REGULATOR STATION

HANDBOOK

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

History
Present
Maximum allowable pressure loss

5
5
7

REGULATOR STATIONS

Functions
Essential design parameters
Safety and environmental codes and regulations

8
8
9

PHYSICS AND THERMODYNAMICS

OPERATIONAL ASPECTS

13

Gas quality
Availability and maintenance
Electrical safety and hazardous areas
Construction
Noise

13
13
14
14
14

LAYOUT AND COMPONENTS

15

Station layout
Pipe sizing
Valves
Regulators
Gas filters
Monitor regulator
Safety shut-off valves
Safety relief valves
Heat exchangers
Setpoints

15
17
18
18
23
25
25
27
27
28

REFERENCES

30
3

INTRODUCTION
This manual is one of a series that Instromet has prepared for the gas
industry. It describes the installations that are used to reduce the
gas pressure to the operating pressure of the downstream
system or appliances.
Regulator stations are required to supply a certain quantity of a gas
at this specific
operating pressure. They should meet this
requirement for inlet pressures that may vary between a maximum
and a minimum value. The minimum inlet pressure determines
together with the required capacity the size of the fittings.
These are therefore important parameters in the design of a
regulator station. An overview of past and present distribution
and transmission systems gives
some background on
the
minimum inlet pressure that can normally be expected.
A general description of the specifications of a regulator station is
given, followed by a short introduction to the physical process of
pressure reduction and the cooling effect that it entails.
The next chapter is devoted to the main operational aspects, and
this is followed by a description of the layout of the
individual components and of their function.
Gas regulator stations are often also used for metering. This
handbook concentrates on the regulator aspects. For the metering
system the Systems Handbook should be consulted. The
requirements for the installation of the meter vary with the
construction of the particular type of meter. The handbook relating
to the meter type selected for the station, provides information on
this subject.

DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

History
In the early days of gas, its distribution was carried out at very low
pressures, traditionally about 2 kPa or 20 cm water column (8 WC)
and often even less. As the gas was locally manufactured at low
pressure, this was the most economic solution. Additionally, the
technology at that time did not permit the economic manufacture
of pipes and fittings capable of withstanding higher pressures.
At the beginning of the twentieth century however, the use of
natural gas was becoming very popular in the US, while in Europe
manufactured gas from blast-furnaces became available in large
quantities. In both instances the market was developing more and
more remote from the place of production, necessitating the
transmission of gas over some distance. As the distance that gas can
be transported over, is directly related to the pressure at the source
or production point, there was
an increasing demand for
higher pressures. This was met by the technological development
of high pressure pipes, fittings and compressors.
Present
At present, gas transmission over more than 100 km is normally at
pressures of 50 to 100 bar and for distances over 20 km at pressures
between 20 and 50 bar. Where the gas is being distributed through
a gas grid to a number of customers in an area, the pressures would
nor- mally be less than 10 bar. In newly developed areas the minimum
distri- bution pressure is often about 2 bar. Specifically in older
systems, the minimum pressure can be as low as 10 mbar.
The capacity of a transmission or distribution system increases with
the operating pressure. The operating pressure is limited to the
maximum safe operating pressure of the weakest component in the
system.
From the source to the user the pressure is reduced in stages, the
maximum pressure in each stage being determined by the weakest
component in the system subjected to the pressure of that
particular stage. Regulator stations form the connection
between the subsequent stages of the system.
5

Gathering

An example of a practical system is given in figure 1.

Wells

H.P.Transmission

Treatment/
conditioning

Compressor
M

M.P. Transmission

H.P.Transmission

Industry

Distribution

SHOPPE
M

Commercial
M

Residential

Figure 1
Example of modern transmission and distribution system
6

Maximum allowable pressure loss

The design of transmission lines or distribution systems is outside the
scope of this handbook. However, there is a simple rule for the
maximum pressure drop that is normally acceptable in any pipeline
system. As this governs the range of inlet pressures that a station
is subjected to, it will be mentioned here.
In first approximation the following equation (1) is for a pipeline with
inlet pressure P1 and outlet pressure P2 and mass flow rate q m :
P22
P21

2
qm

q2mmax

=1

(1)

In this equation the pressures are absolute pressures and qmmax is the
absolute theoretical maximum mass flow rate. This equation, when it
is plotted, is a quarter circle as shown in figure 2.

