacturing
of semiconductors, data-centric networks, to smartphones.
Uses
Figure 2.7 illustrates gallium usage across industries. The following are some
uses of gallium:
The backbone of the electronic industry
Used in optoelectronic devices such as Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs),
laser-diodes, photo-detectors, etc.
Used in energy sector for making solar cells
In Gallium Nitride (GaN) transistors, for the ability to operate at much
higher temperatures
Make ideal power amplifiers at microwave frequencies
In Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) and Passive Electronically
Scanned Array (PESA) radar applications
In satellite applications as solar panels
Use of triple junction gallium arsenide on germanium cells in Mars
Exploration Rovers and several satellites
Used as radiopharmaceutical agents: radioactive isotope 67Ga
Though there is no explicit data available, but, according to the US geological
survey, the production was estimated to be 106 metric tons. China, Germany,
Kazakhstan, and Ukraine were the leading producers. Since the demand for
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) to make integrated circuits in defence application
and in telecommunications is rising; therefore, recycled GaAs is high on
demand, and new sources are yet to be explored.
31
Figure 2.7: Typical Gallium Usage in Industries

Optoelectronic
devices
29%
Integrated circuits
(ICs)
71%
Substitutes33
Organic compounds are used in visual displays as substitutes for LEDs. GaAsbased infrared laser diodes can be substituted by Indium phosphide
components. Because of galliums unique properties, GaAs-based Integrated
Circuits (IC) used in many defence and energy related applications do not
have effective substitutes.
Germanium (Ge)
Germanium (Ge) is a lustrous, hard, greyish-white metalloid with atomic
number 32. Germanium is unaffected by acids and alkalis except nitric acid.
The properties of germanium is most closely associated with silicon. It easily
form compounds with elements like arsenic, gallium or other metals.
Uses34
The unique property of germanium as used in semiconductors made it an
indispensable metal in the electronic industry. It is widely used in
semiconductors, mainly transistors and integrated circuits. Some of the other
uses are as follows (also see Figure 2.8):
Semiconductor industry
Create alloys and as a phosphor in fluorescent lamps
Ability of Germanium to filter infrared radiation made it vital element
in infrared optical instruments and infrared detectors35
Widely used in sophisticated military electronics systems in IR, thermal
imaging and wide angle lenses for night visions etc.
Energy sectors as a compound Copper-Indium-Gallium-Diselenide
(CIGS) to make efficient solar cells. It also used in photovoltaic cells.
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) plastic used in food, beverage and
liquid containers.
32

Figure 2.8: Typical Germanium Usage
Electronics and solar
electric applications
15%
Others
5%
Polymerization
catalysts
25%
Fiber Optics
30%
Infrared Optics
25%
Source: US Geological Department Report, 2012.
World Refinery Production and Reserves

There has been an increasing trend in the demand of germanium due to its
specific applications. There has been 46 per cent rise in germanium oxides
demand and production since 2011. Countries are relying on recycling to
meet the demand and price rise pressure. China produce approximately 70
per cent of world refined germanium followed by Russia and US. World
consume 30 per cent of germanium from recycling while 60 per cent of the
germanium metal used is routinely recycled as new scrap. Some of the refined
oxide producing countries are listed in Table 2.9:
Table 2.9: Germanium World Production, Reserves and Reserve Base
(data in kilograms of germanium content)
Countries
China
Russia
Other countries
Production
Reserve
90,000
5,000
30,000
128,000
NA
Processing36
Production of germanium from its ore is highly unlikely due to economic
non-feasibility, and therefore produced as a by-product of base metal refining.
It is produced from copper ores, but most commonly used from sphalerite
zinc ores. The ore is chlorinated and distillate to produce germanium
tetrachloride (GeCl4), which is further hydrolysed and dried, producing
germanium dioxide (GeO2). It is heated at 938.25C to form bars. The
33
impurities are removed by melting and cooling known as zero-refining. It

can be crystallised, and can be used in semiconductors and optical lenses.
Substitutions
Silicon can substitute germanium in the electronic industry due to its less
expensive advantage. Zinc selenide can be used in infrared applications, but
are often very expensive.
Indium (In)
Indium (In) is a rare, soft, malleable and easily fusible heavy metal with atomic
number 49. It remain soft at low temperatures and is most suitable for solders.
Uses37
Indium has very specific usage, but the most important current use of Indium
is in flat panel displays, Plasma Display Panels (PDPs), Liquid Crystal Displays
(LCDs), and Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) screens, which account
for upwards of 80 per cent of all demand. Some others uses are listed as follows:
Because of its high sensitivity to temperature, Indium is used in nuclear
industry to make control rods for batteries in atomic reactors.
Indium coating solders are used in specific electronics circuits and
cryogenics.
It is used as lubricants on bearings.
It is used as a glass coating for aircraft windshields.
It is used in the semiconductor industry for making germanium
transistors, thermistors, rectifiers and photocells.
It is used as a cryogenic seal.
China is the leading Indium producing country in the world. According to
the US geological survey 2012 (see Table 2.10), China produced 53 per cent
of indium followed by Canada (16 per cent) and Japan (11 per cent).
Table 2.10: Indium World Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base
(data in metric tons)
Countries
Production
Reserve
US
China
Canada
Japan
Korea
Other countries
30
380
75
70
70
35
670
34
Processing
Indium is primarily obtained mainly as a by-product of lead and zinc smelting.
It is also found in the residue of copper, lead and tin. It is obtained from zinc
waste by leaching with sulphuric and hydrochloric acid, which removes zinc
and lead leaving behind Indium concentrate.
Molybdenum (Mo)
Molybdenum (Mo) is an element of the second transition series and has
atomic number 42. It has very high melting point of around 2623C with a
higher density than iron. Its one of the important elements that enhances
the properties of steel. Its coefficient of thermal expansion is lowest in all
industrial materials, and hence, when fused with certain materials, it will
enhance their properties.
Uses
Molybdenums most vital usage is in steel industries to enhance strength,
toughness, weldability, hardenability, elevated temperature strength and
corrosion resistance. Some of the other uses are as follows:
In nickel-based alloys, it improves resistance to both corrosion and hightemperature creep deformation.
Its a versatile alloying agent for alloy steel, cast iron, nickel, cobalt and
titanium alloys.
It is used for imparting desired properties, such as increased strength,
hardness and resistance to corrosion, temperature and chipping.
It also finds application in permanent magnet alloys.
It is used as a lubricant.
It is used to enhance super alloys.
It is used in manufacturing armour and aircraft parts.38
It is used in solid rocket motors, and molybdenum-based products are
used to guide propulsion though vanes and nozzles.39
Molybdenum is used in alloys in the piping and tubing of nuclear
plants.40
The typical industry-wise usage of Mo is shown in Figure 2.9.
World Production and Reserves

World estimated reserve is about 11 million tonnes, while China, the US
and Chile together accounted for about 77 per cent of world production.41
China (43 per cent), the US (27 per cent), Chile (12 per cent) and Peru (5
per cent) have high reserves of Molybdenum in the world as shown in Table
2.11.
35

Figure 2.9: Molybdenum Usage
Tools and high
speed steel
9%
Cast Iron
6%
Construction Steel
35%
Supper Alloy
5%
Metal
6%
Chemical
14%
Stainless Steel
25%
Source: Pidgeon Molybdenum Deposit Project Mph Venture Crop.
Table 2.11: Molybdenum World Production, Reserves and Reserve Base

(data in metric tons)
Countries
Production
Reserve
(thousand metric tons)
China
United States
Chile
Mexico
Mongolia
Peru
Russia
Iran
Canada
105,000
57,000
35,300
10,900
1,950
19,500
3,900
4,000
9,400
4,300
2,700
2,300
130
160
450
250
50
220
World total (Est.)
250,000
11,000
Processing42
The primary and commercially viable ore concentration for Mo is bisulfide
(MoS2), but it has to be separated from mined gravels.43 The final product
from the given ore can be obtained from various conventional processes. The
processing of ores can be seen in flow chart below:
36

Figure 2.10: Typical Flow Diagram of Molybdenum Processing
Mined Ore
Crushing
Grinding
Floatation
Leaching
Molybdenite Concentrate MoS2

Roasting
Roasted Molybdenite Concentrate
Smelting
Further processing
Pure MoS2
Lubricants
Chemicals &
Mo Metal
Powder
Briquettes
FeMo
Source: The International Molybdenum Association (IMOA).
Basically, for the final production, the ore after mining is crushed and
grounded in fine particles that are only microns (10-3 mm) in diameter,
releasing molybdenite from the gangue (worthless rock). Subsequently, the
following processes are carried out:
Floating
After crushing and grinding, the ore is then processed by floating. In this
process, the ground ore is mixed with a liquid and aerated. The gauge sinks
and settles at the bottom while the less dense ore floats. The concentrate
obtained contains between 85 per cent and 92 per cent MoS2. Further
treatment by acid leaching can be used to dissolve impurities like copper and
lead if necessary.
Roasting
Roasting is done at about 500-600C, which converts MoS2 into molybdenite
(MoO3) concentrate. In multi-level hearth furnaces, the concentrate, which
moves from top to bottom is heated by air and gases blown from the bottom.
37
Lime scrubber removes sulphur dioxide resulting 57 per cent molybdenum,

and less than 0.1 per cent sulphur.
Smelting
About 25 per cent of the resulting molybdenite concentrate is processed to
form different chemical products. Smelting is processed into ferromolybdenum (FeMo). Mixed with iron, the concentrate is reduced by aluminium
in a thermite reaction. Resultant product contains between 60 and 75 per
cent molybdenum, balance is essentially iron.
Substitutions44
Because of the versatile properties of Mo, the scope for substitution in cast
iron and steel industry is minimal. Potential substitutes for molybdenum
include chromium, vanadium, niobium (columbium), and boron in alloy
steels; tungsten in tool steels; graphite, tungsten, and tantalum.45
Nickel (Ni)46
Nickel with chemical symbol Ni and atomic number 28 is a lustrous, silverywhite metallic element. It is hard, ductile and malleable and can take a high
polish. It has very high melting and boiling points. It has fairly low thermal
and electrical conductivity and can be easily magnetised.
Uses47
Nickel and nickel-based material plays a crucial role from everyday material
usage to high-end critical materials. Nickel acts as a critical material for the
production of stainless steel and corrosion-resistant alloys. Some of the other
important uses of nickel are as follows:
Nickel alloys have critical usage in defence-related technology, such as
in the production of turbine blades, helicopter rotors, and fuselage
sections of aircrafts.
It is used in applications as rolled steel strips and extrusion dies.
Nickel combined with cadmium, as Nickel-Cadmium batteries, is used
in Space Vehicles.
It is used for Nickel Plated Invar.48
It is used in the heat transfer and cooling systems as well as in the reactor
vessel internals.
Copper-nickel alloys are used for coinage and marine engineering.
It is used as a material for stealth technology in modern fighters.
Its commercial uses are in ceramics, special chemical vessels. etc.
It is used in rechargeable nickel-cadmium storage batteries.
It is used in electronic circuits in computer hard discs.
38
Typical usage of nickel worldwide is shown in Figure 2.11.49

Figure 2.11: Typical Worldwide Usage of Nickel
Plating
9%
Others
6%
Non-Ferrous Alloys
20%
Stainless Steel
65%
Source: Nickel Development Institute under Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association
(NiPERA).

About 70 per cent of nickel reserves are in form of laterites and 30 per cent
in sulphide deposits. Worlds highest reserve for nickel was estimated in
Australia (37 per cent) followed by New Caledonia (10 per cent), together
contributing for almost half the world reserves and production. Table 2.12
shows the world reserve and producing countries.
Table 2.12: Nickel World Production, Reserves and Reserve Base
(data in thousand metric tons)
Countries
Australia
New Caledonia
Indonesia
Brazil
Canada
China
Colombia
Cuba
Russia
South Africa
Other countries
Production
Reserve
230
140
320
140
220
91
80
72
270
42
1,200
2,100
20,000
12,000
3,900
7,500
3,300
3,000
1,100
5,500
6,100
3,700
4,600
75,000
39
Processing
Primary nickel is produced from two very different ores, lateritic and sulphidic.
Lateritic ore are found in tropical regions, while sulphidic ores are found in
conjunction with copper-bearing ores.
Lateritic Ore50
A reduction furnace is used to reduce nickel oxide and to remove moisture
from the ore. In order to impart fuel value, ore is heated in an electric furnace
to accommodate the high magnesia content of the ore. Sometimes sulphur is
added to the lateritic ore to form matte, which can be processed further. Hydro
metallurgical processes based on ammonia or sulphuric acid leach are also
used.
Sulphide Ore Processing51
Flash smelting (modern technology) or electric smelting (conventional
technology) is used in this process. In order to reduce the sulphur content
and volatile matter, electric smelting is used. In flash smelting, dry sulfide
ore containing less than 1 per cent moisture is fed to the furnace along with
pre heated air, oxygen-enriched air (3040 per cent oxygen), or pure oxygen.
This process results in oxidising iron and sulphur while forming a liquid matte
(up to 45 per cent nickel) and a fluid slag. Slags are processed in an electric
furnace, before discarding, to recover nickel.
Refining Matte52
There are number of methods to refine nickel matte. Matte refining begins
with crushing, leaching and separation of matte. Roasting and chlorinehydrogen reduction produce high-grade nickel oxides (more than 95 per cent
nickel). Use of inert cathode technology with electric cell in a solution of
sulphuric acid or chloride electrolytes is the most common technology used
in this process.
Substitutes53
Direct substitution of nickel in the production of stainless steel is less likely
because of its unique properties. Nickel metal hydride in batteries can however
be replaced by lithium-ion. Speciality steel can be used in power generation
and petrochemical industries to replace nickel-based alloys. Corrosionresistance alloys can be replaced by titanium-based alloys in some applications.
Niobium (Nb)
Niobium (Nb), previously called Columbium (Cb), is a soft, rare, transition
metal with atomic number 41. It is a very good alloying agent, which when
added to another material especially steel creates a material with substantial
40
benefits. With the increasing utility of high-grade steel and superalloys, there
has been arise in demand for niobium in international market.
Uses
Niobium is mainly used in the production of steel and superalloys. It was
reported that 54 per cent of the worlds consumption of Niobium is for
making steel. Some of the uses are listed in Table 2.13 and Figure 2.12.
Table 2.13: Typical Niobium Usage
Niobium Products
Applications
SLA Ferro-niobium Niobium additive to:

(~60 per cent Nb) - High strength low alloy.
- Steel and stainless steel for oil
and gas pipelines, car and truck
bodies, architectural requirements,
tool steels, ships
- Hulls, railroad tracks.
Niobium oxide
- Manufacture lithium niobate for
surface acoustic wave filters.
- Camera lenses.
- Coating on glass for computer
screens.
- Ceramic capacitors.
Technical Attributes/Benefits
Imparts a doubling of strength and
toughness due to grain refining.
Weight reduction.
- High index of refraction.

- High dielectric constant.
- Increase light transmittance.
Niobium carbide
Cutting tool compositions.
High temperature deformation,

controls grain growth.
Niobium powder
Niobium capacitors for electronic

circuits.
High dielectric constant, stability of

oxide dielectric.
Niobium metal
- Sputtering targets.
plates, sheets, wire, - Cathode protection systems for
rod, tubing
large steel structures.
- Chemical processing equipment.
Corrosion resistance, formation of

oxide and nitride films. Increase in
high temperature resistance and
corrosion resistance, oxidation
resistance, improved creep resistance,
reduced erosion at high temperatures.
Niobium-titanium Superconducting magnetic coils in

alloy
MRI, magnetoencephalography,
Niobium-tin alloy magnetic levitation transport systems, particle physics experiments.
Niobium-1 per
- Sodium vapour lamps
centzirconium alloy - Chemical processing equipment
Electrical resistance of alloy wire

drops to virtually zero at or below
temperature of liquid helium
(-268.8C).
Corrosion resistance, fixation of
oxygen, resistance to embrittlement.
Vacuum-grade
Superalloy additions for turbine
ferro-niobium and blade applications in jet engines
nickel-niobium
and land-based turbines. Inconel
family of alloys, superalloys.
Increase in high temperature

resistance and corrosion resistance,
oxidation resistance, improved creep
resistance, reduced erosion at high
temperatures.
Source: Tantalum-Niobium International Study Centre, 2012.54
41

Figure 2.12: Typical Worldwide Usage of Niobium
Others
20%
Steel Industry
55%
Super-alloys
25%
Source: US Geological Department Report, 2012.
World Production and Reserve55

Brazil is the highest producer of Niobium in the world followed by the Canada
(see Table 2.14). The leading suppliers of niobium in ore and concentrate
were Australia (54 per cent), Mozambique (13 per cent), and Canada and
Brazil.
Table 2.14: Niobium World Production, Reserves and Reserve Base
(data in metric tons of niobium content)
Countries
Brazil
Canada
Other countries
Production
Reserve
63,000
140,000
700
4,100,000
200,000
NA
69,000
>4,000,000
Processing56
The primary ore for niobium is known as pyrochlore, which has strong
geochemical coherence with tantalum. Pyrochlore concentrates are reduced
to ferroniobium through an aluminothermic process. In this process, the
concentrate is mixed with hematite (an iron ore), aluminum powder and small
quantities of fluorspar and lime fluxes. The resulting pyrochlore concentrate
has 55-60 per cent Nb2O5.
Substitutes
Some materials can be substituted for niobium, but it may include a
performance or cost penalty. The possible substitutes are molybdenum and
vanadium, as alloying elements in high-strength low-alloy steels; tantalum
42
and titanium, as alloying elements in stainless and high-strength steels and

ceramics, molybdenum, tantalum, and tungsten in high temperature
applications.
Silver (Ag)
Silver with chemical symbol Ag and atomic number 47 is a soft, white, lustrous
transition metal with the highest electrical and thermal conductivity. It has
high malleability and is resistant to atmospheric oxidation.57 Silver is second
to gold in terms of high-value ornaments, jewelleries, currency coins and
bullions.
Uses58
Some of the unique properties of silver and its utility and capability have
made it one of the strategic and vital material of modern era. It has wide
usage from industrial and medical sectors to energy sector and space. Some
of the vital uses of silver are as follows:
Because of its high electrical conductivity, it has found wide applications,
viz., in printed electric circuits and coating for electronic equipment.
It is used in conductors and in alloys of gold and copper for electrical
contacts.
When exposed to light, the silver-halide crystals change to record a latent
image; accuracy of this process makes it useful for non-digital consumer
photography, film and X-rays.
Silver plating is used in aluminium waveguide and communication
systems.
Silver-plated waveguides are used in communication payloads of
satellites.
Silver plating on aluminium is required to obtain good Radio Frequency
(RF) performance.
Silver provides the best known electrical conductivity and is solder able.
Its antimicrobial, non-toxic qualities make it useful in medicine and
consumer products.
It is widely used in mirrors and silverwares.
It is used in photovoltaic cells to enhance the efficiency of solar cells
solar panels. It is used in rid lines that draw electrical current from the
semiconducting surface of a photovoltaic cell.
Silver-coated ball bearings reduce friction in engines.
Modern skyscrapers have window glass that is coated with silver to reflect
sunlight in order to enhance the air-conditioning efficiency hence
reducing cost.
Silver-based ionic liquids can be used to clean up petroleum waste
products.59
43
Other than industrial usage, silver is highly used in photography, as when

silver is exposed to light, the silver-halide crystals change to record a latent
image that can be developed into a photograph. Thus, it is useful for nondigital consumer photography, film and X-rays. Jewellery and silverware is
the second most important sector in the worldwide usage of silver. Figure
2.13 gives a breakdown of silver usage worldwide.
Figure 2.13: Breakdown of Silver Usage
Implied investment
2%
Photography
18%
Coin
4%
Industrial Usage
44%
Jewellery and
Silverware
32%
Source: Wealth wire special report.60
World Production and Reserves

The total reserves of silver are estimated at 540,000 metric tonnes. Chile,
Peru, Poland, Mexico, China and Australia are the main countries having
silver reserves as shown in Table 2.15.
Table 2.15: Silver World Production, Reserves and Reserve Base (data in metric
tons of silver content: 1 metric ton = 1,000 kilograms = 32,150.7 troy ounces)
Countries
Production
Mexico
4,250
China
3,800
Peru
3,450
Australia
1,900
Russia
1,500
United States
1,050
Bolivia
300
Poland
1,170
Chile
1,130
Canada
530
Other countries
3,900
24,000
Reserve
37,000
43,000
120,000
69,000
NA
25,000
22,000
85,000
77,000
7,000
50,000
540,000
44
Processing
Silver ore generally exists in association with major metals such as copper,
lead or zinc. It is found in sulphide, zinc and copper forms as galena (PbS),
sphalerite (ZnS) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), respectively. To remove sulphide,
the floating process is carried out, and the mineral is extracted.
From Copper
By smelting the copper sulphide concentrate, blister copper is obtained,
which has maximum silver present in concentrate form. Insoluble impurities
called slimes are accumulated at the bottom after electrolytic refining, which
contain a high concentration of silver originally present in the ore.
From Lead
A lead bullion is formed by roasting and smelting the lead concentrate, which
still contains impurities such as antimony, arsenic and sliver. To remove silver,
zinc is added to lead bullion; the process is called the Parkes process. After
reacting with silver, zinc produces an insoluble compound that can be removed
by vacuum process. Remaining concentrate is removed by cupellation process
in which concentrate is heated at a very high temperature (800C) under
oxidising condition. The lead oxidises, while the silver alloy thus produced is
refined by the Moebius or Thum Balbach process.
From Zinc
Zinc concentrates are roasted and then leached with sulphuric acid to dissolve
their zinc content, leaving a residue that contains lead, silver and gold. Zinc
is further reduced and vaporised from the slag by a process called slag fuming
(in which powdered coal or coke is blown along with air). Lead is converted
into metallic form containing silver, which is processed by the above method
Parkes process.
Substitutions61
Tantalum and titanium can be used in place of silver for surgical pins and
plate. Aluminium and rhodium can replace silver in mirrors. Xerography can
be used for black-and-white as well as colour printing applications.
Tantalum (Ta)
Tantalum (Ta) with atomic number 73 is a hard, blue-gray, lustrous transition
metal. It is highly corrosion resistant and is closely related to niobium in
terms of physical and chemical properties, often even considered identical.
45
Uses
Table 2.16 gives the applications and attributes of various tantalum products.
Table 2.16: Typical Tantalum Usage
Tantalum Products
Applications
Tantalum carbide
Cutting tools
Increased high temperature

deformation, control of grain growth
Lithium tantalate
Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) filters

in mobile phones, hi-fi stereos and
televisions.
- Lenses for spectacles, digital
cameras and mobile phones
- X-ray film
- Ink jet printers
Electronic signal wave dampening

provides for clearer and crisper audio
and video output.
- Ta2O5 provides a high index of
refraction so lenses for a given focal
strength can be thinner and smaller
- Yttrium tantalate phosphor reduces
X-ray exposure and enhances image
quality
- Wear resistance characteristics.
Integrated capacitors in ICs
Tantalum oxide
Tantalum powder Tantalum capacitors for electronic

circuits in:
- medical appliances such as
hearing aids and pacemakers;
- automotive components such as
ABS, airbag activation, engine
management modules, GPS;
- portable electronics (e.g., laptop
computers, cellular/mobile
phones, video cameras, digital still
cameras);
- other equipment such as DVD
players, flat screen TVs, games
consoles, battery chargers, power
rectifiers, cellular/mobile phone
signal masts, oil well probes
High reliability characteristics and low

failure rates, operation over a wide
temperature range from -55 to
+200C, can withstand severe
vibrational forces, small size per
microfarad rating/electrical storage
capability
Tantalum
fabricated sheets
and plates
Superior corrosion resistance equivalent in performance to glass
- Chemical process equipment

including lining, cladding, tanks,
valves, heat exchangers
- Cathodic protection systems for
steel structures such as bridges,
water tanks
- Corrosion resistant fasteners,
screws, nuts, bolts
- Spinnerettes in synthetic textile
manufacture
46
Tantalum Products
Applications
Tantalum
fabricated sheets,
plates, rods,
wires
- Prosthetic devices for humans - Attack by body fluids is non-existent;

hip joints, skull plates, mesh to highly bio-compatible
repair bone removed after damage
by cancer, suture clips, stents for
blood vessels
Tantalum
fabricated sheets,
plates, rods,
wires
- High temperature furnace parts
Melting point is 2996C although

protective atmosphere or high vacuum
required
Tantalum ingot
- Sputtering targets
Applications of thin coatings of

tantalum, tantalum oxide or nitride
coatings to semi-conductors to
prevent copper migration
Tantalum ingot
- High temperature alloys for:

- air and land based turbines (e.g.,
jet engine discs, blades and vanes)
- rocket nozzles
Alloy compositions containing 3-11 per

cent tantalum offer resistance to
corrosion by hot gases, allow higher
operating temperatures and thus
efficiency and fuel economy
Tantalum
ingot
- Computer hard drive discs
An alloy containing 6 per cent tantalum

has shape memory properties
Tantalum ingot
- Explosively Formed Projectile for

TOW-2 missile
Balance of density and formability allow

for a lighter and more efficient system
Source: Tantalum-Niobium International Study Centre, 2012.

Mozambique remains the highest producer of tantalum followed by the Brazil
(see Table 2.17).
Table 2.17: Tantalum World Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base
(data in metric tons of tantalum content)
Countries
Brazil
Mozambique
Congo
Other countries
Production
Reserve
180
260
46
280
765
88000
200,000
4000
NA
>150,000
Processing62
The tantalum ore is processed by heating the mixture with sulphuric acid
and hydrofluoric acid at elevated temperatures. Using Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
(MIBK), or liquid ion exchange, using an amine extractant in keroses, the
47
slurry is further processed to produce highly purified solutions of tantalum.

This process also separates impurities and niobium from the process, and
refined tantalum is recovered.
Substitutes
Some substitutes are available; however, generally, they are found less effective.
Substitutes available are niobium in carbides; aluminium and ceramics in
electronic capacitors; glass, niobium, platinum, titanium, and zirconium in
corrosion-resistant equipment and hafnium, iridium, molybdenum for high
temperature applications.
Tin (Sn)
Tin with the chemical symbol as Sn is the main metal in group 14 of the
periodic table and has the atomic number 50. Easy to recycle, tin has a low
melting point, is malleable, is resistant to corrosion and fatigue and has the
ability to alloy with other metals. Tin is one of the oldest metals known to
mankind and is used in combination with copper to make bronze.
Uses
Tin can be used in both in industry and also in the form of chemical
compounds. Some of the uses of tin are as follows (see Figure 2.14):63
Electroplating is an important application of tin.
Its usage lies in electrical components such as in capacitors electrodes,
fuse-wires and major usage in soldering wires make it a vital mineral in
the electronic industry.
Figure 2.14: Typical Tin Usage in Different Industries
Cans and
Containers
23%
Others
30%
Construction
18%
Electrical
12%
Transportation
17%
48
Its a non-toxic compound; hence, it is used in various food packaging

industries such as tin cans and foils.
It is used in organic compounds and has several applications as fungicides
and insecticides for the agriculture industry.

China is the worlds largest producer of tin. Its production in recent years
have declined due to drought conditions and pollution control measures
adopted by local administrations in China. Nevertheless, China continues to
remain the highest producer in the world followed by Indonesia and Peru
(Table 2.18).
Table 2.18: Tin World Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base
(data in metric tons of tin content)
Countries
China
Indonesia
Peru
Malaysia
Bolivia
Brazil
Other countries
Production
Reserve
100,000
41,000
29,000
29,000
20,000
11,500
2,000
230,000
1,500,000
800,000
310,000
310,000
400,000
710,000
180,000
4,900,000
Processing64
Cassiterite (SnO2) is the primary and most important ore for tin. Cassiterite
concentrates is separated with the help of magnetic or electrostatic separation.
Smelting further processes the ore.
Smelting65
Cassiterite is reduced to tin by heating the ore with carbon at about 12001300C. Smelting is done in a Reverberatory furnace under the presence of
carbon-reducing agent, limestone and silica fluxes for around 10-12 hours.
The refined tin is left at the bottom, which is separated by forming slabs,
while cooled slag is reheated and re-smelted to extract 10-20 per cent tin
present in the slag.
Refining
Tin recovered from slag has metallic impurities which are removed by refining.
Refining is generally done by heat treatment or electrolytic processes. In heat
treatment, tin is heated just above its melting point and collected while leaving
49
behind residue. Electrolytic refining is done only for specialised purpose high
purity tin as the method is not cost effective.
Substitutes
Aluminium, glass, paper, plastic or tin-free steel substitute for tin cans and
containers. Other materials that substitute for tin are epoxy resins for solder;
aluminium alloys, copper-base alloys, and plastics for bronze; plastics for
bearing metals that contain tin and compounds of lead and sodium for some
tin chemicals.
Tungsten (W)66
Tungsten, also called wolfram, has chemical formula W and atomic number
74. Tungsten has the highest melting point (3,42215C) and boiling point
(5,700C) of all metals. The coefficient of thermal expansion of tungsten is
lowest in all metals; hence, it is widely used in the filament of bulb and highspeed cutting tools with carbide. Presence of carbon and oxygen gives tungsten
considerable hardness and brittleness.
Uses
Tungstens unique properties and wide application make it a vital component
of wide industrial applications. Following are some of its vital uses in different
industries:67
Tungsten is used in making special and alloy steels.68
It is widely used in cutting and wear-resistant materials.
Tungsten wires form the filament in incandescent light bulbs and
cathodes for electronic tubes.
It is used in armour plate and armour-piercing ordnance.
It is an important element to make Super Alloy which is further used
in aircraft engines, rocket nozzle, marine vehicles, turbine blades vanes,
exhaust gas assemblies and burner liners.
Tungsten alloy used in balancing components, henceforth reducing
vibrations.69
Tungsten alloys balance weights for missile bodies and sensor arrays.70
Tungsten Heavy alloys counterweights are incorporated into the pitch
control system of many propeller designs as a fail-safe device to ensure
that over speeding is prevented.71
Tungsten and tungsten alloys are presently considered as main candidate
materials for helium cooled divert or designs for the next nuclear fusion
reactor generation (DEMO).72
Crystal tungstates are used as scintillation detectors in nuclear physics
and nuclear medicine.73
50
Figure 2.15 gives a broader breakdown of tungsten usage in different

industries of the major tungsten consuming countries.
Figure 2.15: Breakdown of Tungsten Usage in Different Industries
Others
8%
Steel / Alloys
16%
Mill Products
11%
Cemented Carbide
65%
Source: International Tungsten Industry Association.

The world reserves of tungsten in terms of metal content are 3.2 million
tonnes, distributed broadly amongst China (64 per cent), Russia (9 per cent),
Canada (4 per cent) and the US (5 per cent). China was the leading producer
(80 per cent), followed by Canada (4 per cent) and Russia (4 per cent) in
2012, as shown in Table 2.19.
Table 2.19: Tungsten World Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base (data in metric
tons of tungsten content)
Countries
Production
Reserve
China
Russia
United States
Austria
Canada
Bolivia
Other countries
62,000
3,500
NA
1,100
2,000
1,100
3,000
1,900,000
250,000
140,000
10,000
120,000
53,000
760,000
73,000
3,200,000
Processing
There are two major ores of tungsten: wolframite [(Fe, Mn)WO4], which
contains iron and manganese tungstates, and scheelite (CaWO4).During
processing, the ore is dissolved in alkaline pressure digestion, using either
soda or concentrated NaOH solution. This process produces sodium tungstate
51
solution, later converted to ammonium tungstate solution by solvent

extraction or ion exchange resins. Before converting into ammonium tungstate
into sodium tungstate, the solution is precipitated, purified and filtered.
Finally, high purity Ammonium-Paratungstate (APT) is obtained by
crystallisation, with the formula (NH4)10(H2W12O42) 4H2O which can be
filtered to get tungsten.
Substitutes74
Molybdenum tool steels and tungsten tool steels are interchangeable.
Moreover, in future the development of a new metal shaping methods, such
as laser is possible. Tungsten remains essentially non-substitutable for
filaments, electrodes and contacts in lamp and lighting applications. In some
applications, substitutions of any other material might result in increased cost
or in some cases loss in product performance.
Gas Helium
In this context, mentioning called Gas Helium75 as a material might seem
inessential, because it is not a solid substance extracted from the earth.
However, it is important to discuss it since it is one of the worlds most critical
raw materials. Heliums strategic importance was recognised during the First
World War, when it was used as a safer alternative to hydrogen to lift
reconnaissance and weather balloons.
Helium is a unique material especially in liquid form. It is commonly
used as a coolant in various applications, for example, to run superconducting
magnets inter alia in MRI (a safer alternative to x-ray body scanners)
applications and computer chip and optical fibre manufacturing. It is also
used as a blanket-gas to shield sensitive materials from atmospheric oxygen,
and enable certain chemical reactions to be performed, and in specialist
welding operations in which the weld is stronger when the metal surface has
not been exposed to reactive atmospheric gases. Helium finds further
application in gas-cooled nuclear reactors as a heat-transfer agent. It has
relevance for the space industry (space rockets) too. For many of these uses,
there is no substitute for helium. It is also important to note that helium is
a non-renewable natural resource. Industries like the semiconductor
manufacturer units could come to a standstill in case of any shortage of
helium.
Most of the worlds helium is found in the US, and it has the largest
stock reserve of gas helium. In recent times, the prices for refined helium
sold to end-users have quadrupled from US$ 40 per thousand cubic feet in
2000 to US$ 160 per thousand cubic feet in 2012. It is reasoned that the
52
low prices and the stability of helium market during 1980s has significantly
contributed to the rapid growth of MRI as a (medical) diagnostic tool.
However, now, understating the importance of helium both for civilian and
strategic purposes, the politics of helium is taking shape. The US is taking
the issue of helium production and exports very seriously. On October 2,
2013, President Obama signed into law the Helium Stewardship Act of 2013.
This act has replaced the Helium Privatization Act of 1996.
NOTES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Sergey V. Krivovichev (ed.), Minerals as Advanced Materials II, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg,
2012, p. v.
Wulf Depmeier, From Minerals to Materials, in Sergey V. Krivovichev (ed.), Minerals as
Advanced Materials II, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, 2012, p. 1.
Interestingly, however, many organic processes result in the formation of minerals. For instance,
seashells are made of minerals, as are coral reefs and the bones and teeth of animals. An easy
rule of thumb is that if a material is associated with the soft-parts of a plant or animal it
cannot be a mineral, while if that material is part of the skeleton or rigid support structure,
then it might be composed of minerals.
Minerals, IPFW Geosciences Department, at http://www.geosci.ipfw.edu/PhysSys/Unit_3/
minerals.html (Accessed July 14, 2013).
Minerals, Rocks & Rock Forming Processes, Indiana University, at http://www.indiana.edu/
~geol105/1425chap5.htm (Accessed July 14, 2013).
The information regarding these materials has been taken from multiple sources. For some
of the materials, significant amount of information is available, while in some cases limited
information is available. While describing various materials, care has been to taken to follow
similar pattern for every mineral as far as possible; however, in some cases, because of the
information limitation, it has not been possible to follow the format strictly.
Rae Weston, Strategic Materials: A World Survey.
Antimony Uses, Production & Prices, Home Tristar http://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=
j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CD4QFjAB&url=http%3A%2
F%2Fwww.tri-starresources.com%2FTRISTAR%2520ANTIMONY%2520PRIMER%2520
JAN%25202012.pdf &ei=rrpMU7CrMMHWrQfym4H4Dg&usg= AFQjCNGwBFdCEph
PC2cG3k2-J-F9Dolosg&sig2=kB-z1USKZSZbpZ9huPo3Nw&bvm=bv.64764171,d.bmk
(Accessed July 7, 2013).
Antimony History, Bristol University | School of Chemistry, at http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/
webprojects2004/tabor/uses.html (Accessed July 9, 2013).
Antimony, USGS Mineral Resources Program, at http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/
commodity/antimony/mcs-2012-antim.pdf (Accessed July 8, 2013).
Ibid.
G. Anderson, Corby, The Metallurgy of Antimony, MIT - Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, at http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2016/pdf/antimony.pdf (Accessed July 9,
2013).
The pH value is a measure of the acidity or basicity of the solution. The natural pH value is
generally 7 and can exceed maximum up to 10; pH below 7 makes the solution acidic while
above makes it basic.
Metal Profile: Beryllium, at http://metals.about.com/od/properties/a/Metal-ProfileBeryllium.htm (Accessed July 14, 2013).
Beryllium, USGS Mineral Resources Program, at http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/
commodity/beryllium/mcs-2013-beryl.pdf (Accessed July 16, 2013).
53
16. Want to Know it? Answers to Lifes Questions: Uses of Bismuth, at http://wanttoknowit.com/
uses-of-bismuth/ (Accessed July 16, 2013).
17. Bismuth Metal, at http://www.slideshare.net/angelica_terrado/bismuth-metal# (Accessed
July 16, 2013).
18. G. nal and F. Burat, Boron Mining and Processing in Turkey, Instytut Gospodarki
Surowcami Mineralnymi i Energi Polskiej Akademii Nauk, at http://www.min-pan.krakow.pl/
Wydawnictwa/GSM2443/onal-burat.pdf (Accessed July 18, 2013).
19. Boron: Physical and Chemical Properties, at http://www.springerreference.com/docs/html/
chapterdbid/332754.html (Accessed July 18, 2013).
20. Boron Minerals, Indian Bureau of Mines, at http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB%202011_
Boron%20Minerals.pdf (Accessed July 18, 2013).
21. Boron in Materials Technology, at http://biotsavart.tripod.com/bmt.htm (Accessed July 19,
2013).
22. C. Subramanian, A.K. Suri and T.S.R. Ch. Murthy, Development of Boron-based Materials
for Nuclear Applications, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), at http://
www.barc.gov.in/publications/nl/2010/2010030403.pdf (Accessed July 19, 2013).
23. Robert B. Kistler and Cahlt Helvaci, Boron and Borates, at http://kisi.deu.edu.tr/
cahit.helvaci/Boron.pdf (Accessed July 19, 2013).
24. Uses of Chromium, at http://www.icdacr.com/index.php?option=com_content&
view=article&id=104&Itemid=167&lang=en (Accessed July 19, 2013).
25. Metal Profile: Chromium, at http://metals.about.com/od/properties/a/Metal-ProfileChromium.htm (Accessed July 20, 2013).
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July 19, 2013).
27. Cobalt & Other Critical Raw Materials, at http://www.resourceinvestor.com/2011/06/23/
cobalt-other-critical-raw-materials (Accessed July 20, 2013).
28. Cobalt, Indian Bureau of Mines, at http://ibm.gov.in/IMYB%202011_Cobalt.pdf (Accessed
July 21, 2013).
29. Cobalt | Radiation Protection, US Environmental Protection Agency, at http://www.epa.gov/
rpdweb00/radionuclides/cobalt.html (Accessed July 21, 2013).
30. Cobalt Commodity Profile, British Geological Survey Profile, 2011.
31. Cobalt Processing, Encyclopaedia Britannica, at http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/
123274/cobalt-processing (Accessed July 22, 2013).
32. Gallium: A Smart Metal, USGS Publications, at http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2013/3006/pdf/
fs2013-3006.pdf (Accessed July 22, 2013).
33. Gallium, USGS Mineral Resources Program, at http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/
commodity/gallium/mcs-2013-galli.pdf (Accessed July 22, 2013).
34. Germanium (Ge) - Chemical properties and Environmental effects, Lenntech, at http://
www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/ge.htm#ixzz2mfe9FUm8 (Accessed July 24, 2013).
35. Ibid.
36. Metal Profile: Germanium, at http://metals.about.com/od/properties/a/Metal-ProfileGermanium.htm (Accessed July 24, 2013).
37. Indium Uses, at http://www.chemicool.com/elements/indium.html (Accessed December
30, 2013).
38. The Uses of Molybdenum, at http://www.useofmolybdenum.net/ (Accessed July 25, 2013).
39. Defense and Aerospace Applications of Molybdenum, Tungsten and Tantalum Products,
AZo Journal of Materials Online, at http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=9073
40. "Critical and Strategic Minerals. Can Colorado Play a Role?, White Paper, AIPG - American
Institute of Professional Geologists, at http://www.aipg.org/education/pdf/
white%20paper%20Critical%20and%20Strategic%20Minerals.pdf (Accessed July 25, 2013).
54
41. Molybdenum, Indian Bureau of Mines, 2011.

