GEMS Geostats Labs1 Basics

Geostatistics Labs: Basics
Version 6.2
January 2009
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Revision date: 5/5/2009
Table of Contents
Introduction................................................................................................................................. 4
Purpose .................................................................................................................................................... 4
Project Data .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Anisotropy................................................................................................................................... 5
Search Ellipse ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Lab 1: View movie on search ellipses ...................................................................................................... 5
Lab 2: Display Block Models Created with Anisotropy ............................................................................. 6
Lab 3: View an Isotropic Sphere .............................................................................................................. 7
Lab 4: View and Save Anisotropic Search Ellipses .................................................................................. 9
Lab 5: Anisotropy Review ....................................................................................................................... 12
Variography............................................................................................................................... 13
Lab 6: Review of basic variogram concepts ........................................................................................... 13
Lab 7: Create an Experimental Variogram and Modify the Lag ............................................................. 15
Lab 7: Create an Experimental Variogram and Modify the Lag ............................................................. 15
Lab 8: Model a Variogram ...................................................................................................................... 18
ANSWERS: ................................................................................................................................ 19
Lab 6: Basic Concepts Review ............................................................................................................... 20
Lab 7: Calculate an Experimental Variogram ......................................................................................... 22
Page 3 of 22
Introduction
Purpose
An important aspect of performing any geostatistical evaluation is to understand how data values change
with regard to direction. The term anisotropy deals with this concept.
This set of Labs in this tutorial are designed to enhance your understanding of the following:
Isotropy versus anisotropy

Search ellipsoid visualiser tool.
Variograms and Variogram maps
Estimation methods used for estimating block grades.
Impact of various kriging parameters such as nugget, range and discretisation when estimating
block grades.
Project Data
This tutorial uses the GEMS tutorial project called GeostatsBasics. It contains one point area workspace
called Sample Points that contains 3 point areas called 4 points, 2 points and NS_Line.
A block model called 20x20x1 has gold (AU) attributes that have been calculated by various kriging
methods and parameters using the 4 sample points as source data.
The other point areas will also be used to help explain the impact of various kriging and variogram
parameters.
Page 4 of 22
Anisotropy
Search Ellipse
Anisotropy
Read the chapter on Anisotropy in the GEMS Variography Concepts Manual:
Search Ellipse
A search ellipse defines the area around each block centroid in which to search for samples for
interpolating the value of a block. The size of the ellipse is defined by the length (range) of the X, Y and Z
ellipse axis. An isotropic search is one where all 3 axes have the same length. An anisotropic search is
one where the axes vary in length.
Isotropic search
Anisotropic search
You may also specify a different range for high grades and you can further restrict the search by entering
a minimum and maximum number of samples in the interpolation profile.
There are 3 methods for defining the search ellipse orientation:
Az-Dip-Az Method
Axes must be orthogonal
Principal az = true dip
ZXZ method
ZYZ method
Dependent on block model

orientation.
Dependent on block
model orientation.
preferred method
preferred method
Principal dip = Ax axis dip

Interm Az
= Ay axis az
ADA method not recommended when axes

are exactly horizontal or vertical as program
forces dip to be approximately equal to zero!
You can set up search ellipse profiles and view them via the Tools>Geostatistics>Preview Search
Ellipse menu.
Lab 1: View movie on search ellipses

View the short movie in the GEMS help called Set up a search ellipse for block model interpolation.
Page 5 of 22
Anisotropy
Lab 2: Display Block Models Created with Anisotropy
Lab 2: Display Block Models Created with Anisotropy

1.
Open the point area called 4points in the SamplePoints point area workspace.
2.
3.
Zoom to Fit and click the Show/Hide text icon to display the point values.
Open the 20x20x1 block model and show AU_ISO.
Set the block display to All.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Hide AU_ISO and Show AU_AZ45_2

Hide AU_AZ45_2 and Show AU_AZ135_2
Hide AU_AZ135_2 and Show AU_AZ135_5
What do you notice about each?
In geostatistical terms, isotropy, or an isotropic

condition is said to exist when the rate of change of
data values is the same in all directions.
Conversely, anisotropy, or an anisotropic condition is
said to exist when the rate of change of data values
is different in different directions. This is probably the
most common case.
Variography helps determine whether a data set is
isotropic or anisotropic, along with the direction and
amount of anisotropy. This topic will be covered
later.
Page 6 of 22
Anisotropy
Lab 3: View an Isotropic Sphere
Lab 3: View an Isotropic Sphere

1.
2.
Go to Tools>Geostatistics>Preview Search Ellipse

Select/Enter the parameters below.
8.
Press Preview, flip into 3D and Zoom To Fit. The isotropic ellipsoid is displayed.
View the Search Ellipse profile parameters, by clicking on the browse button next to the Search
Ellipse selection.
9.
Press OK to exit the search ellipse profile editor.