100

P2 /P1
%

60

80
qm/qm max %

100

Figure 2
Relation between pressure ratio and carrying capacity
It is easy to see that if the flow is at 80 % of its theoretical
maximum, the pressure at the end of the pipe has already reduced
to 60 % of the inlet pressure. Any further increase in the flow rate
has a large influence on the outlet pressure, and most operators
would be very reluctant to operate beyond this limit.
The minimum inlet pressure of a regulator station would therefore
rarely be less than 60 % of the operating pressure of its supply system.

REGULATOR STATIONS
Functions
The regulator station essentially performs a safety function: the
limitation of the pressure in the downstream system to a safe
value. In most instances this function is backed up by additional
safety devices or even a second, redundant regulator. Regulator
stations are therefore extremely reliable.
The regulators and other safety devices are normally powered by the
gas itself so that these functions do not have to rely on the
presence of external power.
In some stations the gas is also metered and this function usually
influences the design.
Essential design parameters
The following parameters are essential for the design of a regulator
station:

Maximum inlet pressure

Minimum inlet pressure
Maximum outlet pressure
Minimum outlet pressure
Maximum flow rate
Maximum gas velocity

If the station also serves as a metering station, the following

parameters should also be known:
Range of flow rates to be measured
Desired accuracy
Metering systems will only briefly be touched on in this handbook.
For more details on metering, the Systems Handbook should be
consulted.

In an existing transmission system the maximum inlet pressure is a

given parameter. This determines the rating of the regulator body
and the upstream pipework.
The maximum outlet pressure is given by the safety of the
appliances or subsequent distribution system to be supplied. The
rating and size of the fittings and therefore the cost of a station is
determined by the maximum inlet pressure, the minimum inlet
pressure and the maximum flow rate.
For the most economic design these two last values should be known
accurately. However, in practice the uncertainty of these values is
high and may change in time. Stations will therefore in general be
sized somewhat larger than required to avoid having to change
them too soon.
Safety and environmental codes and regulations
With modern materials and proven operating principles present
regulators and fittings are extremely safe and reliable. However,
safety codes and regulations often demand additional safety
devices. These codes have long traditions and vary considerably
between countries. Before a station can be designed, all the relevant
codes and standards valid for the particular site have to be known.
The quality control and assurance for pressure vessels and piping also
vary considerably among countries.
Environmental concerns are mainly for the noise issuing from the
station. The venting of gas to the atmosphere may also be restricted.

PHYSICS AND THERMODYNAMICS

Pressure, temperature and volume of a gas are related by the
equation of state. This is also known as the laws of Boyle-Gay Lussac
or Boyle-Charles.

Usually this is formulated for one mole of gas as:

PVm = ZRT

(2)

In this equation P is the absolute pressure, Vm the molar volume, Z the

compressibility of the gas, R the universal gas constant and T the
absolute temperature. The compressibility is dependent on the gas
composition. Its value is equal to 1 at low pressures and normally
drops to a lower value for higher pressures. For some natural gases
it may drop as low as 0.6 or lower at pressures in the order of 100
bar (See Systems Handbook for more details on Z).
The capacity of a station is normally expressed in standard or base
cubic metres per hour. This is the volumetric flow rate that
would occur if the pressure would be reduced to standard or base
pressure and temperature (usually 1013 mbar and 15 or 0 C). The
actual or
line flow rate Ql for a station capacity of Q m3/h is equal to:
Ql = Q PbZ T
(3) (PZbTb)
with Pb and Tb the base pressure and temperature, P the outlet
pressure of the station and T and Z the absolute temperature and
compressibility of the gas leaving the station.
For pressures up to about 15 bar this can be approximated by:
Ql = Q
P
where P is the outlet pressure in
bar.

(4)

Thermodynamically, pressure reduction is an isenthalpic process. The

enthalpy H of the gas before and after throttling is the same.
There are many equations and tables giving the enthalpy for
different gases in a wide field of pressures and temperatures [1,2].
As a rule of thumb one can assume that for natural gas the
temperature drops by 0.5 C for every bar of pressure reduction.

