JBL 132, no.

4 (2013): 729747

Blaming Eve Alone: Translation,

Omission, and Implications of
in Genesis 3:6b
julie faith parker

[email protected]
Duane Library, Fordham University, Bronx, NY 10458

Interpreters tend to blame only Eve for succumbing to temptation in the garden,
even though Adam is present in Gen 3:16 and shares responsibility for disobe
dience. This article reveals how English translations of Gen 3:6b (and she gave
also to her husband with her and he ate) frequently isolate the woman by failing
to translate hm( (with her) in this verse. The Hebrew word hm( is undisputed
in the MT. Ancient textual witnesses, except the Vulgate, consistently include
some version of this phrase. Grammatical reference works agree on the function
and importance of hm(. Especially in English, hm( provides critical information,
yet many translations of Gen 3:6 (including the RSV and NJPS) do not say that
Eves husband is with her. This discussion looks at the biblical text, Hebrew
grammars, commentaries, ancient sources, fifty English translations of Gen 3:6b,
and translation committee notes to explore the history, implications, and motiva
tions of translators decisions regarding hm(. While some translators consider
hm( insignificant in Gen 3:6, this article argues that neglecting to translate this
word has important ramifications. Bibles that do not mention that Adam was
with her facilitate interpretations that excuse the man and condemn the woman.
Hast thou not wondered, Adam, at my stay?
Thee I have missed, and thought it long, deprived
Thy presence, agony of love till now
Not felt, nor shall be twice, for never more
Mean I to try, what rash untried I sought,
The pain of absence from thy sight. But strange
Hath been the cause, and wonderful to hear:
This tree is not as we are told, a tree
Of danger tasted, nor to evil unknown
Opening the way, but of divine effect
To open eyes, and make them gods who taste;
And hath been tasted such
John Milton, Paradise Lost, IX: 856867

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Eve is stunningly powerful and deeply maligned. Even people who do not read
the Bible are well aware of the womans pivotal role in bringing the manand by
extension the entire human raceto sin.1 Popular culture depicts Eve as Adams
temptress, although scholars dispute whether Genesis 3 actually conveys the fall
at all.2 While this academic discourse remains largely beyond the purview of most
people who know the story of Adam and Eve, biblical translations do not.
This article discusses the critical role of translation in heightening the blame
on the woman. Specifically, I focus on the prepositional phrase hm( (with her)
in Gen 3:6b ( , and she gave also to her husband with her
and he ate) and its frequent absence in English translations. This small Hebrew
I would like to thank the two JBL reviewers, Leslie Thayer Piper, and my former teacher,
Dr.Phyllis Trible, for reading and commenting on drafts of this article. Years ago, Professor Trible
mentioned in a lecture that with her was in the Hebrew of Gen 3:6 but did not appear in the
RSV. That comment was the motivation for this research. I am also grateful to Joan Duffy of Special
Collections in the Yale Divinity School Library for her help accessing the Standard Bible Committee
translation notes.
1The designations Adam and Eve function explicitly as proper names only toward the
end of the second creation story. I use these names interchangeably with the man and the
woman because this is how the characters are commonly known.
2Carol L. Meyers observes, The assumption that Genesis 3 is about the origins of sin
dominates nearly all treatments of primaeval history (Gender Roles and Genesis 3.16 Revisited,
in The Feminist Companion to Genesis [ed. Athalya Brenner; FCB 2; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press, 1993], 127). Feminist scholarship challenges interpretations against Eve with pioneering
contributions from Jean M. Higgins (The Myth of Eve: The Temptress, JAAR 44 [1976]: 63947),
Phyllis Trible (God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality [OBT; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1978], 72143),
Phyllis Bird (Images of Women in the Old Testament, in The Bible and Liberation: Political and
Social Hermeneutics [ed. Norman K. Gottwald; Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1983], 27579), and
CarolL.Meyers (Discovering Eve: Ancient Israelite Women in Context [New York: Oxford Univer
sity Press, 1988], 72 94). Significant feminist studies are many; some especially notable works
include Mieke Bal, Sexuality, Sin, and Sorrow: The Emergence of Female Character, in eadem,
Lethal Love: Feminist Literary Readings of Biblical Love Stories (Indiana Studies in Biblical Lit
erature; Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 10430; Danna Nolan Fewell and DavidM.
Gunn, Gender, Power, and Promise: The Subject of the Bibles First Story (Nashville: Abingdon,
1993), 2238; Marie-Theres Wacker, Der Fal Eva(s): Christlich-feministische Theologie und die
Paradiesgeschichte, in Feminismus, Islam, Nation: Frauenbewegungen im Maghreb, in Zentralasien
und in der Trkei (ed. Claudia Schning-Kalender, Ayl Neusel, Mechtild M. Jansen; Frankfurt:
Campus, 1997), 24148. For further bibliography and assessment of feminist contributions, see
Eve & Adam: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Readings on Genesis and Gender (ed. Kristen E. Kvam,
Linda S. Schearing, and Valarie H. Ziegler; Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999); Joseph
Abraham, Eve: Accused or Acquitted. An Analysis of Feminist Readings of the Creation Narrative
Texts in Genesis 13 (Cumbria, CA: Paternoster, 2002); and Susanne Scholz, A Third Kind of
Feminist Reading: Toward a Feminist Sociology of Biblical Hermeneutics, Currents in Biblical
Research 9 (2010): 932. Yet despite these multivalent and often liberating portrayals of Eve, Scholz
notes that such nuanced interpretations essentially remain ensconced in the academy. The Chris
tian right powerfully promotes interpretations of Eve as subordinate to Adam, and Western media
lucratively promulgate images of Eve as a seducer. See Scholz, Feminist Reading, 2124.