42. Molybdenum Processing, IMOA: International Molybdenum Association, at http://
www.imoa.info/molybdenum/molybdenum_processing.php (Accessed July 26, 2013).
43. Molybdenum processing, Encyclopaedia Britannica, at http://www.britannica.com/
EBchecked/topic/388593/molybdenum-processing#toc82042 (Accessed July 26, 2013).
44. Molybdenum, US Geological Survey, 2013.
45. Ibid.
46. Nickel Metal, Nickel Institute, at http://www.nickelinstitute.org/NickelUseInSociety/
AboutNickel/NickelMetaltheFacts.aspx (Accessed July 29, 2013).
47. Where & Why Nickel is Used, Nickel Institute, at http://www.nickelinstitute.org/en/
NickelUseInSociety/AboutNickel/WhereWhyNickelIsUsed.aspx (Accessed December 30,
2013).
48. Advanced Technologies, Indian Space Research Organisation, at http://www.isro.gov.in/ttg/
pdfuploads/TT%20_SAC_%201002ThermalControlCoating.pdf (Accessed July 29, 2013).
49. Ibid.
50. Nickel Smelting and Refining, World Bank Group, at http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/
469da18048855b7f891cdb6a6515bb18/nickel_PPAH.pdf?MOD=AJPERES (Accessed July
30, 2013).
51. Nickel Processing, Encyclopaedia Britannica, at http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/
414313/nickel-processing/81474/From-sulfide-ores (Accessed July 30, 2013).
52. Refining Methods of Nickel, Nickel Institute, at http://www.nickelinstitute.org/~/media/
Files/NickelUseInSociety/AboutNickel/Production/Refining.ashx (Accessed July 30, 2013).
53. Nickel, British Geological Survey, September 2008.
54. Niobium - Raw Materials and Processing, Tantalum-Niobium International Study Center,
at http://tanb.org/niobium (Accessed July 30, 2013).
55. Niobium, USGS Mineral Resources Program, at http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/
commodity/antimony/mcs-2012-antim.pdf (Accessed July 30, 2013).
56. Niobium 101", at http://www.iamgold.com/files/pdf/Niobium%20101%20Final%20
March%202012.pdf (Accessed July 30, 2013).
57. Silver Mineral | Uses and Properties, at http://geology.com/minerals/silver.shtml (Accessed
July 30, 2013).
58. Uses of Silver in Electronics, at http://geology.com/articles/uses-of-silver/ (Accessed July 30,
2013).
59. World Silver Survey 2013 A Summary, Thomson Reuters GFMS and the Silver Institute,
at https://www.silverinstitute.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/WSS2013Summary.pdf
(Accessed August 1, 2013).
60. www.silverwire.com (Accessed August 1, 2013).
61. Ibid.
62. How Tantalum Is Mined, at http://www.ehow.com/about_6136148_tantalummined.html#ixzz2lpzE7RwD (Accessed August 1, 2013).
63. Tin, at http://www.carondelet.pvt.k12.ca.us/Family/Science/GroupIVA/tin.htm (Accessed
August 2, 2013).
64. Tin - Mineral Fact Sheets, Australian Mines Atlas, at http://www.australianminesatlas.gov.au/
education/fact_sheets/tin.html (Accessed August 3, 2013).
65. Tin processing, Encyclopaedia Britannica, at http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/
596496/tin-processing/82122/Refining (Accessed August 3, 2013).
66. Tungsten Processing, International Tungsten Industry Association (ITIA), at http://
www.itia.info/tungsten-processing.html (Accessed August 3, 2013).
67. Tungsten Uses, International Tungsten Industry Association (ITIA), at http://www.itia.info/
tungsten-properties.html (Accessed August 3, 2013).
68. Primary Uses of Tungsten, International Tungsten Industry Association (ITIA), at http://
55
www.itia.info/tungsten-primary-uses.html(Accessed August 3, 2013).

69. Tungsten, at http://www.wolfmet.com/applications/aerospace (Accessed August 4, 2013).
70. Defence and Aerospace Applications of Molybdenum, Tungsten and Tantalum Products,
No. 39.
71. Tungsten. www.tungstenchina.com/product/Tungsten-Alloy-713.html (Accessed August 5,
2013).
72. Tungsten Industry, International Tungsten Industry Association (ITIA), at http://
www.itia.info/thermonuclear-energy.html (Accessed August 5, 2013).
73. Tungsten, at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungsten#Alloys, (Accessed August 5, 2013).
74. Tungsten Material, Indian Bureau of Mines and US geological survey 2013.
75. John Kemp, U.S. Strategic Helium Reserve Dwindles, Prompting Supply Concerns and
Legislative Action, at http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/03/27/us-strategic-heliumreserve_n_2961771.html (Accessed March 18, 2014).
Chris Rhodes, Peak Minerals: Shortage of Rare Earth Metals Threatens Renewable Energy,
July 30, 2012, at http://oilprice.com/Alternative-Energy/Renewable-Energy/Peak-MineralsShortage-of-Rare-Earth-Metals-Threatens-Renewable-Energy.html (Accessed on March 20,
2014).
Helium, at http://www.blm.gov/nm/st/en/prog/energy/helium.html (Accessed on March
27, 2014).
Selling the Nations Helium Reserve, a report by the Committee on Understanding the
Impact of Selling the Helium Reserve, The National Academies Press, Washington D.C.,
2010.
REFERENCES
Mineral Deposit, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Rocks and Minerals, at http://www.britannica.com/
EBchecked/topic/383726/mineral-deposit (Last Accessed March 2014).
Metal Profiles, at http://metals.about.com/od/properties/a/Metal-Profiles.htm (Last Accessed
March 2014).
Mineral Year Book, US Geological Survey, at http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/
myb (Last Accessed March 2014).
Indian Minerals Year Book 2012, Indian Bureau of Mines, at http://ibm.nic.in/imyb2012.htm (Last
Accessed March 2014).
World Mineral Statistics, British Geological Survey, at http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/statistics/
worldStatistics.html.(Last Accessed March 2014).
3
Global Distribution of Strategic
Mineral Resources
This chapter provides the contours of investments made by a few important

states in strategic minerals/materials. However, the information available (in
open source) about the wealth of mineral assets and activities undertaken by
them varies in content from state to state. In this chapter, an attempt has
been made to project this information and coherently as possible (depending
on the nature of information available). Also, for the purposes of trade figures
and other important statistics, 2012 has been taken as a cut-off year; however,
at places it has not been possible to retain it due to the non-availability of
information.
The following sections provide profiles of various important countries/
regions.
Africa
The second largest continent in the world encompassing 56 independent
nations and adjacent islands, Africa has the largest mineral industry in the
world. The mineral reserves in this region are found in large quantities;
moreover, it has the highest mineral reserves of some strategic minerals such
as manganese, chromium, cobalt, lead, vanadium and titanium (an important
light metal for aerospace and defence industries); precious metals like gold,
diamond and platinum and a whole range of other non-fuel minerals. The
quality of the minerals available is also very significant. For last few decades,
various western and Asian countries have been dependent on Africa for the
57
supply of minerals. Today, various states in the world are freshly formalising
their Africa policy because of the capacity of this region to supply strategic
minerals. There is a rising scramble over these resources from Africa partly
because of the presence of emerging economies like China, India, and Brazil.
Also, western countries are feeling the heat of the competition for the
resources, particularly, of strategic mineral supplies owning to the increasing
demand from additional states.
Mineral Industry in Africa

The share of world production from Africa for various minerals is as follows:
bauxite 9 per cent; aluminium 5 per cent; chromite 44 per cent; cobalt 57
per cent; copper 5 per cent; gold 21 per cent; iron ore 4 per cent; steel 2 per
cent; lead 3 per cent; manganese 39 per cent; zinc 2 per cent; cement 4 per
cent; natural diamond 46 per cent; graphite 2 per cent; phosphate rock 31
per cent; coal 5 per cent; mineral fuels (including coal) and petroleum 13
per cent; uranium 16 per cent.1 The mineral industry in recent times has
emerged as an important source of export earnings for many African nations.
According to an estimate, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of sub-Saharan
Africa has increased from 2.5 per cent in 2009 to 5.4 per cent in 2011 and
estimated to reach 5.8 per cent2 by the end of 2013. This significant growth
has had an evident effect partly because of growing requirement of emerging
economy on increasing demand for strategic minerals from Africa. It may be
noted that it is difficult to provide precise information about exports from
Africa because various states in this region have their individual business
strategies and interests. Also, owning to complex security situation in various
states, the authenticity of the data made available at times remains
questionable. Figure 3.1 shows the physical locations of the minerals in the
African continent.
Commodity Review
Aluminium, Bauxite and Alumina
Accounting the 8 per cent of worlds total bauxite production, African bauxite
production has increased by nearly 13 per cent in 2010. Nation of Guinea
by producing 17,593,100 metric tons in 2011 accounted for about 90 per
cent of African bauxite production followed by Sierra Leone and Ghana with
6 per cent and 3 per cent, respectively.
African production of refined aluminium is significant. South Africa with
the production of around 810000 metric tons in 2011 accounted for 44 per
58

Figure 3.1: Map of African Minerals3
cent of African aluminium output, followed by Mozambique and Egypt with

30 per cent (5,62,000 tons) 22 per cent (3,53,904 tons), respectively.
Cobalt (Co)
Africas share of world cobalt production is estimated to be about 70 per cent.
Congo (Kinshasa) accounts for approximately 86 per cent of African cobalt
mine production with 108,888 metric tons followed by Zambia and Morocco
with 8 per cent and 4 per cent, respectively.
59
Chromium (Cr)
Africa has a share of approximately about 40 per cent of worlds total
chromium production. South Africa alone shared almost 54 per cent of world
total chromium production in 2012. South Africa also shares about 95 per
cent of Africas total chromium production, while additional ores get mined
in Madagascar, Sudan and Zimbabwe (see Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2: Chromium Production
Source: Mineral Commodity British Geological Survey.
Copper (Co)
Africas world share of total copper production is around 7 per cent. Some
increase in Africas copper mine production has been witnessed post 2010.
In 2010, Zambia with 7, 39,759 metric tons accounted for 56 per cent of
the African copper mine production followed by Congo (Kinshasa) 30 per
cent (4, 80,000 metric tons) and South Africa, 7 per cent (96,500 metric
tons). Africas copper production is expected to increase by 7 percent in coming
year with substantial investment by China in Zambia and Congo.
Lithium (Li)
Probably, Zimbabwe is the only country to produce lithium in Africa. Africas
lithium production was 700 metric tons (t) in 2011, which is expected to
reach 900-1000 metric tons (t) by 2014.
60
Manganese (Mg)4
According to 2010 report of the US Geological Survey (USGS), Africa shared
about 29 per cent of world manganese ore output. South Africa shared about
24 per cent of world total manganese production in 2012. South Africa shared
about 55 per cent of total African output in 2010 followed by Gabon (25
per cent), and Ghana (about 13 per cent).
Nickel (Ni)
Africa has significant amount of nickel production with South Africa and
Madagascar as the major players. During the last few years, certain country
specific fluctuations are being witnessed in respect of production of nickel.
While the output of South Africa has increased marginally by 8 per cent,
there has been significant increase in Madagascar output, which was reported
to be 40 per cent increase from 15,000 in 2010 to 25,000 in 2011. There
has been slight decrease in the outputs of Zimbabwe and Zambia. Zambia
which has joined nickel production in recent period contributed around 2,869
tons of nickel in 2011. South Africa contributed 45 per cent of the total
nickel output of Africa followed by Madagascar 26 per cent and Botswana
16 per cent. The output of Zimbabwe is expected to decrease due to closure
of one of its major nickel mines, the Shangani Mine. The African nickel
output is expected to increase significantly due to development activities in
various countries which might strive for mineral production in the coming
decade.
Tin (Sn)
African mining for tin production has shown some decline in recent past.
Cassiterite in Congo (Kinshasa) of is one of the major producers of tin in
Africa contributing 53 per cent of total production followed by Rwanda,
which accounts for around 40 per cent output, and Nigeria, which accounts
for about 7 per cent. With the announcement of Abu Dabbab alluvial tin
project and tantalum mine, both in Egypt, in 2013. The continent is expected
to increase its total production by 30 per cent by 2014.
Zinc (Zn)
Africas mine production of zinc has decreased since 2008. According to USGS
2009, Morocco accounted for 53 per cent of the total African zinc mine
production followed by Namibia, 21 per cent; South Africa, 16 per cent and
Congo (Kinshasa), 10 per cent. While Africas zinc production has reduced
to about 7 per cent since 2009, its overall world share is about 2 per cent,
which as per a mineral rich continent like Africa is comparatively less.
61
According to International Lead and Zinc Study Group (ILZSG) Lead and
Zinc Statistics Bulletin,5 Africas consumption till 2010 was 2 per cent of
total world consumption. African zinc mine production is expected to increase
by about 8 per cent by 2015 as the long-halted Algeria zinc production has
started.
Australia
Australia is one of the sixth largest countries in the world in respect of
geographical area and is the worlds third largest ocean territory. It is also
the only nation continent with a population of only 23 million, which is
relatively small compared to its total land area. Australia is one of the richest
countries in the world with 12th largest economy and fifth highest per capita
income. Mining is one of the strongest pillars in Australian economy, and it
contributed US$ 100 billion in 2011, which is about 10 per cent of its total
GDP; mining-related component comprises 9 per cent making the total
contribution to about 19 per cent.6 It is also one of the leading mineral
producing countries in the world, ranking within the top 10 countries in
the production of minerals like bauxite, coal, cobalt, copper, gem and neargem diamond, gold, iron ore, lithium, manganese ore, tantalum and uranium
(see Figure 3.3).7
Mineral Trade
With a total trade of US$ 637.7 billion in 2011, of which exports constitute
about US$ 329.0 billion and imports constitute about US$ 308.7 billion.8
Minerals contributed 58 per cent of the total exports generating high revenue
for the country. Australias investment in the mineral industry is significant.
It spent approximately US$ 3.1 billion in the fiscal year 2011, of which
65 per cent was spent on known deposits while 35 per cent was spent on
new exploration projects. Table 3.1 shows the major Australian mineral
exports.
Commodity Review
Antimony (Sb)10
Antimony production is not very significant. It was around 1800 tons in 2012
while import was around 769 tons. The major producer of this ore is
Mandalay Resources Ltd.s Costerfield Mine in Victoria.
Figure 3.3: Australian Mineral Map
62
63

Table 3.1: Major Mineral Exports of Australia
Australia Major Mineral Exports9
Commodity
Units
Quantity
Value
(thousands US$)
Alumina
kt
16,653
4,969
Aluminium (ingot metal)
kt
1624
3,838
Coal, black
Metallurgical
Thermal
Copper
Diamonds
Gold, refined
Iron and steel
Iron ore and pellets
Iron and steel
Lead
Metric tons
Metric tons
kt
000 c
t
Metric tons
kt
24 526
11 886
805
8,506
10 355
471
335
12,996
34 515
1 120
kt
658
1,833
Manganese ore and concentrate
kt
5 648
1 395
Nickel
kt
221
3,875
Oil and gas

Crude oil and other refinery feedstock
ML
LNG
Metric tons
LPG
ML
9 534
7 789
1 105
Salt kt
11 185
247
Tin t
6 031
101
kt
kt
197
382
Titanium minerals
Ilmenite concentrate
Rutile concentrate
Uranium oxide
7555
751
Zinc
kt
1482
2 214
Zircon concentrate
kt
748
370
Sources: Australian Bureau of Statistics; Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics
and Sciences (ABARES); Australian Mineral Statistics, March Quarter 2011.
Cobalt (Co) and Nickel (Ni)

Cobalt deposits are found in close association with nickel and copper ores.
Cobalt and nickel are vital strategic minerals and have very a high demand
in the commodity market. Country holds the highest reserve of cobalt
estimating to be about 24 million tons of nickel deposits, which is a share of
about 26.8 per cent of world nickel production. According to Australian
Bureau of Statistics, the country invested about US$ 262.1 million for nickel-
64
cobalt exploration in 2011.11 Western Australia has the highest reserve

contributing around 90 per cent of the countrys output.
Copper (Co)
Australia has vast copper reserves and is ranked as the third largest economic
resource (13 per cent) after Chile (28 per cent) and Peru (13 per cent). It is
also ranked fifth in the world sharing about 6 per cent of the world copper
production. In 2011, the countrys total copper production was around 961
kilo-tons. South Australia accounted 33 per cent of total production followed
by Queensland 31 per cent. China was the leading destination of the countrys
exports sharing 35 per cent of the total exports followed by India, 31 per
cent; Japan, 21 per cent and the Republic of Korea, 11 per cent.
Lead (Sb), Silver (Ag) and Zinc (Zn)
Usually, Zinc is the major component of the ore, while silver and lead are
the by-products. With one of the largest resources of zinc (about 26 per cent),
Australia is the second largest producer of zinc ores after China, and the fourth
largest producer of silver. Australia has produced 15,000 tons of zinc and
62,000 tons of lead in 2011. China is the leading export destination for zinc,
while India is the leading export destination for refined lead. The Economic
Demonstrated Resource (EDR)12 of silver was about 88kT representing 16
per cent of the world economic resource.
Tantalum (Ta)
Estimated production of tantalum is around 790 tons. Australia is also
estimated to have the second largest resource of tantalum after Brazil. Green
bushes and the Wodgina Mines in Western Australia are supposed to be
producing most of the Australian tantalum.
Tin (Sn)
The world production of tin was estimated to be 250kT in 2011, of which
Australia produced 5 per cent of the total world production. Australia was
estimated to have exported 11,049 tons of tin concentrates and 19 tons of
refined tin in 2011. Metal X Ltd. was one of the highest producing company
in Tasmania, which has 50 per cent share of Yunnan Tin Group of China.
Renison Bell deposit in Western Tas (the West Coast of Tasmania) has the
highest reserves of Australias total tin production. The country was estimated
to have produced 5,000 tons of tin in 2011. Australia was ranked seventh in
terms of tin production in the world.
65
Tungsten (W)
Australia produced 72,000 tons of tungsten in 2011, which is about 11.4
per cent of world total production of tungsten. Initial production of
wolframite concentrates as the primary ore began at both Wolfram Camp
and Mount Carbine in north Queensland in 2012 producing 27 tons of highgrade concentrates.
Brazil13
Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world in terms of geographical
area as well as population. It is also one of the largest countries in South
America and the Latin American region. As a free market economy, and
the fastest growing economy, Brazil has the sixth largest economy in the
world in terms of nominal GDP. With 8,870 mining companies operating
in the country in 2011, it is one of the largest mineral producing countries
in the world. Mining industry contributed 4.5 per cent of the GDP in 2011
(Figure 3.4).
Mineral Trade
In 2011, Brazils exports and imports were around US$ 236 billion and
US$ 209 billion, respectively. The mineral trade in the country contributes
significantly to the countrys trade balance. In 2011, the mineral trade surplus
was around US$ 48 billion. The total export and import share of some of
the minerals is shown in Figures 3.5 and 3.6.
Commodity Review
Copper (Co)
Brazils total copper production was 218,670 tons in 2011. Brazil imported
484,800 tons of copper ore mainly from Chile (95 per cent) and Portugal
(4 per cent), while 63,100 tons of copper metal in 2011 mainly from Chile
(81 per cent) and Peru (18 per cent). Due to high investment in the copper
industry, Brazil is expected to increase its domestic production to regulate
the trade balance by reducing the imports. Brazil is expected to be self-reliant
in copper production shortly.
Manganese (Mg)
Brazil was ranked as the sixth largest producer of manganese in the world.
With the production of 3.2 metric tons of manganese in 2011, the country
shared 11.6 per cent of world production. Ferroalloys industry was the major
66

Figure 3.4: Brazils Mineral Map
consumer of manganese consuming 85 per cent of total consumption in Brazil

followed by the electrical batteries (15 per cent) industry. There was a slight
increase in the production of manganese in 2011 from 2010. The trend of
production is as shown in Figure 3.7.
67
Figure 3.5: Brazils Mining Trade Balance Exports (per cent of amount in US$)
Source: Information and Analyses on the Brazilian Mineral, 2012.
Figure 3.6: Brazils Mining Trade Balance Imports

(per cent of amount in US$)
Source: Information and Analyses on the Brazilian Mineral, 2012.
Source: Information and Analyses on the Brazilian Mineral, 2012; LME, 2012.
Figure 3.7: Production of Manganese in Brazil
68
69
Nickel (Ni)
Brazil is the seventh largest producer of nickel in the world, and produced
110,960 tons of nickel ore in 2011. The production of the most widely used
form of nickel, ferronickel alloys, was around 8,600 tons. Vale, one of the
biggest multinational mining corporations in Brazil produced 1.5 metric tons
of nickel.
Tin (Sn)
With 12,000 tons of production in 2011, the country was ranked the fifth
largest producer of Zinc ore in the world. The main producers in the country
were Minerao Taboca (66 per cent), Coopersanta (20 per cent) and others
(14 per cent). Brazil has the third largest reserve of tin in the world share,
that is, 12.5 per cent of the total reserve following China 31.25 per cent and
Indonesia 16.66 per cent.
Zinc (Zn)
Brazil is the 12th largest producer of Zinc in the world with an output of around
206,130 tons in 2011. It also shared 2.5 per cent of the total world production
of zinc in 2011. The zinc ore reserves accounted for 6.5 million tons. There
were two main metallurgy operations (Juiz de Fora and Tres Marias) located
in Minas Gerais State which produced 211,800 tons of zinc metal.
China
In geographical terms, the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) is the fourth
largest country in the world after Russia, Canada and the US with land area
of 9.6 million square kilometres. With population of about 1,359 million,
its the worlds most populous nation contributing about 20 per cent of world
population. Its also the second largest economy in the world after the US
with an unprecedented economic growth of approximately 8 per cent per
year which was higher than the expected growth of 7 per cent in its 12th fiveyear plan.14 To sustain the massive economic growth, its demand for energy,
minerals, and metals have grown substantially making the country the leading
mineral producing and consuming country in the world.
China has some of the worlds richest strategic mineral reserves; it was
the leading producer of aluminium, antimony, barite, bismuth, cement, coal,
fluorspar, gold, graphite, iron and steel, lead, magnesium, mercury,
molybdenum, phosphate rock, rare earths, salt, talc, tin, tungsten and zinc
in 2011.15 China has also come up as the world producer of 37 minerals and
metals and produces more than 50 per cent of the worlds total output of 12
Figure 3.8: Major Mines and Important Deposits in China
70
71
of these.16 Chinas share of world production is 85 per cent of rare earths

(this value shows variations for source to source, and at places it has also
been put to around 95 per cent), 32 per cent of tin and 83 per cent of
tungsten. With such deposits in hand, China is in a position to control the
price of minerals at the global level. Figure 8 shows the major metallic mineral
resources in China.
Overall, the mining sector is a vital sector to shape Chinese economy.
China has made significant amount of investments into this sector both
domestically and globally. According to the USGS 2010 report, Chinas fixedasset investment increased by 24.5 per cent to US$ 3.7 trillion, of which the
mining sector (including coal) received US$ 148.5 billion and the natural
gas and oil sector received US$ 44.5 billion.17 The labour force in the mining
sector was 5.62 million, or 4.3 per cent of the countrys total workforce in
2010.18
Mineral Trade19
China is one of the top three mineral and metal product trade dominating
country in the world. In 2010, its total trade was US$ 712.5 billion, which
accounted for 24.0 per cent of the countrys total trade. There was an increase
of 34.7 per cent in trade in 2011, as compared to 2009 accounting for
US$ 2.97 trillion. The major destination for Chinese trade is mainly the US,
as it imports 80 per cent of strategic minerals from China, followed by the
European Union (EU), Hong Kong and Japan. Table 3.2 lists Chinas mineral
exports in 2011.
Table 3.2: Chinas Export Minerals in 2011
Commodity
METALS
Aluminium:
Alumina
Quantity
(metric tons)
Value
(thousands US$)
76,280
53,506
Metal and alloys:

Unwrought
Semi manufactures
7,66,122
30,00,000
17,89,057
1,03,61,684
Antimony:
Metal, unwrought
Oxide
Barium sulphate
5,062
41,995
28,90,000
66,317
5,12,728
2,41,911
1,56,516
5,00,347
105
14,90,847
45,25,882
69,025
Copper, metal and alloys:

Unwrought
Semi-manufactures
Indium, unwrought, including powder
72
Commodity
Quantity
(metric tons)
Iron and steel:

Pig iron and cast iron
Value
(thousands US$)
8,70,000
4,40,978
66,90,000
27,00,000
2,65,80,000
14,40,000
17,00,000
9,30,000
25,095
59,87,326
20,94,512
2,55,62,875
37,52,393
21,49,800
36,11,795
12,813
1,85,879
99,362
56,386
18,732
1,178
1,227
5,136
5,55,104
3,28,377
2,01,768
3,74,994
13,03,603
38,222
1,82,165
Zinc:
Metal and alloys, unwrought
Oxide and peroxide
48,369
17,608
1,15,648
32,979
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
Cement
Fluorspar
Granite
Graphite, natural
Magnesia, fused
Rare-earth products
1,06,10,000
7,20,000
80,40,000
4,40,000
20,70,000
16,900
6,20,353
1,33,809
2,56,840
3,65,181
6,62,229
26,67,140
Steel:
Bars and rods
Shapes and sections
Sheets and plates
Tube and pipe
Wire of steel or iron
Ferroalloys
Scrap
Magnesium, metal and alloy:
Unwrought, Mg not less than 99.8 per cent
Other unwrought
Manganese, unwrought
Molybdenum, ores and concentrates
Silver, unwrought
Tin, metal and alloys, unwrought
Tungsten, tungstates
Source: US and British Geological Survey, 2012.
Chinas expanding economy and rising per capita income has certainly
raised the imbalance between supply and demand for some of the resources
due to rising domestic demand for minerals: from metallic and non-metallic
minerals to energy minerals. According to World Watch Institute report, in
2005 alone China consumed 26 per cent of world steel and 47 per cent of
cement. China is the worlds largest producer and consumer of coal
contributing 3.5 billion metric tons of coal in 2011, and also the worlds
largest consumer of refined lead. There has been acute shortage of certain
important strategic minerals such as chromium, cobalt, copper, iron ore,
manganese, nickel, petroleum, platinum-group metals and potash; hence,
exceeding domestic supply, and imports which were estimated to account
73
for more than 40 per cent of domestic consumption.20 Table 3.3 lists Chinas
mineral imports in 2011.
Table 3.3: Chinas Import of Selected Minerals in 2011
(Metric tons unless otherwise specified)
Commodity
METALS
Aluminium:
Bauxite
Alumina
Semi manufactures
Scrap
Chromium, chromite
Cobalt:
Ore and concentrates
Unwrought and powder
Copper:
Anode
Semi manufactures
Scrap
Iron and steel:
Iron ore
Steel:
Bars and rods
Seamless pipe
Shapes and sections
Sheets and plates
Scrap
Manganese ore
Nickel:
Metal, refined greater than
99.95 per cent Ni
Metal, other refined
Titanium dioxide
INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
Diamond (kilograms)
Quantity
Value
(thousands US$ )
4,48,44,914
18,80,000
3,33,123
5,77,364
26,90,000
94,40,000
20,57,746
7,77,809
8,27,960
35,92,775
46,25,509
26,63,791
3,48,191
11,057
8,50,937
1,75,504
63,80,000
4,16,332
32,91,469
7,81,623
46,90,000
1,55,18,135
37,80,616
2,89,76,396
78,28,354
1,63,51,959
68,60,80,000
11,24,06,539
11,50,000
5,20,000
3,90,000
1,32,00,000
67,70,000
1,29,70,000
19,26,600
19,79,468
4,16,672
1,56,94,346
41,36,390
26,74,563
4,80,55,678
49,04,203
11,169
2,01,310
2,28,528
2,69,007
46,45,652
7,03,812
3,342
61,47,250
74
Commodity
Quantity
Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizers:

Compound fertilizers
10,20,000
Di-ammonium phosphate
90,000
Potassium chloride
64,00,000
Potassium sulphate
1,50,000
Value
(thousands US$ )
5,31,911
58,573
26,91,321
75,505
Source: US and British Geological Survey 2012.
Aluminium (Al)
Aluminium is obtained from its most common ores, that is, bauxite, alumina
and aluminium. In 2008, China replaced Brazil to be the second largest
aluminium producer in the world after Australia by increasing the production
by 37 per cent in five years and 19 per cent in 2009 compared to 2008. In
2009, it accounted for around 15 per cent of the total world output and
shared 37 per cent of total world aluminium production. However, China
remains worlds leading aluminium importer due to its insufficiency to meet
the domestic demand. Chinese production in 2011 was nearly 89.23 million
tons and imports was 34.87 million tons.21 Chinas unwrought aluminium
imports came mainly from Russia, Oman, Australia, South Africa, India and
North Korea. Figure 9 shows the aluminium imports of China.
Figure 3.9: Aluminium Imports of China 2011
Source: Centre for Sustainable Mineral Development (BGS); US Geological Survey and World
Mineral Year book 2011.
Figure 3.10 shows sector-wise consumption of aluminium in China.
75
Figure 3.10: Consumption of Aluminium in China

Others
12%
Packaging
8%
Construction
42%
Machinery
9%
Electronics
10%
Transportation
19%
Source: US Geological Survey; Alumina and Aluminium Monthly, 2012a; China Metals, 2012.
Commodity Review
Antimony (Sb)
China has been one of the leading producers of cobalt in the world. In 2011,
China produced 128,017 tonnes of antimony. Even though the Chinese
Government came down heavily on illegal mining in the provinces of
Guangxi, Hunan and Yunnan, the country was still insufficient to meet the
domestic demand of antimony concentrates. Therefore, China imported
60,151 tons of ores and concentrates, 491tons of metal and 3,215 tons of
oxides in 2011. But, subsequently the government has strictly restricted further
exploitation of antimony and has taken over complete control as it is a strategic
mineral.
Cobalt (Co)
Chinas cobalt resource is limited; hence, its maximum demand is met by
imports. In 2011, the countrys production was 128,017 tons while the net
import of China was around 417,615 tons, comprising 348,191 tons of ore
and concentrates and 11,057 tons of unwrought and powder. The Democratic
Republic of the Congo and South Africa accounted for 93 per cent of the
total imports.22 The consumption of cobalt is dominated by battery industries
followed by cement carbide and magnets (see Figure 3.11).
76

Figure 3.11: Cobalt Consumption in China
Chemical
6%
Others
6%
Glazing
6%
Magnets
7%
Cement Carbide
11%
Batteries
64%
Source: USGS and BGS.
Nickel (Ni)
90 per cent of Chinas nickel resource is in the form of copper-nickel sulphide
as there is no primary source of nickel in the country. China consumes three
times the average production of mined nickel; therefore, the gap is filled mostly
by imports. The most vital use of nickel is in the stainless steel industry, which
creates a greater demand and high price of refined nickel in the international
market. Therefore, China imports 90 per cent of laterite form of ore which
contains 2 per cent nickel content from Indonesia and the Philippines. China
is probably one of the fastest growing markets for stainless steel in the world.
Its production was 89,800 tons in 2011. About 70 per cent of nickel was
consumed by the stainless steel sector in China in 2011. China is also using
nickel pig iron to replace pure nickel content in stainless steel production.
Chinese investment in other part of the world is also rising as the Indonesian
Government has been planning to ban the export of laterite ore containing
6 per cent of nickel content.23
Copper (Cu)
Copper is a critical and strategic material for China. Chinas refined and mined
copper production in 2011 was estimated to be 5.1 million tons and 1.2
million tons, respectively, which is 30 per cent of the total demand of copper
in the country. Hence, China imports considerable amount of copper
concentrates, scrap anode and refined metal from foreign markets. The main
imports of copper concentrates are from Chile (22.2 per cent), copper scrap
from the US (13.8 per cent) and refined copper from Chile (45.0 per cent).24
According to China Nonferrous Metals Industry Association, the countrys
average ore grade was 0.77 per cent copper. Owing to lower ore grade and
Sources: Centre for Sustainable Mineral Development (BGS), US Geological Survey and World Mineral Year book 2011.
Figure 3.12: Copper Imports of China