For large pressure drops the temperature can therefore drop to well
below freezing point when the gas has not been preheated before
reduction.
If the gas is not sufficiently dry, water and / or liquid hydrocarbons
(condensate) may
form at low temperatures. Specifically the
presence of liquids is a risk, as it may lead to the formation of
hydrates.
Hydrates are ice-like substances consisting of water and methane
which may cause blockage of the installation. It has to be borne in
mind that wet gas may result from inadequate treatment but also
from hydrostatic testing of newly commissioned pipes.
For sufficiently low outlet temperatures, condensation will also occur
on the exterior of the installation, and for very large pressure
reduction, parts of the installation will even be covered with ice. To
prevent this, the gas can be heated before pressure reduction.
However, a considerable amount of energy may be needed. The
energy needed for
the heating of the gas can
be roughly
approximated by:
W = 0.5 Vn T

(5)

In this equation W is the required energy in kcal, Vn the gas quantity

in base or standard m3 and T the temperature difference. Similarly
the capacity of the heater can be estimated by:
Hc = 0.5 Qn Tmax

(6)

where Hc is the required heating capacity in kcal/h, Q is the

n
maximum flow rate in base or standard m3/h and Tmax the
maximum
required temperature rise.
Apart from the heating costs, the investment in heaters and heat
exchangers and their maintenance contribute to the cost of
ownership. The advantages, however, are:
Always access for maintenance (no ice)

 More tolerant for gas with higher water and / or hydrocarbon

dew point

It is perfectly possible to operate stations with sub-zero outlet

temperatures and save the energy otherwise required for heating.
This has a number of drawbacks as listed below:
Difficult access for maintenance
Gas has to have low water dew point and low hydrocarbon
dew point
Increased risk of corrosion
Risk of blockage of vents and breathing holes by ice
Moving parts in instruments may be locked (manometers,
meter registers)
Freezing of the ground surrounding the outgoing pipework
Advantages are:
Savings in energy cost
Simpler design and therefore potentially more reliable
No investment in heaters and heat exchangers
No maintenance of heaters, heat exchangers and
ancillary equipment
By designing a special meter specifically for temperatures below 0 C
that operates reliably and can be read even when thickly
covered with ice, Instromet has eliminated one of the most critical
barriers to achieving these savings.
The following
above:

example

Inlet pressure
Outlet pressure
Capacity

:
:
:

illustrates

the

max. 40 bar (gauge)

10 bar (gauge)
10,000 m3/h

min. 30 bar (gauge)

For the particular gas it is found from [3] that the values for Z
are:
P (bar abs.)
T (C)
Z

41
31
11
11
1.013
10
10
10
-5
15
0.9194 0.9384 0.9778 0.9731 0.9981

Assume that the gas

is heated so that after reduction the

temperature is 10 C.

P Z T
1.013 0.9778 283
Ql = Q b
= 10,000
(P Zb Tb)
11.013 0.9981 288
3

= 885 m /h
The approximate formula gives

10,000
3
= 909 m /h.
11

(7)
(8)

The heating capacity required is equal to:

Hc = 0.5 Qn T = 0.5 10,000 15 =75,000 kcal/h.
max
(9)
If no heating is applied, the temperature drop at an inlet pressure
of
40 bar will be (40 - 10) 0.5 = 15 C. The line flow rate is then equal
to
856 m3/h when calculated with the full formula.

OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
Gas quality
Most gases that are distributed are non-corrosive. Quantities of dust
or sand left from the construction phase may however be present.
Though most gases are treated to have a very low hydrocarbon dew
point, it does happen that liquid hydrocarbons find their way into
the system. Means for
draining filters should therefore be
provided. Gases should have a low water dew point to prevent
hydrate formation. Water also increases the risk of corrosion.
Availability and maintenance
Following safety, continuity of supply is in most instances of utmost
importance. Apart from being reliable, a station should therefore be
designed for maintenance without the need to interrupt the gas
supply to the customer. A practical solution is to build the
station using identical units of which one can be made stand-by for
maintenance.

In some instances additional piping is installed to make it possible to

temporarily connect meters in series for checking purposes.

Electrical
areas.

safety

and

hazardous

In a well designed and constructed gas regulator station there should

be no leakage. If any relief valves are present, their outlet shall be
well above the installation or building. The only times when the
occurrence of an explosive mixture can be expected is therefore
during maintenance, and then only for short periods when a part of
the installation is depressurised and taken apart. This would
indicate that if a station is zoned at all, it should be rated as a very
low hazard (zone 2 for the European CEN 50014 standard). Still, in
practice stations are often zoned more hazardous (e.g. CEN 50014
zone 1).
The zoning of the station will have to be known before a proper
design can be made.
Construction
Most installations are presently designed to be skid-mounted. The
complete system is assembled in the factory and tested.
Construction work in the field is limited as much as possible.
Noise
Most of the noise in a regulator station is generated by the gas travelling
at high velocity through the regulator ports. The sound is transferred
to the piping which in turn radiates it into the environment. The
noise in a station therefore not only emanates from the regulator
but also from the piping, in particular downstream.
There are
noise.

several ways to reduce the

Some regulators have special cages to break down the velocity more
gradually. Some have different valve constructions with the same
objective. All silent regulators are bigger and more expensive.
Heavier pipe walls and larger diameters generally help to reduce the
noise as does external insulation, specifically of the downstream
pipework.