Parker: Blaming Eve Alone

731

word, hm(, supplies essential information by indicating the mans presence when
the woman takes the fateful bite. Yet even though hm( carries meaning and is undis
puted in our oldest sources, esteemed translators who avow fidelity to the Hebrew
text have left it untranslated. These include Jerome, the Standard Bible Committee
(responsible for the Revised Standard Version), the translation committee of the 1985
Jewish Publication Society Tanakh, and Robert Alter, among many others. By exam
ining the biblical text, grammatical reference works, commentaries, ancient sources,
multiple translations of Gen 3:6b, and translation committee notes, I explore why
these scholars deviated from the Hebrew text in their translations. This investigation
of hm( shows how translators collude (sometimes unintentionally) with culturally
prevalent and historically pernicious depictions of Eve.3

I. Eves Assumed Guilt

Depictions of Eve as evil have endured for millennia. Ancient interpreters
reasoned that the woman yields to the serpents appeal, revealing her base nature,
and receives Gods punishment before the man, showing her greater crime. In a
discussion entitled Blame It on the Woman, James L. Kugel reviews rationales for
understanding Eve as guiltier than Adam and supplies a provocative smattering of
quotations. Ben Sira explains, From a woman was sins beginning, and because of
her, we all die (Sir 25:24). The Apocalypse of Moses asks, Oh evil woman! Why
have you wrought destruction among us? (Apoc. Mos. 21:6). 2 Enoch excuses the
man from defilement: In such a form he [the devil] entered paradise and corrupted
Eve. But he did not contact Adam (2 En. [J] 31:6). Pseudo-Philo similarly blames
woman for humanitys downfall: But that man transgressed my ways and was
persuaded by his wife; and she was deceived by the serpent. And then death was
ordained for the generations of men (L.A.B. 13:10).4 Early Christian interpreters
3As William E. Phipps documents, the understanding that Eve is wicked and that therefore
all women deserve punishment has had detrimental and even lethal consequences for women
over centuries. See Phipps, Genesis and Gender: Biblical Myths of Sexuality and Their Cultural
Impact (New York: Praeger, 1989), 5166. Perhaps the most heinous historical practice is torturing
and killing women as witches because of their despicable nature inherited from Eve (see pp.
6162).
4Kugel, The Bible as It Was (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
1997), 7578. See also Helen Schngel-Straumann, Die Frau am Anfang: Eva und die Folgen (2nd
ed.; Exegese in unserer Zeit 6; Mnster: LIT, 1997), 2159; Andrew Louth, ed., Genesis 111
(ACCS 1; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2001), 7779; Elaine Pagels, Adam, Eve, and the
Serpent: Sex and Politics in Early Christianity (New York: Vintage, 1988), 13337; and Alice Ogden
Bellis, Eve in the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books, in Women in Scripture: A Dictionary of
Named and Unnamed Women in the Hebrew Bible, the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books, and
the New Testament (ed. Carol Meyers, Toni Craven, and Ross S. Kraemer; Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 2000), 8283. Ogden Bellis notes that Ben Siras attribution of sin to the first woman would
have been atypical of ancient Jewish exegetes, who found humanitys initial fault in Gen 6:14.

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Journal of Biblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

continue in this vein. Tertullian vilifies women as Eves descendants: You are the
one who opened the door to the Devil. You are the one who first plucked the fruit
of the forbidden tree, you are the first who deserted the divine law; you are the one
who persuaded him whom the Devil was not strong enough to attack. All too eas
ily you destroyed the image of God, namely, man (Cult. fem. 1.1). The writer of
1Timothy instructs: Let a woman learn in silence with full submission. I permit
no woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she is to keep silent. For Adam
was formed first, then Eve; and Adam was not deceived, but the woman was deceived
and became a transgressor (1 Tim 2:1314). The Christian canonization of such
misogynist interpretation has guaranteed its place in exegetical history.5
Explanations of the garden scene that find fault solely with Eve are difficult to
sustain if Adam is with her at the time of transgression. If Adam is there and knows
that disobedience is imminent, why does he not say or do something to intervene?
Excusing Adam from responsibility, some readings presume a physical separation
between Adam and Eve when she partakes of the fruit.6
5Gary A. Anderson explains that, in early Christian interpretation, Eve is understood as
gullible, dumb, beholden to the desires of her senses, and desirous of taking Adam with her when
she falls (The Genesis of Perfection: Adam and Eve in Jewish and Christian Imagination [Louisville:
Westminster John Knox, 2001], 84; for discussion of differences in early Jewish and Christian
understanding, see 7584). John A. Phillips concurs that, in early Christian exegesis, She is a
dilution in power, rational faculties, self-control, piety, and moral strength. A flaw, present in her
since her creation, sets up the scene in the garden (Eve: The History of an Idea [New York:
Harper& Row, 1984), 57. Early Jewish interpretation shows rabbinic efforts to explain Adams
assumed absence during Eves conversation with the snake. Genesis Rabbah 19:3 offers one
possibility: Abba Halfon bar Quriyah said: He had been occupied with his natural functions and
fallen asleep, as noted by Anne Lapidus Lerner, Eternally Eve: Images of Eve in the Hebrew Bible,
Midrash, and Modern Jewish Poetry (Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Press, 2007), 96. For an
overview of feminist responses to misogynist interpretations of Genesis 13, see Scholz, Feminist
Reading, 1221.
6Two notable examples come from John Miltons poetic epic Paradise Lost (excerpted
above) and the apocryphal Life of Adam and Eve. For discussion of Eve in Paradise Lost, see
Diane Kelsey McColley, Miltons Eve (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Anderson,
Genesis of Perfection, 10711; and Helen Wilcox, Two of Far Nobler Shape: Miltons
Re-Creation of Eve and Adam, in The Creation of Man and Woman: Interpretations of the
Biblical Narratives in Jewish and Christian Traditions (ed. Gerard P. Luttikhuizen; Themes in
Biblical Narrative 3; Leiden: Brill, 2000), 15671. Philip C. Almond discusses portrayals of Eve
in seventeenth-century English literature and the changes in interpretation that ensue when the
snake becomes Satan. Almond notes, All [poets and commentators] were agreed that Eve had
separated from Adam when Satan, waiting his chance, approached her (Adam and Eve in
Seventeenth-Century Thought [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999], 188). For
discussion of Adams obliviousness in the Life of Adam and Eve, see Gary A. Anderson, The
Culpability of Eve: From Genesis to Timothy, in From Prophecy to Testament: The Function of
the Old Testament in the New (ed. Craig A. Evans; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2004), 23746.
Interpretations of Genesis 3 that rely on Adams ignorance inadvertently testify to the importance
of hm(, which functions as an obstacle to their readings.