Page 7 of 22
Anisotropy
10. Change the values in each of the 3 ranges

for X, Y and Z values. Notice that the ellipse
automatically adjusts its shape to fit the new
distance ranges entered.
The concepts of major axis, semi-major axis,
and minor axis will be covered later. For now,
just understand that the lengths of all of these
axes are the same for an isotropic ellipsoid.
11. Press the Close button to exit and do NOT

save any changes.
Page 8 of 22
Anisotropy
Lab 4: View and Save Anisotropic Search Ellipses

You will now create several anisotropic ellipsoids and save them to a profile.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Go to Tools>Geostatistics>Preview Search Ellipse

Select the trace block profile called 4samps.
A trace block contains the colum/row/level number of a block, which in this case, is used to position
the search ellipse. A trace block is normally set up in different orebody locations to report and
compare kriging equation/weight information.
Create a new search-ellipse profile called EX1, Enter parameters that could be used to estimate
gold values within a narrow vertical vein that has a 135 degree strike and 70 degree dip to the SW.
Save the search ellipse profile and click OK to exit.
View and rotate the search ellipse in 3D to check the orientation and shape.
Plan
6.
Section
Long section
Still using the trace block profile called 4samps, enter parameters that could be used to estimate
gold values within a horizontal coal seam or flat lying sedimentary rock, where continuity is the
same in the XY plane (major/semi-major, anisotropy ratio:1, but significantly less in the vertical
direction.
Page 9 of 22
Anisotropy
7.
Save these parameters to a new Search Ellipse profile called X2. E.g.
Looking down XY plane
Looking West YZ plane
Looking North XZ plane
Page 10 of 22
Anisotropy
8.
Still using the trace block profile called 4samps, enter parameters that could be used to estimate
the values from a kimberlite diatreme, or diamond-bearing pipe which plunges south at a dip of
60 deg below horizontal.
Looking down XY plane
Looking West YZ plane
9.
10.
Looking North XZ plane
Save the parameters to a profile called X3.

Close all opened data before moving on to the next section.
Page 11 of 22
Anisotropy
Lab 5: Anisotropy Review

1.
Explain the following terms:
Isotropic:
Anisotropic
2.
The direction of ___________ continuity is commonly referred to as the major axis.
3.
The diagram below shows 2 samples on a 1m grid. An ellipse is shown below surrounding 1 block.
Based on the diagram above, enter the missing values in the table below.
Sample Value
10
Isotropic
Distance
Isotropic
Weight
Anisotropic
Distance
Anisotropic
Weight
20
TOTAL
WEIGHT
Page 12 of 22
Variography
Lab 6: Review of basic variogram concepts
Variography
Lab 6: Review of basic variogram concepts
Read the GEMS Variography Concepts manual and answer the following questions:
1.
What is a variogram? And what is it used for?
2.
What is the formula for calculating variogram gamma(h) points?
3.
The components of a variogram include the Nugget, Sill and Range.

What is the nugget effect?
What is the Sill?
What is the Range:
Indicate each on the diagram below:
Page 13 of 22
Variography
Lab 7: Create an Experimental Variogram and Modify the Lag
4.
What is the difference between an omnidirectional, linear and directional semivariogram?
5.
What is the lag?
6.
Draw a diagram explaining spread and spread limits.
7.
What is a variogram map?
Page 14 of 22
Variography

In this exercise, you will calculate an experimental variogram for the point area called N-S Line which
contains samples taken at 1 metre intervals along a north-south line. To demonstrate the impact of the
value of the lag, you will calculate the variogram using both a lag interval of 1 and then 2.
For a lag interval of one:
Lag = 1 uses sample pairs whose separation distance is > 0 and <= 1
Lag = 2 uses sample pairs whose separation distance is > 1 and <=2
Lag = 3 uses sample pairs whose separation distance is > 2 and <=3
1.
The calculations for Lag 1 have been entered in the table below.
Complete the table for Lags 2 and 3.
LAG INTERVAL = 1m
LAG 1
LAG 2
Values
Difference
Difference
Squared
3-3
3-4
-1
4-6
-2
6-7
-1
7-5
5-5
5-3
SUM
14
No of Pairs
Gamma(h)
14/(2x7)
Pair
= sum of squared differences /