Burying the installation is a very effective way of insulating it from

the environment. If val
the regulator is housed in a building, soundinsulating the building can be very effective. Particular attention
has to be paid to the ve
ventilation apertures.
Pipe silencers can be oueffective. However, in many cases the intense
vibration that the sound absorbing material is subjected to, destroys
it mechanically and the
tlet loose materials may damage the downstream
meter.
relief

valve

Station

Outlet
LAYOUT AND COMPONENTS
capacity

Full
Station layout
relief

Meter

monitor)

tio

In figure 3 a general layout of a station and its components is given.

(Shut-off,
There are an infinite number of possible variations
of which the most
Regulator
in
common are givenSmall
below.
A valve is usually installed in the supply pipeline to the station
making it possible to install the stationllawithout depressurising
the supply network. If the station is used to
supply a distribution
sta
network, a similar valve will be installed in the outlet line. The inlet
and outlet of the station proper aredev
connectedg to these valves by
ice
tin
headers and risers.
The station configuration may Safety
vary depending on
the
rae
circumstances, the application, and the codes
and
regulations
that
exchangerp
apply. In all cases there will be an inlet valve and a regulator,
and in
O
most cases also a relief valve and a safety shut-off Heat
valve. The
regulator valve is equipped with a soft seat to give a complete
shut-off when there is no gas being used. As even a slight weeping
of the regulator could increase the pressure to dangerousvallevels, a
relief valve has to be present. This relief valve can be small as it
ve
only has to blow off the possible leakage through the regulator.
inle
Some regulators can be equipped with a small built-in relief
valve
for that purpose. The relief valve can only be dispensed with twhen it
is absolutely certain that a no-consumptionFilter
situation will never
occur.
Station

n
o
it
If the gas supplyalhas to be maintained at all
l
installation is mounted
a in parallel. In that case both

valve
times,
a second
installations
have
Inlet

to be equipped with outlet valves as well.

Full capacity relief

Small relief

Outlet valve
Station outlet v alve

16

Figure 3
Typical station layout

Meter
Regulator
Safety device (Shut-off, monitor)

Heat exchanger
Filter
Inlet valve
Station inlet valve

Depending on the condition of the supplying network and on the

reliability required, a filter may be installed. The filtering can be very
simple, only needed to prevent debris damaging the regulator.
However, especially if the station is used for metering, sophisticated
dust filters that eliminate particles as small as 3-5 microns are used.
For larger stations a separate safety device will usually be installed. In
some countries another, independent safety device is also required
for stations from a certain size upward as back-up for the first. This
second safety device may even have to operate on a different
principle. The safety device will have to be able to prevent the
outlet pressure from exceeding safe
values in the case of
complete failure of the regulator to the open position. It can be:
a monitor regulator, taking over the function of the
primary, normally active regulator,
a slam shut valve, blocking the complete gas flow,
a full capacity relief valve designed to release all gas passing
through the failed regulator at maximum inlet pressure,
an actuator operating on the inlet valve.
As has been described earlier, it may be desirable to heat the gas
before reduction to prevent condensation of either hydrocarbon
condensates or water from the gas or water vapour on the outside of
the station. In that case a heat exchanger and boiler have to be
installed.
The meter and its additional pressure and temperature sensors are
usually installed downstream of the regulator. Guidelines for the
installation of the meter are given in the handbooks for the
respective meter types (Turbine Gasmeter Handbook, Rotary Piston
Gasmeter Handbook and Ultrasonic Gasmeter Handbook). For
further details on the instrumentation and the metering system,
please see the Systems Handbook.
Pipe sizing
The size of the piping in a regulator station is usually chosen to
limit the gas velocities to around 20 m/s. The inlet piping is
sized on maximum flow rate at minimum inlet pressure. For very
low outlet pressures (< 25 mbarg), the gas velocities are limited to
10 m/s in order to avoid too high a pressure loss.
17