Parker: Blaming Eve Alone

733

The woman might also be excused from blame since she was not yet created
when God warns the first human not to eat of the tree of knowledge of good and
evil. In Gen 2:1617 the Hebrew verb forms appear in the second person masculine
singular (v. 16b: , you [m.s.] shall surely eat; v. 17a: , you [m.s]
shall not eat; v. 17b: , you [m.s] will surely die) or have a masculine
singular possessive suffix (v. 17b: , lit., your [m.s] eating). This grammar
supports Eves innocence in Gen 3:16 because only Adam could know exactly
which tree God meant. On the basis of her response to the serpent in Gen 3:2,
readers must assume that Adam told Eve about the forbidden fruit. Septuagint
translators, acknowledging this conundrum, switch from the second person mas
culine singular in Gen 2:16 (, you [m.s.] shall not eat), to the second person
plural in the next verse (v. 17a: , you [pl.] shall not eat; v.17b: ,
you [pl.] eat; , you [pl.] will die). These verb forms in Gen 2:17 of the
LXX are both nonsensical, commanding one person as if he were two or more, and
logical, paving the way for Eve. In the Hebrew text, however, the burden of respon
sibility lies with the first human being, who alone hears the divine interdiction.

II. The Significance of hm(

As the story progresses, the importance of hm( in Gen 3:6 increases, especially
in English translations. When the serpent talks with the woman in Gen 3:15, the
Hebrew text has both speakers consistently employ first and second person plural
verbs (v. 1b: , you [pl.] shall not eat; v. 2b: , we may eat; v. 3a:
, you [pl.] shall not eat, , you [pl.] shall not touch; v. 3b: ,
lest you [pl.] die; v. 4b: , you [pl.] will not die; v. 5a: , you
[pl.] eat; v. 5b: , you [pl.] will be). This repeated use of Hebrew plural verbs
could create the impression that Adam is beside Eve throughout this scene. In
modern English, however, the plurality is lost with the second person pronoun
you, which obviously can indicate one or more. To an English reader, the only
possible hint of Adams presence during the serpentwoman dialogue is Eves use
of the first person plural (lk)n, we may eat) in v. 2b. However, Eves including
Adam as weor any use of the plural verbsdoes not require the mans physical
company. Indeed, Adam is never directly mentioned, addressed, consulted, or
acknowledged in any way in Genesis 3 until Eve gives him the fruit in v. 6b. At the
very least, his being with her minimizes the possibility of a gap in the text where
Eve might travel to find Adam or share the fruit later. More likely, hm( resolves any
lingering ambiguity about the man being with the woman when she eats.
Reference works for Biblical Hebrew consistently translate hm( in Gen 3:6.
Grammarians explain that hm( is in apposition to her husband and functions
adjectivally, providing information about the man. Gesenius Hebrew Grammar cites
this phrase as an example of a preposition qualifying a noun appositionally and

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Journal of Biblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

interprets hm( h#y)l in Gen 3:6 as her husband who was with her (GKC 131t).7
Paul Joon also lists this preposition and indirect object pronoun as attributive to
the noun and renders hm( h#y)l as son mari (qui tait) avec elle.8 L. Koehler
explains that this phrase forms a relative clause and translates hm( h#y)l as ihrem
Mann, der bei ihr war.9 Ernst Jenni gives Gen 3:6 in an exercise and translates hm(
as necessary and expected: und gab auch ihrem Manne bei ihr, und er a.10 Bruce
Waltke and M. OConnor provide Gen 3:6b as an example of an adjectival modifier
and translate, And she also gave (some) to her husband (who was) with her (IBHS
4.6.1a [8]; emphasis original). Ronald J. Williams, referring to use of the adverb Mg
meaning also, renders Gen 3:6b: She gave some to her husband with her also.11
None of these reference works explains that hm( is tautological or assumed with
the verb Ntn.12 All convey with her explicitly in their translations.
Commentators spanning centuries affirm the significance of hm( in Gen 3:6b,
even while denying its apparent sense. In his 1554 Genesis commentary, John Calvin
offers this assessment:
And gave also unto her husband with her. From these words, some conjecture that
Adam was present when his wife was tempted and persuaded by the serpent,
which is by no means credible. Yet it might be that he soon joined her, and that,
even before the woman tasted the fruit of the tree, she related the conversation
held with the serpent, and entangled him with the same fallacies by which she
herself had been deceived. Others refer to the particle hm( (immah), with her,
to the conjugal bond, which may be received.13

Calvin finds the texts translation straightforward and recognizes the significant
role of hm(. Nonetheless, he dismisses Adams presence as by no means credible.
Needing to explain that the man is with her, Calvin interprets this maritally, intro
ducing a commentary on their relationship, which seems unlikely.
Writing in the nineteenth century, H. D. M. Spence offers a comparable insight:
With her. An indication that Adam was present throughout the whole scene
(Delitzsch, Wordsworth), which is not likely, else why did he not restrain Eve? or

7Citing GKC, Claus Westermann explains that hm( designates closer definition of a noun
by means of a preposition (Genesis 111: A Commentary [trans. John J. Scullion; BKAT 1;
Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1984], 185).
8Joon, Grammaire de lhbreu biblique (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1923), 132a.
9Koehler, und der nackte Relativsatz, VT 3 (1953): 8485 (emphasis original).
10Jenni, Lehrbuch der Hebrischen Sprache des Alten Testaments (Basel: Helbing & Lichten
hahn, 1981), 21.5.6 (emphasis original). Justus Olshausens grammar (Lehrbuch der Hebrischen
Sprache [Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, 1861], 223c) translates M( as bei or mit,
frequently appearing with a prepositional suffix.
11Williams, Hebrew Syntax: An Outline (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976), 378.
12 GKC specifies that the preposition here does not depend on the verb (131t).
13Calvin, Commentaries on the First Book of Moses Called Genesis (trans. John King; Grand
Rapids: Baker, 1979), 15152.