2 x no of pairs
2.
Pair
Values
Difference
LAG 3
Difference
Squared
Pair
Values
Difference
Difference
Squared
=1
The experimental variogram below shows the lag interval shaded and the number of pairs for each
point.
Make sure this graph matches your calculations above.
Page 15 of 22
Variography
For a lag interval of two:

Lag = 1 uses sample pairs whose separation distance is between >0 and <=2
3.
The calculations for Lag 1 have been entered in the table below.
Complete the table for Lags 2 and 3.
LAG INTERVAL = 2m
LAG 1
LAG 2
Values
Difference
Difference
Squared
3-3
3-4
-1
3-4
-1
3-6
-3
4-6
-2
4-7
-3
6-7
-1
6-5
-1
7-5
-2
10
7-5
11
5-5
12
5-3
13
5-3
SUM
42
No of Pairs
13
Gamma(h)
42/(2x1
3)
Pair

2 x no of pairs
Pair
Values
Difference
LAG 3
Difference
Squared
Pair
Values
Difference
Difference
Squared
=1.6
4.
The experimental variogram below shows the lag interval shaded and the number of pairs for each
point.
Make sure this graph matches your calculations above.
Page 16 of 22
Variography
1.
2.
3.
Open the Sample Points point area workspace and open the point area called N-S Line. View the
points.
Choose Tools>Geostatistics>Analysis>3D Semi-Variograms.
Select the Geostatistics workspace called LineNS and the Analysis name called NS.
4.
This profile contains parameters to calculate a variogram for gold in the N-S direction for the set of
points called N-S Line. These parameters will be covered in detail in a later lab. For now, just
press Run to display the variogram:
5.
6.
Choose Display>Display/Hide Lag intervals.

Choose Display>Display/Hide Number of Pairs.
Page 17 of 22
Variography
Lab 8: Model a Variogram
7.
8.
Choose Variogram>Experimental Variogram Lag and set the distance to 0.3.

Click on the Lag Slide increase button several times to view the results of different lags.
9.
Click and drag the Lag Slider for similar results.

The graph of calculated gamma (h) values versus lag distance is referred to an experimental variogram.
A curve, described by a mathematical equation, is fitted to this data to create a variogram model.
A variogram model starts at a nugget, increases by the sill at a point defined by the range, then continues
infinitely to the right at the total sill value. A variogram model can be fitted to the experimental variogram
as follows:
10.
Choose Variogram>Model. The variogram model (red line) is displayed.
11.
12.
Click and drag the blue dots to change the nugget, range and sill values.
Watch how the variogram parameters displayed in the window to the right change.
Variogram modelling is covered in more detail in the labs that have been designed for both a 2D and 3D
data set. See your instructor for more details. For now, return to GEMS as follows:
13.
14.
Choose File>Return to GEMS.

Close the 3D variogram box.
Page 18 of 22
ANSWERS:
ANSWERS:
1.
2.
3.
Isotropy: having the same value when measured in different directions.

Anisotropy: having a different value when measured in different directions.
The direction of maximum continuity is commonly referred to as the major axis.
Sample Value
Isotropic
Distance
Isotropic
Weight
Anisotropic
Distance
Anisotropic
Weight
10
0.25
0.5
20
0.75
0.5
TOTAL
WEIGHT
Page 19 of 22
ANSWERS:
Lab 6: Basic Concepts Review

1.
A variogram is a graphical tool which can be used to show how data values change over distance
and direction. A variogram plots the differences in values against the distance separating samples.
A variogram may be orientated so that the differences are based on sample pairs in a specific
direction.
After a variogram is calculated, it is then modelled (curve fitting) to obtain various kriging
parameters. Block model grade estimates are then calculated by weighting the surrounding
samples according to the variogram parameters.
2.
The formula for plotting points on a variogram is:
3.
The parameters used to describe a variogram are:
Nugget effect: the difference between samples at

distance zero. Errors occur in sampling, in the lab, and
during data entry. Any or all of these can contribute to the
nugget.
Sill: the difference between samples increases until we

reach a point (a plateau in the variogram) where the
difference is no longer dependent on the separation
distance. This value is called the sill and is the difference
between the maximum difference and the nugget.
Range: the distance at which the sill is attained, as in the

distance at which samples are no longer spatially
correlated.
Page 20 of 22
ANSWERS:
4.
An Omnidirectional variogram is one where the sample pairs selected are based only on their
separation distance, and not the orientation of the pairs.
A Downhole (or Linear) variogram are calculated along the line of a drillhole or traverse.
5.
A Directional variogram is one in which all sample pairs are orientated in a particular direction,
plus or minus some angular tolerance (spread).
The Lag is the separation distance to calculate each point on the variogram.
6.
The spread( angular tolerance) and spread limit.
7.
A variogram map is a tool which allows you to visualise anisotropy in a plane. A fan of variograms
are generated in a plane at regular intervals. The variogram values according to distance within a
direction are plotted and then contoured to create a variogram map.
The direction with the lowest variability for the longest range is the direction of maximum continuity.
Page 21 of 22
ANSWERS:
Lab 7: Calculate an Experimental Variogram
Lab 7: Calculate an Experimental Variogram