Valves
Modern regulator stations are mostly equipped with ball valves.
Improved production techniques have made these valves cheaper and
more cost-effective than the earlier used plug valves.
Ball valves are normally of the same size as the piping, but a ball
with reduced bore may be used. The additional noise generated by
this restriction is small compared with the noise of the regulator,
and is usually outweighed by the cost saving.
Regulators
Gas regulators differ from control valves such as used in the process
industry by the fact that they do not use any external energy source.
Instead they use either a spring or the gas itself to generate the
force to operate the valve. As a result they are faster and more
reliable.
The other major difference is that gas regulators are always
equipped with a soft seat making it possible to fully seal the inlet
from the outlet when no gas is used.
Present regulators can mainly be divided into two main groups:
spring-loaded (direct acting) and pilot-operated.
Figure 4 shows a simplified drawing of a typical spring-loaded (direct
acting) regulator. The space under the diaphragm is connected to a
suitable sensing point downstream, where the
pressure is
representative for the outlet pressure. The force exerted on the
diaphragm is compensated by the spring. The lever causes the
valve to close when the pressure under the diaphragm increases. In
most cases the pressure downstream of the valve is internally
connected to the space under the diaphragm. This is called
internal control. External control is when the space under the
diaphragm is connected to a suitable tapping downstream. Internal
control is generally more sensitive, but less flexible than external
control.

18

The space above the diaphragm has to be open to the atmosphere.

The aperture should be small enough to prevent ingress of foreign
matter. A small breathing aperture would limit the closing speed of
the regulator. The Instromet 243 regulator pictured in figure 4 is
equipped with a breather valve that opens for quick closure of the
main valve.

Breather valve
Sealing bushing only mounted
for external control and monitor use

Cover for aperture

to mount options

Connection for external control

and monitor use

Figure 4
Instromet 243 spring-loaded regulator

The outlet pressure is somewhat dependent on flow rate and inlet

pressure. Typical curves are given in figure 5. These curves are for one
spring and one valve orifice. Other springs and orifices would give
different sets of curves. For zero flow rate the pressure to push the
valve sufficiently strongly onto the soft seat to obtain complete
closure is called lock-up pressure.

19

Outlet pressure mbar

20
2.8 bar

15

1.7 bar
.15 bar

.7 bar

.35 bar

100

1 bar

200

300

Flow rate m (base)/h

Figure 5
The outlet pressure of a regulator as a function of flow
rate for different inlet pressures
An optional, small, internal relief valve is often incorporated as
indicated in figure 6. This relief valve is only meant to relieve gas
resulting from a slight weeping of the main regulator, for example
as a result of a slightly damaged seal. It is set to a pressure slightly
above the lock-up pressure.

Figure 6
Internal relief valve

20

In a pilot-operated regulator, a small, spring-loaded regulator (the

pilot) provides the gas pressure to control the main regulator.
There are several designs of pilot-operated regulators, and a picture
of an axially symmetric design is given as an example in figure 7.
In this design a sleeve valve is connected to a spring-loaded
diaphragm. When the pilot does not deliver any pressure, the
spring pushes the sleeve against its seat. During normal operation
the pressure under the diaphragm is higher than the outlet pressure
to balance the force of the closing spring. When the outlet
pressure drops, the pilot operator increases the pressure below
the diaphragm. The outlet pressure setpoint is determined by
the spring of
the pilot. The deviation of the actual outlet
pressure from the setpoint is amplified by the pilot to provide the
force to open and close the main valve against the spring. The
supply to the pilot regulator is stabilised by a special small regulator
to a pressure that is a fixed amount above the outlet pressure.

Figure 7
Pilot-operated regulator
21

Pilot-operated regulators are used for large capacities. They are fast,
and their outlet pressure is, contrary to spring-operated regulators,
practically independent of flow rate and inlet pressure.
Most regulators are of a modular construction. One regulator body
can be equipped with a variety of valve sizes, springs, diaphragm sizes
and additional options. These options are mainly safety-related such
as shut-off valves and built-in relief valves. Some regulators can be
supplied with a special low noise cage downstream of the valve, or
with special low noise valves.
The capacity of regulators is fundamentally determined by the size of
the valve orifice, minimum inlet pressure and minimum pressure
differential. Low noise features reduce the capacity of a regulator.
The capacity of a gas regulator is dependent on its mode of
operation. If the absolute outlet pressure of the regulator is (for
natural gas) less than half the absolute inlet pressure, the regulator
regime is choked. It means that the gas velocity in the restriction
of the valve is equal to the velocity of sound. Under those conditions
the flow
rate does not increase anymore when the outlet
pressure reduces further. The flow rate in terms of standard cubic
metres is now:
q b = Kc P

(10)

where P is the absolute upstream pressure and Kc a constant.