77
78
more complicated elemental composition in the ore, the processing recovery

rate decreased to 86.58 per cent.25
The consumption of copper in china is mainly dominated by the power
sector contributing 46 per cent, followed by home goods and appliances as
11 per cent and electronics as 9 per cent.
Iron and Steel

Accounting for about 57 per cent of the worlds pig iron production and 45
per cent26 of the worlds crude steel production in 2011, China remains the
worlds leading iron and steel producer. While the private sector accounts 80
per cent of the investment, iron and steel making output capacity has increased
to 700 metric tons and 850 metric tons, respectively, in 2011. China is also
the net steel product exporter accounting 33.2 metric tons of exports of which
55 per cent alone was exported within Asia. Due to low iron content and
high impurities of domestic ores, industries import pig iron ore from other
parts of the world too. While estimated 50 per cent of seaborne ore in the
world was destined for China,27 Australia, Brazil, India, South Africa and
Canada remain the net exporters of iron ore to China accounting for the rise
in imports to 686 million tons in 2011 from 618 million tons in 2010. Due
to this massive import figures, the international pricing is highly driven by
China as the demand is driven by Chinese imports.28 Figure 3.13 shows how
steel and iron production is met by iron imports.
Figure 3.13: Iron Imports and Steel and Iron Production in China
Steel Production
Iron Production
Iron Imports
800
700
Millions (Tonnes)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Source: Centre for Sustainable mineral development (BGS), US Geological survey and World
Mineral Year book 2011.
79
China imported about 70 per cent of high-value-added steel products

from overseas in 2011. The major consumption of iron and steel in China is
by the construction industry, which accounted for as much as 54.4 per cent
of the total iron and steel consumption in China in the year 2011.29
Titanium (Ti)
China is one of the largest titanium producing countries in the world. The
major producing grade in China is sponge titanium and small volume of
soft sponge (MHT95 grade). China had more than 20 titanium sponge
plants, and the total output production was estimated to be more than
130,000 t/yr till 2011. The high quality rutile ore is limited in the country,
and most of it is in the form of iron and vanadium. It has also been estimated
that Chinese ores have low quality; hence only 70 per cent of titanium
producers could produce MHT100 grade titanium sponge (Brinell
hardness30 of less than 100, or mild sponge), which contains between 99.5
per cent and 99.6 per cent titanium. China produced a small volume of soft
sponge (MHT95 grade), which contains 99.7 per cent titanium. Chinese
imported 2.3 million tons of titanium ore and concentrates in 2011, mainly
from Australia, India and Vietnam.
Tungsten (Sn)
China is estimated to have 1.8 million tons of tungsten reserves, which is
approximately 64 per cent of the worlds mineable reserves, and it provides
the tungsten supply of about 85 per cent for the global use every year. It is
also the world largest tungsten producing country, and at the same time, the
largest importer of tungsten ores and concentrates in world accounting 9,905
tons. However, it also remains one of the leading tungsten exporters
accounting 27,524 tons (tungsten content) of tungsten products mainly to
the EU, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and the US. It consumed about 37,000
tons of tungsten, while mining and processing capacity reached 2, 20, 00,000
and 4,00,00,000 metric tons, respectively.31
India
With a population of about 1.2 billion, India is the second largest populous
country in the world after China. It also the seventh largest country in terms
of area and has some of the most diverse geography in the world. With the
10th largest economy in the world in terms of nominal GDP and third largest
in terms of Purchasing Power Parity (PPP), it is one of the fastest emerging
economies in the world.32 To sustain such an economy, the industrial and
80
manufacturing industry plays an indispensable role; moreover, minerals play

a vital role in sustaining this strategic industry. With its diverse geographical
attributes, the country is endowed with significant mineral resources. Mining
sector is an important segment of the Indian economy. Mining contributed
about US$ 45 billion which was 2.63 per cent of the countrys GDP in 2011.
India produces as many as 87 minerals, which include 4 fuel, 10 metallic,
Figure 3.14: Indias Mineral Map
81
47 non-metallic, 3 atomic and 23 minor minerals (including building and

other materials).33 India also contributes significantly towards minerals such
as barite, bauxite, chromium, coal, iron ore, limestone and manganese ore in
terms of output, which was among the 10th largest in the world.34 Figure 3.14
shows minerals found across India.
Mineral Industry in India

In 2011, the Indian mining industry contributed about 2.63 per cent to the
GDP which is one of the lowest vis--vis some of the larger emerging
economies such as China (20 per cent), Australia (8 per cent) and Russia
(14.7 per cent).35 However, this percentage is expected to increase between 7
per cent and 8 per cent in the near future due to increasing demand. The
total number of mines in 2011-12 was estimated to be around 3,236 mainly
dominated by larger number of small operational mines. The public sector
companies account for 66.5 per cent of the total value of mineral production.
The open cast mining36 is the main practice for mining in India accounting
80 per cent of the total mining. During 2011-12, estimated value for fuel
minerals accounted for US$ 28.69 billion or 68.22 per cent; metallic minerals,
US$ 8.39 billion or 19.94 per cent of the total value and non-metallic minerals
including minor minerals US$ 4.97 billion or 11.83 per cent of the total
value.37 Some of the major minerals imported by India are listed in Table
3.4. Please read this table along the Mineral Trade discussed on next page.
Table 3.4: India Imports of Selected Ores and Concentrates in 2012
Commodity
Manganese ores and concentrates etc.
Copper ores and concentrates
Chromium ores and concentrates
Borates
Zinc ores and concentrates
Titanium ores and concentrates
Aluminium ores and concentrates
Lead ores and concentrates
Ash residues containing metals of metallic compounds
Niobium, tantalum, vanadium or zirconium ores
and concentrates
Granulated slag from the manufacture of iron or steel
Slag & ash nes, including sea wood ash (kelp)
Slag, dross other than granulated slag
Molybdenum ores and concentrates
Ores and concentrates, nes
Quantity
(metric tons)
Value
(thousands US$)
2,822,131
2,387,465
1,922,919
112,225
212,185
112,834
76,707
75,978
59,186
486,730
4,884,537
50,266
45,285
28,580
9,422
9,141
7,735
6,683
71,237
999
1,995
827
138,559
25,730
89,534
49,968
31,425
149,725
48,703
82
Commodity
Nickel ores and concentrates
Cobalt ores and concentrates
Tungsten ores and concentrates
Tin ores and concentrates
Precious metal ores and concentrates
Antimony
Quantity
(metric tons)
Value
(thousands US$)
5,123
5,041
327
369
21
3,712
13,849
12,895
534
264
-
Source: Mineral Trade (trademap.org)38
Overall, Indias mining industry constitutes a large number of small

operational mines. The number of mines which reported mineral production
[excluding minor minerals, petroleum (crude), natural gas and atomic
minerals] in India was 2,076 in 2011-12 as against 2,355 in the previous
year. Table 3.5 provides information on the state-wise distribution of the
number of mines and their contribution towards mineral production. This
table provides information on 11states which together account for 93.64 per
cent of the total number of mines. In respect of the total value of mineral
production apart from the regions mentioned, the rest of the countrys
contribution is less than 9 per cent (2011-12).
Table 3.5: Number of Mines and Shared Percentage Value Distribution (State-wise)
Name of the State
No. of mines
Andhra Pradesh
Gujarat
Rajasthan
Madhya Pradesh
Karnataka
Tamil Nadu
Odisha
Jharkhand
Chhattisgarh
Maharashtra
Goa
Offshore areas, Assam
354
308
241
225
180
156
119
106
99
86
70
-
Shared Value of mineral production

(per cent)
6.99
6.83
9.01
4.69
3.13
12.02
5.86
9.15
3.30
25.79, 4.63
Source: Mining industry in India, 2013.39
Mineral Trade
In 2010, the total export of ores and minerals was estimated to be around
US$ 27.6 billion. Diamond (mostly cut and polished) was the principal item
of export, accounting for 71.3 per cent of all mineral and ore exports; iron
ore, 13.0 per cent; alumina, 5.6 per cent; and granite, 3.3 per cent.40 In
terms of metals and alloys, Iron and Steel export remained the highest sharing
83
about 46.6 per cent of the total export followed by copper and alloys
(including brass and bronze) which accounted for 28.5 per cent.41 The total
value of imports of ores, minerals and fuels was about US$113 billion.
India is heading to become one of the largest economies in the world;
however, the per capita consumption of most of the metals remains the lowest
in the world, which is likely to increase exponentially in next few decades.
While India remains self-sufficient with regard to most of the minerals, there
are a few minerals whose resources are limited and may not be sufficient to
meet the domestic demand in the future. These minerals are the backbone of
strategic industries like defence, space, nuclear, energy, etc. Hence, the
availability of these minerals in the future to meet the domestic demand of
strategic industries is crucial.
Commodity Review
Antimony (Sb)
As per the United Nations Framework Classification (UNFC) system, as on
April 1, 2010, total resources are estimated at 10,588 tons ore with metal
content of around 174 tons. The antimony resources in India are reported to
be inferior in quality. The occurrence of antimony is reported to be in Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh. Presently,
India does not produce antimony and the entire demand is met through
imports. India imported 3,712 tons of antimony in 2011-12, 83 per cent of
which was imported from South Africa alone followed by China (3 per cent).
Import of alloys and scrap was mainly from China (90 per cent). Figure 3.15
shows the antimony imports of India over the last few years.
Borates42
As per the UNFC system,43 total resources of borax as on April 2010, were
estimated at 74,204 tons in Jammu & Kashmir; however, they are still under
survey. Borax is not produced in India presently as economically workable
deposits could not be established so far. All the domestic need is solely met
through imports of raw borax. The total borax imports were around 112,225
tons in 2011 mainly imported from Turkey (43 per cent), the US (25 per
cent), Bolivia (15 per cent) and Argentina (8 per cent). The future demand
might increase because of a probable shift to fibre glass reinforcement by
industries to enhance efficiency by reducing weight.
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004 2005
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines and Export-Import data bank.
1999
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Figure 3.15: Antimony Imports of India
2011
2012
2013
84
85
Cobalt (Co)
Associated mainly with copper, nickel and arsenic oxide, cobalt is an important
strategic mineral with wide usage and unique properties. Most of the cobalt
in India is recovered during copper and nickel processing as there is no
production of cobalt from indigenous ores. The remaining demand for refined
cobalt is met through imports. Indias cobalt ores and concentrates were
estimated to be around 5,041 tons, while alloys were around 748 tons in
2011. Imports were mainly from Zaire/Democratic Rep. of Congo (74 per
cent) and Peoples Rep. of Congo (22 per cent) (see Table 3.6).
Table 3.6: Indias Cobalt Imports in 2011
Countries
Quantity
Zaire Rep./Congo, Dem. Rep. of

People Republic of Congo
USA
Uganda
UK
Unspecified
1,059,679
370,673
27,283
13,639
3,097
41,033
All Countries
1,515,404
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines Year Book 2011.
Cobalts unique properties make it an indispensable mineral in many

strategic industries. Owing to its usage in a number of industries, the future
domestic and global demand is likely to have an exponential increasing trend.
The demand of cobalt is likely to go up with use of super-alloys in civil
aviation, catalysts for gas-to-liquid production of synthetic liquid fuels,
rechargeable batteries for hybrid electric vehicles, cellular telephones, aerospace
and energy generation industries which use cobalt-bearing super alloy gas
turbine engine parts.44 India does not have any primary cobalt production
facility. The secondary production comes from nickel-bearing laterite deposits
in Odisha (state on the east coast of India) and declining copper slag produced
by Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL), but its commercial viable usage is
still under Research and Development (R&D). Though the recycling of cobalt
is used to meet the domestic demand; however, the future demand is expected
to increase. Its therefore vital to clearly identify the future demand and
diversify import risk from particular countries.
Fluorite (CaF2 )45

As per the UNFC system, the total resources of fluorite in the country, as on
April 2005, were estimated at 20.17 million tons. By regions, Gujarat
86

Figure 3.16: Fluorite Usage
Alloy Steel
4%
Iron and Steel

3.9%
Aluminium
2%
Cement
12%
Chemical
78%
Sources: Centre for Sustainable Mineral Development (BGS), US Geological Survey and World
Mineral Yearbook 2011.
accounted for 69 per cent of the total resources having 13.93 million tons,
followed by Rajasthan with 5.24 million tons (26 per cent). Fluorite plays a
vital role in the manufacture of aluminium, gasoline, insulating foams,
refrigerants, steel, chemical and uranium fuel. The production of fluorite is
scarce in the country and mainly fulfilled as a by-product in phosphoric acid
production during the processing of phosphate rock. However, the chemical
and aluminium industry requires a more refined and purified form; hence,
the demand is solely met by imports. The sector-wise usage of fluorite is shown
in Figure 3.16.
India imported 147138 tons of fluorite in 2011 mainly from China (54
per cent) and Kenya (31 per cent). The production of fluorite is limited in
India, and as discussed earlier, grades of fluorite produced do not meet the
specifications of the chemical industry, which is the biggest user of fluorite;
hence, India will remain dependent on imports owing to both quality and
quantity issues.
Molybdenum (Mo)46
As per the UNFC System, the provisional resources of molybdenum ore in
the country as on April 1, 2010 are estimated at about 19.29 million tons
containing about 12,640 tons Molybdenite (MoS2). The above resources are
87
located in Tamil Nadu (9.97 million tons), Madhya Pradesh (8 million tons)
and Karnataka (1.32 million tons). Molybdenite (MoS2) is the principle ore
of molybdenum and usually extracted as a by-product of copper mining. The
domestic demand is high; therefore, molybdenum demand in India is mostly
met by imports. Indias ores and concentrates imports were around 7,735 tons,
while alloys and scrap was 297 tons in 2012. Imports were mainly from Chile
(33 per cent), the US (18 per cent), Netherlands (15 per cent) and Canada
(8 per cent). The principle use of molybdenum is in stainless steel and in
chemicals/catalysts. The global and domestic demand is expected to go high
as considerable growth in super alloys and stainless steel sector is expected in
the near future. India is expected to depend more on imports to meet the
increasing domestic demand.
Nickel (Ni)
Nickel is one of the most important elements that enhances the properties of
iron manifold and makes products hard; it is used in stainless steel production
too. As per UNFC, as on April 4, 2010, the total provisional resources of
nickel ore have been estimated at 189 million tons. The 66 per cent of world
nickel production is used in the stainless steel industry. In 2011-12, domestic
consumption of nickel in India was estimated to be 2,235 tons mostly
consumed in alloy-steel industry. There is no primary source of nickel
production in India; however, nickel is recovered as nickel sulphate crystals,
a by-product obtained during copper production. Most of the domestic
demand is met by processing alloys and scraps, while the remaining by
imports. Indias nickel import in 2011-12 was round 41,729 tons of which,
nickel alloys were 33,658 tons, while nickel waste & scrap was 1,129 tons.
Imports in 2011-12 were mainly from Russia contributing 34 per cent of
the total imports followed by Australia (12 per cent), Norway (11 per cent)
and the UK (6 per cent). The estimated demand of the country is expected
to increase exponentially. According to the 12th year plan, the estimated steel
production is expected to reach 5 million tons; hence, with the development
of strategic industry in India, the demand is expected to rise further. Therefore,
India would have no choice but to be depend on imports to meet the domestic
demand.
Selenium (Se)
Selenium gets recovered as a by-product during copper, lead-zinc, gold and
platinum ore processing, and does not have any primary source available for
extraction. Selenium is expected to be recovered from Copper Smelter of HCL
in Jharkhand; however, HCL has not confirmed further production of
88
selenium 2006-07 (further data is not available). Imports of selenium

decreased to 194 tons in 2011-12, as compared to 209 tons in the previous
year. Imports were mainly from Japan, Belgium and the Republic of Korea
in 2011-12.
Tungsten (W)
Tungsten is an important strategic mineral in India owing to its usage in highend technology industries. The total resources of tungsten ore in India, as
per UNFC system, as on April 1, 2010, have been estimated at 87.4 million
tons; however, all these resources are placed under remaining resources
category due to probable technological constraint to extraction. The entire
demand is mainly met by imports and recycling of alloys and scrap. Imports
of tungsten ores and concentrates have seen a drastic increased to 327 tons
in 2011-12 from 27 tons in the previous year. Imports were mainly from
China (34 per cent), the US (15 per cent), Korea (11 per cent) and Japan
(8 per cent). Owing to lack of primary source, there is no indigenous
production of tungsten concentrates; hence, India will continue to meet its
entire demand only through imports.
United States
The third largest country in the world in terms of geographical area and
highest economy in the world in terms of purchasing power parity, the US is
one of the most developed countries in the world. Being a superpower which
has been involved in various conflicts since the World War II era till the
present, the US dependence on minerals has been significant. Its various
industries, especially the defence industry, are crucially dependent on strategic
minerals. In recent times, as many emerging economies are becoming both
significant producers and consumers of various raw mineral products, the
US is keen to ensure that its supply chain of strategic materials does not get
affected. The US was the first country to realise the vitality of materials to
sustain economic growth. It was the only country to come up with National
Strategic Material Act, 1939 followed by Critical Material Stockpiling Act,
1945.47 During the period 1900-1929 the United States produced nearly
90 per cent of all the minerals it consumed. Since about World War II,
however, the mineral position of the United States has deteriorated.48
Presently, the US imports dependency has increased significantly, for instance,
one-half of U.S. apparent consumption of the 41 mineral commodities
shown in the figure below came from imports, and the United States was
100 percent import reliant for 18 of those. However, it has reduced its
Figure 3.17: 2012 US Net Import Reliance
Source: US Geological Survey.
89
Figure 3.18: US Selected Mineral Map
90
91
dependency from 100 per cent in 2002 to 85 per cent in 2012-13; the
reduction in import dependency predominantly on China is rather significant.
Nevertheless, the US dependency on imports has increased in recent years,
often because it is economically advantageous to do so. Some developing
countries not only bear the advantage of having rich source of mineral
deposits, but also have cheap energy source and cheap labour to economically
extract them. Hence, all the minerals imported by the country is not meant
to be completely considered under the risk of high import dependence. In
recent years, as there is a surge in domestic demand, the employability for
greener technology and enhancement of present technology is increasing.
Therefore, in many cases, there is a partial or complete insufficiency of these
minerals. Currently, the US depends upon overseas suppliers for over 80
percent of its most important strategic minerals of which 47 per cent of the
19 minerals on which the United States is 100 per cent import dependent
upon are produced in China.49
Depending on the risk factor and high dependency on imports in above
figure, the US has defined its strategic material in the risk pyramid shown in
Figure 3.18: from very high risk at top to very low risk at the bottom. These
also includes rare earth materials.
Figure 3.19: Resources Risk Pyramid for the US
AMERICAN RESOURCES
RISK PYRAMID
Critical and Strategic Minerals in
US Government Studies Relating
to National Security
Source: http://americanresources.org/
92
Commodity Review
Antimony (Sb)
There was no production of antimony reported in 2012, and therefore, the
state was 100 per cent dependent on imports: mainly from China, 74 per
cent; followed by Mexico, 12 per cent; Peru, 3 per cent and others, 11 per
cent. The antimony in the US was mainly used in flame retardants, 35 per
cent; transportation as used in batteries, 29 per cent; chemicals, 16 per cent;
ceramics and glass, 12 per cent and others, 8 per cent.
Arsenic (As)
There is no primary reserve of arsenic in the US, and limited metal is extracted
from Gallium-Arsenide (GaAs) semiconductor scrap. The net imports of
arsenic in the US was around 6,900, of which consumption was around 6,680
metric tons; hence, there is a trend of complete imports reliance. Arsenic has
wide applications in the US, such as in the enhancement of lead batteries,
solar cells for satellites, anti-frictional additives in bearings and telecommunications. It is imported mainly from China, constituting around 86 per cent of
the net imports, followed by Japan with 13 per cent.
Bauxite and Alumina
The US production of bauxite is around 5.6 million tons, which is not enough
to meet domestic consumption. In case of alumina, the US is almost 100
percent dependent on imports. The alumina imports were around 1,850
metric tons in 2012, 90 per cent of which is consumed in aluminium smelters.
Nearly half of US bauxite imports are from Jamaica constituting 43 per cent,
while 34 per cent of alumina comes from Australia.
Chromium (Cr)
Since 1948, the US has been a major producer of chromium ore in the world,
but in recent times the country relies heavily on imports. In 2012, the US
import reliance was 70 per cent with a net import of 139,095 metric tons.50
It was estimated that the US consumes 6 per cent of the worlds total
chromium production, mainly in the form of chromite ore, chromium
chemicals, chromium ferroalloys, chromium metal and stainless steel.
Chromium is mainly imported from South Africa, 34 per cent; Kazakhstan,
17 per cent; Russia, 10 per cent; Mexico, 5 per cent and others, 34 per cent.
Since 2010, the US consumption of chromium was distributed as shown in
Figure 3.19.51
93
Figure 3.20: Chromium Consuming Sectors

Carbon Steel
25%
Others
51%
Stainless and Heat

Resistant Steel
11%
Unspecified
3%
Super Alloys
10%
* Others include cast irons, welding and alloy hard-facing rods and materials, wear- and corrosionresistant alloys and aluminum.
Sources: US Geological Survey Mineral Plans.
Cobalt (Co)
The US production of cobalt has not seen significant growth in a decade,
and country has 78 per cent dependency on imports. The US imports in
2012 were around 12,214 metric tons: mainly from China, 20 per cent;
followed by Norway, 14 per cent; Russia, 12 per cent and others, 44 per
cent. Cobalt is a vital mineral in for the US defence, space and manufacturing
industry. Its utility in making superalloys, mainly required for the
manufacturing gas turbine engines, is well-known. Figure 3.20 shows the
consumption of cobalt in various vital industries.
Figure 3.21: Cobalt Consumption in Various Vital Sectors
Chemical Application
25%
Supper Alloys
51%
Metallic application
16%
Carbide Cutting Tools
8%
Source: US and UK Geological Survey, 2012.
94
Gallium (Ga)
There is no primary production of gallium in the US, and so it is completely
dependent on imports. Gallium is an essential mineral for the production of
GaAs and Gallium Nitride (GaN), constituting 99 per cent in electronic
circuits. This mineral is vital for the production of Integrated Circuit (IC)
chips used in most of the defence and space applications. In 2012, the US
imported 58 tons of pure gallium, mainly from Germany, 32 per cent,
followed by the UK, 27 per cent and China, 15 per cent.
Lithium (Li)
Lithium is widely used in rechargeable batteries and lubricants. The US does
not have any major lithium production facility and its dependence on imports
is more than 70 per cent. Domestic lithium is mainly extracted from scraps
and recycled. The US imported 1,070 metric tons of lithium in 2012, more
than half of which was imported from Argentina, 52 per cent, followed by
Chile, 44 per cent and China, 3 per cent.
Niobium (Nb)
Niobium is a vital strategic material for the US mainly for two reasons: First,
there is no domestic production, and the country is 100 per cent dependent
on imports. Secondly, the major usage of this mineral is in production of
high grade steel constituting about 52 per cent and for supper alloys as 48
per cent to be used in aerospace industries. The state imported 47,000 metric
tons of niobium in 2012 and estimated value of niobium consumption was
US$ 424 million and was expected to be about US$ 500 million in 2012.52
Brazil is the highest net exporter of niobium to the country contributing about
82 per cent of net export followed by Canada with 10per cent.
Vanadium (V)
The major usage of vanadium as an alloying agent, in the iron and steel
industry, amounts to about 93 per cent of the total vanadium domestic
consumption. The US has about 96 per cent of import dependency importing
about 8,330 metric tons of mineral in 2011 of which ferrovanadium
constituted the highest. Ferrovanadium was imported mainly from Republic
of Korea, 43 per cent, and Canada, 33 per cent; Vanadium pentoxide was
imported from Russia, 47 per cent, followed by South Africa, 32 per cent
and China, 19 per cent.
95
NOTES
#
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Maps of Africa, Australia, Brazil, China, India and US are compiled from US geological
(USGS) and British geological (BGS) survey using GIS map data at http://mrdata.usgs.gov/
(Accessed on 20th April 2014)
Hanns W. Maull, South Africas Minerals: the Achilles Heel of Western Economic Security?
International Affairs (London), 62 (4), Chatham House, autumn, 1986, pp. 619-626.
Sub-Saharan African GDP Growth Forecasts, The Economist, October 13, 2011, at http://
www.economist.com/node/21533441 (Accessed December 22, 2013).
Map of Africa, at http://teacherweb.ftl.pinecrest.edu/snyderd/APHG/projects/MUN-BC/
maps/minerals.jpg (Accessed December 24, 2013).
Manganese Production 2012, USGS Mineral Resources Program, at http://minerals.usgs.gov/
minerals/pubs/commodity/manganese/mcs-2012-manga.pdf (Accessed December 24, 2013).
Publications List, International Study Group of Lead and Zinc, at http://www.ilzsg.org/generic/
pages/list.aspx?table=document&ff_aa_docume (Accessed December 24, 2013).
Economic Irrationalism, The Sydney Morning Herald, at http://www.smh.com.au/federalpolitics/political-opinion/our-economic-irrationalism-20120312-1uwde.html (Accessed
December 24, 2013).
Australias Trade with East Asia, the Americas, and the European Union: 2010, Australian
Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, at http://www.dfat.gov.au/media/
releases/department/2011/dfat-release-20110817.html (Accessed December 21, 2013).
RBA: Statement on Monetary Policy-November 2013", Reserve Bank of Australia, at http:/
/www.rba.gov.au/publications/smp/2013/nov/html/index.html (Accessed December 22,
2013).
Production and Trade Minerals, Oil and Gas, Australian Bureau of Statistics, at http://
www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Lookup/by%20Subject/1301.0~2012~Main%20Features~
Production%20and% 20trade%20%E2%80%93%20minerals,%20oil%20and%20gas~153
(Accessed December 24, 2013).
Artemis Resources, at http://www.artemisresources.com.au/IRM/Company/ShowPage.aspx/
PDFs/1527-22308941/ShowmetheAntimony (Accessed December 24, 2013).
Nickel, Geoscience Australia, at http://www.ga.gov.au/minerals/mineral-resources/
nickel.html (Accessed December 24, 2013).
Economic Demonstrated Resources are the sum of measured resources and indicated resources.
Indicative resource is economic, where there is a reasonable level of confidence, of their
contained metal, grade, tonnage, shape, densities, physical characteristics, while measured
resources are indicated resources that have undergone enough further sampling and are
acceptable estimates.
Information and Analyses on the Brazilian Mineral Economy, Instituto Brasileiro de Minerao
IBRAM, at http://www.ibram.org.br/sites/1400/1457/00000365.pdf (Accessed December
24, 2013).
Chinas Twelfth Five Year Plan (2011-2015) - the Full English Version, British Chamber of
Commerce in ChinaBrit Cham, Beijing, at http://www.britishchamber.cn/content/chinastwelfth-five-year-plan-2011-2015-full-english-version (Accessed December 24, 2013).
Report on Chinese Mineral Reserves, 2011, US Geological Survey.
David Adams, China Mines, May 23r, 2006, at http://www.nexis.com (Accessed December
24, 2013).
Chinese Mineral Report, USGS Mineral Resources Program, at http://minerals.usgs.gov/
minerals/pubs/country/2010/myb3-2010-ch.pdf (Accessed December 24, 2013).
Ministry of Land and Resources, report from National Bureau of Statistics China 2011d,
p. 37. National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2011b, p. 115
Mineral Year Book for China, USGS Mineral Resources Program.
96
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.

Jennifer C. Li, Chinas Rising Demand for Minerals and Emerging Global Norms and
Practices in the Mining Industry, Foundation for Environmental Security & Sustainability,
at http://www.fess-global.org/workingpapers/chinas_rising_demand_for_minerals.pdf
(Accessed December 24, 2013).http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2010/myb32010-ch.pdf (Accessed December 24, 2013).
World Bank Report, 2010.
World Mineral Production Report, British Geological Survey, 2007-2011.
World Mining Reports, United States Geological Survey, British Geological Survey (BGS),
2011.
China Mining and Metals Weekly, 2011.
Copper and Nickel Monthly, 2011a.
Copper, Metal Bulletin, at http://www.metalbulletin.com/Base-metals/Copperall.html?Year=2011 (Accessed March 27, 2014).
Surging Chinese Steel Exports Put Pressure on World Prices, Wall Street Journal, May 16,
2013.
Zhang Changfu, Secretary General of China Iron and Steel Association, The Role of the
Iron & Steel Industry in Chinas Future Economic Development, July 19, 2012.
Global Iron and Steel Production, at http://www.issb.co.uk/global.html (Accessed December
24, 2013).
Ibid.
The Brinell hardness test is commonly used to determine the hardness of materials like metals
and alloys.
Research on Global and China Tungsten Industry, at www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/
research-on-global-and-china-tungsten-industry-2013-2017- 214292931.htmlChrome
HTML.2UYD3FAPGFJ5KGVCKF5QFHSG3I/Shell/Open/Command (Accessed December
24, 2013).
Report for Selected Countries and Subjects, IMF International Monetary Fund, at http:/
/www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2013/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=38&pr.y=13&sy=
2011&ey=2018&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=534&s=NGDP_RPCH%2CNGDPD%2
CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a (Accessed December 24, 2013).
Ministry of Mines Report, at http://(mines.nic.in/writereaddata/Contentlinks/
1ed4a15b370646d7be2c6defb2ecf6c9.pdf (Accessed December 24, 2013).
Indian Ministry of Mines Annual Report 2012-13, at http://mines.gov.in/annual2013E.pdf
US Geological Survey Report 2011-12.
Open Cast mining is a method in which minerals are extracted from earth by their removal
from an open pit or borrow. It is done in situations where the minerals or rocks are available
for extraction near the earths surface.
Ministry of Mines Annual Report 2011-12.
Annexure 3.6, Ministry of Mines, at http://mines.gov.in/annual201112/3.6.pdf (Accessed
December 24, 2013).
Industry, India Mining 2013, at http://www.india-mining.in/industry.html (Accessed on
March 26, 2014).
Ibid.
Foreign trade data, Indian Bureau of Mines, at http://ibm.nic.in/IMYB2011_Foreign%20
Trade.pdf (Accessed December 24, 2013).
Boron Mineral, Indian Bureau of Mines, at http://ibm.nic.in/
IMYB%202011_Boron%20Minerals.pdf (Accessed December 24, 2013).
UNFC system is the international term defined by the UN for geological assessments on the
basis of Geological Assessment, Feasibility Assessment and Economic Viability as a threedimensional system. For further details, http://ibm.gov.in/unfc.pdf.
97
44. Indian Bureau of Mines Mineral Year Book2011.

45. Fluorite, Indian Bureau of Mines, at http://ibm.nic.in/imyb2010_fluorite.pdf (Accessed
December 24, 2013).
46. Molybdenum, Indian Bureau of Mines, at http://ibm.nic.in/imyb2010_molybdenum.pdf )
47. DLA Strategic Materials, Global Security, at http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/
dod/dnsc.htm (Accessed December 24, 2013).
48. Strategic Materials: Technologies to Reduce U.S. Import Vulnerability, United States Office
of Technology Assessment, Congress, 1987.
49. Dr. Kent HugHes Butts, Mr. Brent BanKus, 2nD Lieutenant aDaMnorris. Strategic Minerals
Is Chinas Consumption a Threat to United States Security? Center For Strategic Leadership
and Development, 2013, at http://www.csl.army.mil/usacsl/publications/IP7_11.pdf
50. US Chromium Imports, US Geological Survey Mineral Year Book 2012.
51. U.S. Reported Consumption and Stocks of Chromium Products, Index Mundi - Country
Facts, at http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/chromium/chromium_t2.
html (Accessed December 24, 2013).
52. Government stockpile inventory reported by DLA and Brazil Geological Survey Report, 2012.
REFERENCES
World Mineral Statistics 2012,MineralsUK, BGS, at http://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/
start.cfm?id=2701(Last Accessed March 2014).
International Minerals Statistics and Information, Country Profiles, USGS, at http://
minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/(Last Accessed March 2014).
Indian Minerals Year Book 2012, Indian Bureau of Mines, at http://ibm.nic.in/imyb2012.htm (Last
Accessed March 2014).
International Trade And Market Access Data, WTO Trade Statistics, World Trade Organization, at
http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/statis_e.htm (Last Accessed March 2014).
Publications and Data, Geoscience Australia, Australian Government, at http://www.ga.gov.au/
(Last Accessed March 2014).
4
Policies on strategic minerals are decided based on geopolitical factors, which

arise from the interplay of geography and politics at various levelsfrom
national to global.1 The geographical locations of various minerals in the
Earths crust, locations of current material production units, knowledge about
the existing material reserves and their owners and the political stability of
such locations are required to be factored in for undertaking any risk
assessment of the states.
Owing to an increase in demand for minerals because of rapid
industrialisation at the global level, risk assessment must be conducted on a
routine basis. There have been various risk methodologies identified, and all
of them have their own advantages as well as limitations too.
Various states use specific models to identify the risk to supplies. A
simplistic but effective model has been adopted by the British Geological
Survey.2 It has devised a ranking system based on a few criteria. Further, these
criteria are given indicative scores, and a scale based on high and low risk
indicators is decided. Subsequently, by taking mathematical averages,
gradation is done. The criteria identified are as follows:
Scarcity
Production concentration
Reserve distribution
Recycling rate
Substitutability
Governance (top producing nation)
Governance (top reserve-hosting nation)
99
There are a few other models that broadly cover the similar criteria as
mentioned above. It could said that depending on the needs for individual
nations and their geopolitical standings the indicators in the risk models could
differ, but by and large the criteria for risk identification remain the same.
Figure 4.13 could be viewed as a broad representation for Risk Assessment
Model for Strategic Minerals.
Figure 4.1: A Representative Risk Assessment Model for Strategic Minerals
Criticality
Import
Dependence
Geopolitical Potential
Concentration
Georaphy
Politics
POLICY
(Development,
Labour etc)
PLACE
(Distance,
Resources,
Contiguity etc)
Risk Assessment
Geopolitics
G - Global
R - Regional
L - Local
Source: Ewan W. Anderson, Strategic Minerals.
100
Indias Strategic Materials Resource Management Assessment