Parker: Blaming Eve Alone

735

that he arrived just as the temptation closed (Calvin), which is only a conjecture;
better regarded as a reference to their conjugal oneness (Macdonald).14

Spence realizes that the blame must be shared if Adam is there, and he therefore
dismisses this reading. Ironically, Spence views Calvins interpretation as conjecture,
although he provides no textual basis for his own understanding and agrees with
Calvin that hm( indicates a marriage bond.
More recently, Gary Anderson notes the impact of hm(, although his inter
pretation also seems strained.
If Adam was with Eve at the moment of the transgression, how could he be
ignorant? Our problem is one of translation. The original Hebrew could also be
rendered, she also gave some of the fruit to her husband and he ate along with
her [

] . In this translation, the emphasis is on the fact
that both ate, not on physical proximity at the time of eating. The text does not
explicitly say that Adam was beside the tree as Eve consumed the fruit.15

Anderson rightly observes that Adam must recognize the impending disobedience
if he is with the serpent and Eve, while his translation and commentary downplay
the mans presence. Anderson puts with her after the verb (and he ate) and not
after the noun (her husband), as it appears in the Hebrew text. Perhaps for fluid
ity, he inserts along (along with her), which has no corresponding word in
Hebrew. Andersons rendering further contradicts the punctuation of the MT,
which has a conjunctive mereka accent in h#y)l (to her husband), linking it to
hm( (with her), and a disjunctive tiph ah accent in hm( (with her), separating
it from lk)yw (and he ate). Further, among the scores of English translations
consulted for this article (listed below), Andersons placement of with her is rare.16
Most significantly, Andersons reading is not supported by Hebrew grammars (dis
cussed above), none of which suggests rendering hm( adverbially. Yet even if we
were to accept the readings of Calvin, Spence, and Anderson with hm( indicating
a dyadic bond or shared action, this maneuvering still prevents the reader from
blaming only Eve. Nonetheless, commentators who expound on Eves solitude and
sin are legion.17
14Spence,

Genesis (Pulpit Commentary 1; New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1880), 59.
Culpability of Eve, 242.
16Among fifty English translations consulted, only The Holy Bible: The New Berkeley Version
in Modern English (ed. Gerrit Verkuyl; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1969) and The Holy Bible: A
Translation from the Latin Vulgate in the Light of the Hebrew and Greek Originals (trans. Ronald
Knox; New York: Sheed & Ward, 1956) also translate with her as referring to Adams eating.
(These are listed as the New Berkeley Version and the Knox Version in the chart of English trans
lations below.)
17For example, Gerhard von Rad sees the woman as isolated when taking the fruit. The
woman is now alone. The narrator draws a wonderful picture in v. 6, a scene without words in
which the woman stands before the tree reflecting and then decides. The one who has been led
astray now becomes a temptress (Genesis: A Commentary [rev. ed.; OTL 1; Philadelphia: Fortress,
1972], 90). Hermann Gunkel concurs, When woman seduces, man is unable to withstand. The
15Anderson,

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736

Perhaps the most convincing reason for retaining hm( in translation is its
undisputed place among ancient witnesses. The MT, Septuagint, Peshitta, Samari
tan Pentateuch, Samaritan targums, and Targums Onqelos, Neofiti, and Pseudo-
Jonathan all include this appositional phrase, as indicated in the list below.18
Genesis 3:6b:
Masoretic Text
LXX

Peshitta

, .

lK)w hM( hl(bl p) tbhYw

Samaritan Pentateuch

Samaritan Targum J (ms Or 7562)

Samaritan Targum A (ms 3
of the Shechem Synagogue)

Targum Onqelos

Targum Neofiti

Targum Pseudo-Jonathan

These ancient sources reveal some minor differences in their translational choices.
Both the Septuagint and the Samaritan traditions pluralize the final verb (,
wlk)yw, Nwlk)yw: and they ate), further underscoring the pairs combined action.
The Peshitta translates as hl(bl, as do Targums Onqelos, Neofiti, and
Pseudo-Jonathan (), while the Samaritan targums prefer . Translations
of the adverb vary slightly (, P) [p)], and ), without notable change in
meaning. Yet all these ancient witnesses include hm( or an equivalent term.

III. Translations That Do Not Convey hm(

Jeromes Latin translation, the Vulgate, dates from the late fourth to the early
fifth century c.e. and is the first source to refrain from relaying that Adam was with
womans seduction of the man is a common motif (Genesis [German 1901; trans. Mark E. Biddle;
Mercer Library of Biblical Studies; Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1997], 17). Umberto
Cassuto similarly remarks, In regard to the man, the Bible does not state his motives for eating,
as in the case of the woman, since for him it suffices that she is the one who gives him the fruit. It
is the way of the world for the man to be easily swayed by the woman (A Commentary on the
Book of Genesis: Part I, From Adam to Noah [trans. Israel Abrahams; Jerusalem: Magnes, 1961],
148).
18Unfortunately, no fragment containing Gen 3:6 remains among the Dead Sea Scrolls. (A
small fragment exists from Gen 3:12 [4QGenk] and another from Gen 3:1114 [1QGen], but
Gen 3:6 is lost.) See David L. Washburn, A Catalog of Biblical Passages in the Dead Sea Scrolls
(Text-critical Studies 2; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2002), 12.