For lesser pressure differences, the flow rate can be expressed as:
q =K
b

(P - P )
1

(11)

where P1 and P are the upstream and downstream pressures

2
respectively and Kv a constant.
In practice manufacturers provide tables that enable the user to
size the meter without the use of any formula. An example is
given in table 1 for the 2 Instromet 243-12 regulator equipped with
a spring, suitable for an outlet pressure of 70 mbar.
22

Regulator 243-12, internal control Spring

range : 70-140 mbar Setpoint : 70 mbar

Inlet
pressure
140 mbar
350 mbar
700 mbar
1.0 bar
1.75 bar
2.8 bar
4.2 bar
6.4 bar
8.0 bar
10.0 bar

1/30
80
157
267
320
400
-

Orifice size / valve angle

3/4/10
1/2/10 3/8/10
53
50
32
26
112
104
64
42
202
173
109
74
248
221
149
101
440
293
226
141
534
373
333
200
413
360
267
373
320
456
640

3/4/30

1/4/10

13
26
38
45
64
90
122
149
213
286

Table 1
Example of a capacity table for a 2 Instromet 243-12 regulator
Gas filters
A filter protects the rest of the station from any debris or dust that
may be carried with the gas stream. Debris may for example consist
of parts accidentally left in the pipe during construction. It could
also result from swarf from drilling holes for taps, or it could be
welding beads and sand from construction or fine iron oxide dust.
The filter elements of Instromet filters (figure 8) consist of polyester
needle felt cloth that removes dust particles down to 3-5 micron.
A drain is provided at the bottom for the event of liquids being
present. The pressure drop over the filter elements should not be
more than
100 mbar at maximum flow rate. The elements are however designed
to withstand 0.5 bar. The pressure drop is indicated by a pressure
differential gauge.
Filters are equipped with a cover plate on top that can either be
bolted or secured by a quick closure device. For cover plates
weighing more than 30 kg an optional lifting device (davit) is
recommended.
Dust is transported with the gas stream when flow rates are high. If
the velocity remains below a certain level, most of it remains
dormant. If this level is exceeded, all that can move is transported. If

the amount of dust and debris exceeds the capacity of the filter,
the element will be blocked and collapses.

dP

Drain

Figure 8
Filter
Minimising the amount of dust and debris is therefore the best
approach and this can be achieved by observing the following:
Protect stored pipe from corrosion. Internal coating prevents
or minimises internal corrosion during storage and operation,
and increases carrying capacity.
Provide adequate gas treatment to prevent corrosive
conditions. Carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide are the
most common potentially corrosive constituents of natural
gas, specifically if water is present too.
Exercise care during construction to prevent the ingress of
sand or dust.
Blow and pig transmission and distribution feeder lines after
construction whenever possible.
Do not reverse the direction of the gas
absolutely necessary.
Maintain the lowest possible gas velocity.

flow

if not

Monitor regulator
The monitor regulator is a second regulator, normally upstream of
the primary regulator that takes over the function of the primary,
active regulator in case the latter fails to open. Its sensing point is at
the same location as that of the active regulator and its setpoint is
a bit higher than the setpoint of the active regulator. During
normal operation the monitor will therefore be fully open.
However, if the pressure becomes equal to the setpoint of the
monitor, the monitor will close to constrain the pressure.
The differences between a regulator and a monitor regulator are
small. Sensing will have to be external and as the pressure under
the diaphragm is normally considerably less than the outlet pressure,
any leakage from the outlet into the space under the diaphragm
should be prevented. In the regulator of figure 4 the linkage
between valve and diaphragm is therefore led through a leak-tight
bushing when it is used as a monitor.
Safety shut-off valves
Safety shut-off valves close the supply when a variable exceeds
a predetermined limit. In most cases this will be when the
outlet pressure exceeds a maximum value. However, it is also
possible that too low
a
pressure is deemed to create an
unacceptable risk. This could be the case when a number of
appliances without flame failure protection is supplied. The situation
could then arise where the flame extinguishes and gas keeps
flowing.
Another possibility is to make the device operate
temperature becomes too high, indicating a fire.

when its

Safety shut-off valves can either be separate units as in figure 9 or

incorporated in a regulator body as in figure 10 that pictures a safety
shut-off valve that can be attached to the Instromet 243 regulator
from figure 4. Another possibility is to mount a valve operator on the
inlet valve.
A safety shut-off valve can only be manually reset on site. A by-pass
has to be provided to equalise the pressure before the valve can be
reset. A small, normally closed push-button valve is a good solution.