India needs to factor in the following issues when making policies concerning
mineral resources:
1. Various nations in the world are consuming mineral resources at an
exponential rate, placing demands on limited resources and escalating
the prices for these raw materials.
2. It is becoming difficult to access untapped mineral resources within
India due to social, political and security compulsions. At the same
time, environmental consciousness is on increase, and unchecked mining
at the cost of environment is in nobodys interest.
3. States having mineral surplus have realised its worth and are now
cautiously trading in this sector. Moreover, on various occasions, the
developed states, being financially and technologically superior, are
managing their own supplies from outside and keeping their own reserve
capacity intact.
There are no direct answers to various questions concerning strategic
materials in India. Based on information available about the administration
of minerals in the country and technological requirements of a few strategic
sectors, a broad estimation in regards to the strategic materials required could
be made. However, exactly which materials are strategic to India is not known.
It is also important to estimate the level of dependence of Indias industry on
strategic materials. In addition, the knowledge is essential in regards to the
nature of the supply route of such materials and about the level of dependence
on foreign agencies.
No specific answers are available (or obtainable) for the above queries;
therefore, in this chapter, an attempt has been made to undertake a macroanalysis of this subject based on available and derived information. This could
also assist in providing some clues for developing future policy options.
The Indian State faces wider security challenges than most other states
in the world. India is the only country in the world which shares major portion
of its borders with two nuclear weapon states with whom India has fought
wars in the past. India is itself a nuclear weapons state. Unfortunately, India
is also a victim of international terrorism and also faces unrest within (in
limited areas).
Geographically, India is a unique state in the world, as it covers every
imaginable terrain such as rain forests, deserts and snow-capped mountainous
ridges. Moreover, peninsular India is surrounded by disaster-prone Himalayan
mountain ranges to its North and the Northeast. India has a land frontier of
15,200 km, a coastline of 7,516.6 km and an exclusive economic zone of 2.2
101
million sq. km, as well as island territories, vital offshore installations and
airspace to defend.4 The Indian Forces, therefore, have to remain prepared
and address various security challenges. They also have to play an important
role in the management of various natural disasters. India is amongst the
worlds top countries in terms of defence expenditure and imports significant
amount (approximately 70 per cent) of defence hardware. India proposes to
spend around US$ 45 billion on defence in 2013-14. There are few reports
indicating that this amount be increased to US$ 66-67 billion by 2020.
The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is the
key organisation with a vast network of 52 laboratories, and is involved in
various areas from aeronautics, combat engineering to life sciences. It is
responsible for Indias missile programme. Defence Public Sector Units
(DPSUs) arena integral part of Indias defence production architecture and
account for more than 65 per cent of the total output. Per year value of their
production is around US$ 4 billion. The private sector also plays a significant
role in the defence industry as sub-contractors and ancillary industry. In
various cases, they are the suppliers of raw materials, semi-finished products,
parts and components to DPSUs, ordnance factories (which provide the
production base), base workshops of the army, base repair depots of the air
force, the dockyards of the navy, etc. Foreign companies account for the
majority of procurement from the private sector in India, with approximately
70 per cent of Indian defence procurement coming from overseas sources.5
However, it is important to mention that this figure is disputed by people
working in the system; as per them, the import dependence is much less than
what is being projected in certain reports. Recently, India has permitted 49
per cent Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in its defence sector.
The above backdrop signifies that even though India imports majority
of its defence hardware, still there is appreciable dependence on the local
industry (both public and private). Moreover, it assists in appreciating the
importance of strategic materials to Indias defence, space, missiles, energy
and other strategic sectors.
Every industry has certain key drivers that influence the supply of strategic
materials. Such drivers have socio-political, geographical, economical, and
technological and aspects, and may vary from material to material. Broadly,
they could be analysed at structural and domestic levels. At the structural
level, they could relate to the changing global balance of power and growing
competition and cooperation amongst nations and policies of the states to
keep the export/import of strategic under control. While at the domestic level,
the internal political dynamics, various socioeconomic factors, mining polices,
102
state of industry, technological development aspects and environmental issues

are of significance. Any analysis of this subject needs to cater for uncertainties
and risks too.
Globally, some systematic studies in respect of Probabilistic Mineral
Resource Assessments to estimate the amount of undiscovered resources have
been undertaken, and mathematical models like deposit density models or
ore-deposit-types models are also available. Further, in some cases, Quantitative National Mineral Resource Assessments have been undertaken. However,
the information identifying the probable needs of the industry (for a particular
state) concerning strategic materials during no-war and war situations is
not available, at least not in the open domain. Here the purpose is to build
up a context to demonstrate the need for developing an India-centric model.
For this purpose, it would be useful to focus on the following questions
that are essential to conduct a review:
1. How strategic materials are defined in the Indian context? How
identification of strategic materials is assessed?
2. What is the approximate volume of strategic material required
presently as well as the future projections?
3. How are strategic materials needs satisfied? What are the types and
amount of strategic materials locally available, and what are the import
needs?
4. What is Indias technological competence in this field? What is Indias
nature of dependence on outside agencies for technological assistance?
5. What is the pattern of export/import of the materials required for
the strategic purposes? Which states are dependent on us for the
supply and what is our dependency? Are we exporting any strategic
materials which are also required for internal usage?
6. What are the economic policies and compulsions in respect of export/
import of such materials?
7. What is the nature of international agreements by Indian agencies
with the agencies from other states?
8. What is the nature of dependence on outside agencies for the supply
of such materials? What alternatives are available if such supply stops
suddenly?
9. Which are the states on which India is dependent for the supply of
strategic materials? What is the nature of political stability in those
states? What the chances that these supplies could be diverted to other
states due to geopolitical and economic reasons? Would these states
be pressured by Indias adversaries to stop/reduce such supplies?
103
10. What are the possible indicators that the supply chain (both internal
and external) of strategic material to Indian industry could get
disrupted (natural reasons like disasters or otherwise)?
11. What are the procedures and possibilities in regards to substitutions?
12. What are the social and environmental challenges faced by a state
regarding its mineral deposits?
The following sections discuss two modelsPorters Five Forces Analysis
and Likert Scale Analysisto put in perspective how India is positioned in
regards to its strategic minerals needs.
Model 1: Porters Five Forces Analysis

In 1979, a young associate professor called Michael Porter at Harvard Business
School published his first article for Harvard Business Review (HBR). The
article was titled How Competitive Forces Shape Strategy. In the following
years, Michael Porters explication of the five forces that determine the longrun profitability of any industry shaped a generation of academic research
and business practice. His model presents five forces that determine the
competitive intensity and, therefore, attractiveness of a market. He explains
why a fast-growing industry is not always profitable, how government policies
play a role by changing the relative strength of the forces and how to use the
forces to understand complements. He also shows how a company can
influence the key forces in the industry to create a more favourable structure
for itself or to expand the pie altogether. In some total, it could be argued
that the model essentially talks about the health of the industry and reveals
why industry profitability is what it is.6
The fundamental objective to apply Porters model in strategic mining
industry is to learn more about its health in general and understand its
strengths. This could also enhance the knowledge about Indias mining
industry. Based on Porters model, a profile of Indias mining industry has
been created for better appreciation of the industry status.7 Porters five forces
are as follows, and their diagrammatic representation is also in Figure 4.2:8
1. Bargaining power of buyers/customers
2. Power of suppliers
3. Threat of substitute products (including technology change)
4. Threat of new market entrants
5. Existing competitive rivalry between suppliers
Porter is also known to have presented a simple identification of five
generic descriptions of industries as follows:
104

Figure 4.2: Porters Five Force Model
Bargaining
power of
buyers/
customers
Threat of
substitute
products
Existing
competitive
rivalry between
suppliers
Power of
suppliers
Threat of
new market
entrants
Source: Harvard Business Review.
Fragmented (e.g., shoe repairs, gift shops)

Emerging (e.g., space travel)
Mature (e.g., automotive)
Declining (e.g., solid fuels)
Global (e.g., micro-processors)
Broadly, the strategic minerals industry could be directly and/or indirectly

associated with some of the above generic descriptions like global and both
emerging as well as mature.
Force 1: Bargaining Power of Buyers/Customers

The customer in this case would be the section of Indias strategic industry
which depends on the purchase of strategic materials. Such purchase could
be undertaken via domestic purchase or dependence on imports.
For the purpose of this assessment, only information in regards to exports
is important. The important questions here are: What is the nature of exporters
that the Indian industry is depending on? What are the bargaining powers
(if any) available with India?
Table 4.1 represents the present percentage dependence of each mineral
on a particular country for the imports of both ores and concentrates as well
105
as alloys and scrap. Higher dependence on a particular country decreases the

bargaining power of the customer, as bargaining power has direct correlation
with potential supplier/exporters present in the market. Higher number of
alternatives assures that no single supplier shall have the bargaining leverage.
The table also represents the alternative countries which can supply these
minerals in order to increase the bargaining power.
Table 4.1: Percentage Dependency of Imports on Various Countries
Minerals
Countries
Ores n Conc.
Antimony South Africa

Italy
France
Others
Percentage
Alloys & Scrap
Ores n
Conc.
Alloys
& Scrap
China
92.8
2.0
2.5
2.5
90
Bolivia
Russia
Australia
Turkey
US
43
25
15
8
55
34
Chile
Russia
16
15
11
11
10
Australia
Brazil
Russia
Zambia
Boron
Turkey
US
Bolivia
Argentina
Cobalt
Democratic Rep. of Congo Congo

Peoples Rep. of Congo
Zambia
Others9
US
Canada
Belgium
74
22
4
Fluorite
China
Kenya
83
12
Germanium US
Australia
China
South Africa
Molybdenum US
Chile
Netherland
Canada
Nickel
Canada
US
Uganda
Russia
Alternative
countries
South Africa
Mongolia
Mexico
34.6
23.3
16
11.23
China
Austria
21
37
14
9
63
19
Peru
Russia
Australia
Russia
Norway
Finland
45
42
9
2
26
23
8
7
Brazil
South Africa
Cuba
106
1

2
6
Canada
Chile
Peru
Selenium
Japan
China
Korea
Belgium
Germany
NA
32
22
14
13
10
NA
Tin
Peoples Rep. of Congo

South Africa
China
Malaysia
Indonesia
Belgium
Singapore
41
40
13
46
17
10
8
Tungsten
NA
China
Germany
Rep. of Korea
US
NA
44
15
11
8
Russia
Canada
Chile
Source: Compiled from US Geological Survey, Export-Import Data, Ministry of Commerce, Indian
Federation of Mines and Indian Bureau of Mines.
From Table 4.1, it is clear that for a few minerals such as antimony,
cobalt, fluorite, nickel and molybdenum, the bargaining power is very less,
as our dependency on countries like China, South Africa, Australia and Congo
is on the higher side. While for other minerals, the bargaining power is
moderate, as the existing dependency is reasonable. The future probable
demand for some of these minerals such as cobalt, nickel molybdenum and
tungsten is expected to grow exponentially for two specific reasons. First, there
is a higher global demand as the world investment in high-end technology is
following an increasing trend. Second, countries like China, South Africa and
Singapore are developing rapidly, and hence, their domestic demand is also
increasing. Therefore, at present, India needs to come up with highly focused
policies, engage in various bilateral and multilateral engagements at high level
and undertake long-term collaborations with potential alternative countries
in order to increase the bargaining power.
Force 2: Power of Suppliers/Bargaining Power of Suppliers

As strategic minerals are used in high-end technologies in strategic industries
such as defence, nuclear and aerospace, the demand for the minerals is high
while the supply for most of them is limited due to high global and domestic
demands. Fewer supplier choices increase its dependency and reduce the
bargaining power.
For strategic minerals, the leverage is low, even though for a few minerals,
the reserves are available, but the resources to extract them is either limited
or economically not feasible for the country. Some suppliers also enjoy high
bargaining power for particular minerals because globally they are only
available within the geographical territory of their country.
107
Table 4.2 shows the percentage of world production of some of the

strategic minerals. The idea here is to demonstrate the bargaining power of
these countries and the high bargaining power of suppliers from these
countries. (Table 4.2 contains only a few minerals which dominate or have
higher percentage of world production.)
Table 4.2: World Mineral Monopoly
Minerals
Country
Percentage of World Production
Antimony
China
Russia
Bolivia
53
19
17
Bismuth
China
52 (the only country which produces

Bismuth from Bismuth ore)
36
Belgium
Beryllium
US
65 (65 per cent of these resources is in

non-pegmatite form)
Cobalt
Democratic Rep. of Congo

(DRC)
56
Germanium10
China
Approx. 68
Lithium
Australia
Chile
Aprox. 35
35
Nickel
Australia
Approx. 40
Tungsten
China
64
Tin
China
44
Source: Compiled using US Geological Survey, Indian Bureau of Mines and UK Geological Survey.
World production for the most of the minerals as shown in Table 4.2 is
dominated by China, but it also has some of the highest world consumption
of such materials. The general imports trend for India appears more to be
from both developed as well as underdeveloped countries like Russia, South
Africa, Bolivia, Chile, Congo and Zambia as their domestic demand is low.
Even though the investments to these countries is significant, it also assures
probable long-term supply of most of these minerals. Hence, the bargaining
power of suppliers is either low or moderate for India. The future bargaining
power for India will depend on the stability of governments in some of these
countries.
Force 3: Threat of Substitute Products (Including Technology Change)

In strategic mineral industry, substitutes indeed have more positive impact
than threats. The potential alternatives reduce the risk of dependence on
specific states for mineral supply imports. However, it important to note that
108
for the production of key technologies, the quality requirements and technical
specifications in respect of strategic materials are very stringent. Hence,
alternatives are not accepted readily. This makes it difficult to find exact
alternative materials (substitutes) the stringent technical requirements and
hence imprecise substitutes are not possible. Moreover, some of the strategic
minerals have substitutes which are also not readily available because they
also belong to the strategic minerals category.
Table 4.3 demonstrates the potential substitutes of some of the strategically
important minerals. (The portions in bold refer to some of the challenges
associated with the substitutes.)
Table 4.3: Potential Substitutes
Minerals
Substitutes
Antimony
Compounds of chromium, tin, titanium, zinc and zirconium substitute

for antimony chemicals in paint, pigments and enamels.
Beryllium
Copper alloys containing nickel and silicon, tin, titanium, or other

alloying elements or phosphor bronze alloys (copper-tin-phosphorus) may
be substituted for beryllium-copper alloys, but these substitutions can
result in substantially reduced performance.
Aluminium nitride or boron nitride may be substituted for beryllium
oxide in some applications. However, in this case, the process (technical)
of application becomes more complex.
Bismuth
Indium can replace bismuth in low temperature solders.

Resins can replace bismuth alloys for holding metal shapes during
machining.
Free-machining alloys can contain lead, selenium or tellurium as a
replacement for bismuth.
Boron
Some enamels can use other glass-producing substances, such as

phosphates.
Insulation substitutes include cellulose, foams and mineral wools
Cobalt
In some applications, substitution for cobalt would result in a loss in

product performance.
Potential substitutes include barium or strontium ferrites, neodymiumiron-boron or nickel-iron alloys in magnets.
Iron-cobalt-nickel, nickel, cermets or ceramics in cutting and wearresistant materials
Nickel-based alloys or ceramics in jet engines; rhodium in
hydroformylation catalysts.
Gallium
Liquid crystals made from organic compounds are used in visual displays
as substitutes for Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).
Indium phosphide components can be substituted for GaAs-based
infrared laser diodes in some specific-wavelength applications,
Silicon is the principal competitor with GaAs in solar-cell applications.
GaAs-based ICs are used in many defence-related applications because
of their unique properties, and there are no effective substitutes.
109
Minerals
Substitutes
Germanium
Silicon can be a less-expensive substitute for germanium in certain

electronic applications, but effectiveness is not guaranteed.
Some metallic compounds can be substituted in high-frequency
electronics applications and in some LED applications.
Zinc selenide and germanium glass substitute for germanium metal in
infrared applications systems but often at the expense of performance.
Titanium has the potential to be a substitute as a polymerisation catalyst.
Indium
Indiums recent price volatility and various supply concerns associated

with the metal have accelerated the development of ITO substitutes.
Antimony tin oxide coatings, which are deposited by an ink-jetting
process.
Carbon nanotube coatings, applied by wet-processing techniques, have
been developed as an alternative to ITO coatings in flexible displays,
solar cells and touch screens, but they are expensive to use.
Researchers have recently developed a more adhesive zinc oxide and
powder to replace ITO in LCDs.
The technology is estimated to be commercially available in coming
few years.
Gallium arsenide can substitute for indium phosphide in solar cells and
in many semiconductor applications.
Lithium
Substitution for lithium compounds is possible in batteries, ceramics,

greases and manufactured glass.
Zinc as anode material in primary batteries; and sodic and potassic fluxes
in ceramics and glass manufacture.
Lithium carbonate is not considered to be an essential ingredient in
aluminium potlines.
Substitutes for aluminium lithium alloys in structural materials are
composite materials consisting of boron, glass or polymer fibres in resins.
Molybdenum
Substitution is difficult for molybdenum in its major application as an

alloying element in steels and cast irons.
In fact, because of the availability and versatility of molybdenum, industry
has sought to develop new materials that benefit from the alloying
properties of the metal.
Potential substitutes for molybdenum include chromium, vanadium,
niobium (columbium) and boron in alloy steels;
Tungsten in tool steels; graphite, tungsten and tantalum for refractory
materials in high-temperature electric furnaces; and chrome-orange.
Nickel
Nickel is hard to substitute for applications like ultrahigh-chromium

stainless steels for austenitic grades in construction applications.
Nickel-free specialty steels are sometimes used in place of stainless steel
within the power-generating and petrochemical industries.
Titanium alloys can substitute for nickel metal or nickel-based alloys in
corrosive chemical environments.
Use of nickel in light and high efficient batteries is difficult to substitute
for its critical applications such as in defence and solar batteries.
Niobium
The following materials can be substituted for niobium, but a

performance or cost penalty may ensue.
110
Minerals

Substitutes
Molybdenum and vanadium, as alloying elements in high-strength lowalloy steels; tantalum and titanium, as alloying elements in stainless and
high-strength steels.
Use of niobium in high temperature applications used in aerospace
industry vital and properties are hard to be substituted.
Selenium
Silicon is also the major substitute for selenium in low- and mediumvoltage rectifiers and solar photovoltaic cells.
Sulphur dioxide can be used as a replacement for selenium dioxide in
the production of electrolytic manganese metal but is avoided due to
environmental constraint.
Tantalum
The following materials can be substituted for tantalum, but usually with
less effectiveness: niobium in carbides; aluminium and ceramics in
electronic capacitors.
Hafnium, iridium, molybdenum, niobium, rhenium, and tungsten in
High temperature applications.
Tin
Aluminium, glass, paper, plastic or tin-free steel substitute for tin cans
and containers.
Other materials that substitute for tin are epoxy resins for solder;
aluminium alloys, copper-base alloys and plastics for bronze.
Tungsten
Potential substitutes for cemented tungsten carbides include cemented

carbides based on molybdenum carbide and titanium carbide.
Potential substitutes for other applications are as follows: molybdenum
for certain tungsten mill products; molybdenum steels for tungsten steels.
Depleted uranium or lead for tungsten or tungsten alloys in applications
requiring high-density or the ability to shield radiation; and depleted
uranium alloys or hardened steel for cemented tungsten carbides or
tungsten alloys in armour-piercing projectiles.
In some applications, substitution would result in increased cost or a
loss in product performance.
Source: Compiled using US Geological Survey, Indian Bureau of Mines and UK Geological Survey.
Force 4: Threat of New Competitors

The competitors, on a global scale, are the countries which could replace the
existing supplier states. However, broadly, the global geological mapping of
materials has already been done, and there is a clarity in respect of the mineralrich geographical areas, typically, regarding the states they belong to. Hence,
the possibility of the entry of new competitors is minimal. Only if major
breakthroughs in extracting the minerals from the seas are realised, there exists
a possibility of new competitors entering this field.
As mentioned in the Table 4.1, already some knowledge about the states
which could offer the alternatives is available. However, only the
geographical availability of the minerals is not sufficient because the process
111
of extraction and processing is technologically challenging and costly. This

demands a high level of bilateral and multilateral engagements. So, in order
to increase the competitive rivalry, which will indeed have a positive effect
in future, it is essential for countries to invest in developing countries to
exploit their resources and increase the supply of minerals in the market. For
states like India, it would be essential to undertake the cost-benefit analysis
for making any such investments in order to look for alternative suppliers
for imports.
Force 5: Competitive Rivalry

Few competitors mean fewer firms are competing for the same customers
and resources. Fewer suppliers for specific materials indicate monopoly, but
at the same time if there are fewer buyers, then the supplier also has limited
options. If demand is high but the suppliers are limited, then obviously there
is likely to be the so called resource war for minerals.
Currently, the need for strategic materials is significant globally. The
Chinese mineral industrys domination in this field, and the dependence of
many states in the world on it amply demonstrate this fact. For example,
China has significant investments in the developing and resource-rich
countries of Africa. It is also planning to setup multibillion-dollar mines in
Afghanistan and Pakistan. China has built bilateral as well as multi-lateral
relations with Central Asian countries.11 All this would allow China lead
position in the global strategic materials market (presently, too, it is the leader).
China also has a geographical advantage in this field. At the same time, as
seen from Table 1, there are few states like Russia and Australia which could
offer some competition to China. India must ensure that there are multiple
options regarding the import of the strategic materials so that there is no
overdependence on one country.
Broad Evaluation
The Five Forces Analysis provides an overall idea about the competitive
strength and attractiveness of the strategic materials market. Porter himself
calls these forces as the micro-environment. However, in this particular case,
the information presented above to describe and discuss various forces does
provide an understanding about the overall environment. Each force
individually and all forces collectively would have implications for every
country depending on its policies and requirements about the strategic
materials. For a state like India, the challenges are twofold: one, as a producer
112
of the strategic materials and the other as a user of strategic materials. Indias
minerals and mining industry need to factor in the outcomes of the Porter
method analysis for the assessment of their position in the global market and
to plan for the future. Indias industry, which is dependent on imports of
strategic materials, could draw its conclusions based on the model output,
whereas Indian policymakers should factor in various aspects highlighted by
this model in order to develop a long-term policy where the dependence on
overall imports could be reduced.
Drawbacks and Inapplicability of Porters Five Forces

It is also important to mention that this model has some limitations which
are as follows:
It offers only qualitative analysis of the market, and hence, the results
of this model cannot be deemed conclusive.
Many aspects of the model (buyer, supplier, etc.) are not of any relevance
when it comes to matters of national security.
We currently function in a highly dynamic and relatively volatile
environment. Hence, any analysis done is only short-lived and may not
hold true for the future.
The model is based on the idea of competition which is not the bone
of contention in this given scenario or any matter of national security.
The above-mentioned limitations indicate that the strict usage of this
model could be possible only in imitated cases and under stringent boundary
conductions. However, the strength of the model lies in the fact that even
the structured presentation of data under five different forces identified by
this model allows a methodological valuation of the problem under
discussion.
The Indian mining industry could be said to have come into existence
with the establishment of Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) in 1948.The Indian
mining industry has limited foreign investors and is dominated by local
players. India is the worlds largest producer of mica blocks and mica splitting
in the world. India also contributes significantly towards the global production
of chromite, iron ore, bauxite, limestone, manganese, etc. Contribution by
the Indian mining industry was 2.63 per cent of the GDP, and contributed
revenues of approximately over US$ 45 billion in 2011. However, it is difficult
to find the exact contribution of strategic materials to the total contributed
revenue. The other model presented in this chapter offers a clearer picture
about Indias actual dependence on strategic materials.
113
Here the purpose has not been to use Porters Five Forces Analysis in a
classic sense, like to use it for understanding the profitability and the dynamics
of competitive structure of the mining industry in India. The purpose has
been to put in broad context the five forces of this model in respect of Indias
strategic mining industry with a view to appreciate the strengths and
limitations of this industry and to have a better understanding of the overall
dynamics of this industry. The strategic minerals industry is actually a
secondary portion of the materials industry. Practically, it is difficult to isolate
a section of mining industry and analyse only that sector as a separate unit.
Such assessment becomes further difficult because of the strategic connotations
associated with this industry. Here, the five forces model is essentially about
assessing the micro-environment. Such analysis is essential to know few basic
realities like the bargaining power of buyers and suppliers, the competitive
rivalry in the industry, nature of substitutes options, etc. Thus, Porters five
forces are discussed herein the context of Indias need for strategic materials
(minerals) and its dependence on the global strategic materials industry.
Here, the model has not been used to study the strengths and limitations
of Indias strategic materials industry. Also, no attempt has been made to
recognise the exact financial effectiveness of this industry. The basic idea
behind using this methodology is to develop a reasonable understanding of
the global strategic materials industry and broadly ascertain Indias dependence
on the global supply of such material. There could be some amount of
subjectivity, implicit variability and uncertainty in assumptions while doing
this appraisal. However, to bring in objectivity in assessment, as far as possible,
empirical analysis has been attempted.
Model 2: Assessment Using Likert Scale

There is a general perception that if the knowledge of the occurrence of some
likely event exists, then there are no surprises, and hence, there is no risk
attached to it. Should there be an element of uncertainty surrounding the
occurrence of any event, then the risk exists.12 However, the idea of risk
should not be associated only with the improbability of the event. Risk is
more about possible threats and opportunities. It is about the probable
impact on the ability of a group, society, industry or country to meet their
goals. In short, risk could be associated with both the challenges and the
opportunities. Hence, effective risk identification is essential for managing
the present and future in the most cost-effective way. Social science
researchers have identified various composite measures to assess concept that
is too complex to be analysed simply. Scale is one such type of composite
114
measure and various scales like Staple Scale, Semantic Differential Scale and
Likert Scale have been devised to undertake such analyses. Here, Likert Scale
has been used to analyse the exact nature of risk India faces in respect of
strategic materials.
This risk assessment model for strategic materials is a weighted average
model based on a few important parameters which are commonly considered
as significant contributors towards risk. The degree of parameters is measured
using Likert Scale. The value of each parameter derived using the Likert Scale
becomes an input for weighted average computations. Each risk factor
(parameter) is given an equal weight in the model, thereby making it robust
for comparative analysis of various strategic materials.
The Likert Scale is a psychometric 13 scale and commonly involves
conducting surveys, questionnaires and also engages mechanisms to measure
constructs such as attitudes, images and opinions.14 This scale expects the
respondents to indicate preferences or degree of agreement or disagreement
with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects. Likert Scale is
a non-comparative scaling technique and is one-dimensional (only measures
a single trait) in nature. Respondents are expected to indicate their level of
agreement with a given statement by way of an ordinal scale. This scale in its
most common forms comprises a five-point scale ranging from Strongly
Disagree on one end to Strongly Agree on the other with neither Neither
Agree nor Disagree in the middle.
Figure 4.3: Likerts Five-point Scale
Some practitioners also advocate the use of seven- and nine-point scales
which add additional granularity. Sometimes a four-point (or other evennumbered) scale is used where no indifferent option is available. Each level
on the scale is assigned a numeric value or coding as shown in Figure 4.3.
The analysis could be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis),
or a total (summated) score can be calculated.15
For this particular study, a four-point scale has been used. Such a scale is
basically used to facilitate data analysis, by assigning an integer value on the
scale. The details are as follows:
115
Figure 4.4: Risk Factors Assigned on Likert Scale
The traditional way to use Likert Scale is to sum the values of each selected
option and create a score. This method is commonly known as arithmetic
mean. There is another form of mean considered as a more accurate process
called Weighted Average Mean. Here instead of data contributing equally
to the final average, some data points contribute more than others.16
The mathematically Weighted Average Means is represented as follows:
n wx
i i
x=
i=1 wi
Where wi represents the value assigned on the Likert Scale, and xi is the
weighted percentage value assigned to each factor. Risk value assigned to the
factor on Likert Scale varies from 1-4, where minimal value 1 represents low
risk, while 4 represents high risk (see Figure 4.4).
The factors to be introduced on Likert Scale for analysis have been
considered on the basis of probable causes which might affect the supply of
minerals in future. Availability of risk factor involves the possibility of imports
from other countries, diversifying the risk. When some countries hold the
monopoly of certain material in terms of production and reserve, the risk
become higher. The other factor involves import dependency of particular
country which resembles the risk. The future probable demand directly or
indirectly impacts the imports as higher global demand might raise the
international price which indeed might effects the amount of imports. There
is an additional factor of substitution which is not included in the analysis
above due to complications involved in giving the integer value for risk. The
substitution factor becomes intricate as substitutes might be already in the
list of critical minerals, or some of them might have the advantage of
reusability and could be extracted from alloys and scraps.
In this particular case, for the purposes of broad understanding,
maintenance of same Datum level for every mineral assessed and ease of
calculation the contribution of every risk factor has been assumed to be same.
116
Hence, the entire process of calculation is analogous to arithmetic averages.

However, the Weighted Average Mean method has been used to indicate that
for a precise and critical analysis the contribution of every factor needs to be
given special attention because it could have varied impact on the overall
risk. Tables 4.4 to 4.16 compute the risk factors for some strategic minerals.
Table 4.4: Computation of Risk Factor for Antimony (Sb)
Factors/Scale
Low
Neutral
Availability risk
Medium
High
25
Import dependency on
particular country
Imports
Probable future demand
Percent
25
25
25
n wx
i i
x=
i=1 wi
n
30.25 + 40.25+30.25+20.25
x=
= 3.0
0.25+0.25+0.25+0.25
i=1
Risk Factor - 3.0/4.0
Similarly, computation of risk factor is done for all other minerals as

tabulated below:
Table 4.5: Computation of Risk Factor for Boron (B)
Factors/Scale
Low
Availability risk
Neutral
Medium
High
25
Import dependency on particular

country
Imports
Percent
25
25
X
25
Risk Factor- 2.25/4.0
Table 4.6: Computation of Risk Factor for Cobalt (Co)

Factors/Scale
Availability risk
Low
Neutral
Medium
High
Percent
25
particular country
25
Imports
25
25
117

Table 4.7: Computation of Risk Factor for Fluorite (CF2)
Factors/Scale
Low
Neutral
Availability risk
Medium
High
particular country
Percent
25
25
Imports
25
25
Table 4.8: Computation of Risk Factor for Gallium (Ga)

Factors/Scale
Low
Neutral
Medium
High
Percent
Availability risk
25
particular country
25
Imports
25
25
Table 4.9: Computation of Risk Factor for Germanium (Ge)

Factors/Scale
Low
Neutral
High
Percent
Availability risk
25
particular country
25
Imports
Medium
25
X
25
Table 4.10: Computation of Risk Factor for Lithium (Li)

Factors/Scale
Availability risk
Low
Neutral
Medium
Imports
Percent
25
particular country
High
25
25
25
118

Table 4.11: Computation of Risk Factor for Molybdenum (Mo)
Factors/Scale
Low
Neutral
Medium
High
Percent
Availability risk
25
particular country
25
Imports
25
25
Table 4.12: Computation of Risk Factor for Nickel (Ni)

Factors/Scale
Low
Neutral
Medium
particular country
Imports
High
25
25
X
Availability risk
Percent
25
25
Table 4.13: Computation of Risk Factor for Niobium (Nb)

Factors/Scale
Low
Neutral
Medium
particular country
Imports
High
Percent
25
25
25
Availability risk
25
Table 4.14: Computation of Risk Factor for Selenium (Se)

Factors/Scale
Low
Neutral
Medium
High
Percent
particular country
25
Imports
25
25
Availability risk
25
119

Table 4.15: Computation of Risk Factor for Tin (Sn)
Factors/Scale
Low
Availability risk
Neutral
Medium
High
particular country
Percent
25
25
Imports
25
25
Table 4.16: Computation of Risk Factor for Tungsten (W)

Factors/Scale
Low
Availability risk
particular country
Neutral
Medium
High
Percent
25
25
Imports
25
25
Finally, Table 4.17 lists the risk factors for the above-mentioned strategic
minerals.
Table 4.17: Risk Factor for Various Minerals
Minerals
Antimony
Bismuth
Beryllium
Boron
Cobalt
Fluorite
Gallium
Germanium
Indium
Lithium
Molybdenum
Nickel
Niobium
Selenium
Tantalum
Tin
Tungsten
Risk Factor out of 4

3.0
2.25
3.75
3.25
1.5
3.75
3.25
3.5
3.0
3.25
2.75
3.25
3.75
120
Analysis
The above methodology indicates the overall risk factor associated with each
strategic mineral on the basis of four vital factors. The above analysis also
gives a comparative risk factor which varies from 1.5 at one end (lower) of
the scale to 3.75 at other (higher). It is observed that out of 13 materials, 30
per cent of the minerals lie in the bracket of higher risk, while more than 50
per cent lie in the medium risk bracket. The strategic minerals which are in
higher risk bracket are mainly cobalt, germanium, molybdenum and tungsten.
A detailed examination of these minerals mainly from supply-demand
perspective is as follows:
Cobalt (Co)
Cobalt is mainly used in high-end technology such as production of
superalloys, gas turbine blades and cutting tools.
I. The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) holds the monopoly in
total reserves and is one of the principal producers contributing about
55 per cent, followed by Zambia (9 per cent), Australia (8 per cent)
and Russia (5 per cent).
II. Indias 74 per cent of cobalt imports are from DRC followed by
Zambia with 22 per cent. This indicates that Indias almost 96 per
cent of total imports are only from two sources.
III. India does not have any primary source of cobalt; hence it imports
large amount of cobalt in terms ores and concentrates and alloys and
scraps.
IV. Indias demand of cobalt is expected to rise in the future with the
expansion of aerospace industry in the country. Overall, there would
be increasing usage of cobalt-based superalloys in civil and military
aviation sectors. Also, the usage would be as a catalyst for gas-toliquid production of rechargeable batteries for hybrid electric vehicles
and cellular telephones. The use in aerospace and energy generation
industries which use cobalt-bearing superalloy for the production of
gas turbine engine parts is likely to grow in the future; hence, the
global demand is expected to increase multi-fold.17
Due to the specialised nature of applications and requirement of highquality cobalt, there is a difficulty in substitution; hence, options are limited.
Cobalt has the advantage of reusability, but due to high consumption, the
domestic demand is mainly met by high imports of both ores and concentrates
and in form of alloys and scraps.
121
Germanium (Ge)
Germanium is the sole element used in the electronic industry apart from its
other applications.
I. China is one of the major producers of germanium. Chinas refinery
production was about 70 per cent of the worlds total production in
2012. Other producers include the US, Russia and Australia. Though
almost 30 per cent of the total germanium consumed worldwide is
produced from recycled materials, still to meet the increasing global
demand, the existing ores and concentrates deposits are not enough.
II. About half of Indias total imports of germanium come from China
followed by the US and Australia.
III. India has limited primary resource of germanium ores and
concentrates; however, the consumption is likely to increase in future.
Naturally, the dependency on imports is likely to increase.
IV. India has a rapidly expanding electronics and communication
equipment production industry. Also, India is keen towards achieving
maximum indigenisation of its military industry which includes
development and production of sophisticated military electronic
equipment. All this indicates that the demand for germanium is likely
to increase in future.
Silicon can be used as a less expensive element to substitute germanium
in the electronic industry to an extent. Zinc selenite is used as a substitute
for germanium in infrared applications systems, but often at the expense of
performance.
Molybdenum (Mo)
Iron and steel industry and superalloy consumption accounted for about 81
per cent of the molybdenum consumed in 2011.
I. Global availability of Molybdenum reserves and also the maximum
production of mineral have the Chinese footprint (38 per cent). The
US (31 per cent), Chile (13 per cent) and Canada (5 per cent) are
sources for procurement. Overall, the availability is risk is medium
for this mineral.
II. Indias imports are mainly from Chile contributing 37 per cent of
total imports, followed by the US (22 per cent), Netherlands (14
per cent) and Canada (9 per cent). Though Indias dependency on
Chile for imports is comparatively high, but the flexibility for
diversification exists.
122
III. India is geographically not blessed with any molybdenum deposits.

This mineral has metallurgical applications, such as alloys, and is used
by structural steel and stainless steel production industries. India has
become the worlds fourth-largest producer of crude steel and is slated
to become the second-largest steel producer by 2015. The total market
value of the steel sector in India stood at US$ 57.8 billion in 2011
and is expected to touch US$ 95.3 billion by 2016.18
IV. A strong growth in steel and superalloys sector in India is expected
in the near future; hence, probable future demand for molybdenum
is expected to be high.
V. Molybdenum has unique properties which make it as an important
alloying element in steels and cast iron production. It is difficult to
get a substitute for this mineral. Some available substitutes include
chromium, vanadium and niobium, which are also in the list of
strategic minerals for India.
Tungsten (W)
Tungsten is a vital mineral of strategic importance. It acts as an important
mineral for making special alloys used in various strategic industries. It is
exceedingly used as filament for electric bulbs and in the making of highspeed tools. This material belongs to the high risk bracket due to following
reasons:
I. China holds more than half of world production and reserves
contributing about 60 per cent followed by Russia (9 per cent),
Canada (4 per cent) and the US (5 per cent).
II. Interestingly, Indias imports are not from countries having major
deposits of tungsten. India mainly imports tungsten from two
countries, Democratic Republic of Congo (41 per cent) and South
Africa (40 per cent); hence, Indias import dependency is not on a
single source, and for India, the risk belongs to medium category.
At the same time, it is also important to note that there is no
indigenous production of tungsten concentrates in India;19 hence,
there is total dependence onimports.
III. Due to the increasing demand of superalloys in high-end
technological industries, the dependence of this mineral is expected
to increase in future.
IV. Tungsten can be reused; therefore, the scrap also becomes an
important source of raw material for the tungsten industry. Other
substitutes are mainly titanium carbide, ceramics, ceramic-metallic
composites and molybdenum. In general, due to quality concerns,
123
availability factor and cost issues, various available substitutes are

generally not considered as efficient options.
Tables 4.18 and 4.19 list the imports and exports of cobalt, molybdenum,
germanium and tungsten in 2010-2011.
Table 4.18: Percentage Imports in 2011
Material
Countries
Cobalt
DRC
Zambia
Percentage Imports (2011)

74
22
Molybdenum
Chile
US
Netherland
Canada
37
22
14
9
Germanium
China
US
Australia
44
19
16
Tungsten
DRC
South Africa
41
40
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines and Ministry of Commerce (Import-Export Databank).
Table 4.19: Imports and Exports of Minerals in 2010-2011

(data in metric tonnes)
Materials
Imports
Exports
Cobalt
Ores and Conc.