For a lag interval of one:
LAG INTERVAL = 1m
LAG 1
LAG 2
Values
Difference
Difference
Squared
3-3
3-4
-1
4-6
LAG 3
Values
Difference
Difference
Squared
Pair
Values
Difference
Difference
Squared
3-4
-1
3-6
-3
3-6
-3
3-7
-4
16
-2
4-7
-3
4-5
-1
6-7
-1
6-5
-1
6-5
7-5
7-5
7-3
16
5-5
5-3
5-3
SUM
14
28
43
No of Pairs
Gamma(h)
14/(2x7)
2.3
4.3
Pair

2 x no of pairs
Pair
=1
For a lag interval of two:

LAG INTERVAL = 2m
LAG 1
LAG 2
Values
Difference
Difference
Squared
3-3
3-4
-1
3-4
LAG 3
Values
Difference
Difference
Squared
Pair
Values
Difference
Difference
Squared
3-6
-3
3-5
-2
3-7
-4
16
3-5
-2
-1
3-7
-4
16
3-5
-2
3-6
-3
3-5
-2
4-3
4-6
-2
4-5
-1
3-3
4-7
-3
4-5
-1
6-7
-1
6-5
6-5
-1
6-3
7-5
-2
7-3
16
10
7-5
11
5-5
12
5-3
13
5-3
SUM
42
73
13
No of Pairs
13
Gamma(h)
42/(2x1
3)
4.1
1.3
Pair

2 x no of pairs
Pair
=1.6
Page 22 of 22

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Isotropy versus anisotropy

Dependent on block model

Principal dip = Ax axis dip

ADA method not recommended when axes

Lab 1: View movie on search ellipses

Lab 2: Display Block Models Created with Anisotropy

Lab 2: Display Block Models Created with Anisotropy

Set the block display to All.

Hide AU_ISO and Show AU_AZ45_2

In geostatistical terms, isotropy, or an isotropic

Lab 3: View an Isotropic Sphere

Lab 3: View an Isotropic Sphere

Go to Tools>Geostatistics>Preview Search Ellipse

Press OK to exit the search ellipse profile editor.

10. Change the values in each of the 3 ranges

11. Press the Close button to exit and do NOT

Lab 4: View and Save Anisotropic Search Ellipses

Lab 4: View and Save Anisotropic Search Ellipses

Go to Tools>Geostatistics>Preview Search Ellipse

Lab 4: View and Save Anisotropic Search Ellipses

Looking down XY plane

Looking West YZ plane

Looking North XZ plane

Lab 4: View and Save Anisotropic Search Ellipses

Looking down XY plane

Looking West YZ plane

Looking North XZ plane

Save the parameters to a profile called X3.

Lab 5: Anisotropy Review

Lab 5: Anisotropy Review

Explain the following terms:

The direction of ___________ continuity is commonly referred to as the major axis.

Lab 6: Review of basic variogram concepts

What is a variogram? And what is it used for?

What is the formula for calculating variogram gamma(h) points?

The components of a variogram include the Nugget, Sill and Range.

What is the Sill?

What is the Range:

Indicate each on the diagram below:

Lab 7: Create an Experimental Variogram and Modify the Lag

What is the difference between an omnidirectional, linear and directional semivariogram?

What is the lag?

Draw a diagram explaining spread and spread limits.

What is a variogram map?

Lab 7: Create an Experimental Variogram and Modify the Lag

Lab 7: Create an Experimental Variogram and Modify the Lag

= sum of squared differences /

Lab 7: Create an Experimental Variogram and Modify the Lag

For a lag interval of two:

= sum of squared differences /

Lab 7: Create an Experimental Variogram and Modify the Lag

Choose Display>Display/Hide Lag intervals.

Lab 8: Model a Variogram

Choose Variogram>Experimental Variogram Lag and set the distance to 0.3.

Click and drag the Lag Slider for similar results.

Lab 8: Model a Variogram

Choose Variogram>Model. The variogram model (red line) is displayed.