Figure 9
Safety shut-off valve

Figure 10
Safety shut-off option installed on an Instromet 243
regulator as from Figure 4

Safety relief valves

In the preceding paragraphs we have already spoken about relief
valves to release the small quantities weeping through an imperfectly

closed regulator. As even the slightest leak could pressurise the

downstream installation to the full inlet pressure, given enough
time, it is imperative to have a small relief valve installed. These small
safety relief valves can either be incorporated in the regulator or
installed as a separate unit.
Large relief valves are used to take the full capacity of the
station. They should be designed for
worst case conditions:
maximum inlet pressure and fully open regulator and monitor.
The outlet of a relief valve should be in a safe place. Normally this
would be at a certain height above the installation or, in enclosed
installations, at a certain height above the roof. Relief valves are
very similar to regulators in construction. They can be springloaded or pilot-operated.
The sensing point for the pressure of a relief valve, however, is
upstream of the valve rather than downstream. The valve opens
when the sensing pressure is higher than its setpoint.
Heat exchangers
The heat is normally supplied by hot water from conventional
separate boilers located in a safe area. The water circuit is closed so
that there is no risk of corrosion. The water temperature difference
is usually chosen to be 90 C inlet / 70 C outlet. The heat exchanger
has to be capable to supply the energy necessary to heat up the gas to
the minimum desired temperature without causing a too high
pressure drop in the gas part.
Very few instances are known of the heat exchanger tubing
failing, thus pressurising the water circuit. Nevertheless, as a safety
measure a safety device to prevent the boiler from being
pressurised can be mounted in the water circuit. The simplest way is
to use a rupture disc in the water circuit. Alternatively an
ordinary relief valve can be connected to the water circuit. In
some countries the regulations call for special security safety valves
to isolate the boiler totally from the heat exchanger in case of a

leak.

Setpoints
In general the setpoints of the different regulators and safety
devices are based on the following philosophy:
Normally the regulator is operating. The setpoint of the monitor
regulator (if installed) is chosen somewhat higher so that when the
regulator fails open, the monitor restricts the pressure. If there is no
consumption, both the regulator and monitor close.
If the
system behind it is perfectly tight, even the slightest leak would in
the long term pressurise the downstream system. A relief valve is
therefore installed to operate at a pressure somewhat above
the lock-up pressure of the monitor. This will be a small capacity
relief valve. Safety shut-off devices are normally set highest to avoid
closing down the customers supply unless absolutely necessary.
If two installations are mounted in parallel, the regulator of the
second, stand-by installation is set at a lower pressure than the
normally operating one. The safety devices, however, have to be
set at the same value as or at a higher value than in the
normally operating installation.
In figure 11 an example is given for a large station equipped with
monitors and regulators.
Safety shut-off by-pass install.

Safety shut-off operating install.

Relief valve (small)

Regulator operating installation

Regulator by-pass installation

18.4 bar
17.4 bar
17 bar

>lock-up pressure
allow for + 2.5%
uncertainty

16 bar
15.5 bar

Figure 11
Example of settings of regulator and safety devices

The highest pressure in the downstream system is governed by the

setting of the last safety device that will start operating. The setting
of this last device should therefore be higher than the weakest part
in the downstream installation. The actual operating pressure will
be a considerable amount lower, depending on the margins
between the settings. These margins are in turn determined by
the tolerance, uncertainty and drift in the regulators and safety
devices, or may be determined by the local codes of practice.

REFERENCES
1. SI Engineering Data Book, Gas Processors Suppliers Association,
1980.
2. Gas engineers handbook, Industrial Press Inc., New York, First
edition, 1965.
3. AGA Report No. 8, Compressibility Factors of Natural Gas and
Other Related Hydrocarbon Gases, American Gas Association,
Second edition, November 1992.

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