Alloys and Scraps
5,041
726
51
264
Molybdenum
Ores and Conc.

Scrap
4,382
412
938
15
Tungsten
Ores and Conc.

Alloys and Scraps
27
404,654
32
432,709
Germanium
Oxides
2,855.27
14.08
Source: Indian Bureau of Mines and Ministry of Commerce (Import-Export Databank).
In closing
India is one of the emerging economies in the world, and its needs for mineral
resources to sustain growth are significant. This chapter has tried to put in
context Indias requirements and the sources available to satisfy its needs. In
order to understand this, two models were studied, both having different
approaches to address the issue. However, when viewed together, they provide
a broad idea about the current as well as future risks that India could face.
The above analysis denotes the percentage dependency of India on various
countries for the supply of strategic minerals.
124
It has been observed that India has significant dependence on countries

like China and Africa in respect of imports of strategic minerals. Any internal
or external factors that could influence the supplies from these states
significantly increases the risk of supply. Today, the African region in general
faces significant security challenges, and naturally, the internal situation in
that region could impact the supply of the strategic minerals to the outside
world. Chinese monopoly in respect of various strategic minerals could be a
cause of concern not only for India and also for many other states. It is also
important to note that China also has a larger control over African mineral
production. Overall, Indias dependency apart from the geopolitical factors
would also be influenced by other factors such as cost, logistics and investment
opportunities.
NOTES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Ewan W. Anderson, Strategic Minerals, Praeger, New York, 1988, p.55.

Risk List 2012, Geoscience Centre, British Geological Survey (BGS), at http://
www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=2643 (Accessed July 19, 2013).
Ewan W. Anderson, p.57, No. 1.
Defence: Sector Overview, Invest India, at http://www.investindia.gov.in/?q=defence-sector
Ibid. A Brief Report on Defence Sector in India, August 2012, Report Prepared by ASA
and Associates, New Delhi, at http://www.asa.in/pdfs/surveys-reports/Defence-Sector-inIndia.pdf (Accessed July 20, 2013).
The Five Competitive Forces That Shape Strategy, Harvard Business Review, at http://hbr.org/
2008/01/the-five-competitive-forces-that-shape-strategy/ (Accessed July 19, 2013).
Two specific works are available which evaluate Russias and Chinas mining industry based
on Porters Five Forces Analysis. Please refer:
Mining Industry in Russia: Porters Five Forces Analysis, Research and Markets, at http://
www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/2299504/mining_industry_in_russia_porters_five_
forces (Accessed July 19, 2013).
Michael Porters Five Forces Competition Theory Model, Business balls, at http://
www.businessballs.com/portersfiveforcesofcompetition.htm (Accessed September 10, 2013).
Others countries include the US, Canada and Belgium.
Material Handbook Germanium, UK Energy Research Centre, at http://www.ukerc.ac.uk/
support/tiki-download_file.php?fileId=3011 (Accessed September 19, 2013).
Arvind Gupta, India and Central Asia: Need for a Pro-active Approach, Institute for Defence
Studies and Analyses, at http://www.idsa.in/policybrief/IndiaandCentralAsia_agupta_141013
(Accessed September 11, 2013).
A Guide to Risk Management, Queensland Treasury and Trade, 2011, Queensland Government,
at http://www.treasury.qld.gov.au/office/knowledge/docs/risk-management-guide/guide-torisk-management.pdf (Accessed September 11, 2013).
Psychological measurements like the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes and
personality.
How to Use the Likert Scale in Statistical Analysis, Applied Statistics, at http://
statisticscafe.blogspot.in/2011/05/how-to-use-likert-scale-in-statistical.html (Accessed
September 20, 2013).
125
15. Bertram, Dane, Likert Scale, http://poincare.matf.bg.ac.rs/~kristina/topic-dane-likert.pdf

(Accessed September 21, 2013).
16. Weighted mean, Princeton University, at http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/
wiki100k/docs/Weighted_mean.html (Accessed September 21, 2013).
17. Cobalt, Report of Indian Bureau of Mines, 2011.
18. http://www.ibef.org/industry/steel.aspx (Accessed December 7, 2013).
19. Tungsten, Indian federation of Mines.
5
Import dependency is not unusual either for India or for various other nationstates. The Indian State is dependent in various fields either partially or fully
on imports. Indias growing dependence on imported energy is well known.
Coal and oil are two sectors where India has significant dependency on
imports. Further, there are a few other areas where the dependence on imports
is significant, and strategic minerals is one such area. Overall, dependency
management is a significant (and serious) business for strategic decision-makers
globally. In the Indian context, it is essential for the policy-makers to identify
and implement sustainable solutions for reducing the disadvantages it has in
the arena of strategic materials. The Government of Indias Planning
Commission has published a very detailed report during May 2012 titled
Sustainable Development: Emerging Issues in Indias Mineral Sector, which
has identified specific areas of concerns including import dependence. Various
other reports have analysed mineral dependence and its impact on countrys
economic and institutional development for various countries.1 Thus, such
reports highlight the fact that handling import dependencies is an important
aspect in planning for existing and future needs of strategic materials.
This chapter discusses the larger geopolitical aspects of Indias mineral
dependency. The purpose is to factor foreign policy and economic diplomacy
related issues to understand how India is positioned in regards to continuing
with its present import structure. Chapter IV broadly identified that Indias
dependence on imports is mainly on states like China, Brazil, Democratic
Republic of Congo, Russia, Australia and the US. The mineral deposits and
production capabilities of these states are already discussed elsewhere in this
127
book. This chapter deliberates on Indias relationships with these states and
takes a broad overview of political and industrial dynamics of these states.
It is difficult to isolate the exact influence of Indias bilateral relationships
with mineral relevant states supplying strategic materials. However, a broad
understanding about Indias overall relationships with these states could be
an indicator for judgement. Amongst the states identified, India has had
excellent relationship with Russia for many decades. Because of Indias nuclear
policies, the Indo-US relationship has witnessed various ups and downs in
the past. India has fought a war with China in 1962; however, during last
few years, a significant amount to harmonisation in the relationship has been
witnessed. Following paragraphs present a backdrop of Indias bilateral
relationships with various major strategic mineral exporters to India.
Amongst the six states, namely China, Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC), Russia, Brazil, Australia and the US, on which India is significantly
dependent on procuring minerals, India is most dependent on DRC.
Unfortunately, DRC is one country with maximum political turbulence, and
the African region as such has witnessed various civil wars. Hence, when
debating bilateral relations of India, specifically in the case of DRC, the
internal situation in a country also needs to be discussed, because unsettled
political conditions and an ongoing bloody conflict in any state would
obviously impact the exports from that state. While discussing Indias
geopolitical relationship with these states, this chapter also presents
information in regards to important bilateral agreements undertaken by
Government of India with these states in the field of minerals.
DRC
India always had a cordial and friendly relationship with the Democratic
Republic of Congo (DRC). India was among the first countries to establish
a diplomatic mission in Kinshasa, the capital and the largest city of the DRC.
India sent its Ghurkha troops to DRC during 1960-62, under United Nations
Operation in the Congo (Opration des Nations Unies au Congo, or
ONUC),2 for countering the rebellion in Katanga. At present, more than
3,000 Indian troops are deployed under the largest ever UN Peacekeeping
operation in the country, United Nations Organisation Stabilisation Mission
in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO). In general, trade
and commercial linkages between both countries are limited. But, there are
a few Indian companies engaged in the mining of copper, cobalt and diamond
in DRC. A large portion of DRCs pharmaceutical imports are sourced from
India. An Indo-Congolese Chamber of Commerce and Industry has been in
existence from pre-civil war days, but has not been active.3
Source: Diplomacy in action, US Department of State.
Figure 5.1: DRC Map
128
129
DRC is known to be the richest country in the world regarding natural

resources. For India, it is important to factor in the internal situation in DRC
while planning its production cycle. DRC has a long history of civil wars
and political instability.
DRC is a big country in the centre of the African continent (see Figure
5.1). DRC (formerly known as Zaire) is bordered by nations with whom it
has had conflicts. It is second largest country in Africa in terms of area. It has
witnessed an extreme bloody stage of conflict since the outbreak of fighting
in August 1998 (the Second Congo War). Some 5.4 million people have died
in both violent and non-violent (diseases like malaria, etc. and malnutrition)
situations.4
Presently, uncertainty and near-war situation continues to exist in DRC.
Regional blocs as well as the UN are making all efforts to find a lasting solution
to the security crisis in the DRC.5 It is important to note that along with
political instability, issues like natural disasters and hunger are impacting the
social fabric of the many states in Africa including DRC. There have been a
number of complex reasons, including conflicts over basic resources such as
water, access and control over rich minerals and other resources as well as
various political agendas. Various armed groups like M23 and local militias
are operating in that state bringing in significant amount of instability.6 Since
the beginning of 2012, ethnic tensions and inequitable access to land have
led to renewed violence in the east and north-east of the DRC. This has
resulted in the displacement of more than 2.2 million people inside the
country. In addition, almost 70,000 people have crossed the border into
neighbouring Rwanda and Uganda. At the same time, some earlier refugees
from the DRC have started returning home too.7 Normally, the minerals
produced in DRC are considered as Conflict Minerals because they are mined
in the areas of armed conflicts and human rights abuses.
It has been observed that all the actors involved in finding the solution
to crisis in the region also are aware that the authority of the state would
need to be restored, and diplomacy has limited relevance; so, there has been
a need to use force for bringing normalcy.
In spite of having unsettled conditions and a politically fractured system,
DRC is conscious of the fact that it needs to exploit its mineral power to
support its economy. It is aware that the global growth in demand for scarce
raw materials owing to industrial surges in countries like China, India, Russia
and Brazil makes their nation an extremely important player in respect of
global strategic mineral business. It is expected that more economic and
strategic initiatives (some are ongoing) to bringing more security to DRC
would be undertaken by the rest of the world.
130
The economic and political engagement of India with the African

continent is as such growing. However, Indias association with DRC could
be viewed as a bit uneven, despite India being the largest contributor in the
UN mission underway to restore normalcy in the region. There have been
some reports that the DRC Government has been particularly aggrieved
because some Indian UN troops have at times grown too familiar with the
rebel militia they are supposed to oppose. However, various informal
discussions with various Indian and other officials indicate that these are mere
perceptions, and in reality, all activities on ground happen in accordance with
the UN guidelines. Indian had been involved with DRC for decades in various
mining, construction, finance and telecommunications operations. Unfortunately, not much support has been received by Indian companies operating
over there in terms of banks loans, etc. from the Indian government, and
that could be one of the reasons for limited Indian investment. There are
some misgivings about the nature of wage structure offered by some Indian
companies, too. As the same time, there are some shining examples like the
Bharti industrial group, which is respected for its business activities and ethics.8
Indias Bilateral Agreements with Africa

(a) In the arena of mining, India has an old relationship with Africa.
One of the important agreements titled Indo-South African
Cooperation was initiated in August 18, 1998 in Cape Town. Under
this agreement, six projects for mutual cooperation were signed
highlighting the following issues:9
I. Establishment of a detailed correlation on a formation level
between the Karoo sequences in Southern Africa and the
Gondwana sequences in India.
II. Identification of offshore diamond deposit near Indian costal
region; geoscience mapping was established.
III. Development of a Pre-Gondwana Precambrian crustal evolution
and metallogenic map for India and Southern Africa.
IV. Evaluation of stability of underground mine workings through
micro-seismic techniques.
V. Hydro-fracturing for street measurement.
VI. Characterisation and processing of gold, diamond and platinum
group of metal ores and evolution of suitable beneficiation
processes.
(b) Within one year after the establishment of this cooperation in a
meeting at New Delhi, the progress on earlier project was evaluated
131
while agreement was made for eight new projects, seven of which are
enlisted as follows:10
I. Bacterial Leaching of Low Grade Gold Ores.
II. Development of suitable underground mining methods for
exploitation of chromite deposits of Sukinda, Orissa.
III. Retreatment of Tailings at K.G.F. (Kolar Gold Fields).
IV. Setting up of a pilot training-cum-production centre in South
Africa for cutting and polishing of precious and semi-precious
stones.
V. Investigations to develop and economically viable flow-sheet for
extraction of gold from the gold ore of Bhukia Jagpura Deposit,
near Banswara, Rajasthan.
VI. Development of National Institute of Miners Health, Kolar.
VII. Application of Ground Penetration Radar of Exploration and
Location of Abandoned Galleries and Water Bodies in mines.
There has been a series of talks over this cooperation agreement
subsequently too, in the form of various meetings held in New Delhi
as well as Cape Town till 2005. Further, after a gap of several years,
the Ministry of Mines participated in the Annual Mining Indaba at
Cape Town held during February, 1-4, 2010.
(c) In 2002, India signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with
Morocco in the field of geology and mineral exploration. The MoU
was signed to promote mineral exploration, provide training to the
personnel, facilities and labs for Morocco scientists in field of
geological and geophysical mapping, mining environment and mining
regulations.11
(d) Republic of Namibia and Ministry of mines signed a MoU on August
31, 2009 in New Delhi for cooperation in the field of geology and
mining.12
(e) India-Malawi Joint Working Group on Mineral Resources
Development, a protocol was signed for future course of action in
cooperation for mineral exploration on 17th October, 2011 in New
Delhi.
(f ) India has signed a MoU with Mali on high level cooperation in the
field of Geology and Mineral Resources on January 11, 2012. The
MoU includes investment in Research and Development (R&D) in
the country; encouraging transfer of technology; training personnel;
development of geological and mineral resources; exploring prospects
for mining exploration; visits of expert teams; public and private sector
investments to develop mining activities in Mali; information
132
exchange on new sources and mining; cooperation on mining laws

and policies; joint ventures to promote geological studies and
development of mineral deposits and efficient methods for processing
of minerals.13
(g) India has also signed a MoU with Mozambique in a first Meeting of
the Joint Working Group, held on March 1-2, 2012 at Maputo,
Mozambique, in the field of Mineral Resources to list the course of
action to be taken in mineral exploration.14
Australia
Australia views itself as part of Indias extended neighbourhood. India and
Australia have several commonalities, which serve as a foundation for closer
cooperation and multifaceted interaction, on lines similar to what India has
developed with other Western countries. Both states are strong, vibrant, secular
and multicultural democracies. They both have a free press and an
independent judicial system; the English language is also an important link.
Cricket and now the large numbers of Indian students coming to Australia
for education are also significant elements in the awareness at the popular
level. Over the years, this relationship has grown in strength and importance
since Indias economic reforms in the 90s and has made rapid strides in all
areastrade, energy and mining, science & technology, information
technology, education and defence.
India is Australias largest export market for gold and chickpeas, second
largest market for coal and copper ores and third largest market for lead and
wool. Four productscoal, non-monetary gold, copper ores & concentrates
and petroleumaccounted for over 80 percent of Indias imports from
Australia, with coal and gold being the dominant imports in 2011-12.
The trade amongst both these states is growing exponentially since the
last few years. From US$ 5.79 billion in 2003-04, trade in goods and services
between India and Australia reached US$ 19.16 billion in 2011-12. Indias
exports to Australia were US$ 3.45 billion, while Indias imports from
Australia were US$ 15.73 billion. Indias export of goods to Australia in 201112 was US$ 2.60 billion and Indias import of goods US$ 13.71 billion. Indias
export of services was US$ 0.84 billion and import of services was US$ 1.68
billion.15
Indias Bilateral Agreements with Australia

a) In 2001, India-Australia Joint Working Group on energy and
minerals got established to share knowledge. Australia is recognised
b)
c)
d)
e)
133
as having advanced geological concepts and technology with a vast

geo-scientific knowledge base. India is keen to explore the new mining
techniques and to take advantage of the innovation in mining
industries by Australia. The first meet for the same working group
was held in Sydney, Australia on April 10, 2000. Australia has agreed
to assist India with mineral processing technologies and utilisations
techniques.16
In January 2003, a meeting for India-Australia Joint Working Group
on Energy and Minerals was held in Canberra. New projects were
purposed in the field of petroleum and natural gas, non-conventional
energy resources and mining by developing a collaborative approach.
On May 25, 2005, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Ministry
of Mines, signed a MoU for environmental governance and mine
rehabilitation.
On February 2, 2006, the Joint Working Group met for the
enhancement of agreement made in 2000. In addition, Federation
of Indian Mining Industries (FIMI) and Mineral Council of Australia
(MCA) established a MoU for expansion of Indian investment in
processing and production of mining sector in Australia. The
agreement also highlights development of the bilateral environmental
policies.
On October13, 2009, Geological Survey of Western Australia had a
meeting with Geological Survey of India to enhance knowledge
capability by exchanging scientists in earth science activities and
mineral exploration.
Brazil
Traditionally, Indias relationships with the Latin American States have been
friendly, and it has close interactions with them both at bilateral and
multilateral levels. Particularly, for last few years, India-Brazil bilateral relations
have been in a state of upswing. Communication revolution of the 20th and
21st century has made the geographical divide between these two states
irrelevant. These states share various cultural and political values. Overcoming
the limitations of distance and language, both the states have been
strengthening their bilateral relationship in various fields. Both the states are
being viewed as rising powers, both regionally and globally. The states are
also engaging with each other at various important multilateral forums and
playing their role towards evolving a global order.
The states have strong trade and economic ties; moreover, their
relationship is maturing as a response to economic realities. There has been
134
two-way investment between India and Brazil with the Brazilian companies
investing in automobiles, IT, mining, energy, biofuels, footwear sectors, and
Indian companies investing in IT, Pharmaceutical, Energy, agri-business,
mining, engineering/auto sectors.17 Both the states have decided to work
towards achieving a target of $10 billion bilateral trade over the next few
years from the US$ 7.73 billion in 2010.18 Also, in recent past, both the states
decided to develop defence co-operation, and an announcement setting up
of an India-Brazil joint defence committee was made in April 2010.19
On the ideological front, Brazil and India share a core set of values
democracy, market economy and a strong urge to emerge as a major power
in the world by imbibing the best practices for development. They understand
that their relationship has great geopolitical importance and are likely to
remain in the centre stage of global politics in the coming years. This
relationship has geopolitical, economic and strategic dimensions.
India and Brazil, in many ways, represent Asias and Latin Americas
foremost developing states keenly watched by many in the world for their
economic and technological developments. India has recorded sustained high
economic growth rate in the past few years, and same is the case with Brazil.
Both the states have developed an extensive infrastructure for Science and
Technology (S&T) which encompasses agencies of central and regional
government as well as public and private organisations. They signed an
agreement on cooperation in the fields of S&T at New Delhi on July 22,
1985. This agreement came into force on January 24, 1990 according to the
Contracting Parties with respect to constitutional procedures (in accordance
with Article X).20 Over the years, it has been observed that the major areas of
collaboration in the S&T arena include climate research, biotechnology,
bioinformatics, human health, renewable energy, marine sciences and new
materials.
Indias Bilateral Agreements with Brazil

India and Brazil signed a MoU in the Sixth Brazil-India Joint Commission
Meeting that was held in Brasilia on October14-15, 2013. The MoU is a
next step in agreement reached during November 2012 for Cooperation in
the field of Geology and Mineral Resources between Geological Survey of
India (GSI) and Geological Survey of Brazil (Companhia de Pesquisa de
Recursos Mineirais, or CPRM). A letter of intent was also signed between
Brazil Ministry of Mines and Indian Ministry of Steel enhancing cooperation
in mineral industry special focus on steel in February 2013 in Brasilia.
Presently, Indias main cooperation with Brazil is mainly in the gas and
135
energy sector; however, there are good prospects that a collaboration in the
future could happen towards the import of minerals like Cobalt, Nickel, Tin
and Tungsten from Brazil.
China
It has become predictable wisdom that China is the post-Cold War worlds
emerging great power that poses the most intricate questions for the future
of international security.21 The last half-a-decade has shown a substantial
growth in Chinas global power status. This has essentially happened because
of the current and projected economic transformation of China. The
economic growth in China has accelerated along with increased integration
with the global economy.22 Since opening up of its economy in 1978, China
has averaged around 9.4 percent annual GDP growth, one of the top growth
rates in the world. The last three decades of economic liberalisation have also
shown the world the magnitude of Chinas labour force, creativity and
purchasing power; its commitment to development and its degree of national
cohesion.23 Today, Rise of China (the term coined in 2003 by Chinas political
establishment was Peaceful Rise of China24 ) has become a part of a lexicon,
and the global community understands that China has arrived and will
increasingly shape even global future, not just its own. To a large extent this
has become possible because of the correct strategic choices made by China
regarding economic liberalisation.
India has fought one war with China during 1962. This 1962 border
clash saw bilateral relations enter the abyss. However, over a period of time,
now, the relationship has significantly improved. Presently, these relations have
reached a level where these states have even conducted a few joint military
exercises. Both the states understand their increasing importance in global
geopolitics. However, in spite of this new found bonhomie, still, some amount
of distrust exists. The border issue is far from resolved, both the states continue
to have different perceptions about the demarcation of borders and various
misgivings about the intentions of both the states do exist.
India-China bilateral trade which was as low as US$ 2.92 billion in 2000
reached US$ 70 billion in 2012,25 making China Indias largest goods trading
partner. Indias imported goods worth US$ 40.88 billion (+38%) from China,
resulting in an adverse balance of trade of US$ 20 billion in 2011. Indias
total exports to China were US$ 15.68 billion (+7.37%), and Chinas exports
to India reached US$ 32.49 billion (+26.33%).26 During the visit of Chinese
Premier Wen to India in December 2010, both countries committed to have
bilateral trade target of US$ 100 billion for 2015. However, it appears as a
136
very ambitions figure, and the situation on ground is indicative that the
business may not be as vibrant as expected.
Indias Bilateral Agreements with China

A MoU was signed on September 15, 2005 between Ministry of Mines and
the Ministry of Land & Resources of the Peoples Republic of China to
promote joint ventures in both countries, undertake research, technical
assistance and training programmes for metallic and non-metallic minerals.
The agreement also highlights the cooperation between Geological Survey
of India (GSI) and the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences (CAGS).27
Russia
Indias bilateral ties with Russia (and earlier with the erstwhile USSR) have
been a key pillar of Indias foreign policy for many decades. India sees Russia
as a longstanding and time-tested friend that has played a significant role in
its economic development and security. Since the signing of the Declaration
on the India-Russia Strategic Partnership in October 2000, India-Russia ties
have acquired a qualitatively new character with enhanced levels of cooperation
taking place in almost all areas of the bilateral relationship including political,
security, trade and economy, defence, science and technology and culture.
Under the Declaration of Strategic Partnership, several institutionalised
dialogue mechanisms have been put in place that operate at the political and
official levels, and ensure regular interaction and follow up on cooperation
activities. In 2010, this idea of strategic partnership has been further elevated
to the level of a special and privileged strategic partnership. India and Russia
have been collaborating in several high-technology projects in the fields of
nuclear energy, defence technology and space. Apart from this, these states
are collaborating on various other areas including pharmaceuticals,
information technology, steel, hydrocarbons, diamonds and food products.
Bilateral trade between India and Russia has been growing steadily. Trade in
2009 was US$ 7.5 billion, in 2010, US$ 8.5 billion and in 2011, it reached
US$ 8.9 billion. In 2011, Russian exports to India amounted to US$ 6.1
billion, and imports from India to Russia amounted to US$ 2.8 billion.
Bilateral trade between both countries in 2012 grew by over 30 per cent.
The two-way investment between the two countries stands at approximately
US$ 7.8 billion.28
137
Indias Bilateral Agreements with Russia

In November 2001, both countries held the seventh session on Indo-Russia
Working Group for metallurgy and mining sector in Moscow. A detailed
agreement was signed for cooperation on transfer of technology in ferrous
and non-ferrous metallurgical sector.29
United States
Indo-US relations have undergone unprecedented transformation since the
beginning of the 21st century. In May 1998, the US had imposed sanctions
on India for its nuclear tests, but a decade later, following difficult bilateral
and complex multilateral negotiations, both countries completed an historic
cooperation agreement with India on civil nuclear energy (July 2005). This
deal could be viewed as a result of shift of the centre of economic gravity to
the east. The US understood the importance of India as an emerging as a
key player in global business. This new relationship rests on a convergence of
US and Indian national, global and commercial interests, and never in the
history have they been so closely aligned. On the ideological front, the US
and India share a core set of valuesdemocracy, unity in diversity and strong
but civilian-controlled militariesall these ideas also have great geopolitical
importance and are likely to remain in the centre stage of global politics in
the coming years.
It is also important to note that since the finalisation of the deal, actually
making it work on the ground has been a difficult proposal for both the states.
As such the Indo-US nuclear deal has gone through many upheavals since
2005. It took the US more than five years to review various sanctions and
export control restrictions put on different India establishments particularly
the agencies dealing with the defence and space technologies. Only by 20102011, various restrictions were eased out and transfer of technology became
possible. At the same time, particularly, in the nuclear energy sector, both
the states are finding difficulties due to differing perceptions in regards to
the safety and security aspects.
On the trade front, both the states have established a reasonable and
progressive association. Total bilateral trade between both countries in goods
touched US$ 62.8 billion in 2012. India trade surplus reached US$ 18 billion,
as Indian exports accounted for US$ 40.5 billion. Total trade in service was
US$ 45.9 billion.
138

NOTES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
Blessing or Curse? The Rise of Mineral Dependence among Low- and Middle-Income
Countries, Oxford Policy Management, at http://eiti.org/files/2011-12-19-OPM-Blessingor-curse.pdf (Accessed December 12, 2013).
The United Nations Operation in the Congo (Opration des Nations Unies au Congo, or
ONUC), which took place in the Republic of the Congo from July 1960 until June 1964.
India Democratic Republic of Congo Relations, Embassy of India, Kinshasa, at http://
www.eoikinshasa.nic.in/pdfs/DRC-relations.pdf (Accessed December 12, 2013).
Global Issues: Social, Political, Economic and Environmental Issues, The Democratic
Republic of Congo, at http://www.globalissues.org/print/article/87 (Accessed December 17,
2013).
African Leaders to Meet Over DRC Security Situation, Voice of America, November 3, 2013,
at http://http://www.voanews.com/content/african-leaders-to-meet-over-drc-security-situation/
1782477.html (Accessed December 18, 2013).
Congo Kinshasa: After North Kivu, UN and DRC Forces Set Sights on Orientale
Norwegian Council for Africa, Fellesrdet for Afrika, at http://www.afrika.no/Detailed/
24642.html (Accessed December 19, 2013).
2014 UNHCR Country Operations Profile, UNHCR, Democratic Republic of the Congo,
at http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e45c366.html (Accessed December 18, 2013).
Gregory Mthembu-Salter, Goodwill and Hard Bargains: The DRC, China and India, SAIIA
Occasional Paper No. 14, March 2012, at http://dspace.cigilibrary.org/jspui/bitstream/
123456789/32882/1/saia_sop_114_mthembu_salter _20120328.pdf?1 (Accessed December
15, 2013).
Ministry of Mines. Annual Report, Government of India, 2001, at http://mines.nic.in/
writereaddata/Filelinks/ee2c7565_aneng-2001.pdf (Accessed December 15, 2013).
Ibid.
Ibid.
Chapter 7, Annual Report 2009-10, Ministry of Mines, Annual Report 2001-02 http://
mines.nic.in/index.aspx?lid=318&level=2&chk=24dfe45y5edf5e3) (Accessed December 25,
2013).
And Annual Report 2001-02, Ministry of Mines, at http://mines.nic.in/
index.aspx?lid=318&level=2&chk=24dfe45y5edf5e3 (Accessed December 25, 2013).
International Cooperation, Ministry of Mines, at http://mines.gov.in/writereaddata/
Contentlinks/743df104c7624aa399728b4360d668b2.pdf (Accessed December 25, 2013).
Press Information Bureau Releases, Ministry of Commerce & Industry, at http://pib.nic.in/
newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=81130 (Accessed December 24, 2013).
India-Australia Relations, Ministry of External Affairs. Government of India, n.d., at http:/
/mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/India-Australia_Relations.pdf (Accessed December 27,
2013).
Ministry of Mines Annual Report, Government of India, 2001, at http://mines.nic.in/
writereaddata/Filelinks/ee2c7565_aneng-2001.pdf.
India-Brazil Relations, Ministry of External Affairs, Embassy of India, at http://
www.indianembassy.org.br/eng/bilateral_relations/brazil.pdf (Accessed Sep 12,2011).
Sujay Mehdudia, India-Brazil Bilateral Trade to Touch $10 billion, The Hindu, New Delhi,
Mar 8,2011.
K.P. Nayar, In Brazil, A Goal for India, The Telegraph, Calcutta, Apr 17, 2010.
United NationsOffice of Legal Affairs, at http://untreaty.un.org/unts/120001_144071/19/
6/00015778.pdf (Accessed September 19, 2013).
Avery Goldstein, Great Expectations, in Michael Brown, et al. (eds), The Rise of China,
The MIT Press, London, 2000, p.3.
139
22. Ronaldo Munck, Globalisation and Contestation, Routledge, New York, 2007.
23. Zheng Bijian, Chinas Peaceful Rise to Great-Power Status, Foreign Affairs, September/
October 2005, pp.18-19.
24. Zheng Bijian developed his influential thesis of Chinas peaceful rise in 2003. For details,
please refer:
Zheng Bijian, Chinas Peaceful Rise: Speeches of Zheng Bijian 1997-2005, Brookings Institution
Press, Washington, DC, 2005.
25. India and China: Old Ties, New Horizons, Ministry of External Affairs, Government of
India, at http://www.mea.gov.in/in-focus-article.htm?22360/India+and+China+Old+Ties+
New+Horizons (Accessed December 25, 2013).
26. India-United States of America Relations, Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India,
at http://meaindia.nic.in/meaxpsite/foreignrelation/china.pdf (Accessed December 25, 2013).
27. Chapter VIII, Annual Report 2005-2006, Ministry of Mines, at http://mines.nic.in/
index.aspx?lid=320&level=2&chk=24dfe45y5edf5e3 (Accessed December 25, 2013).
28. India-Russia Relations, Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, at http://
www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/Russia_-DEC_2012.pdf.
India, Russia sign pacts to boost investments, The Hindu Business Line, New Delhi,
December 24, 2012, at http://http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/
economy/india-and-russia-sign-mou-envisage-investments-upto-2-b/
article4234685.ece?homepage=true&ref=wl_home (Accessed December 25, 2013).
29. Ministry of Mines Annual Report, Government of India, 2001, at http://mines.nic.in/
writereaddata/Filelinks/ee2c7565_aneng-2001.pdf (Accessed December 25, 2013).
6
In the Indian context, there are various issues in regards to management of

mining industry (as a whole) which if not addressed properly could have a
significant impact on its suitability. Mostly, these issues are of environmental
relevance or social relevance. Obviously, the solutions to such problems would
be political in nature. However, the purpose here is not to debate the politics
behind such issues but to highlight the presence of these issues and elucidate
the possible limitations in regards to the management of domestic materials
industry.
It is common knowledge that there is an ever-increasing demand for
minerals, particularly, in a country like India which is highly overpopulated
and has significant need for infrastructure development. Increasing industrialisation, with cumulative emphasis on the strategic industry, demands
timely and sufficient availability of raw material. Within the country, the
ore deposits are not evenly distributed, and from mining perspective, some
of these locations are not convenient either socially or geographically.
Environmental Impacts of Mining

The process of extraction of minerals form the earths surface creates various
imbalances which harmfully impact the surrounding environment. Globally,
the impact of the mining industry on environment has been a major public
concern. Over the years, many environmentalists have played an important
role towards making humans aware about the nature of degradation
unscientific mining methods bring in. Depending on the nature of site and
activity undertaken, the mining operations could leave a temporary or
141
permanent impact on the surrounding environment. The impact could be of

varying nature, namely water pollution, damage to flora and fauna, adverse
effects on agriculture (e.g., infertile soil), air pollution leading to respiratory
diseases in humans and affecting the existence of wildlife.
The environmental impact of mining is not limited only to the existing
mining operations. Mining residues and scars at old mining sites also add to
the misery of the environment in general. The majority of air emissions
associated with the mining industry include dust and oxides of nitrogen, sulphur
dioxide and carbon monoxide. Some of these come from mining vehicles and
on-site plant machinery. Further, water quality may be affected by:
1. Acid mine drainage: When large quantities of excavated rock containing
sulphide minerals interact with water and oxygen they create sulphuric
acid.
2. Heavy metal contamination and leaching: Heavy metals occur naturally
in many ores, and are often released in the mineral extraction process.
Metals (i.e., arsenic, cobalt, copper, cadmium, lead, silver and zinc)
contained in an excavated or exposed rock may be reached out and
carried downstream by the flowing water.
3. Processing chemical pollution: Spilling, leaking or leaching of chemical
agents (i.e., cyanide or sulphuric acid) from the mine site into nearby
water bodies.
4. Erosion and sedimentation: Erosion of cleared land surface and dumped
waste material resulting in sediment loadings into the adjacent water
bodies, particularly during rainfall.1
Overall environmental challenges bring various other issues to the fore
like management, rehabilitation, and legislation on environment, particularly,
environment protection and biodiversity conservation, and issues related to
human rights violations, controls on excessive usage of water in various mining
activities, etc.
India has huge mineral resources and a very active mining industry. There
is a significant amount of private and some amount of foreign investment
into this sector. Indian Government has to keep this industry thriving since
the growth engine of the country is significantly dependent upon the
performance of this industry. This sector in India is facing various challenges,
chief among them are listed as follows:
Massive investment in exploration and up-gradation of technology.
Mitigation of environmental degradation due to mining
Adoption of environmental friendly technologies
Handling social issues
Rehabilitation of closed and abandoned mine sites
142
Impacts of Open Pit Mining

The environmental issue related to methods of mining sector in India has
been a major concern for many years. India has a very high percentage of
open pit mining. For instance, the total coal mining in India is more than
70 per cent of open pit mining.2 Opencast or open pit mining is a method
in which extraction of a mineral is done near the surface of earth, creating
large open pits. The most lucrative reason for using such mining methodology
is its relatively low cost-extraction ratio. Unlike underground mining methods,
opencast mining does not require costly structural supports and extraction
technologies. Its a comparatively safer method too; therefore, companies save
cost of expensive insurance premiums. However, such activity presents huge
social and environmental challenges. Removal of overburden contributes to
soil erosion, land degradation and removal of natural habitat. Chemicals used
in extraction mixed with water during rainy season end up polluting the
underground water reserves. Contaminants mixing into the soil leads to land
degradation. The dust generated during mining activity and the chemicals
used lead to chronic human health issues and also leaves a lasting impact on
biodiversity.
There are many sustainable methods of mining. However, such methods
require huge capital investments. Furthermore, mining operations are finite
economic activities sustaining on the availability of material deposits (such
deposits are finite in nature), that is, they remain financially viable for only
a limited time period. The governments usually lay down guidelines for Final
Mines Closure Plan highlighting the rehabilitation process as an ongoing
programme designed to restore physical, chemical and biological quality
disturbed by the mining to a level acceptable to all concerned. It must aim at
leaving the area in such a way that rehabilitation does not become a burden
to the society after mining operation is over. It must also aim to create as
self-sustained ecosystem. 3 Due to major social issues combined with
inadequate transparency and accountability, the rate of illegal mining in India
is almost double that of legal mining; hence the issues relating to opencast
mining become more complex and challenging.
The Indian Government is trying to deal with all such environmental
and other related challenges upfront, and various legal mechanisms have been
formulated. However, the country is facing multiple challenges. The biggest
environmental challenge is about the mines which are no longer in use. Also,
there are various visible and not so visible impacts on environment.4 In respect
of environmental issues related to the mining industry, people expect greater
public accountability. Unfortunately, these issues which have wider social
143
impact also suffer from the prospects of wrong and intentional misinformation
campaigns. Such campaigns at times stall the progress of industry.
Threat from Naxalism