Parker: Blaming Eve Alone

737

her. Jerome renders Gen 3:6b as: deditque viro suo qui comedit (she gave to her
husband who ate). As is well known, Jerome prided himself on his scrupulous
attention to the Hebraica veritas.19 While prioritizing the Hebrew, Jerome also
worked closely with the Septuagint.20 This increases the likelihood that Jeromes
decision to leave out a form of with her was intentional, since both source texts
contain this information (hm(; ). Jerome wrote Hebrew Questions on
Genesis (QHG) to explain his basis for translation decisions, which are often exe
getical.21 Although Jerome does not mention Gen 3:6 in QHG (the selection of
verses is unsystematic), his translational decision here is noteworthy. By omitting
some form of with her, Jerome forsakes his commitment to the Hebrew truth,
ignores the further attestation of the phrase in the LXX, and arguably promotes his
own scriptural interpretation.
After closely scrutinizing Genesis in the Vulgate, Jane Barr suggests that
Jeromes strong feelings about women (often, but not always, antipathetic) influ
ence his translation. Barr set out to compare the LXX, Latin translations before
the Vulgate, and especially the Hebrew text with Jeromes Genesis. While a fem
inist focus was not part of her original project, she came to realize that most
irregularities were found in passages concerning women. Barr observes that
whenever Jerome approached a passage where women were involved his usual
objectivity deserted him, and his translation became less precise, and, not infre
quently, biased.22 Most of the passages Barr cites as evidence stem from the
ancestral narratives. However, the example she finds most significant is Gen 3:16b,
yielding this comparison:
19For further discussion of Jeromes commitment to the Hebrew truth, see J. N. D. Kelly,
Jerome: His Life, Writings, and Controversies (New York: Harper & Row, 1975), 15367.
20For discussion of Jeromes radicalism in relying on the Hebrew over the Greek, see Sarah
Kamin, The Theological Significance of the Hebraica Veritas in Jeromes Thought, in Shaarei
Talmon: Studies in the Bible, Qumran, and the Ancient Near East Presented to Shemaryahu Talmon
(ed. Michael Fishbane and Emanuel Tov with the assistance of Weston W. Fields; Winona Lake,
I: Eisenbrauns, 1992), 24353.
21C. T. R. Hayward suggests that Jerome wrote QHG to affirm his respect for Jewish
Scriptures, to justify his work with Jewish scholars, and possibly to combat any suspicion of
plagiarism. See Hayward, trans. and commentator, Saint Jeromes Hebrew Questions on Genesis
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), 1314; for broader discussion of motives behind Jeromes translation,
see 723. Hayward notes, The strong exegetical element in QHG is a reminder that theological
concerns are never far from Jeromes agenda (p. 14).
22Barr, The Vulgate Genesis and St. Jeromes Attitude to Women, in Papers Presented to
the Eighth International Conference on Patristic Studies Held at Oxford, 1979 (ed. Elizabeth A.
Livingstone; StPatr 17; Oxford: Pergamon, 1982), 269. Jeromes views about women are evident
in Against Jovian (written in 393), where he maintains that Eves sin of disobedience relegates
women to childbearing and uxorial submission. See John Oppel, Saint Jerome and the History
of Sex, Viator 24 (1993): 67. For wider discussion of Jerome, sexuality, and women, see Patrick
Laurence, Le monachisme fminin antique: Idal hironymien et ralit historique (Spicilegium
sacrum Lovaniense: tudes et documents 52; Leuven: Peeters, 2010).

Journal of Biblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

738

Hebrew:

LXX: ,

Vulgate:

and your desire will be for your husband, and he will rule over you

and your turning will be to your husband, and he will rule over you

Old Latin:

et conversio tua ad tuum virum et ipse tui dominabitur

and your turning will be to your husband and he will rule over you

et sub viri potestate eris et ipse dominabitur tui

and you will be under the power of men and he will rule over you23

The Hebrew noun suggests longing or desire.24 Jerome instead conveys

as et sub viri potestate eris (and you will be under the power of
men; emphasis added). As in Gen 3:16b, Jeromes translation of Gen 3:6b is prejudiced against the woman.
Recognizing Jeromes translational liberties (especially in Gen 3:16), John
Flood notes that Jerome highlights the disparity between Eve (eva in Latin) and
Mary (ave Maria: hail Mary).25 This palindrome reinforces their opposition. In
one of his letters Jerome aphoristically professes: mors per Evam, vita per Mariam
(death through Eve, life through Mary).26 The contrast between the two women
is clearer if Adam is not in the picture when Eve eats the fruit. Flood observes, The
majority of Christian exegetes following Jerome assumed that Adam was separated
from Eve during her temptation. Indeed, this is something that commentators seek
to explain one way or another.27 In addition to altering the story for subsequent
commentaries, Jeromes translation sets a precedent that continues to the present.
The following chart compares fifty English translations of Gen 3:6b spanning more
than six centuries.28 Clearly not an aberration, over one-third of these translations
(eighteen, or 36 percent) do not specify that the man is with her (below in bold).
23Barr,

Vulgate Genesis, 272. English translations mine.

translations, such as the NRSV (yet your desire shall be for your husband, and he
shall rule over you), leave the element of sexual desire as a possible interpretation. Joel N. Lohr
compellingly argues that this understanding of hqw#t is misleading (Sexual Desire? Eve, Genesis
3:16, and hqw#t, JBL 130 [2011]: 22746).
25This theme is developed by the church fathers, including Tertullian, Justin Martyr,
Irenaeus of Lyons, Gregory of Nyssa, Ambrose of Milan, and Augustine. Flood notes that this
typology develops to associate Eve with the synagogue and Mary with the church and continues
into the Renaissance. See Flood, Representations of Eve in Antiquity and the English Middle Ages
(New York: Routledge, 2011), 1316.
26Jrme Labourt, trans., Saint Jrme Lettres, vol. 1 (Paris: LAssociation Guillaume Bud,
1949), 22.21, p. 132.
27Flood, Representations of Eve, 7.
28Most of these translations come from Bibles in the Trowbridge Reading Room of the Yale
Divinity School Library. I have purposely consulted a random collection from evangelical, Jewish,
Protestant, and Roman Catholic publishers, some of which supply loose translations. I do not
distinguish these translations by tradition since that might lead to religious or political inferences,
which diverts from my purpose. Rather, this chart illustrates the widespread practice of omitting
some form of with her.
24Most

Parker: Blaming Eve Alone

Translator/Version

Published
(OT/HB)

John Wycliffe

1382

739

Text
and 3af to hir hosebande, and he eet.

William Tyndale
1530

and gaue vnto hir huband alo with her,

and he ate.

Miles Coverdale
1535

and gaue vnto hir husbande also therof,

and he ate.

Great Bible
1539

and gaue vnto her husband beynge with her,

which dyd eate also.

Thomas Matthew Bible

1549

& gaue vnto her husband also [wt] her,

& he ate.

Geneva Bible
1560

and gaue also to her husband with her,

and he did eate.

Bishops Bible
1568

and gaue also vnto her husbande beyng with

her, and he dyd eate.

Douay Rheims Bible

and gaue to her husband, who did eate.

1609

King James Version

1611

and gaue also vnto her husband with her,

and hee did eate.

Richard Challoner

1750

and gave to her husband, who did eat.

Noah Webster
1833

and gave also to her husband with her,

and he ate.

Youngs Literal Translation 1862

and giveth also to her husband with her,

and he doth eat;

Darby Bible
1884

and gave also to her husband with her,

and he ate.

Douay-Rheims
American Edition

and gave to her husband, who did eat.