One of the most significant internal threats faced by the Indian State is the
threat from Naxalism, which has been prevalent since 1967. It is a violent
movement based on Maoist ideology. For many years, these left wing groups
have been operating in different parts of India under different organisational
casings. This movement has some of its roots located within the countrys
social and economic inequalities as well as in environmental degradation.5
Over the years, it has been observed that the face-off with Naxalites is hurting
Indias industry. There are some mineral-rich areas which are under the control
of the Naxalites.6 All this does have a certain impact on the mining industry.
Also, at places due to the threat posed by the Naxal groups, including
kidnapping and killings carried out by them, the staff working in the mineral
industry is not very keen to work on various projects undertaken in the Naxaldominated areas. Figure 6.1 is a superposition of Naxal-prone areas on the
areas rich with minerals and related deposits. It gives a broad indication about
the regions where this problem is prevalent.
It is evident from Figure that various deposits of materials which are
strategic in nature for India are found in Naxal-affected areas. The Indian
state would need to decide their policies in regards to excavation of minerals
like tungsten, manganese, etc. by factoring in threat from Naxalism.
Illegal Mining
Underground mineral resources area property of nation-states. However, there
are many cartels involved in stealing these resources. Illegal mining has been
a global curse for many decades and is prevalent in various parts of the world
in some form or the other. This form of mining can be operated on the surface
or underground. Broadly, illegal mining is the absence of land rights, mining
license, exploration or mineral transportation permit or of any document
that could legitimate the on-going operations. In general, most illegal mining
takes place in low-grade areas or abandoned mining sites. Low productivity
and limited production could be considered as main characteristics of illegal
mining. However, there could be some exceptions to this, and as per some
estimates, 70 to 80 million tons of coal is illegally produced in India annually
in addition to the official production figure of about 350 million tons. Also,
there are cases like Blood Diamonds (in Africa) which come from illegal
mining activities.7
Source: Compiled by using GIS maps.
Figure 6.1: Map of India Highlighting Naxal-affected States
144
145
Particularly, in various developing economies, the mining sector has been

found most vulnerable to denigration; therefore, for sustainable mining, good
governance and administration is a prerequisite. Lack of effective governance
and apathy towards implementation of legal provisions contribute towards
the growth of illegal mining. This eventually disturbs the social fabric of the
society in the region, leads to government loosing revenue, raises environmental concerns and also discourages the private sector from making
investments. Presently, in countries like India, in certain areas, illegal mining
has made significant impact. There are multiple problems: from illegal land
acquisition to issues related to mining licensing system, ambiguity about legal
requirements for environmental clearances and issues related to the
transportation of material from the site to factory. Various such problems
adversely affect the governance, ecology, internal and social security of a state.
According to the Government of India, any violation of relevant provision
of mining law under MMDR Act, 1957,8 the Forest Conservation Act, 1980
and the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 comes under illegal mining.
Table 6.1 indicates the number of illegal mining cases in the recent past.
Table 6.1: Illegal Mining Cases and State-wise Loss to the Country
Sr. State
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
2010-11
2011-12
2012-13
2013-14 Fine realised

(up to
by State
June 13)
govt.
(million $)
Andaman & Nicobar

Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Chhattisgarh
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Mizoram
Odisha
Punjab
Rajasthan
Tamilnadu
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
0
13,939
0
2,017
13
2,184
3,446
1,213
199
6,476
2,028
4,245
34,265
0
420
754
1,833
277
4,641
239
3
19,913
0
2,946
1
3,485
2,022
1,289
364
6,691
3,175
7,147
40,642
2
309
314
1,201
123
4,708
269
0
16,592
0
3,238
0
6,023
3,517
0
663
6,677
4,550
7,169
42,918
16
314
19
2,861
295
3,266
479
N. A.
2,024
N. A.
846
N.A.
1,054
N. A.
N. A.
250
1,827
1,224
1,484
7,248
4
76
N. A.
654
23
N.A.
N. A.
10
19.795
0
4.927
0.003
85.2838
2.2961
0.144
0.4528
11.804
2.465
19.9036
27.703
0.00161
6.823
0.2896
4.231
7.09
4.866
0
Grand Total
7,8189
94,604
98,597
16,714
197.787
Source: Answer to Lok Sabha Question No. 294, Parliamentary Proceeding, May 2012.
146
From Table 6.1, it is observed that there has been rise of about 30 per
cent in the number of cases since 2011. The above figures are cases declared
by the federal governments to the central government. It is highly probable
that the number of unregistered cases are significant.
Numerous factors could be attributed to the rise in such cases. In the
report submitted to the planning commission by Institute for Studies in
Industrial Development (ISID), the major reason highlighted was the issue
of irregularities in the implication of MMDR Act, 1957.9 According to this
Act, mines are granted only to applicants who have infrastructure and capital
to carry out mining by sustainable means. There has been many cases of
violation to this law. According to Rules 37 and 46 of the Mineral Concession
Rules, 1960, transfer of mining or operational rights, directly or indirectly
to any other body is prohibited without the consensus of government. In a
case study, in Karnataka, it was highlighted that many companies enter into
the so-called rising contract according to which companies or private
contractors are given responsibilities for mining of minor minerals. These
contractors sell them under the payment of consideration or premium to the
company. In effect, the contractor who may not come under the provision
or law of mining has maximum control. These are done without the
consideration of government approvals. These bodies make maximum profits
by bribing the politicians and local authorities.
In remote and unreachable areas, local people and tribes with the help of
some contractors are involved in illegal mining. The mining method used in
such cases is open cast mining on uncultivated private land or by cutting
down forests. Often, it is the local mafia taking the land from local people
by threating.
Mining companies even under the supervision of government often use
illegal mining methods such as mining beyond the area of lease or by cutting
down the forest for roads or dumbing wastes on non-leased land. In spite of
Forest Conservation Act 1980 where no-objection certificate is a requirement
for mining, it has been reported that many companies take these documents
by bribing the forest officials without the verification of the official records.
The illegally extracted minerals are then transported, and either sold to
mining companies or are exported illegally. Since 2011, 157,579 vehicles have
been seized for transporting minerals under fake or forged documents. In
various case, even the required permits from forest and state authorities for
the transportation of minerals are obtained by bribing the respective officials.
Apart from aforementioned companies, there are many small and medium
companies under lease. In a draft document of Sustainable Development
147
Framework for the Mining Sector by Ministry of Mines claims that under
the current capacity Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) can only regulate 2,500
leases,10 while there are approximately 7,000 leases and 5,000 operational
mines in the country. Therefore, regulation checks for major mines happen
only once, and small-scale mining is let unregulated.
Realising the criticality of illegal mining, the matter has been raised many
times in parliamentary proceedings. A question to this effect in the Indian
Parliament could be viewed as a case in point. In the lower house of the Indian
parliament (Lok Sabha), a question (number 294) was asked on December
6, 2013 in regards to illegal mining activities and loss of revenue to the
government.11 All this indicates that there is awareness amongst the population
and the political class concerning issues related to illegal mining.
The government has been aware about this menace and has taken some
specific steps to address this issue. To raise the bar for transparent
implementation, the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Bill,
2011 (MMDR Bill) was introduced in the Lok Sabha on December 12, 2011
to modify the previous 1957 version. The bill includes the following
provisions, with special focus on regulation and steps towards prevention of
illegal mining:12
It provides for establishment of a National Mining Regulatory Authority,
which consists of a Chairperson and not more than nine members to
advise the Government on rates of royalty, dead rent, benefit sharing
with District Mineral Foundation, quality standards and also conduct
investigation and launch prosecution in cases of large scale illegal mining.
It provides for establishment of State Mining Regulatory Authority
consisting of such persons as may be prescribed by the State Government
to exercise the powers and functions in respect of minor minerals.
It provides for establishment of a National Mining Tribunal and State
Mining Tribunals to exercise jurisdiction, powers and authority conferred
on it under the proposed legislation.
It empowers the State Governments to constitute Special Courts for the
purpose of providing speedy trial of the offences relating to illegal mining.
It empowers the Central Government to intervene in the cases of illegal
mining, where the concerned State Government fails to take action
against illegal mining.
It provides for stringent punishments for contravention of certain
provisions of the proposed legislation.
Other than above-mentioned bill, the government has taken many other
steps in coordination with regional administrations, and some important
provisions are mentioned as follows:13
148
In 2005, Centre advised the regional administrations to develop task

forces which can regulate the illegal mining. It was reported that 23
regions so far have setup the task forces; however, the effectiveness of
such forces remains questionable.
To have regional level Coordination-cum-Empowered Committee
(SCEC) in coordination to railways and ports to look into related aspects
of illegal mining. It was reported that 13 regional governments have
implemented the committee so far.
To step up special cell, marketing intelligence, remote sensing, etc. and
develop a joint plan of action.
A Central Coordination-cum-Empowered Committee set up under
Secretary (Mines) which form a coordination system between regional
governments and centre while passing critical issues to the centre.
Custom authorities are advised to share export figures with state
government.
Government has notified amendment in Rule 45 of Mineral
Conservation and Development Rules, 1988, on February 9, 2011
making it mandatory for all miners, traders, stockiest, exporters and
end-users to register with IBM and report their transaction in minerals
on monthly basis for a proper end-to-end accounting of minerals.
Task force setup by IBM to have satellite inputs to take action against
illegal mining.
Indian Government is well aware about illegal mining and has made
various legal provisions to address this issue. However, regional imbalances,
economic disparities and political compulsions some of the challenges.
Therefore, it is important to establish a strong and result-oriented implementing body to ensure that the legal architecture functions properly.
Along with the above challenges, there are also Techno-Commercial and
Regulatory Issues which merit attention. The entire procedure of mining is
a complex task and involves multiple processes. Various technical and commercial components involve issues related to survey, geology, mining techniques and technologies, life-cycle costs, production and processing methods,
processes and practices in respect of surface and underground mining and
few other challenges involving business practices. Similarly, there are various
regulatory issues like different legal mechanisms, mining industry guidelines,
safety and inspection guidelines, export and import licensing procedures,
environmental clearances, etc. It is imperative that Indias mining sector
remains prepared to address all such challenges.
149
NOTES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13
Mining and the Environment, Australian Bureau of Statistics, at http://www.abs.gov.au/

ausstats/[email protected]/46d1bc47ac9d0c7bca256c470025ff87/ce28d7fbe5faa308ca256cae0015
da32!OpenDocument (Accessed December 29, 2013).
A K Debnath and S K Dubey, Strategy for Stepping up Coal Production in CIL, India
Energy Forum, atindiaenergyforum.org/4th-coal-summit/presentations/.../ak-debnath.doc
Guidelines for Preparation of Mine Closure Plan, Indian Bureau of Mines, at http://
ibm.nic.in/mineclosuregl.pdf. (Accessed December 30, 2013).
Pradeep S M, The Indian Mining Sector: Effects on the Environment and FDI Inflows, at
http://www.oecd.org/env/1830307.pdf (Accessed August 4, 2013).
Lennart Bendfeldt, Naxalism: The Maoist Challenge to the Indian State, at http://
www.in.boell.org/web/52-764.html (Accessed Sep 5, 2013).
Companies Bleed in Naxalites Bloodbath, Business Standard, Delhi, April 8, 2010, at http:/
/business.rediff.com/report/2010/apr/08/companies-bleed-in-naxalite-bloodbath.htm
(Accessed Aug 30, 2013).
What is Illegal Mining? at http://mining.about.com/od/OperationsManagement/a/WhatIs-Illegal-Mining.htm) (Accessed on January 03, 2014).
Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (No. 67 of 1957),Controller
General, Nagpur, Maharashtra, Indian Bureau of Mines, Ministry of Mines, Government of
India,2012, at http://mines.nic.in/writereaddata/Filelinks/e342d686_MMDR%20
Act%201957.pdf (Accessed December 31, 2012).
For the text of this Act (as amended up to May 10, 2012), please visit: http://mines.nic.in/
writereaddata/Filelinks/e342d686_MMDR%20Act%201957.pdf (Accessed January 3, 2014).
"Sustainable Development Framework for the Mining Sector for the Ministry of Mines (GoI),
EMR, Ministry of Mines, at http://mines.nic.in/writereaddata/filelinks/2155afeb_
FINAL%20REPORT%20SDF%2029Nov11.pdf (Accessed January 1, 2014).
Lok Sabha Unstarred Question No. 294 on Illegal Mining, 2013, at http://mines.nic.in/
writereaddata%5CContentlinks%5Cce87bcf98ad14fa595a93ee60d91cba6.pdf (Accessed
December 30, 2013).
MMDR Bill, Press Information Bureau, Ministry of Mines, Government of India, 2013, at
http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=98580 (Accessed January 1, 2014).
Lok Sabha Unstarred Question No. 294 on Illegal Mining, No. 11.
7
The previous chapters in this book have discussed various aspects of strategic
materials. However, the issues concerning Rare Earth Elements (REEs) or
Rare Earth Materials (REMs) have not been discussed. In literature on
minerals, generally, REEs are discussed as a separate category because of their
importance and because all such elements under consideration have specific
relevance or usages.
Particularly, since the beginning of the 21st century, the supply of some
critical REEs has increasingly become more problematic because of various
reasons including the monopoly of China in regards to its natural deposits.
It has been identified by various sources that around 95 per cent to 97 per
cent of global supply of REEs is controlled by China. Various countries have
their own apprehensions regarding the availability of such materials, and some
of them are trying to find alternative mechanisms to satisfy their industry
requirements for such materials. This chapter takes a broad overview of the
existing state of affairs in respect of REEs.
What are REEs?

Rare earths are a set of 17 elements at the bottom of the periodic table used
in a variety of renewable energy and defence applications, including precisionguided munitions, wind turbines, unmanned aerial vehicles, hybrid vehicles
and tactical wheeled vehicles.1 REEs are mainly used in many new electronic
and advanced components, such as fuel cells, mobile phones, displays, hicapacity batteries, permanent magnets and green energy devices.2 According
to the 2013 Worldwide Threat Assessment of the National Intelligence Office
151
of the US, REEs are essential to civilian and military technologies, and a
major portion of to the 21stcentury global economic growth is dependent on
them. The textbook definition of REEs is as follows:
...those elements that are part of the family of lanthanides on the periodic
table with atomic numbers 57-71. Scandium (atomic number 21) and Yttrium
(atomic number 39) are grouped with the lanthanide family because of their
similar properties. Rare earth elements are separated into two categories, light
rare earths and heavy rare earths. The light rare earth elements are Lanthanum,
Cerium, Praseodymium, Neodymium, and Samarium (atomic numbers 5762), and they are more abundant than heavy ones. The heavy rare earth
elements (atomic numbers 64-71 plus yttrium, atomic number 39) are not as
predominant as light rare earths and are generally used in high tech applications.
For example: Erbium is used for fibre [sic] optics in communications. Europium
and Terbium are used as phosphors. Gadolinium is used for in MRIs.3
The REE group of 17 chemical (metallic) elements consists of the 15

lanthanide elements along with Yttrium and Scandium. They share many
similar properties, which is why they occur together in geological deposits.
The 17 REEs are found in all REE deposits, but their distribution and
concentrations vary. They are referred to as rare because it is not common
to find them in commercially viable concentrations. REEs generally fall into
one of two categories: Light Rare Earth Elements (LREEs) and Heavy Rare
Earth Elements (HREEs), with varying levels of uses and demand. REE
mineral deposits are usually rich in either LREEs or HREEs, but rarely contain
both in significant quantities.4
Heavy Rare Earths

Europium (Eu)
Gadolinium (Gd)
Terbium (Tb)
Dysprosium (Dy)
Holmium (Ho)
Erbium (Er)
Thulium (Tm)
Ytterbium (Yb)
Lutetium (Lu)
Yttrium (Y)
Light Rare Earths

Lanthanum (La)
Cerium (Ce)
Praseodymium (Pr)
Neodymium (Nd)
Samarium (Sm)
It may be noted that Yttrium is lighter than the LREEs, but included in
the HREE group because of its chemical and physical associations with
HREEs in natural deposits.
152
REEs are an integral part of various modern technologies. As mentioned

above, many such technologies have relevance in the areas of defence, energy,
etc. Particularly, for the electronic components used in computers and
televisions, REEs are of considerable use. They are important for manufacturing small-sized products like cell phones and laptops. In the defence arena,
they are important for the production of cruise missiles, precision-guided
munitions and reactive armours. They also are useful in making radar systems.
They have utility for the production of almost all modern warfare related
hardwarefrom platforms like fighter jets, drones to the technologies required
for the development network warfare-centric capabilities. Further, REEs are
finding increasing utility in the production of various green technologies, for
example, in contemporary wind turbines and plug-in hybrid vehicles. In oil
refineries, REEs are used as catalysts.
Explicit REE Significance

In order to appreciate the relevance of REEs for modern day industry, it is
important to discuss the specific applicability of individual REEs.
One of the essential components of the cellular telephone include ceramic
magnetic switches that contain REEs and indium and the base stations for
the cell phone networks that also use the element indium, as well as tantalum.
Each of these minerals has specific properties important to the function of
the given component for which substitution of other minerals or their derived
materials is difficult.5
Cerium is being used for the purposes of polishing various types of mirrors
and lenses. Europium provides the red colour in displays used in all modern
tablets and smart phones. Technologists and chemists are yet to find
alternatives for these elements. Fibre-optic cables use erbium to boost the
signal carried over long distances. Other REEs such as gadolinium are used
for the miniature, high-performance magnets6 employed in portable disc
drives, popularly known as memory sticks. While super-strong neodymiumiron-boron magnets are needed for military weapons systems, samarium-cobalt
magnets are vital to precision-guided missiles, smart bombs and aircraft.
Interestingly, REEs are actually not as rare as the name suggests. They
are found in various rock formations. The average concentration of REEs in
the Earths crust ranges from 150 to 220 parts per million. In comparison,
with new other commonly used metals this concentration is much higher.
For example, copper (55 parts per million) and zinc (70 parts per million).
An REE like Cerium is more abundant than copper or lead. All the REEs
153
except promethium are more abundant than silver or mercury. Even the rarest,
terbium and lutetium, are nearly 200 times more common than gold.
Global REE Deposits and Mining Processes

Presently, China holds half of the worlds deposits of REEs, 55 megatons
(Mt), while the US holds the next largest national reserves with approximately
13 Mt. India has about 3.1 Mt of estimated reserves. Not enough information
is available in regards to holdings of the Commonwealth of Independent States
(CIS).7 In addition, the natural reserves of rare earths are also concentrated
in a few more countries like Brazil, Malaysia, Russia and Democratic Republic
of Congo. Due to such unequal distribution of sources, the REEs have become
a very vital strategic resource.
The known geological sources in regards to presence of these elements
are concentrated in specific regions, and this offers a few states a major
advantage. The major challenge is the economics of mining. This is because
separating REEs from ores is a very complex and costly proposal. REEs often
occur in multiple minerals, each of which requires a different separation
process. This leads to a situation where every mining facility requires custommade producers and technologies for excavation in respect of the nature of
material it has to deal with. Occasionally, REEs are found in ores along with
radioactive elements such as uranium, thorium and radium, making them
difficult and expensive to handle safely.8
In general, REEs are principally found in carbonates, which are igneous
rocks comprising more than 50 per cent carbonate minerals. Less important
sources are secondary deposits which form when rare earth and heavy minerals
are concentrated by the physical weathering of primary mineralisation.
Most REE mines produce only REEs, although there are a few where
REEs are produced as a by-product. Most use large-scale techniques, involving
drilling, blasting and hauling as part of the production process. Separation
of the ore from the waste can be carried out in a variety of ways. The
production process is quite complex as one rare earth mineral may contain
up to 17 different elements which must be separated from one another. Figure
7.1 summarises the basic steps of mining and processing an REE.9
China has a monopoly on REEs, and it being the main stakeholder in
respect of REEs, the knowledge of Chinese investments practically paints the
total picture of global REE activities.
Figure 7.1: Basic Steps of Mining and Processing an REE
154
155
REEs and China

China fully understands the geostrategic importance of REEs and has been
making sustained efforts to maintain its monopoly in this field. One of their
most powerful leaders during 1970-90s, Deng Xiaoping was quoted as: There
is oil in the Middle East; there are rare earths in China.10 During 1992, he
had called for developing the rare earth industry. Dengs call to invest in this
new area and preserve monopoly has been carried out nearly flawlessly. China
dominates the world market, and in recent months, has taken control of mines
in Brazil and Australia, thereby eliminating potential competitors. It is poised
to do with rare earths what the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries has done with oil: make the world dependent.11
Mainly, due to unequal distribution of sources, the REEs and technoeconomic challenges associated with the mining of these elements have become
vital strategic resources. Unfortunately, all these years, only China has made
sustained investments in this sector, and only very recently some other states
in the world having appreciated the importance of REEs and the disadvantages
of overdependence on China have started making both technological and
financial investments in this sector.
On its part, China also understands that its total monopoly is held sacred
by other states. In order to bring in more clarity about its actions in this
field, China published a White Paper titled Situation and Policies of Chinas
Rare Earth Industry during June 2012.12
According to this White Paper, China can produce over 400 varieties of
rare earth products in more than 1,000 specifications. In 2011, China
produced 96,900 tonnes of rare earth smelting products, accounting for 90%
of global output. The nation holds 23 per cent of the worlds total rare earth
reserves.13 But disputing this, some analysts claim that China has only 36
per cent of REE reserves. Be that as it may, whether it is alumina or zinc,
China is presently the leading producer of at least 38 minerals while South
Africa and Russia are leading producers of six minerals each and the US of
five minerals.14
While the White Paper (referred above) states that Chinas REE industry
is showing growth (market value US$ 15.8 billion), some reports indicate
that Chinas REE exports quota has fallen dramatically between 2006 (61,560
metric tonnes) and 2011 (30,246 metric tonnes); for 2012, the current
estimates are 31,438 metric tons.15 Japan has primarily been the major
importer of Chinas REE. The US was once self-sufficient in domestically
produced REEs, but over the past 15 years has become 100 per cent dependent
on imports, primarily from China because of lower-cost operations.16
156
China offers major support to its mining industry in the form of subsidies;
the industry has, at its disposal, cheap labour as well. The Chinese have realised
a complete monopoly in this field by manipulating the economics of business:
they have made products available at very cheap rates in the international
market, which has indirectly led to other countries losing interest in the
business. Now, with the major market share in hand, the Chinese can afford
to control the market as per their resolve.
China has successfully controlled the global REE market for many years.
However, it is only now that the Chinese have felt the need to bring out a
White Paper on this subject. This clearly indicates that since their monopoly
is being debated internationally, they want the rest of the world to know about
their policies and ethics. They are using the route of White Paper to inform
others that they have various regulations in place and have plans to improve
existing legal structures further. The Chinese are also keen to cooperate
internationally on export mechanisms and the development of new REErelated technologies. However, the REEs strategic relevance is far greater than
their economic importance, and Chinas core interests in this business cannot
be commercial alone. It appears to have made investments in this business
both for economic and strategic purposes.
Sensing its importance in the REE market, China had, in early 2012,
announced new restrictions on rare earth exports to the US and other
countries. (Earlier, in 2010, it had temporarily stopped shipments to Japan
due to a territorial dispute over fishing rights.) As a result, the US, Japan and
the European Union made an official complaint to the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) about Chinas restrictive export policies. They are of
the opinion that China is using its near-monopoly to subsidize [sic] domestic
manufacturers and to force foreign manufacturers to move their operations
there.17 China appears to be intentionally choking-off global exports to derive
benefits domestically. In early July 2012, China formally rejected the request
by the US, Japan and the EU for a WTO panel to arbitrate (as per the rules,
only one such blocking of a proposal is permitted). On March 13, 2012, the
EU requested consultations with China with respect to Chinas restrictions
on the export of various forms of rare earths, tungsten and molybdenum.
Subsequently, in agreement with China, states like Canada, Japan and the
US had to join the consultations. Finally, on September 12, 2012, the US,
the EU and Japan requested the Director-General to compose the panel. On
24 September 2012, the Director-General has composed the panel. 18
Subsequently, the first written submission was made by the EU on October
30, 2012.19 One year after this, on October 30, 2013, WTO gave a ruling
against China.20
157
Largely, China has been found manipulating the REE prices as per its
convenience, probably, since it does not have any competitors. A vast
difference in pricing has been found in pre-2010 and post-2010 period. REE
prices spiked after China enacted a 40 per cent export quota cut in July 2010,
peaking at record highs in mid-2011. Some decrease has been observed as
on December 2012, but the prices still remained at least 80 per cent, and as
much as 600 per cent...above pre-July 2010 levels. Chinas monopoly in this
sector has continued for many years, but now it seems to be taking advantage
of the situation. It deliberately ceased production of these rare metals during
2012, in what was almost certainly an effort to drive up world prices. China
also restricts exports of REEs effectively forcing large commercial electronics
companies that need such rare metals in their devices to build within China.21
It is important to note that the state-run labs in China have consistently
been involved in research and development of REEs for over 50 years.
Prompted by economic growth and increased consumer demand, China is
engaging in the increased production of wind turbines, consumer electronics
and other sectors. All this is increasing the domestic demand for REEs. It is
expected that this increased domestic demand along with the increased
awareness about the safety and environmental issues may eventually increase
the costs of operations in Chinas rare earth industry. REE manufacturing is
set to power Chinas surging demand for consumer electronicscell phones,
laptops and green energy technologies.22 Hence, China is unlikely to make
any compromises with its REE policies.
Challenging the Chinese Monopoly

Over the last few years, realising the dangers of Chinese monopoly, countries
like India, Japan and Vietnam have started collaborating in REEs. North
American countries are also planning to increase their investments. It is
expected that more than 15 per cent to 20 per cent of rare earth minerals
could be mined outside of China by the end of this decade. Vietnam is known
to have significant rare earth reserves andby collaborating with Japanis
expected to make significant inroads in this field. However, till date all these
states as well as the powers like the US and the EU have been unable to
produce viable alternatives to rare earths. Apart from investing in the REE
sector, there is also a need to revisit the aspect of overdependence and look
for alternatives. For many of these materials, there is a need to look for some
effective substitutes and also there is a need to invest into recycling.
Its interesting to note that one of the biggest REE consumers and
responsive and technological superior industrial power like the US has also
158
misjudged the importance of REEs. Before 1990, the US was largely selfsufficient in this field. But increasingly stringent environmental regulations
and growing competition from low-cost producers in China with access to
high-quality deposits led to a collapse in domestic production. By 2000, the
US developed 100 per cent dependency on the imports of REEs. Its more
surprising that all this happened in spite of the US being fully aware about
the dependence of its defence industry on REEs and of its overdependence
on China, a politically difficult state to handle. Now, the US has restarted its
domestic production and resumed mining at Mountain Pass in Californias
Mojave Desert, which was earlier suspended in 2002. New supplies are also
becoming available from Mount Weld in Australia. It is expected that at
present around 10 per cent of the global needs of REEs could be taken care
of without Chinas assistance.23
The US Department of Energy proposes to spend more than US$ 100
million to create a new organisation designed to look at new methods to
produce REEs. Researchers in Japan during 2013 have discovered large
deposits of rare earth materials useful for various commercial and military
weapons systems. The rare metals that Japan found off the countrys Pacific
coast appear to be both abundant and cheap to mine. However, Japan plans
to explore and study these deposits from the seabed in the Pacific for two
more years and would subsequently start mining them.24 It is expected that
it could take minimum five years for the REE industry to get developed
outside China. Again financial compulsions are also expected to override the
necessity felt to outdo Chinese monopoly. It has been reported that Australian
companies25 are planning to delay the development of few facilities owing to
the weakening prices for the minerals.
India and REEs

For a rapidly developing economy like India with significant investments in
strategic sectors like aerospace and defence, the dependence on REEs is
obvious. India has no significant presence in this sector and depends mostly
on imports. However, understanding the necessity to reduce the import
dependency, India has been taking steps to reduce this dependence.
Interestingly, till about 2004, India was making investments towards building
its REE infrastructure; however, the plan was deferred because it seemed
economically unviable to compete with Chinese prices.
India is planning to increase its output three times over by 2017.
Interestingly, India was one of the early investors in the arena of REE.
Immediately after the country got its independence from the British colonial
159
rule, the Indian Rare Earths Ltd. (1950) was established. This organisation
has four production plants and is presently a profit-making organisation.26
However, due to limited natural availability of the deposits of the REEs, India
could not achieve much in this field. During the last few decades with
increasing imputes on industrialisation and growth of domestic defence
industry, India has started realising the increasing necessity of REEs. Having
understood the politics of REE, India is making more investments to build
on this sector.
Rare earth deposits in India are of two major types: endogenic and
exogenic. The endogenic deposits include some carbonatites, pegmatitic rocks
(found at a place called Chhotonagpur), metamorphic-metasomatic veins,
and the Exogenic deposits comprise coastal or beach placer, inland placer
and offshore placer. Endogenic deposits do not appear to be very attractive
from the exploitation point of view. Mainly beach placers are mined in India
at present. Monazite is the principal ore mineral for REE in India, although
xenotime holds out some prospect for the future. Of Indias estimated reserve
of 5 million tonnes of monazite, 70-75 per cent occurs in beach placer and
the rest in the inland and offshore varieties. Monazite-content of beach sands
may be up to 11 wt per cent. Inland placers contain either monazite or
xenotime as the principal REE-bearing mineral. Of late, work on inland placer
has started for xenotime. Factors controlling placer formation are:
(1) provenance, (2) physico-chemical properties of the minerals in the placer,
(3) physico-chemical ambience, and the source rocks/earlier deposits are
exposed to, and (4) physical process of concentration. In the development of
Indias beach placer deposits, granites, granitic pegmatites, migmatites,
gneisses, charnockites, leptynites and khondalites provided the necessary source
and the tropical climate with heavy rainfall and strong wave action was
especially conducive to the concentration of the placer-minerals in suitable
locales.27 It may be noted that the following map constitutes of few elements
which are not the classical REEs. However, it has been noticed that the
geological survey of India do consider them under the REE category.
Based on its preliminary surveys, during the second half of 2012,
Geological Survey of India (GSI) set in motion an ambitious five-year project
for geo-chemical mapping to identify reserves of rare earths and other strategic
minerals across India (see Figure 7.2). A major primary source of REEs has
been discovered in Rajasthan and presently its capacity is under assessment.
However, to find the geographical location of the source is only the first step.
It is important to have adequate and requisite infrastructure to undertake
further processing. India has plans to engage private laboratories along with
160

Figure 7.2: Location of Indias REEs
Source: Geological Survey of India (GSI).
161
government laboratories for undertaking chemical analysis. This becomes

essential due to the voluminous nature of the requirement.
This mammoth project by GSI is first of its kind one-sweep attempt to
identify potential RE and strategic minerals reserves in the country. The project
covers Indias Obvious Geological Potential (OGP) areaaround 8 lakh sq.
kmin the next four-five years. Indias total area is around 36 lakh sq. km
from which Deccan plateau and some other areas are removed to arrive at
OGP. It may be noted that India has, so far, only surveyed 2,200 km of its
7,500 km length coastline for Monazites. Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
that use lanthanum, neodymium, dysprosium, terbium and ceriumare
expected to reach the 1 million vehicle mark. All this essentially indicates the
need of REEs for India28 .
The Indian Rare Earth Limited and the Department of Atomic Energy
are keen to undertake rare earth mining along the east cost of Indian peninsula
at Bramhagiri in Odishas Puri district after huge deposits of rare earth minerals
were found there. Also, India has announced that it is keen to explore and
develop deep-sea mining for REEs.29
For a state like India, it is important to develop a micro-level understanding of all important REE requirements. The priority values chains for
defence and economic sectors need to be specifically identified.30 There is a
need to evolve a mechanism where private industry partnership are welcomed
and international partners identified for technology collaboration.
REEs on the Critical List

Like any other mineral source, finiteness is an issue with the REEs too. Due
to significant increase in demand mainly due to the rapid growth being
witnessed in the energy and high-tech sectors, some REEs find themselves
on the critical list. The criticality will remain dynamic essentially depending
on the end application demand pattern. Its difficult to have a correct forecast
in regards to supply and demand needs for the future. However, some
extrapolation of the existing pattern and possible nature of demand in the
future could give abroad idea about the rare earths that would be in short
supply and the one in surplus. The fastest-growing market segments are
permanent magnets, rechargeable batteries and phosphors, particularly given
their application in the fast growing green energy and high-tech segments.
In 2010, the US Department of Energy classified the five REEs critical to
these markets to be in short supply. Four of these are the HREEs. Chinas
Ministry of Commerce has indicated that Chinas HREEs could be depleted
in the next 15-20 years (see Table 7.1).31
162

Table 7.1: REE List, Application and Annual Growth
Light
Heavy
REE on the
critical list
Applications
Neodymium
Permanent magnets, auto catalysts,

petroleum refining, lasers
Dysprosium
Europium
Terbium
Yttrium
Estimated compound annual

growth rate 2010-2015
(in per cent)
Permanent magnets, hybrid engines

Phosphors, fuel cells, neutron absorbers
Phosphors, permanent magnets
Red phosphor, fluorescent lamps,
ceramics, metal alloys
16
16
27
30
30
Source: IMCOA and CIBC World Markets and Dundee Capital Markets.
These minerals, with the exclusion of Yttrium, are likely to be in short

supply over the next 10 years. The magnitude and duration of these shortages
will mainly depend on the success of REE exploration projects. Understating
the need, some states have begun to develop strategies to safeguard their REE
supplies in order to overcome the future supply problems. Also, a few private
companies are establishing joint ventures with mining companies. Today,
essentially this situation has emerged because of shortage of supplies, Chinas
monopoly and skewed export policies, economic un-viability of the sector,
etc. It is important to ensure serious shortages are averted in the long term.
Figure 7.3 illustrates the widening gap between the supply from China and
the demand from the rest of the world.
Figure 7.3: Widening Gap Between the Supply from China and the
Demand from the Rest of the World
Source: Rare Earth Material 101 IAMGOLD Corporation.32
163
Wrapping up
Presently, China is the global leader in the REE sector and could continue to
be in the forefront in the near future too. Fortunately, both industrially
developed and developing states have understood the necessity to break the
Chinese monopoly in this sector. It is important for states like India to make
appropriate investments in this sector because it offers various commercial,
strategic and diplomatic advantages. Also, there is a need for scientists and
technologists to find correct alternatives to REEs to reduce the worlds
overdependence on REEs.
NOTES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Rare Earth Elements 101", IAM Gold Corporation, at http://www.iamgold.com/files/

REE101_April_2012.pdf (Accessed July 22, 2013).
Stefania Massari and Marcello Ruberti, Rare Earth Elements as Critical Raw Materials: Focus
on International Markets and Future Strategies, Resources Policy, 38 (1), March 2013, pp.3643.
Cindy Hurst, Chinas Rare Earth Elements Industry: What Can the West Learn? March
2010, Institute for the Analysis of Global Security (IAGS), at http://
fmso.leavenworth.army.mil/documents/rareearth.pdf (Accessed March 12, 2012).
http://www.iamgold.com/files/REE101_April_2012.pdf (Accessed Jul 22, 2013).
Minerals, Critical Minerals, and the US Economy, A US Committee Report, The National
Academies Press, Washington, 2007, p.14.
Rare Earth Elements, Strategic Materials Advisory Council, at http://
www.strategicmaterials.org/rare-earth-elements-2/ (Accessed March 26, 2014).
Elliot Brennan, The Next Oil? Rare Earth Metals, January 10, 2013, at http://
thediplomat.com/2013/01/10/the-new-prize-china-and-indias-rare-earth-scramble/ (Accessed
on Aug 6, 2013).
John Kemp, News Analysis: Phoenix Rises from Ashes to Mine Rare Earths after a Decade,
Business Day, August 2, 2013, at http://www.bdlive.co.za/world/americas/2013/08/02/newsanalysis-phoenix-rises-from-ashes-to-mine-rare-earths-after-a-decade (Accessed September 22,
2013).
IamGold Rare Earth Elements 101, No. 1. at www.iamgold.com/files/ree101_april_2012.
pdf?
As quoted by: Paul Krugman, Rare and Foolish, New York Times, October 17, 2010, at
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/18/opinion/18krugman.html (Accessed June 24, 2012).
Kent Garber, Americas New Energy Dependency: Chinas Metals, US News, July 1, 2009,
at http://www.usnews.com/news/national/articles/2009/07/01/americas-new-energydependency-chinas-metals (Accessed Aug 4, 2013).
Situation and Policies of Chinas Rare Earth Industry, White Paper, Information Office of
State Council. Peoples Republic of China, 2012, at http://www.miit.gov.cn/n11293472/
n11293832/n12771663/n14676956.files/n14675980.pdf (Accessed Aug 2, 2013).
Dorothy Kosich, Chinese Govt. White Paper Pledges International REE Cooperation, June
20, 2012, at http://www.mineweb.com/mineweb/view/mineweb/en/page72068?oid=
153603&sn=D... (Accessed on July 16, 2012).
Gus Lubin, Noah Plaue and Shlomo Sprung, A Shocking Number of Minerals Are Controlled
by China, July 11, 2012, at http://www.businessinsider.com/china-leads-production-indozens-of-miner... (Accessed July 16, 2012).
A. Greer Meisels, The Rare Earth Race, June 26, 2012, at http://nationalinterest.org/
164
commentary/the-race-rare-earth-elements-7120 (Accessed July 10, 2012).

16. Marc Humphries, Rare Earth Elements: The Global Supply Chain, CRS Report for Congress,
at http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R41347.pdf (Accessed July 12, 2012).
17. Chinese Official Defends Countrys Rare Earth Export Policies. China Mining, at http://
www.chinamining.org/News/2012-03-15/1331775278d55250.html (Accessed July 16, 2012).
18. China Measures Related to the Exportation of Rare Earths, Tungsten and Molybdenum,
Dispute Settlement: Dispute DS432, World Trade Organization, at http://www.wto.org/
english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds432_e.htm, (Accessed Aug 7, 2013).
19. China Measures Related to the Exportation of Rare Earths, Tungsten and Molybdenum
(WT/DS432), First Written Submission by the European Union, at http://trade.ec.europa.eu/
doclib/docs/2013/april/tradoc_150806.pdf (Accessed December 20, 2012).
20. Cecilia Jamasmie, WTO Tells China to Drop Restrictions on Rare Earths Exports, October
30, 2013, at http://www.mining.com/wto-tells-china-to-drop-restrictions-on-rare-earthsexports-75613/ (Accessed November 12, 2013).
21. Jeff Nesbit, Chinas Continuing Monopoly over Rare Earth Minerals, US News, April 2,
2011, at http://www.usnews.com/news/blogs/at-the-edge/2013/04/02/chinas-continuingmonopoly-over-rare-earth-minerals (Accessed July 28, 2013).
22. Marc Humphries, No. 16.
23. John Kemp, More Mines Open, Making Rare Earths Less Rare, Aug 1, 2013, at http://
in.reuters.com/article/2013/08/01/column-rare-earths-idINL6N0G224I20130801 (Accessed
Aug 5, 2013).For a detail assessment in regards to the ups and downs in the US REE industry
sector and how China has intelligently cultivated the REE industry, please see: Jeff Nesbit,
No. 21.
24. Jeff Nesbit, No. 21.
25. Dow Jones, Lynas Delays Rare-Earths Plan, The Australian, August 1, 2013, at http://
www.theaustralian.com.au/business/mining-energy/lynas-delays-rare-earths-plan/storye6frg9df-1226689090691# (Accessed on Aug 7, 2013).
26. Balance sheets and other information available on: http://www.irel.gov.in/ (Accessed July 12,
2012).
27. Geology Rare Earth Elements, Geological Survey of India (GSI), Ministry of Mines,
Government of India, at http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,719655
&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL (Accessed Aug 2, 2013).
28. DNA Special: New Project to Tap Countrys Minerals, DNA, New Delhi, September 9,
2012, at http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-dna-special-new-project-to-tap-country-sminerals-1738620.
29. IREL Keen to Mine Rare Earth at Bramhagiri, Business Standard, Kolkata/ Berhampur,
August 20, 2012, at http://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/irel-keen-to-minerare-earth-at-bramhagiri-112082000036_1.html (Accessed January 4, 2014).
Adam Currie, India Revisits Rare Earth Potential, September 17, 2012.
30. For a detailed study on this subject, please refer: Chandrasekhar, S. Does India Need a
National Strategy for Rare Earths? International Strategic and Security Studies Programmed,
NIAS, India, at http://isssp.in/does-india-need-a-national-strategy-for-rare-earths/.
31. Rare Earth Elements 101, No. 1.
32. Ibid.
8
Emerging Materials
For any work on strategic materials there always could be a temptation to

include a segment on advanced or new materials with a view to argue that
modern technology does not restrict nation-states to depend only on
conventional minerals, and there is scope for the usage of new or advanced
materials as a replacement to the existing strategic materials. However, there
exists a possibility that debating new materials could divert the key focus of
this study; at the same time, absence of debate on this subject would amount
to avoiding to deliberate on the future. It is unlikely that the importance of
existing strategic materials and rare earth elements is going to reduce anytime
in the near future, but at the same time, new materials are expected to make
significant impact in years to come.
It is not the purpose here to get into the details of the basis of Material
Science which essentially involves relating the properties and performance of
a material (in a particular application) to the structure of the atoms. It is a
known fact that the present level of technology is not capable of manufacturing
a perfect crystal of any material, and scientists are essentially involved to
manipulate the defects in the crystalline materials. Presently, various research
activities are happening in respect of all experimental and theoretical aspects
of advanced materials in the fields of science, engineering and medicine
including synthesis, fabrication, processing, spectroscopic characterisation,
physical properties and applications of all kinds of inorganic and organic
materials, metals, semiconductors, superconductors, ceramics, glasses,
ferroelectrics, low and high-k dielectrics, sol-gel materials, liquid crystals,
biomaterials, organics and polymers, polymer-based electronics, optics,
photonics and biological devices.1
166
Advanced materials in some form or the other have been debated and
researched in the realm of Material Science for many years. Globally, many
research labs are developing new materials for various industrial applications
and also finding its relevance for societal use. Particularly, various breakthroughs in the field of micro and nanotechnology are found impacting some
aspects of modern research in Material Sciences significantly. From strategic
materials perspective, various developments in the arena of the new materials
are being observed with great interest particularly to solve the challenges of
substitution. It is likely that in some cases the development of new materials
could actually depend on supply of existing strategic materials as the raw
materials.
Biomaterials, electronic and magnetic materials, forensic engineering, glass
science, metallurgy, etc. are the sub-disciplines of Material Science. Any focused
debate on various aspects of new materials and its relevance for various
branches of Material Science is beyond the scope of this work. With a purpose
to highlight few important contributions of advances in science and
technology, which could impact the present strategic materials architecture,
few new materials/ideas are discussed in the following sections.
Graphene
Graphene is a new material that is expected to be more solid than steel and
a better conductor than copper. As its name indicates, graphene is extracted
from graphite, the material used in pencils. Like graphite, graphene is entirely
composed of carbon atoms and 1mm of graphite contains some 3 million
layers of graphene. Whereas graphite is a three-dimensional crystalline
arrangement, graphene is a two-dimensional crystal, only an atom thick.
Graphene conducts electricity better than copper. It is 200 times stronger
than steel, but six times lighter. It is almost perfectly transparent since it only
absorbs 2 per cent of light. It impermeable to gases, even those as light as
hydrogen or helium, and chemical components can be added to its surface
to alter its properties. The isolation of graphene has successfully been
demonstrated in laboratory, and the scientists won the 2010 Nobel Prize in
Physics for this success.
Being transparent as well as a good conductor, graphene could replace
the electrodes in the indium used in touch screens. Since it is light, graphene
could be integrated into composite materials to eliminate the impact of
lightning on aircraft fuselages. It is also waterproof and would be perfect to
use in hydrogen reservoirs. The major challenge for the Information and
Communications Technology (ICT) industry is to find alternatives for
167
Emerging Materials
information processing and storage beyond the limits of existing

Complementary MetalOxideSemiconductor (CMOS). There are good
indications that graphene is a prime candidate for Beyond CMOS
components, and is, despite its revolutionary nature, complementary to
conventional CMOS technologies. Presently, further research and
experimentation is underway on this subject to make this idea feasible for
usage in industrial sectors like electronics, energy, health and construction.
Typically, it takes about 40 years for a new material to move from an academic
laboratory into a consumer product. However, in case of grapheme, within
10 years, it has jumped from laboratory into industrial laboratory, and now
even pilot products are available. As per some forecasts, the future of graphene
market could be worth US$ 1.5 bn in 2015 and US$ 7.5 bn in 2025.2
In this context, it is important to mention the present status of graphite
because it is going to be the raw material for grapheme. In the Indian context,
this work has not identified graphite as a strategic material. However, graphite
has been named a supply critical mineral and a strategic mineral by the
US and the European Union. Like in the case of various other materials,
China has a tight grip on the worldwide graphite supply too, controlling
over 70 per cent of it (Figure 8.1).
Figure 8.1: Share of Graphite Producing Countries in World
India
12
Others
8
Brazil
7
China
73
Source: US Geological Survey.
Further, China has been limiting graphite exports with quotas causing
graphite prices to rise. Also, owing to environmental concerns, China recently
ordered restrictions on any further graphite mines in two of its largest graphiteproducing regions.3 Naturally, this opens an opportunity for others to enter
this market in a big way. Figure 8.2 indicates how the supply/demand
168

Figure 8.2: Natural Graphite Supply and Demand
and
Dem
e
t
i
h
ap
l Gr
Tota
nd
Dema
phite
a
r
G
New
Total
Sur
plue
/De
ficit
Source: Angle Publishing.4
imbalances in the coming years could become problematic for many states
in the world.
In recent years, the graphite prices have already started showing a steep
rise. Any major technical breakthroughs in respect of grapheme will put more
pressure on the graphite pricing policy. Hence, it is important to ensure that
no manipulation and cartelisation of graphite business takes place.
Germanane
Scientists have developed a new method5 of depositing germanium in
atomically thin layers, boosting its performance 10-times over silicon-making
it an easier-to-fabricate alternative over other next-generation materials like
graphene. It can be used in producing next generation of fast and compact
computing chips and making power-efficient processors resulting in cheaper
mass-produced chips. It has also been claimed that this material would be
suitable for optical applications too. This material could be useful in
fabricating next-generation optoelectronic devices and advanced sensors.
Besides being based on germanium instead of carbon like graphene, the biggest
difference between the materials is that germanane has the potential to be
more easily grown using conventional semiconductor fabrication equipment
than graphane.
Emerging Materials
169
Stanene
Scientists have been trying to develop room-temperature superconductors
materials that conduct electrons with zero resistance, and do so without
cumbersome, energy-sucking super coolingfor more than three decades.
Now researchers predict that a new material called stanene (a combination
of the Latin word for tin (stannum) and the suffix found in the word
grapheme), composed of a one-atom-thick sheet of tin, could act much like
a room-temperature superconductor, leading to faster, more efficient
microchips.
This new material has not yet been fabricated, but has raised many
expectations. Stanene was discovered by researchers from the US Department
of Energys (DOE), SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and Stanford
University and is predicted to revolutionise computing by replacing the copper
wires still used in modern computer chips. It could increase the speed and
lower the power needs of future generations of computer chips. If present
predictions by scientists are confirmed by experiments that are underway in
several laboratories around the world, then this material could change the
face of ITC technologies in particular.6 Presently, there are many technological
obstacles standing between stanene and converting it as a final usable product.
It would require a few more years of research to prove the actual worth of
this material.
Metamaterials
These are exotic composite materials that display properties beyond those
available in naturally occurring materials. Instead of constructing materials
at the chemical level, as is ordinarily done, these are constructed with two or
more materials at the macroscopic level. One of their defining characteristics
is that the electromagnetic response results from combining two or more
distinct materials in a specified way which extends the range of electromagnetic
patterns because they are not found in nature. Scientists have studied the
application of metamaterials for more than 60 years, albeit without using
the term itself, with research dating back to the 1940s.
Metamaterials are defined as macroscopic composites having a manmade,
three-dimensional, periodic cellular architecture designed to produce an
optimised combination, not available in nature, of two or more responses to
specific excitation.7 Subsequently, the idea of Metamaterials has evolved
further, and now it is considered as a new class of ordered composites that
exhibit exceptional properties not readily observed in nature. While the
original metamaterials definition encompassed many more material properties,
170
most of the subsequent scientific activity has centred on the electromagnetic

properties of metamaterials gains its properties from its structure rather than
directly from its composition.8
Researchers are currently exploring the best possible ways to use this
artificial type of matter. With metamaterials, the sum of the parts, not the
parts themselves, determines how the material behaves. Researchers have found
that by using certain materialslike gold and copper arranged in certain
patterns and shapesthey can combine the properties of those materials. In
other words, unlike natural matter, metamaterials behaviour depends on the
properties of the materials that make it up and the way the materials are put
together.
For more than a decade (since early 2000s), various attempts are been
made to commercialise the application of this technology. Presently, satellite
antennas built using metamaterials technology are opening doors to new
markets for the satellite communications industry and ushering in a new era
of mobility. The technology is expected to provide new communications
solutions previously impossible with traditional satellite antennas. Few
scientists are even found discussing (theoretical) possibilities of using such
material for making an entire aircraft or battle tank invisible.9 As per present
state of prediction, metamaterials could bolster the satellite communications
industry too.
3D Printing Technology
3D printing is the new technological revolution waiting to find its spot in
the future. From medical science to sophisticated arenas like defence and space,
the printer is expected to redefine methods of manufacturing by reduction
of cost, labour and time. 3D printing is similar to 2D printing where the
print evolves putting ink layer by layer. Unlike 2D printers, 3D printing do
the same job in 3D form, replacing ink of printer with desired material
considering strength and utility.10 A computer model is created using 3D
Computer Aided Design (CAD) by scanning the model to be replicated. This
model is then printed in Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) where a material is
melted and extruded in layers, one upon the other. For instance, Lockheed
Martin has already deployed 3D11 printing machines to manufacture parts
of satellite and aircraft using material such as titanium. The material is heated
and then applied in successive layers to create almost any shape saving cost
and reduction in cycle time and material waste.12 Taking the possibility of
using 3D printers to the next level, it was reported in recent months that
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is planning to launch
Emerging Materials
171
3D printers at the international space station in order to manufacture spare

parts and tools in zero gravity. The wide possibility and seamless transition
of manufacturing on 3D printers could the demand of strategic minerals in
future.13 Also, over a period of time, the materials which could be put in use
for 3D printing would be specifically identified as strategic materials.
Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2)14

MoS2 is a novel two-dimensional semiconductor with potential applications
in electronic and optoelectronic devices.15 It is an inorganic compound, a
silvery black solid that occurs as the mineral molybdenite, the principal ore
for molybdenum and is relatively unreactive.16 This material is being used in
industries and is also finding some utility for 3D printing. Molybdenum is
composed of two sulphur atoms. Scientists have been studying and experimenting to enhance its properties as it gives benefits of graphene without
modification to make electronic materials such as transistors (consume
100,000 times less energy in standby state that traditional silicon material)
and rectifiers.17 Besides electronics, it can be used in lubricants as it gives more
shear strength due to low coefficient of friction (as low as 0.02). It also could
be used to make varieties of catalyst and chemicals which are much more
efficient than its previous counterparts.
New Solar Cells

Solar cells is one of the most emphasised areas of research in the present
scenario. It has been argued that due to environmental reasons there is an
immediate necessity for a shift to using green methods of energy production.
The demand for green and efficient technology has already surged in recent
years. Energy production from solar power is one of the central choices for
obvious reasons. Presently, globally, various research ideas are in the pipeline
to make solar cells much more efficient. Some researchers have developed18
semiconductors made of alloys incorporating indium, gallium, and nitrogen.19
This technology can convert virtually the full spectrum of sunlight-from the
near infrared to the far ultraviolet-to electrical current.20 In this particular
case, the strategic mineral put in use is indium. From this case, a broad
conclusion be drawn that strategic materials could have relevance for green
technologies too.
Shape Memory Alloys21

Like the name suggests, shape memory alloys are metals which remember
their shapes. Atoms in every metal arrange themselves in specific pattern
172
known as phase. Any alteration in the pattern of arrangement is called phase

change. In general, metals do not possess tendency of rapid phase change;
however, in shape memory materials, rapid phase change is possible depending
on the environment in which these materials are deployed. Unlike existing
metals, these metals have the capability to change shape tens of thousands of
times when heated and cooled without degrading their original properties.
When a metal is in its initial phase, the atoms are organised in a specific
arrangement called monoclinic arrangement or martensite. When the metal
is heated, the atoms moves in columns, a phase called austenite by switching
seamlessly amongst each other. For this reason, they are called shape memory
metals.22
Their remarkable ability to remember their shape and return to their
original stage make them potential materials to be used in strategic industries
in future. They have numerous applications ranging from electronics,
automotive, aerospace, biomedical, space vehicles to jet engines. For instance,
currently, martensite metals are made of an alloyed mixture of nickel and
titanium, also called Nitinol. Due to its significant mechanical and electrical
properties, it can be used in making actuators. A Nitinol wire of 0.020 inches
in diameter can lift as much as 16 pounds and can sustain 50,000 psi
restoration stress. When electricity is passed through this wire, internal heat
is generated causing transformational phase change.23 According to one study,
it can be used in space applications such as solar panel and windshield wiper
of mars rovers. In Mars rovers, they could be used in metals holding solar
panels which will move when electrically heated giving maximum surface area
to the panel.24
So far, this material has been successfully deployed by Boeing in its
Dreamliner 787 in form of chevrons25 at trailing edge of engine to reduce
noise in airport. Also, it has been used in medical science as super elasticstents
to support arteries and vessels.26 There are possibilities to alloy this material
with a mixture of zinc, gold and copper which may transform this metal into
more active materials by enhancing its retractable characteristics. There are
endless possibilities of using such materials in numerous applications on
further research.
Self-Healing Artificial Material

Inspired by nature and biological systems, self-healing material is a class of
materials with the ability to self-heal (repair/recover) in case of any wear and
tear. It is the process of re-forming broken molecular bonds to at least partially
restore any mechanical properties the material had before the damage. Some
Emerging Materials
173
self-healing materials require the input of a catalyst, an outside agent that

helps the healing process along, making it favourable in general conditions.27
The basic material classes include plastics, metals, ceramics, concrete and
polymers. The chemical engineering department of Stanford University has
created a self-healing artificial material which is also pressure sensitive. This
material is a mixture of plastic and nickel nanoparticles.28 While plastics induce
long fibre chains fused together by hydrogen bond, nickel increases the
mechanical strength as well as induce pressure sensitive properties. The result
is a material which, when sliced, could be pressed back together to regain the
material. The material will be able to heal to its original strength up to 75
per cent in matter of few seconds while 100 per cent in 30 minutes. The
material is expected to have prodigious advantages in future. It can be used
in prostheses, coating of electronics and many defence equipment. The full
potential usage of such material is still to be exploited; however, foreseeable
reality is that such materials will revolutionise Material Science.
Boron, Aluminium and Magnesium (BAM) Ceramic Alloy29

BAM is typically a ceramic alloy made up of boron, aluminium and
magnesium (AlMgB14) with titanium boride (TiB2). It was accidently
discovered in 1999 by the US Department of Energy Ames Laboratory in
Iowa when a research for efficient electric substance was in its nascent stage.
Harder than diamond, BAM is one of the hardest materials known till today.
While diamond has simple, regular and symmetrical crystalline structure,
BAMs structure is complex, has low symmetry and often has a few atoms
missing.
BAM is slipperier than Teflon, inducing the property of self-lubrication.
Researchers believe that its self-lubricant properties would be a great aid to
cutting tools which are made of diamond. Because of its hardness and selflubricating properties, it can be used in making cutting tools, moving
components in machines, gears, etc. as it will boost energy efficiency and
longevity by reducing friction.30 The coefficient of friction of BAM is about
0.02; therefore, it can be used in making engine housing. BAM + titanium
boride can be potentially used as a coating for the blades of pumps which
will decrease the energy consumed and increase efficiency. It is also possible
this material could find potential use in medical implants such as artificial
knee and hip replacement joints. The material has potential application in
aerospace and defence, mainly in areas like production of rifle barrels, armour
blade, jet nozzles and munitions.31
174
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)32

Ceramics are known as inorganic and non-metallic materials that have utility
in our daily lifestyle. Such materials includes tiles, bricks, plates, glass, etc.
Ceramics have wider applicability from being used as an electrically conductive
materials to airplanes and space shuttles. They also have utility in products
like watches (quartz tuning forks-the time keeping devices in watches), snow
skies (piezoelectric-ceramics that stress when a voltage is applied to them),
automobiles (sparkplugs and ceramic engine parts found in race cars) and
phone lines. They can also be found on space shuttles, appliances (enamel
coatings) and airplanes (nose cones). Ceramics can be dense or lightweight
depending on the requirements.
Advanced ceramic materials make various incredible applications possible
today due to various technological developments in this field. These materials
are actually value-added technical ceramic, which are ceramics exhibiting a
high degree of industrial efficiency. Ceramic materials used as technical
ceramics or advanced ceramics in technical applications are required to satisfy
extremely high demands in terms of their properties. The property spectrum
ranges from wear and heat resistance, temperature and corrosion resistance
all the way to biocompatibility and food compatibility. Because of such diverse
properties, they significant amount of utility in various strategic industries
too.
However, such ceramics made-up of alumina, silicon carbide, aluminium
nitrate, etc. are easily fractured under mechanical or thermo-mechanical loads.
To overcome this difficulty, Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) are
introduced. Generally, CMCs include a combination of type of fibre/type of
matrix. CMC materials are found being used for the preparation of the heat
shield in space vehicles, as components for high-temperature gas turbines,
etc.
Qingsongite
Qingsongite33 is a recently christened mineral and has an atomic structure
similar to diamond; it has high density and is also nearly as hard as diamond.
Qingsongite was first created in the laboratory in 1957, and geologists first
found natural qingsongite, which is a cubic boron nitride, in chromium-rich
rocks in Tibet in 2009. Even though the original discovery of this mineral
was made in 2009; still, it got official approval by the International
Mineralogical Association only in August 2013. This mineral is the first boron
mineral found to be formed at extreme conditions in deep earth. Otherwise,
all other known boron minerals are found at Earths surface. This mineral
Emerging Materials
175
was found in the southern Tibetan mountains of China. Interestingly, cubic

boron nitride was created first in the laboratory in 1957, and since then is
being recognised as an important technological material with wider
applicability in strategic industries because of its specific properties.
NOTES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Science of Advanced Materials, American Scientific PublishersNew Titles at the forefront

of Nanotechnology, at http://www.aspbs.com/sam/ (Accessed January 1, 2014).
GrapheneThe New Wonder Material, The Guardian, November 22, 2013, at http://
www.theguardian.com/science/2013/nov/26/graphene-molecule-potential-wonder-material.
Graphene: Wonder Material for Electronics, Computers and Beyond, November 15, 2013,
at http://phys.org/print303720717.html.
Graphene: Miracle Material Will Be in Your Home Sooner Than You Think, at http://
cacm.acm.org/opinion/interviews/168536-graphene-miracle-material-will-be-in-your-homesooner-than-you-think/fulltext (Accessed December 28, 2013).
K.S. Novoselov et al., A Roadmap for Graphene, Nature, 490, October 11, 2012, pp. 192
200.
Graphene, An Advanced Strategic High Tech Material, Global Research, at http://
www.globalresearch.ca/graphene-an-advanced-strategic-rare-earth-material/5341866 (Accessed
December 20, 2013).
Natural Graphite supply/demand Angle publications at https://images.angelpub.com/2013/
15/18919/ea-graphite-chart1.png (Accessed December 20, 2013).
R. Colin Johnson, Germanane Beats Graphene, EE Times, November 4, 2013, at http://
www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1263163 (Accessed January 7, 2014).
Charles Q Choi, Could Atomically Thin Tin Transform Electronics? Dec 4, 2013, at http:/
/www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=could-atomically-thin-tin-transform-electronics.
James Vincent, New Wonder Material Stanene Could Replace Graphene with 100%
Electrical Conductivity, November 27, 2013, at http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/
new-wonder-material-stanene-could-replace-graphene-with-100-electrical-conductivity8967573.html (Accessed January 2, 2014).
Rodger M. Walser, University of Texas at Austin, 1999.
"Metamaterials, at http://phys.org/tags/metamaterials/.
Ibid.
Josh Clark, Is the Army Testing an Invisible Tank? at http://www.howstuffworks.com/
invisible-tank1.htm.
VernFotheringham, Metamaterials: Transformative Technology for The Satellite
Communications Industry, Sat Magazine, at http://www.satmagazine.com/
story.php?number=5592572 (Accessed January 2, 2014).
3D Printing and Defence: A Silent Revolution, Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses,
at http://www.idsa.in/idsacomments/3DPrintingandDefence_stomar_030114 (Accessed
January 3, 2014).
Revitalizing Manufacturing with Next-Gen Production Technology, Lockheed Martin,at
http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/news/features/2013/3dprinting.html (Accessed January
3, 2013).
Lockheed Martin Moves 3D Printing to the Production Line, Gizmag, at http://
w w w. g i z m a g . c o m / l o c k h e e d d i g i t a l t a p e s t r y / 2 9 3 3 2 / ? u t m _ s o u r c e = G i z m a g +
Subscribers&utm_campaign=99b5bf595c-UA-2235360-4&utm_medium=email&utm_
term=0_65b67362bd-99b5bf595c-90303470 (Accessed January 3, 2013).
NASA Plans First 3D Printer Space Launch in 2014", BBC News, September 30, 2013, at
176
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-24329296 (Accessed January 3, 2014).

14. New Transistors: An Alternative to Silicon and Better than Graphene, at http://phys.org/
news/2011-01-transistors-alternative-silicon-graphene.html accessed January 5, 2014.
15. Hopping Transport through Defect-Induced Localized States in Molybdenum
Disulphide,atwww.nature.com/ncomms/2013/131023/ncomms3642/full/ncomms3642.htm
(Accessed January 7, 2014).
16. Roger F. Sebenik et al., Molybdenum and Molybdenum Compounds, in Ullmanns
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.
17. Climax Molybdenum, at http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/i650563a721 (Accessed
January 5, 2014).
18. Researchers in Berkeley Labs Materials Sciences Division (MSD) with Cornel and Ritsumeikan
University.
19. New Materials: Industrial Innovations, Industrial Innovations, at http://industrialinnov.lbl.gov/II-materials.html (Accessed January 3, 2014).
20. An Unexpected Discovery Could Yield a Full Spectrum Solar Cell, Berkeley Lab News
Center, at http://newscenter.lbl.gov/news-releases/2002/11/18/an-unexpected-discovery-couldyield-a-full-spectrum-solar-cell (Accessed January 7, 2014).
21. Simon Redfern, New Shape-Shifting Metals Discovered, BBC, October 4, 2013, at http:/
/www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-4400101 (Accessed January 3, 2014).
22. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24400101 (Accessed January 7, 2014).
23. Introduction to Shape Memory Alloys, at http://www.tinialloy.com/pdf/introductiontosma.
pdf (Accessed January 6, 2014).
24. Windshield Wiper for Mars Dust Developed: Actuator Moved by Materials that Have Shape
Memory, Science Daily, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid - Oficina de Informacin Cientfica,
Sep. 24, 2012, at http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/09/120924101804.htm.
25. Chevrons are the saw-tooth patterns on the trailing edges of some jet engine nozzles that are
used for noise reduction. Hot air from the engine core mixes with cooler air blowing through
the engine fan, the shaped edges serve to smooth the mixing, which reduces noise creating
turbulence.
26. Superelasticity and Shape Memory Alloys - Applications, DoITPoMS, University of
Cambridge, at http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/superelasticity/uses.php (Accessed January
3, 2014).
27. Geek Answers: How Do Self-Healing Materials Self-Heal? | Science, n.d., at http://
www.geek.com/science/geek-answers-how-do-self-healing-materials-self-heal-1577707
(Accessed on January 7, 2014).
28. Self-healing Materials: Fundamentals, Design Strategies, and Applications, Google Books,
at http://books.google.co.in/books?hl=en&lr=&id=4NH64BONX94C&oi=fnd&pg=
PR5&dq=self+healing+materials&ots=L_Del6O1X3&sig=8fCfZn6AcSDRKAwXGq
WcjtIa2Fw#v=onepage&q=self%20healing%20materials&f=false (Accessed January 5, 2014).
29. Material Slicker than Teflon Discovered by Accident, New Scientist, November 21, 2008,
at http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16102-material-slicker-than-teflon-discovered-byaccident.html#.Usp3u9IW3QU (Accessed January 5, 2014).
30. New Ultra-Slippery Alloy is Second Hardest Known Material, Gajitz | Neat Gadgets, New
Materials & Futuristic Technology, at http://gajitz.com/new-ultra-slippery-alloy-is-secondhardest-known-material/ (Accessed January 5, 2014).
31. Materials in Ames Laboratory, Success Stories, Ames Laboratory, at https://www.ameslab.gov/
news/inquiry/success-stories (Accessed January 7, 2014).
32. http://depts.washington.edu/matseed/mse_resources/Webpage/Ceramics/ceramics.htm, http:/
/astarmathsandphysics.com/a-level-physics-notes/materials/a-level-physics-notesceramics.html, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_matrix_composite, http://
www.ceramtec.com/ceramic-materials/?gclid=CNLhg-WSrb0CFUUF4god8jwAjw and http:/
Emerging Materials
177
/chemistry.about.com/od/engineeringglossary/g/advanced-ceramic-definition.htm (Accessed
March 25, 2015).
33. Cole Latimer, Geologists Uncover New Mineral, August 5, 2013, at http://
www.miningaustralia.com.au/news/geologists-uncover-new-mineral (Accessed March 26,
2014).
Sarah Zielinski, Qingsongite, Science News, November 16, 2013.
9
Strategic Materials are key components of resource geopolitics. The macro

study and analysis presented in this work build up a complex picture of the
varying levels of vulnerability for different minerals. The notion of strategic
material could differ with every country depending on its perceptions, needs
and nature of mineral deposits available for its use. Globally, since the World
War II era, states have been aware about the importance of various strategic
materials. However, the advent of massive industrialisation because of various
rapidly developing states has led to a significant increase in the demand of
strategic materials and monopoly of a few states in regards to the supply of
such materials, and the issue of strategic materials has gained significant
importance globally.
Significant amount of fallacies in demand and supply chain in respect of
strategic materials indicates that there is a need to lobby for a transparent
mechanism globally in order to avoid any domination of interest groups and
any possibilities of hoarding. It is also essential to identify how both demand
and supply options could be best enunciated to secure states interest. States
need to factor in the reality that the demand is going to increase substantially
in the coming days, and no immediate change in supply quantum is expected.
Under such a situation, the states could regulate demand by opting for
substitutions, recycle of strategic materials, researching on new materials and
finding innovative solutions to reduce the dependency on specific strategic
materials. It is essential to evolve policies towards dematerialisation (i.e.,
reduction in the amount of material and energy to service function area) of
strategic minerals from national stocks and reserves. Also, states need to ensure
surge in supply of minerals. For this purpose, streamlining of export policies
179
needs to be undertaken. It is essential to identify ways to increase production,

and additionally, emphasis should be given towards achieving innovations
and developments in technologies. Also, significant investments should be
made to exploit options like deep sea mining.
Presently, various states have begun to realise the importance of devising
a focused strategic minerals policy. They understand that geopolitical balance
in respect of global materials distribution is askew. There have been many
deferring perceptions of states in regards to export/import policies in this
field. In addition, there are increasing economic and environmental pressures
on states in regards to use, recycle, purchase, sale and conservation of various
energy and mineral materials. There is a necessity to evolve an integrated
approach for continuous assessment needs and development of policies to
assist decision-makers with unbiased information. Efforts are needed to
undertake risk analysis and find problem areas to guard against.
India is emerging as one of the major economies of the world, and it has
unfortunately been blamed by major powers for consuming relatively more
quantity of strategic materials and is indirectly being held responsible for
creating competition in the global materials market. However, it is obvious
that world would have to live with the reality of impact of developing
economics like China, India, Brazil and Mexico on the global strategic
materials market.
Presently, China has monopoly in regards to the global supply of the
strategic materials. Moreover, due to an increase in domestic consumption,
Chinas export potential is likely to decrease in future. It is important for
states to conduct periodic national assessments to ensure that mineral supplies
are sufficient. It is essential to undertake quantitative mineral resource
assessment. Also, there is a need for states to undertake a micro assessment
within their geographical boundaries about the possibility of undiscovered
mineral resources. Undoubtedly, excavation and future processing of minerals
to make them useable would be a very costly proposal particularly in
comparison to importing the ready to use materials. However, it needs to
be appreciated that with the monopoly of single state in this business, it would
be incorrect to assume that unhindered and economical supplies would always
remain a reality.
For last few decades, various new minerals have been introduced, and
various science laboratories have been making concentrated efforts to achieve
breakthroughs in various arenas of material sciences. Moreover, few new
materials (essentially alloys or as by-products of known minerals) are showing
significant amount of potential for revolutionising the field of materials. New
180
materials are expected to support many key business sectors including general
manufacturing, construction business and clean technologies and transport
industry. Innovation in new materials development could also allow benefits
in high-value-added products sector and processes and services sector. It is
expected that relevance of strategic materials could increase with the
introduction of new materials essentially because most of them would be
required as raw materials for new minerals.
Currently, strategic materials exploration and expansion activities are at
crossroads. There is an evolving milieu involving multiple stakeholders
globally. States have begun to realise the need for strategic materials resource
assessment and examining the nature of their dependency on imports. Indiaspecific assessment carried out during the course of this study provided the
following information:
As a developing economy and with ongoing rapid industrialisation,
Indias need for minerals for multiple industrial sectors is expected
to grow manifold. Indias need for strategic materials is also growing
mainly owning to its investments in nuclear, aerospace and defence
sectors which are strategic material intensive industries.
In case of India, many of the strategic minerals identified and minerals
belonging to higher risk bracket are also listed as strategic materials
for various other countries. This indicates that presently there are
multiple buyers for the same material globally, and this number is
expected to grow further. India needs to factor in this proliferation
in users while undertaking future planning. Also, there is a need to
develop a dynamic mechanism to calculate national stock and mineral
reserves of strategic minerals in the country which could be used to
as an element for the calculation of projection for the future.
The assessment carried out in this study indicates that for India cobalt,
germanium, molybdenum and tungsten are the strategic minerals in
the higher risk bracket. There is a significant amount of import
dependence for procurement of these materials. Also, presently India
is importing alloys and scrap from many countries as raw material.
This is turn is increasing Indias import dependence significantly. It
has been observed that India has substantial dependence on states
like China and Africa in respect of imports of strategic minerals.
Particularly, violence-prone states like Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC) with a discredited political system is a cause of concern for
India, and there always would be some uncertainty in regards to
imports from such states. Indias political relationship with China,
with an unscrupulous past and not so exultant present, and Chinas
181
opaque policies in the arena of mineral exports need to be factored

in while ascertaining the dependency factor.
For India, issues related to export/import policies of strategic minerals
should not be restricted as a job of the Commerce Ministry alone.
Foreign policy decisions play an important role towards gaining access
to relevant minerals and technologies. It is important for India to
advance various useful bilateral and multilateral collaborations by
keeping present and future requirements of strategic materials in
mind. Particularly, there is a need to engage states like Brazil, Japan
and the US not only from an import destination point of view but
also for undertaking joint projects.
In general, it has been observed that Indias policy of multiple sourcing
has helped to avoid resource traps.
Unfortunately, India is not able to get free access to exhume the
mineral deposits within its own country owing to some domestic
factors.
Apart from the management of imports, it is also important for India
to factor in various important domestic issues for undertaking mining
planning. The issues are both political and environmental in nature.
There are various pressure groups within the country which keep a
strict watch on various activities which could damage the environment
by conducting mining in an unscientific way. It is important for India
to link such groups with the existing government network to monitor
the environmental challenges arising from mining and take corrective
measures. Besides, Indias major problem concerning mineral deposits
is the problem of Naxalism. It is not restricted to being a law and
order problem and has various social dimensions too which require
delicate handling.
There is an interrelationship between the Naxalite conflict and Indias
mineral production and mining policies. Table 9.1 lists the type of
strategic minerals found in the Naxal-affected regions within India.
Table 9.1: Strategic Minerals Found in Naxal-affected Regions in India