1899

American Standard Version 1901

and she gave also unto her husband with her,

and he did eat.

Jewish Publication Society 1917

Tanakh

and she gave also unto her husband with her,

and he did eat.

James Moffatt
1935

she also gave some to her husband, and he

ate.

American Translation
1935

she also gave some to her husband with her,

and he ate.

Joseph Smith
1944
(revised translation)

and gave also unto her husband with her,

and he did eat.

Revised Standard Version

1952

and she also gave some to her husband,

and he ate.

740

Journal of Biblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

Translator/Version

Published
(OT/HB)

Text

Knox Version
1956

and she gave some to her husband, and he

ate with her.

Complete Bible
1964

she also gave some to her husband with her,

and he ate.

Jerusalem Bible
1966

She gave some also to her husband who was

with her, and he ate it.

New Berkeley Version

1969

she also gave to her husband, who ate

with her.

New American Bible

1970

and she also gave some to her husband, who

was with her, and he ate it.

New English Bible

1970

She also gave her husband some and he

ate it.

Living Bible
1971

and gave some to her husband, and he ate

it too.

New American Standard

1971

and she gave also to her husband with her,

and he ate.

Bible in Living English

1972

and she took some of its fruit and ate it, and
gave some to her husband with her, and he
ate it.

Todays English Translation 1976

(Good News Bible)

Then she gave some to her husband, and

and he also ate it.

New International Version 1978

She also gave some to her husband, who

was with her, and he ate it.

Bible in Basic English

1981

she took of its fruit, and gave it to her

husband.

New King James Version

1982

She also gave to her husband with her, and

he ate.

New Jerusalem Version

1985

She also gave some to her husband who was

with her, and he ate it.

Jewish Publication Society 1985

New Tanakh

She also gave some to her husband, and

he ate.

New Revised Standard

1989
Version

and she also gave some to her husband,

who was with her, and he ate.

Revised English Bible

1989

she also gave some to her husband, and he

ate it.

Parker: Blaming Eve Alone

Translator/Version

Published
(OT/HB)

741

Text

Twenty-First Century
1994
King James Bible

and gave also unto her husband with her;

and he ate.

Contemporary English
1995
Version

Her husband was there with her, so she gave

some to him, and he ate it too.

Everett Fox
1995

and gave also to her husband beside her,

and he ate.

New Living Translation

1996

Then she gave some to her husband,

who was with her, and he ate it, too.

Robert Alter

1996

and she also gave to her man, and he ate.

Complete Jewish Bible

1998

and she gave also to her husband with her,

and he ate.

English Standard Version

2001

and she also gave some to her husband

who was with her, and he ate.

The Message
2002

she took and ate the fruit and then gave

some to her husband, and he ate.

Holman Christian Standard 2004

she also gave [some] to her husband, [who

was] with her, and he ate [it].

Contemporary Torah
2006

She also gave some to her husband, and

he ate.

Inclusive Bible
2007

She also gave some to the man beside her,

and he ate it.

Robert Crumb (illustrator) 2009

Reprinted from The Book of Genesis: Illustrated

by R. Crumb. Copyright 2009 by Robert Crumb.
With the permission of the publisher,
W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

Common English Bible

2011

and also gave some to her husband, who was

with her, and he ate it.

Journal of Biblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

742

While a thorough comparative analysis of these translations is beyond the

scope of this article, a few pertinent observations merit mention. First, strong
translations proliferate as the bases for scholarly commentaries.29 Further, a repu
table translation becomes a template for later translators who may or may not have
solid knowledge of biblical languages.30 Various translations also yield an expansive
range of meaning. For example, the Contemporary English Version (1995) takes
liberties to highlight the mans presence: Her husband was there with her, so she
gave some to him, and he ate it too. This translation extends the idea of accompa
niment; the man is the initial subject and the woman responds to his presence.
Everett Fox stresses physical proximity by rendering hm( as beside her. Alterna
tively, the Basic English Bible translates, she took of its fruit, and gave it to her
husband, without even mentioning that Adam eats. Of course, these translations
and versions are directed at different audiences, which influences translation and
publication decisions. For example, a translator might want to imitate the literary
style of the Hebrew as much as possible (e.g., Fox, Alter).31 Some Bible publications
prioritize accessibility for a broad audience (e.g., Todays English Translation, Com
mon English Bible). Most enigmatic, however, are formal committees of erudite
biblical scholars who explicitly adopt a word-for-word (or formal equivalency)
approach and yet refrain from translating hm(. This is the case with the Standard
Bible Committee, which translated the RSV, and the translation committee respon
sible for the 1985 Jewish Publication Society Tanakh (NJPS).

IV. Omission of hm( in the RSV and NJPS

Before examining the printed discussions and unpublished notes of these
translators, we do well to touch on translation theory and the particular task of
Bible translation. While faithfulness to the original text may be the sine qua non
of translation, this fidelity can take many forms.32 The translators goals and the
29For

example, von Rad bases his OTL Genesis commentary on the RSV, which does not
include that Adam was with her, a point he elucidates in his discussion (von Rad, Genesis, 90).
30For example, the Wycliffe, Coverdale, Great Bible, Douay-Rheims, and Knox translations
are all based on the Vulgate. The NKJV modernizes the KJV. The ASV is the basis for the Living
Bible and the RSV. The RSV, in turn, is the textual foundation for the New English Bible, Revised
English Bible, and the NRSV. The NJPS is the basis for the Contemporary Torah. Robert Alters
translation provides the text for Robert Crumbs Illustrated Genesis. Accordingly, one translation
that leaves out with her may spawn many others.
31Both Fox and Alter seek to adhere closely to the Hebrew, sometimes at the cost of stilted
English. However, Fox retains hm( in translation, whereas Alter does not. By Alters own admission,
this is due to oversight. Further discussion follows.
32See Michael Scott Doyle, Translation and the Space Between: Operative Parameters of
an Enterprise, in TranslationTheory and Practice: Tension and Interdependence (ed. Mildred L.
Larson; American Translators Association Scholarly Monograph Series 5; New York: State
University of New York at Binghamton [SUNY], 1991), 14. Doyle emphasizes the challenge of