Type of strategic material
Region
Beryllium
Fluorite
Tin
Tungsten
Nickel
Molybdenum
Cobalt
Gallium
Jharkhand, Odisha
Chhattisgarh
West Bengal
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand
Jharkhand, MP
Odisha
Odisha
Source: Compiled based on chapter VI.
182
A healthy solution to the problem of Naxalism could also lead to

domestic increase in the production of the strategic minerals. India
also needs to guard against illegal mining, and it is important for the
state to overcome the political pressures and take appreciate corrective
measures. All in all, finding solutions to specific internal problems
could lead to an increase in the production of strategic materials and
eventually reduce the dependence on imports.
It is important to encourage research institutions for innovation of
new minerals and modification of existing materials and also develop
a mechanism to undertake improvements in existing mineral
processing and extraction methods. There is a need to establish a
dedicated facility for strategic mineral research including finding
efficient methods for recycling.
Rare Earth Element (REE) dependency of various nation-states on
China has been one of the most hotly discussed subjects globally.
Various states are looking for an alternative to decrease their
overdependence on China. For India, this situation could be
considered both as challenge and opportunity. India many not be as
blessed as China in regards to natural deposits of REE. However,
there is a possibility for India to make appropriate investments in
this sector particularly by undertaking deep sea mining.
As per the Government of India, Department of Science &
Technology Ministry of Science & Technology Annual Report 2013,
the government has promised support to both basic and applied
research on Material, Mining and Mineral Engineering. Already 29
new research efforts have been initiated/identified for support, and
another 39 are under evaluation. Such measures by the government
are highly encouraging. It needs to be ensured that such efforts are
sustained and monitored regularly. There is a need for the
institutionalisation of material research in Indian universities and
encourage private sector to undertake research and development in
this sector.
Overall, it has been observed that the expanse of strategic materials has
increased manifold during the last couple of years, and for a developing
economy like India, it is important to evolve a multidisciplinary architecture
for policy formulation on this subject.
183
Recommendations
Based on the overall assessment of the global strategic materials architecture
and pattern of Indian investments being made in such materials following
are the few India specific recommendations:
Recommendation 1
There is a need to contextualise strategic materials as an important component
of overall national security architecture. A systemic risk analysis needs to be
carried out to appreciate various challenges. The process of risk assessment is
a dynamic process. There is a need to develop a practice of undertaking
requirements assessment and devising risk management strategies for key
strategic materials for present and future. The entire domain of undertaking
assessments, factoring strategic needs, managing domestic production and
deciding on export/import policies would be a complex and multidisciplinary
task. Hence, it is recommended that a separate Materials Commission could
be constituted.
Recommendation 2
Strategic industries like nuclear, aerospace and defence could be encouraged
to undertake various new studies and initiatives to project their needs,
shortages (if any), future requirements and current policies of procurements.
The domestic private industry associated with various strategic industries could
also be constructively engaged by formulating various study groups.
Recommendation 3
There is a need for formation of new policies to address various issues
concerning strategic materials. It is important to note that any process of
decision-making should not be exclusivity based on economic cost-benefit
analysis. In specific cases, export policy should not only factor in the reality
that local excavation is costlier than imports. Various strategic considerations
needs to be examined before any policymaking.
Recommendation 4
The issue of strategic materials (based on feasibility and interests) in various
bilateral and multilateral deliberations with other nations needs to be factored
in. Excavation and processing technology is the key for the development of
domestic strategic materials industry. Research and development within the
country in that respect should be encouraged, and also opportunities for joint
collaborations/transfer of technology should be sought.
184
Recommendation 5
It is essential to factor in Indias need for strategic materials while attempting
to find solutions to the problem of Naxalism.
Recommendation 6
Detailed supply-chain analyses could be undertaken with major emphasis on
weapon-specific supply-chains.
Recommendation 7
Studies should be undertaken to explore the possibilities of devising specific
material substitution strategies. Also, private industry should be involved both
in mining activities and undertaking research and incentivised for its efforts.
Recommendation 8
Investments should be made in studies on new materials.
APPENDICES
Appendix A
History of Mining and Evolution of

Mineral Legislation in India
The earliest and most authentic record of information relating to minerals

in India is found in Arthasastra, at reatise composed by Kautilya famously
known as Chanakya, between 321 and 296 B.C. This treatise gives a
comprehensive account of the properties of ores of minerals and metals with
the methods of their large scale production and treatment as well as the
manufactures of alloys like brass, bronze and also gold and silver alloys with
base metals. The records available in Kautilyas Arthasashtra give the earliest
stipulations in regulating mining industry as prescribed in the qualifications
and responsibilities of the Superintendent of Mines who possesses the
knowledge of the science dealing with copper and other minerals, expertise
in mineralogy and equipped with mining labourers and necessary instruments.
The Arthasashtra also provides for stringent punishment to those persons who
carries on mining operations without license or who steals the mineral
products. It also provides that the Superintendent of Ocean Mines
(Khanyadhyakshah) shall attend to the collection of conch-shells, diamonds,
precious stones, pearls, corals and salt and also regulate the commerce in the
above commodities. Arthasashtra also provided that both mining and
commerce in minerals shall be State monopoly.
In the medieval ages, India had a fairly well developed metallurgical
industry. During 1400-1800, individual kingdoms prescribed the controls
for mining activity until Mughals established more strict regulatory controls.
The first recorded history of mining in India dates back to 1774 when Mr
John Summer, Mr S.G. Heatly and Mr. Redfarne were granted permission
by Mr. Warren Hastings, the then Governor General of Bengal for mining
coal in Pachete and Birbhum. M/s John Taylor & Sons Ltd. Started gold
188
mining in Kolar Gold Fields in the year 1880. The first concrete proposal
for the inspection and regulation of mining operations in India came in 1890
from the Secretary of State Lord Cross.
In 1895 Government of India appointed a Committee to frame general
rules applicable to mines or groups of mines and to clarify the heads under
which legislation was desirable and the provisions which need to be made
unde reach head. Finally, the Mines Act was enacted in 1901 and brought in
force in the same year. The Mines Act which came in force in 1901 covered
all minerals worked up to a depth of over 6 meters and provided for
appointment of inspectors, appointment of persons possessing the prescribed
qualifications as managers of mines, empowered the Chief Inspector to enter
and inspect mines, and to enquire into accidents and prohibit the employment
of children. Some additional legal provisions came into being in coming years.
During 1948, the in enactment of the Mines and Minerals (Regulation
and Development) Act, 1948, the first legal framework in independent India
for the regulation and development of mines came into practice. The Mineral
Concession Rule 1949 (MCR 1949) were made for regulating the grant of
prospecting licenses and mining leases for minerals other that petroleum and
natural gas. The MCR 1949 was the first basic regulatory mechanism initiated
for grant of mineral concessions in independent India.
The Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act (1957), an
act concerning the regulation of mining and mineral development in India
was passed by the Indian parliament in December 1957. Also, Mineral
Conservation and Development Rules were formulated during 1958.
Subsequently, various rules, regulations, acts and amendments have been put
in place.
In 1986, the Mines & Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act, 1957
was amended and important provision of requirement of Mining Plan before
the grant of mining lease was made compulsory. Also, the Mineral
Conservation and Development Rules, 1958 were repealed and a new set of
Regulation namely Mineral Conservation and Development Rules, 1988.
Succeeding appendixes presents important initial and recent legal documents.
Source: http://ibm.gov.in/re port.htm, Accessed on Apr 12, 2014.
Appendix B
(Extracted portion for the act giving information about minor minerals)
Mines and Minerals

(Development and Regulation) Act, 1957
(No. 67 of 1957)
An Act to provide for the 1[development and regulation of mines and

minerals] under the control of the Union.
BE it enacted by Parliament in the Eighth Year of the Republic of India as
follows:
PRELIMINARY
1. Short title, extent and commencement.(1) This Act may be called
the Mines and Minerals [(Development and Regulation)] Act, 1957.
(2) It extends to the whole of India.
(3) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Govt. may, by
Notification in the Official Gazette, appoint.
2. Declaration as to the expediency of Union control.It is hereby
declared that it is expedient in the public interest that the Union should take
under its control the regulation of mines and the development of minerals
to the extent hereinafter provided.
3. Definitions.In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires:(a) minerals includes all minerals except mineral oils;
(b) mineral oils includes natural gas and petroleum;
(c) mining lease means a lease granted for the purpose of undertaking
mining operations, and includes a sub-lease granted for such purpose;
190
(d) mining operations means any operations undertaken for the purpose
of winning any mineral;
15. Power of State Governments to make rules in respect of minor
minerals.(1) The State Government may, by notification in the Official
Gazette, make rules for regulating the grant of quarry leases, mining leases
or other mineral concessions in respect of minor minerals and for purposes
connected therewith.
(1A) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing
power, such rules may provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:(a) the person by whom and the manner in which, applications for quarry
leases, mining leases or other mineral concessions may be made and
the fees to be paid therefor;
(b) the time within which, and the form in which, acknowledgement of
the receipt of any such applications may be sent;
(c) the matters which may be considered where applications in respect
of the same land are received within the same day;
(d) the terms on which, and the conditions subject to which and the
authority by which quarry leases, mining leases or other mineral
concessions maybe granted or renewed;
(e) the procedure for obtaining quarry leases, mining leases or other
mineral concessions;
(f ) the facilities to be afforded by holders of quarry leases, mining leases
or other mineral concessions to persons deputed by the Government
for the purpose of undertaking research or training in matters relating
to mining operations;
(g) the fixing and collection of rent, royalty, fees, dead rent, fines or other
charges and the time within which and the manner in which these
shall be payable;
(h) the manner in which the rights of third parties may be protected
(whether by way of payment of compensation or otherwise) in cases
where any such party is prejudicially affected by reason of any
prospecting or mining operations;
(i) the manner in which the rehabilitation of flora and other vegetation,
such as trees, shrubs and the like destroyed by reasons of any quarrying
or mining operations shall be made in the same area or in any other
area selected by the State Government (whether by way of
reimbursement of the cost of rehabilitation or otherwise) by the
person holding the quarrying or mining lease;
Appendix B: MMDR Act, 1957
191
(j) the manner in which and the conditions subject to which, a quarry
lease, mining lease or other mineral concession may be transferred;
(k) the construction, maintenance and use of roads, power transmission
lines, tramways, railways, aerial ropeways, pipelines and the making
of passage for water for mining purposes on any land comprised in
a quarry or mining lease or other mineral concession;
(l) the form of registers to be maintained under this Act;
(m) the reports and statements to be submitted by holders of quarry or
mining leases or other mineral concessions and the authority to which
such reports and statements shall be submitted;
(n) the period within which and the manner in which and the authority
to which applications for revision of any order passed by any authority
under these rules may be made, the fees to be paid therefor, and the
powers of the revisional authority; and
(o) any other matter which is to be, or may be prescribed.
(2) Until rules are made under sub-section (1), any rules made by a State
Government regulating the grant of quarry leases, mining leases or other
mineral concessions in respect of minor minerals which are in force
immediately before the commencement of this Act shall continue in force.
(3) The holder of a mining lease or any other mineral concession granted
under any rule made under subsection (1) shall pay royalty or dead rent,
whichever is more in respect of minor minerals removed or consumed by
him or by his agent, manager, employee, contractor or sub-lessee at the rate
prescribed for the time being in the rules framed by the State Government
in respect of minor minerals: Provided that the State Government shall not
enhance the rate of royalty or dead rent in respect of any minor mineral for
more than once during any period of three years.
Source: http://mines.nic.in/index.aspx?lid=80&level=1&chk=24dfe45y5edf5e3, Accessed on Apr
12, 2014.
Appendix C
Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation)

Act, 1957
(No. 67 of 1957)
As amended up to 10th May, 2012
Since 1957 this act been amended several times in order to cater for various
challenges including the environmental concerns. Following is the list of these
amendments. In recent times this act was attended on 10th May 2012. This
document (number of pages 47) is available on (http://mines.nic.in/
index.aspx?level=1&lid=80&lang=1)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
LIST OF AMENDING ACTS

The Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development)
Amendment Act, 1958 (15 of 1958)
The Repealing and Amending Act, 1960 (58 of 1960)
The Repealing and Amending Act, 1978 (38 of 1978)
Amendment Act, 2010 (34 of 2010)An Act to provide for the
[development and regulation of mines and minerals] under the control
of the Union.
Cabinet 30 September, 2011 14:05 IST
Appendix D
Press Information Bureau

Ministry of Mines, Government of India
Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation)
Bill, 2011 approved
The Union Cabinet has approved the proposal to introduce the Mines and
Minerals (Development and Regulation) Bill (MMDR Bill), 2011, in terms
of National Mineral Policy, 2008 in Parliament and also to repeal the existing
Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957.
The new MMDR Bill, 2011, aims to introduce better legislative
environment for attracting investment and technology into the mining sector
by the following:
States may call for applications in notified areas of known
mineralization for prospecting based on technical knowledge, value
addition, end-use proposed ore -linkage etc. and to invite financial
bid;
States may grant of direct mining concessions through bidding based
on a prospecting report and feasibility study in notified areas where
data of minerals is adequate for the purpose;
State Government may set up a minimum floor price for competitive
bidding;
Special provisions for allowing mining of small deposits in cluster,
where cooperatives can apply;
National Mining Regulatory Authority for major minerals - State
Governments may set up similar Authority at State level for minor
minerals;
Imposition of a Central cess and a State cess, and setting up of Mineral
194
Funds at National and State Level for capacity creation;

For the purpose of sharing the benefits of mining with persons or
families having occupation, usufruct or traditional rights in mining
areas, and for local area infrastructure, creation an amount equal to
royalty in case of mineral other than coal, and 26% of net profits, in
the case of coal, has been proposed to be credited each year to district
Level Mineral Foundation;
Sustainable and scientific mining through provision for a Sustainable
Development Framework;
Consultation with local community before notifying an area for grant
of concession, and for approval of Mine Closure Plans;
Enhanced penalties for violation of provisions of the Act, including
debarment of person convicted of illegal mining for future grants and
termination of all mineral concessions held by such person; and
Establishment of Special Courts at the State level for speedier disposal
of the cases of illegal mining.
The new draft MMDR Act would have financial implications in the
creation of an independent National Mining Tribunal and National Mining
Regulatory Authority at the Central Level, and the expenditure involved in
the capacity building of the Indian Bureau of Mines. The funds for this
expenditure are likely to be met from levy of cess at the rate of 2.5% on the
basis of Customs/Excise Duty.
The new MMDR Act would be implemented immediately after receiving
Parliamentary approval and Presidents assent, and a date of commencement
would be notified separately.
The approval will help in developing the countrys mining sector to its
full potential so as to put the nations mineral resources to best use for national
economic growth, and ensure raw materials security in the long term national
interest.
Background
The Government constituted a High Level Committee (HLC) in 2006, which
suggested for evolving a mining code adapted to the best international
practices, streamlining and simplifying procedures for grant of mineral
concessions to reduce delays, etc. Based on the HLC recommendations, the
Government had announced National Mineral Policy (NMP) on 13.3.2008.
To give effect to the policy directions in NMP, the Government has now
evolved a new Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Bill, 2011,
after several rounds of consultations with the stakeholders including State
Appendix D: Press Release MMDR Bill, 2011
195
Governments, concerned Ministries and Departments of Central Government,

Industry and Civil Society. The MMDR Bill, 2011 was referred to a Group
of Ministers (GoM) on 14.6.2010 and which has now, after five rounds of
discussion, had recommended the draft Bill to the Cabinet. The GoM in its
meeting held on 7th July, 2011 has recommended the draft MMDR Bill,
2011 for introduction in Parliament.
Source: http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=76352Accessed on Apr 12, 2014
23-August-2013 16:19 IST
Appendix E
Press Information Bureau

Ministry of Mines, Government of India
The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Bill 2011 (MMDR
Bill) was introduced in the Lok Sabha on 12.12.2011 which was then referred
to the Standing Committee on Coal and Steel (Standing Committee) for
examination and report on 05.1.2012. The Standing Committee submitted
its 36th Report on the MMDR Bill on 07.5.2013. The recommendations
made by the Standing Committee on the MMDR Bill are under
consideration in the Ministry.
The salient features of the MMDR Bill, inter-alia, are as follows:
(i) It provides for a simple and transparent mechanism with clear and
enforceable timelines for grant of mining lease or prospecting licence
through competitive bidding in areas of known mineralization, and
on the basis of first-in-time in areas where mineralization is not
known,
(ii) It enables the mining holders to adopt the advanced and sophisticated
technologies for exploration of deep-seated and concealed mineral
deposits, especially of metals in short supply through a new
concession,
(iii) It enables the Central Government to promote scientific mineral
development through Mining Plans and Mine Closure Plans enforced
by a central technical agency namely the Indian Bureau of Mines, as
well as the Regulatory Authorities and Tribunals,
(iv) It empowers the State Governments to cancel the existing concessions
or debar a person from obtaining concessions in future for preventing
Appendix E: Press Release MMDR Bill
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
(xiii)
(xiv)
(xv)
197
illegal and irregular mining,

It empowers the Central and State Government to levy and collect
cess,
Establishment of the Mineral Funds at National and State level for
funding activities pertaining to capacity building of regulatory bodies
like Indian Bureau of Mines and for research and development issues
in the mining areas,
It provides for reservation of mineral bearing areas for the purpose
of conservation of minerals,
It enables the registered co-operatives for obtaining mineral
concessions on small deposits in order to encourage tribals and small
miners to enter into mining activities,
It empowers the Central Government to institutionalize a statutory
mechanism for ensuring sustainable mining with adequate concerns
for environment and socio-economic issues in the mining areas,
through a National Sustainable Development Framework,
It provides for establishment of the National Mining Regulatory
Authority which consists of a Chairperson and not more than nine
members to advise Government on rates of royalty, dead rent, benefit
sharing with District Mineral Foundation, quality standards, and also
conduct investigation and launch prosecution in cases of large scale
illegal mining,
It provides for establishment of the State Mining Regulatory
Authority consisting of such persons as may be prescribed by the State
Government to exercise the powers and functions in respect of minor
minerals,
It provides for establishment of a National Mining Tribunal and State
Mining Tribunals to exercise jurisdiction, powers and authority
conferred on it under the proposed legislation,
It empowers the State Governments to constitute Special Courts for
purpose of providing speedy trial of the offences relating to illegal
mining, and
It empowers the Central Government to intervene in the cases of
illegal mining where the concerned State Government fails to take
action against illegal mining,
It provides for stringent punishments for contravention of provisions
of the proposed legislation.
198
The Ministry has sought comments of various Central Ministries/

Departments, and of all State Governments & Union Territories on the
Report of the Standing Committee on the MMDR Bill.
This information was given by the Minister of Mines, Shri Dinsha Patel
in a written reply to a question in Lok Sabha today.
Source: http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=98580. Accessed on Apr 12, 2014.
Index
3D Printing Technology, 170-71

Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA), 30
Aerospace industry, 7
Afghanistan, 111
Africa, 5, 56-61, 124
Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 57
Indias Bilateral Agreements with, 130
Mineral Industry in, 57
Allied Industries, 7
Alumina, 14, 92
Aluminium, 14, 57, 74
Antimony, 14-15, 17-18, 61, 75, 83, 92
Computation of Risk Factor for, 116
Mineral Processing, 17
Recycling, 18
Substitutes, 17
Uses, 16
World Production and Reserve, 17
Argentina, 24, 83, 94, 105
Arsenic, 14, 92
Asbestos, 14
Asia, 5, 78
Likert Scale
Assessment Using, 113
Risk Factors Assigned on, 115
Australia, 132
Cricket, 132
Indias Bilateral Agreements with, 132-33
Australia, 29, 38, 43, 61, 74, 79, 87, 105, 107,
123, 126-27, 155
GDP, 61
Mineral Trade, 61
Mineral Exports of, 63
Austria, 50, 105
Bargaining Power of Buyers, 104-6

Barytes, 14
Bauxite, 14, 92
Belgium, 88, 105, 106, 107
Bentonite, 14
Beryl, 14
Beryllium, 18
Applications of, 18-19
Processing, 20
Substitution, 21
Uses, 18
Bismuth, 14, 21
Processing, 22
Substitutes, 23
Uses, 21
Boeing, Dreamliner 787, 172
Bolivia, 1, 17, 24, 43, 48, 50, 83, 105, 107
Borates, 14-15, 83
Boron, 23
Processing, 25
Substitutes, 25
Uses, 23
Boron, Aluminium and Magnesium (BAM),
173
Botswana, 60
Brazil, 29, 38, 41, 46, 48, 57, 64-69, 74, 94,
105, 126, 127, 129, 133, 134, 153, 155,
179
Electrical Batteries, 66
GDP, 65
200
Juiz de For a, 69
Mineral Trade, 65
Tres Marias, 69
Vale, 69
British Geological Survey, 98
Broad Evaluation, 111-12
Bromine, 14
Cadmium, 14
Calcium, 14, 17
Californias Mojave Desert, 158
Canada, 29, 33, 35, 38, 41, 43, 50, 69, 87,
94, 105, 106, 121, 123
Cape Town, 131
Carbonates, 13
Carter Doctrine, 1
Central Coordination-cum-Empowered
Committee, 148
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs), 174
Chile, 1, 24, 34, 35, 43, 64, 65, 76, 87, 94,
105, 106, 107, 121, 123
China Nonferrous Metals Industry Association,
76
China, 17, 18, 20, 21, 24, 29, 30, 32-35, 38,
43, 48, 50, 57, 59, 64, 69-79, 86, 88, 9194, 105-7, 111, 121-24, 126, 127, 129,
135, 153, 156, 157, 167, 179-80
Cobalt Consumption, 76
Consumption of Aluminium, 75
Dangers of monopoly, 157
Economic growth, 69
Export Minerals, 71-72
Import of Minerals, 73-74
Iron Imports, 78
Mineral Trade, 71
Peoples Republic of China (PRC), 69
Southern Tibetan mountains, 175
Steel and Iron Production, 78
White Paper, 155
Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences
(CAGS), 136
Chinese Premier Wen, 135
Chromium, 25, 59, 92
Processing, 27
Substitutes, 27
Uses, 25-26
Chromium, 14-15
Coal, 14
Cobalt, 14-15, 27, 58, 63, 75, 85, 93, 120, 123
Processing, 29
From Nickel and Copper, 29
From Ore, 29
Substitutions, 30
Uses, 27-28
World Production and Reserve, 28-29
Colombia, 38
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS),
153
Competitive Rivalry, 111
Complementary MetalOxideSemiconductor
(CMOS), 167
Computer Aided Design (CAD), 170
Congo, 29, 46, 58, 59, 60, 75, 105
United Nations Operation in, 127
Continental Crust, 14
Coopersanta, 69
Coordination-cum-Empowered Committee
(SCEC), 148
Copper, 2, 14-15, 17, 59, 64, 65, 76
Copper-Indium-Gallium-Diselenide (CIGS),
31
Cuba, 29, 38, 105
Declaration on the India-Russia Strategic
Partnership, 136
Defence Public Sector Units (DPSUs), 101
Defence Research and Development
Organisation (DRDO), 10, 101
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), 105,
107, 120, 122-23, 126-27, 129, 153, 180
Conflict Minerals, 129
Government, 130
Deng Xiaoping, 155
Depart of Atomic Energy (DAE), 10
Diamond, 15
Diatomite, 15
District Mineral Foundation, 147
Economic Demonstrated Resource (EDR), 64
Egypt, 58, 60
Energy/Green technologies, 8
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, 145
European Union (EU), 18, 71, 156-57, 167
Exports/imports statistics, 10
Federation of Indian Mining Industries (FIMI),
133
Index
Feldspar, 15
Ferro alloys, 15
Fighting Equipment, 7
Final Mines Closure Plan, 142
Finland, 105
First World War, 3, 16
Fluorite, 15, 85
Fluorspar, 15
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), 101
Forest Conservation Act, 1980, 145
France, 105
Fullers earth, 15
Gabon, 60
Gallium, 30, 94
Substitutes, 31
Uses, 30
Gas Helium, 51
Gas to Liquid Technology (GLT), 28
Geological Survey of Brazil, 134
Geological Survey of India (GSI), 134, 136,
159, 161
Geologists, 4
Germanane, 168
Germanium, 15, 31, 121, 123
Processing, 32
Substitutions, 33
Uses, 31
World Refinery Production and Reserves,
32
Germany, 30, 94, 106
Ghana, 57, 60
Gold, 15
Graphene, 166
Graphite, 15
Guinea, 57
Gulf War, 1, 9
Gypsum, 15
Halides, 13
Harvard Business Review (HBR), 103-4
Heavy Rare Earth Elements (HREEs), 151, 161
Hong Kong, 71
India and Russia
Bilateral trade, 136-37
201
Defence technology, 136

Nuclear energy, 136
Space, 136
India, 26, 57, 64, 74, 79-88, 111, 120, 121,
122, 129, 132, 157, 179
and REEs, 158
Cobalt Imports, 85
Defence production architecture, 101
Economy, 79
GDP, 79-80
Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL), 85, 87
History of Mining and Evolution of
Mineral Legislation, 187-88
Imports of Ores and Concentrates, 81-82
Mineral Industry, 81
Mineral Trade, 81-82
Mines, 82
Naxal-affected Regions, 181
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP), 79
Usage, 86
War with China, 127, 135
Indias Department of Mines, 10
Indias Obvious Geological Potential (OGP),
161
Indias Planning Commission, 126
India-Australia Joint Working Group on Energy
and Minerals, 133
India-Brazil
Bilateral relations, 133
Joint defence committee, 134
India-China bilateral trade, 135
India-Malawi Joint Working Group on Mineral
Resources Development, 131
Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM), 112, 147-48
Indian Geological Survey, 10
Indian Mining Sector: Challenges, 140
Illegal Mining, 143-48
Open Pit Mining, 142-43
Threat from Naxalism, 143
Indian Rare Earth Limited, 10, 159, 161
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), 10
Indium, 33
Processing, 34
Uses, 33
Indo-Congolese Chamber of Commerce and
Industry, 127
Indonesia, 38, 48, 69, 106
Indo-Russia Working Group, 137
Indo-South African Cooperation, 130
202
Indo-US
Bilateral trade, 137
Nuclear deal, 137
Relationship, 127, 137
Information and Communications Technology
(ICT), 6, 166
Institute for Studies in Industrial Development
(ISID), 146
Integrated Circuit (IC), 94
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA),
8
Iodine, 15
Iran, 24, 35
Iron and steel, 15
Iron ore, 14, 15, 78
Italy, 105
Jamaica, 92
Japan, 33, 64, 71, 88, 92, 106, 156, 157
Kaolin, 15
Kazakhstan, 24, 26, 30, 92
Kenya, 86, 105
Korea, 33, 88, 106
Latin America, 5
Lead, 2, 15, 64
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), 30, 108
Light Rare Earth Elements (LREEs), 151
Likerts Five-point Scale, 114
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs), 33
Lithium, 59, 94
Lithium, 15
Madagascar, 59, 60
Magnesite, 15
Magnesium, 14, 15
Malaysia, 48, 106, 153
Manganese, 14, 60, 65
Material Science, 173
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU), 131
Mercury, 14
Metamaterials, 169-70
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone (MIBK), 46
Mexico, 21, 35, 43, 92, 105, 179
Mica, 14
Military Industrial Complexes, 2
Military Platforms
ships, 7
tanks, 7
missiles, 7
Minerao Taboca, 69
Mineral Concession Rules, 1960, 146
Rules 37 and 46, 146
Mineral Conservation and Development Rules,
1988
Amendment in Rule 45, 148
Mineral Council of Australia (MCA), 133
Mines and Minerals (Development and
Regulation) Bill, 2011 (MMDR Bill), 147
Mines and Minerals Act, 1957, 189-91
Mining Engineers, 4
MMDR Act, 1957, 145, 146
Molybdenum, 14-15, 34, 86, 121, 123
Processing, 35
Floating, 36
Roasting, 36
Smelting, 37
Substitutions, 37
Uses, 34
World Production and Reserves, 34
Molybdenum disulphide, 171
Mongolia, 35, 105
Morocco, 29, 58, 60
Mozambique, 46, 58, 132
MRI, 51, 52
Namibia, 60
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA), 170
National Mining Regulatory Authority, 147
National Mining Tribunal, 147
Natural gas, 14
Natural sodium carbonate, 14
Nephelinesyenite, 14
Netherlands, 87, 105, 121, 123
New Caledonia, 38
Nickel, 14, 15, 37, 60, 63, 69, 76, 87
Processing, 39
Lateritic Ore, 39
Sulphide Ore Processing, 39
Refining Matte, 39
Substitutes, 39
Uses, 37
Nickel-Cadmium batteries, 39
Nigeria, 60
Index
Niobium, 14, 39, 94
Processing, 41
Substitutes, 41
Uses, 40
North Korea, 74
Norway, 87, 93
Nuclear
Industry, 7
Material, 8
Policies, 8
Weapons, 8
Oman, 74
Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED), 33
Oxides, 13
Oxygen, 14
Pakistan, 111
Passive Electronically Scanned Array (PESA), 30
Peoples Rep. of Congo, 85, 105, 106
Perlite, 14
Peru, 1, 24, 35, 43, 48, 64, 65, 92, 105, 106
Petroleum, 14
Phase-change Random Access Memory
(PRAM), 16
Phosphates, 14
Plasma Display Panels (PDPs), 33
Platinum, 14
Poland, 43
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), 31
Polymers, 3
Porters Five Forces
Drawbacks and Inapplicability of, 112
Porters Five Force Model, 103, 104, 113
Potash, 14
Potassium, 14
Potential Substitutes, 108-110
Power of Suppliers, 106-7
Press Release MMDR Bill, 193, 196
Probabilistic Mineral Resource Assessments,
102
Production cycle, 10
Pyrites, 14
Qingsongite, 174-75
Quantitative National Mineral Resource
Assessments, 102
Queensland, 64
203
Radio Frequency (RF), 42

Rare Earth Elements (REEs), 150-63
and China, 155
Definition, 150-51
Explicit Significance, 152
Global Deposits and Mining Processes, 153
on the Critical List, 161
Rare Earth Materials (REMs), 150
Rare earths, 14, 15
Republic of Korea, 64, 88, 94, 106
Resource Nationalism, 9
Rise of China, 135
Risk Factor for Minerals, 119
Russia, 17, 24, 29, 32, 35, 38, 43, 50, 69, 74,
87, 92, 93, 94, 105, 106, 107, 126, 127,
129, 153
Rwanda, 129
Salt, 14
Second World War, 8, 88
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), 170
Selenium, 15, 17, 87
Self-Healing Artificial Material, 172-73
Semantic Differential Scale, 114
Shape Memory Alloys, 171-72
Sierra Leone, 57
Silicates, 13
Silicon, 14, 15
Sillimanite, 15
Silver, 42, 64
Processing, 44
From Copper, 44
From Lead, 44
From Zinc, 44
Substitutions, 44
Uses, 42
World Production and Reserves, 43
Singapore, 106
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, 169
Sodium, 14
Soil Scientists, 4
Solar Cells, 171
South Africa, 17, 26, 38, 60, 74, 75, 92, 94,
105, 106, 123
Space Vehicles, 37
Stanene, 169
Stanford University, 169
Staple Scale, 114
State Mining Regulatory Authority, 147
204
State Mining Tribunals, 147

Steel, 2, 78
Strategic Industry, 9
Strategic Materials, 3-6, 171, 178
Strategic Mineral, 167
Strontium, 15, 17
Sudan, 59
Supply critical mineral, 167
Talc, 15
Tantalum, 15, 44, 64
Processing, 46
Substitutes, 47
Uses, 45-46
Tasmania, 64-65
Metal X Ltd, 64
Tellurium, 15
Threat of New Competitors, 110-11
Threat of Substitute Products, 107-8
Three-Age System, 2
Tin, 15, 17, 47, 60, 64, 69
Processing, 48
Refining, 48
Smelting, 48
Substitutes, 49
Uses, 47
Titanium, 15, 79
Tungsten, 15, 49, 65, 79, 88, 122-23
Processing, 50-51
Substitutes, 51
Uses, 49
Turkey, 24, 105
Uganda, 85, 105, 129
UK, 85, 87, 94
Ukraine, 30
United Nations Framework Classification

(UNFC), 83, 85, 87-88
United Nations Organisation Stabilisation
Mission in the Democratic Republic of the
Congo (MONUSCO), 127
United States (US), 1, 18, 20, 24, 32, 33-35,
43, 50, 69, 76, 83, 85, 87, 88-94, 105,
106, 107, 121, 123, 126, 127, 156, 157,
167
Army and Navy Munitions Board, 3
Chromium Consuming Sectors, 93
Cobalt Consumption, 93
Critical Material Stockpiling Act, 1945, 88
Mineral, 90
National Strategic Material Act, 1939, 88
Net Import Reliance, 89
Resources Risk Pyramid, 91
Worldwide Threat Assessment of the
National Intelligence Office, 16
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), 7
Uranium, 7, 15
US Department of Energys (DOE), 161, 169
US Geological Survey (USGS), 30, 60, 71
Vanadium, 15, 94
Vermiculite, 15
Vietnam, 79, 157
War, 23
War of Pacific, 1
Wollastonite, 15
World Mineral Monopoly, 107
World Trade Organisation (WTO), 156
World Wars, 2
World Watch Institute, 72
Zaire/Democratic Rep. of Congo, 85
Zambia, 29, 58, 59, 60, 105, 120, 123
Zimbabwe, 59, 60
Zinc, 2, 15, 60, 64, 69
Zirconium, 15

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What are strategic materials and why are they important?

What are strategic materials and why are they important?

What challenges does India face in mining strategic materials?

What challenges does India face in mining strategic materials?

STRATEGIC MATERIALS

A Resource Challenge for India

INSTITUTE FOR DEFENCE STUDIES & ANALYSES

Strategic Materials: A Resource Challenge for India

Strategic Materials: An Overview

Global Distribution of Strategic Mineral Resources

Risk Assessment of India

Indias Strategic Materials Resource Management Assessment

Indias Import Dependency

Strategic Materials: A Resource Challenge for India

Challenges for the Indian Mining Sector

Environmental Impacts of Mining

Rare Earth Materials

What are REEs?

Conclusion and Recommendations

We would like to thank Dr Arvind Gupta, Director General IDSA for

List of Figures and Tables

Typical Antinomy Usage Across the World

Map of African Minerals

Strategic Materials: A Resource Challenge for India

Consumption of Aluminium in China

A Representative Risk Assessment Model for Strategic

Map of India Highlighting Naxal-affected States

Basic Steps of Mining and Processing an REE

Share of Graphite Producing Countries in World

Composition of the Continental Crust

List of Figures and Tables

Cobalt World Production, Reserves and Reserve Base

Major Mineral Exports of Australia

Percentage Dependency of Imports on Various Countries

Strategic Materials: A Resource Challenge for India

Table 4.18: Percentage Imports in 2011

REE List, Application and Annual Growth

Strategic Minerals Found in Naxal-affected Regions

Strategic Materials: A Resource Challenge for India

incidence, we can visualise the ramifications. In short, any brake in supply

The purpose behind undertaking this study is to identify the

http://www.richardaucock.com/xirallic-what-is-it/#sthash.8rabN3f5.dpuf (Accessed November

Strategic Materials: A Resource Challenge for India

and manufacture of various types of military hardware, different types of

Strategic Materials: A Resource Challenge for India

classifications were identified: strategic materials and critical materials.

The entire gamut of the management of strategic material involves various

Strategic Materials: A Resource Challenge for India

materials could change based on the changes in the manufacturing processes

In addition, the materials identified as strategic are based on literature

Strategic Materials: A Resource Challenge for India

Beryllium (obtained from beryl, which is found in association with feldspar

Strategic Materials: A Resource Challenge for India

Indias department of Mines

10. Homeland Security Digital Library (HSDL), No. 7.

Strategic Materials: An Overview

Strategic Materials: A Resource Challenge for India

Approximate percentage by weight

Source: Mineralogy by Prof. Stephen A. Nelson, Tulane University.