Parker: Blaming Eve Alone

743

audiences needs determine translation strategies, along with the merits and
eficiencies of a given works earlier translation(s), when applicable.33 Regarding
d
Bible translation, Eugene A. Nida offers essentially three categories: the formal
equivalence translation, in which the message in the receptor language should
match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language; a gloss
translation, which is designed to permit the reader to identify himself as fully as
possible with a person in the source-language context, and to understand as much
as he can of the customs, manner of thoughts, and means of expression; and
dynamic equivalence translation (in various degrees), in which one is not so
concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language
message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between
receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed
between the original receptors and the message.34 These classifications provide
a foundation for understanding the work of the RSV and NJPS translation com
mittees, which explicitly aim for formal equivalence translations. As their own
writings testify, these biblical scholars seek to adhere closely to the original lan
guages and to correct earlier translations.
The Revised Standard Version was translated by the Standard Bible Commit
tee under the direction of Luther Weigle.35 The committee members also compiled
a slim volume of articles on their translation, edited by Weigle. In the preface, he
explains that the RSV is a revision of the ASV (1901), which itself was a revision of
the KJV. Before any change from the ASV appeared in print, it ultimately had to be
approved by a two-thirds vote. While revising the ASV for the OT of the RSV,
scholars worked primarily from the MT; any deviation from the Hebrew was based
on other ancient texts in Greek, Aramaic, Syriac, and Latin.36 The committee
allowed for departure from the Hebrew only when it was required to make the text
intelligible for its modern audience. Weigle specifies that
maintaining a dual devotion to both the source-language text (SL) and the target language (TL).
For fuller discussion (laden with diagrams) of how linguistic fidelity transmutes between the
original and target languages, see pp. 1326.
33Theorist Charles S. Kraszewski lists four categories of translations: informational, which
recreates the original text as closely as possible; corrective, which improves upon mistakes of
earlier translations; critical, which values interpreting the work in translation; and proselytizing,
which drives to connect with the viewpoints of a target audience (Four Translation Strategies
Determined by the Particular Needs of the Receptor: Translation Theory Backwards [Lewiston, NY:
Edwin Mellen, 1998], 1130).
34Nida, Toward a Science of Translating: With Special Reference to Principles and Procedures
Involved in Bible Translating (2nd ed.; Leiden: Brill, 2003), 159. As Phyllis Trible pointed out to
me, Nida later designated dynamic equivalence as functional equivalence.
35This group of scholars convened at Yale Divinity School from 1929 to 1952. For discussion
about this committee and its work, see Peter J. Thuesen, In Discordance with the Scriptures:
American Protestant Battles over Translating the Bible (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
36Luther A. Weigle, Chair, and Members of the Revision Committee, An Introduction to the
Revised Standard Version of the Old Testament (New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1952), 78.

Journal of Biblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

744

the responsibility of the translator is clear. Representing the best extant under
standing of the language with which he deals, he is charged to tell as accurately
as he can in his own language precisely what the original says. This is of an
importance to bear some emphasis. The Bible translator assumes strict respon
sibility to say in English just what the Biblical writers said in Hebrew, or in Ara
maic, or in Greek, as the case may have been.37

The equivalent of with her appears in the MT, ASV, and supplementary ancient
witnesses, and the RSV translators are reluctant to divert from these texts. Still they
do not mention that the man was with her. Why not?
The unpublished agenda notes from the Standard Bible Committee reveal that
the omission of with her was not an oversight. The pages of these typed and
handwritten notes for Genesis are numbered up to 159, although only sixteen of
these pages are preserved in Yales archives. References to Gen 3:6b appear on the
agenda sheets of William Irwin (p. 16), J. Phillip Hyatt (p. 81), and Herbert May (p.
85).38 Most pertinent for this discussion are pages 16 and 85, which include the
question of translating hm(. Page 16, reproduced in part below, shows two trans
lational options for Gen 3:6b: also to her husband with her, and/to her husband
also and.

Special Collections, Yale Divinity School Library, Papers of the Standard Bible Committee.

The agenda shows the words with her as part of a line that is crossed out. The
alternative to her husband also is also crossed out, and neither translation on this
line appears in print. However, in the margins of p. 1, Weigle has scribbled: a line
through means either rejected or that it has been done either on MSS or as sug
gested on another page of agenda. A cross-out does not necessarily mean a trans
lational option has been discarded, although it does here. The translation also to
37Ibid.,

1314.

38References to Gen 3:6a appear on the agenda notes of Weigle (p. 12) and James Muilenburg

(p. 92). For further discussion of these committee members and their work, see also Herbert
Gordon May, Our English Bible in the Making: The Word of Life in Living Language (Philadelphia:
Westminster, 1952), 10313; Weigle, Introduction to the RSV; and Thuesen, Discordance with
Scriptures, 67119.

Parker: Blaming Eve Alone

745

her husband with her (as in the crossed-out line above) matches the ASV, with the
slight alteration of unto changed to to. Nonetheless, the Standard Bible Com
mittee removes with her for their final translation.
George Herbert Mays copy of the agenda (p. 85, pictured below) does not
include a translation for hm( in Gen 3:6b. Any suggestion that the man was with
her is gone, as Mays agenda for this verse reads, And she gave also, etc./And she
also gave some to her husband, and he.

Special Collections, Yale Divinity School Library, Papers of the Standard Bible Committee.

Next to this line is scrawled 2 BW, meaning that two committee members (likely
Millar Burrows and Luther Weigle) had approved this choice. Once crossed out,
2BW has been replaced by +. A 3 + appears to indicate three committee members
approved a translation (as seen next to 2.24 with the penciled word done). This
backwards 3 (resembling a capital sigma) and a plus sign appear on line items that
list the surname initial of one or more scholars, apparently indicating a switch to
approval, likely after some discussion. It seems reasonable to infer that all three
scholars initially working on Genesis (Burrows [?], Weigle, and James Fleming,
executive secretary of the Old Testament section) have approved the translation
and she also gave some to her husband, and he which ultimately appears in print.
Like the RSV, the NJPS does not mention that the man is with the woman in
Gen 3:6. In 1955, a committee of seven Jewish translators began work on a new
Torah translation, with Harry M. Orlinsky of Hebrew Union CollegeJewish Insti
tute of Religion as editor-in-chief.39 (Orlinksy had served on the Standard Bible
Committee as its only Jewish scholar.) In the published Notes on the New Translation
of the Torah, Orlinsky begins, The purpose of this volume of Notes is to account
for the significant or interesting departures in the New Jewish Version (NJV) of the
Torah from the older version of 1917.40 The NJPS removes with her from the
1917 JPS Tanakh, yet Orlinsky does not discuss this departure in his Notes. Instead,
39For Orlinskys address expressing the need for this publication, see Harry M. Orlinsky,
Wanted: A New English Translation of the Bible for the Jewish People, in idem, Essays in Biblical
Culture and Bible Translation (New York: Ktav, 1974), 34962. The other scholars and rabbis
initially working on the Torah translation were H. L. Ginsberg, E. A. Speiser, M. Arzt, B. J.
Bamberger, H. Freedman, and S. Grayzel.
40Harry M. Orlinsky, ed., Notes on the New Translation of the Torah (Philadelphia: Jewish
Publication Society, 1969), 3.

Journal of Biblical Literature 132, no. 4 (2013)

746

the deliberation on Gen 3:6 is about changing the tree was to be desired to make
one wise to the tree was desirable as a source of wisdom, citing GKC as a refer
ence.41 Why would these translators think that decision to take out with her was
not significant or interesting?42
Nearly every other time that hm( appears in the MT referring to a female
character, the translators of the RSV and NJPS convey it in English.43 The RSV
consistently translates hm( as with her and the NJPS usually agrees.44 In Ruth
1:7, the NJPS stresses proximity by rendering hm( as accompanied by. In 1 Kgs
3:17, both the RSV and NJPS seek to clarify the Hebrew by translating,
while she was in the house. 1 Kings 17:20 also invites some translational license
as becomes with whom I sojourn (RSV) and whose guest I am
(NJPS). Yet in all these verses, hm( is translated into English with some suggestion
of togetherness. The only other instance besides Gen 3:6 where either of these
translations refrains from conveying hm( in English is the NJPS translation of Exod
18:6b: , with your wife and her two sons. Although the NJPS
does not translate hm( as with her, the idea of accompaniment has already been
conveyed by the first with of the clause. The NJPS translators appear to find with
her redundant in Exod 18:6band in Gen 3:6b. However, in the latter verse with
her offers crucial information.
Robert Alter offers some insight as to why translators leave out that Adam was
with her. His translation of Genesis seeks fidelity to the Hebrew that honors its
literary nuances. Justifying the need for another Genesis translation, Alter main
tains, The unacknowledged heresy underlying most modern English versions of
the Bible is the use of translation as a vehicle for explaining the Bible instead of
representing it in another language, and in the most egregious instances this
amounts to explaining away the Bible.45 Strikingly, however, Alters translation of
Gen 3:6 leaves out any rendering of hm(.46 Asked via e-mail why translators, like
himself, make this decision, Professor Alter replied:
My guess is that the reason other translations omit immah is simply that it sounds
a bit awkward and unnecessary in English. In my case, alas, the only reason is
41Ibid.,

64.

42Similarly, Millar Burrows wrote a volume explaining the justifications for changes between

the KJV (which contains with her) and the RSV (which does not). Among the thousands of
verses discussed, Gen 3:6 is not listed. See Burrows, Diligently Compared: The Revised Standard
Version and the King James Version of the Old Testament (London: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1964).
43I do not include Prov 10:22 or Dan 2:22, in which hm( refers back to a blessing or God,
respectively.
44See Gen 30:16; 39:10; Exod 18:6; 22:15 (Eng. 22:16); Deut 22:23, 25, 28, 29; Judg 13:9, Ruth
1:7, 22; 1 Sam 1:24; 2 Sam 11:4; 12:24; Esth 2:13.
45Alter, Genesis: Translation and Commentary (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996), xii.
46Robert Crumb works from Alters translation in his illustrated depiction of Genesis (see
chart above). In the panel that illustrates Gen 3:6a, Eve stands alone by the tree. See Crumb,
illustrator, The Book of Genesis Illustrated (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009).

Parker: Blaming Eve Alone

747

inadvertence. Since my policy as a translator is to represent every word in the

Hebrew unless it sounds absolutely bizarre (not the case here), I should have
written with her but didnt realize I had skipped the word. Thank you for point
ing this out.47

Alters response helps to explain why some translators have not conveyed hm( in
English. However, to say that the man was with her is not awkward or unneces
sary, and most Bibles retain this phrase. While Alter left out with her inadvertently,
the Standard Bible Committee did so knowingly. For a few translators, like Jerome,
this decision seems intentional to emphasize the womans culpability. Some trans
lators simply follow previous Bible versions that do not say the man is with her
without realizing this omission. Other translators, aware that they do not convey
hm(, have merely viewed this word as unimportant; however, it is highly significant.
Translations that fail to convey that the man is with her when the woman eats the
fruit enable readers to excuse Adam and condemn Eve.

V.Conclusion
The Hebrew word hm( in Gen 3:6b holds a solid place among ancient witnesses
and most modern translations. It conveys meaning, as grammars testify, and
changes the story of Gen 3:16, as commentaries aver. Scholars may omit this word
in English translation through oversight, copying an earlier translation, the impres
sion that this phrase is redundant, perceived awkwardness in English, or failure to
recognize its significance. In rare instances, as with Jerome, this may be a deliberate
effort to isolate the woman. The arguments above have sought to expose the biases
and weaknesses of such reasons. This discussion also points to the intertwined
relationship between translation and interpretation. The myth of the fall has
become so firmly embedded in our collective conscience with only the woman as
the culpable character that translators may convey the story accordingly, without
realizing that they are contradicting the Hebrew text. Yet, while discerning transla
tors motivations for specific decisions can be speculative, assessing the effect of
these translations is not.
Blaming Eve alone brings considerable consequences not only for understand
ing Gen 3:6, but also for generating ideas about women. The case of hm( in this
verse shows why scholars who translate biblical texts must do so fully and accurately.
Translators should beware of imposing androcentric biases and should guard
against linguistic choices that skew the text against women. Feminist biblical schol
ars should raise questions of translation in their work and should participate in
Bible translation committees. Printed editions of the Bible reach billions of readers
and even a seemingly insignificant word lost in translation can have far-reaching
implications.
47Alter,

e-mail communication, July 2011.

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