1.

1 Introduction to sentence connectors in English

Sentence combining or sentence connectors have attracted the attention of
many scholars and language teachers who are interested in applying
linguistic knowledge to classroom setting. This is because considerable
knowledge of the use of these items has found to be greatly helpful for
improving students writing at the junior high school level and the college
level (e.g. Mellon 1969, Hunt 1970, Ney 1976 in Mornberg, Daiker and
Kerek 1978 and Swan1979). These linking devices are crucial in writing
since they turn separate clauses, sentences and paragraphs into connected,
well-formed and coherent text or discourse.
Sentence connectors, however, have been found to be problematic to the
learners of English as a second or foreign language in particular. Bacha and
Hanania (1980) reported a preliminary investigation of the use of transitional
words in English writing by first-year English communication skills courses
at the American university of Beirut. The results indicated that the
production of correct and appropriate use of transitional expressions posed
the greatest difficulty to their students. Al Bazi (1982) explored the errors
committed by the third year Iraqi students of English at the University of
Basrah in the use of cohesive devices on supra-sentential level. Her study
revealed that her subjects faced at real difficulty in choosing the suitable
conjunctions to combine sentences and paragraphs. Al- shatart (1990 as cited
in Abu Hatab 1992) studies the errors committed by the Jordanian students
majoring in EFL in ten community colleges in Amman and Zarqa in using
the various connectors and cohesive devices in writing English composition.
The study revealed that the devices and connectors involved were greatly
confused and misused by the majority of the subjects and that conjunctions
were the most difficult ones and were the most wrongly used.
A significant part of the problem in learning the connectives in general and
sentence connectors in particular seems to lie in the fact that they have been
dealt with by grammarians and language teaching textbook-designers in
different ways using different terms and classifications.
To begin with, sentence connectors are considers part of conjunctions that
join words, phrases, clauses, sentences or paragraphs into continuous
discourse. These conjunctions have been classified differently in terms of
different criteria. House and Harman(1950:187-194) classifies conjunctions
according to their form into simple, compound and phrasal(e.g. and, if ,
nevertheless, notwithstanding, in case that, provided that; respectively); and
according to their function as coordinating conjunctions which join units of
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equal rank(e.g. and , or, but) and subordinating conjunctions which connects
units of different ranks (e.g. because, although, since); and correlative
conjunctions which are usually used in pairs (e.g. bothand, whether..or..,
neither nor) and according to their meaning that they are capable of
denoting such as accumulation, affirmation, cause, etc. Bolinger (1975:121122) make a distinction between: coordinating conjunctions, adverbial
conjunctions which bring adverb clauses into certain logical relationship
such as: time, condition, concession with the sentence as a while (e.g.
because, while, although); and conjunctive adverb which relate a following
sentence to a preceding one in certain logical ways(e.g., besides, instead,
accordingly). Halliday and Hassan (1976) view conjunctions as formal
cohesive that turn separate sentences or conjunctions into connected
discourse. They focused on the semantic and cohesive functions of the
conjunctions, and they, accordingly classified them into four categories:
additive (e.g., and, moreover, likewise); adversative (e.g., but, yet, instead);
casual (e.g., as a result, for this reason, to this end) and temporal (e.g.,
previously, afterwards, later) (ibid 249-260). Arts and Arts (1982:45) make
a distinction between conjunctions on formal and functional grounds only
neglecting the meaning they indicate. On the formal ground, conjunctions
can either be simple consistent of one word or complex consisting of two or
more words. On the functional ground conjunctions can either be
coordinating or subordinating.
Sentence connectors as a distinct part of conjunctions were investigated
separately by Roberts (1964), Qurick et al (1972) and Wishon and Burks
(1980). For Roberts sentence connectors connect two sentences indicating
some meaning relationship between them. They differ from conjunctions in
that they may come within or at the end of the second sentence as well as
between sentences,where as conjunctions must occur between sentences.
They differ from subordinator in that subordinating make an interest
sentence part of matrix sentence where as sentence connectors just connect
two base sentences (1964:311).
Qurick et al (1972), Qurick and Greenbaum (1973) allocate a separate
chapter to sentence connection. For them sentences can be connected in
three ways: implications in the semantic content, lexical equivalence, and
syntactic devices. The implication in the semantic content occurs when the
relationship is implied by the juxtaposition of sentences. Lexical equivalence
occurs when successive sentences are expected to show relationship through
synonymy, hyponymy, antonymy etc. Syntactic devices involves: time
relaters e.g. earlier , simultaneously, later; place relaters e.g. here there the
front; logical connectors which involve enumeration (e.g. furthermore,
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finally); addition (e.g. also, two); transition (e.g. as for, regarding);

summation (e.g. to sum up, all in all); apposition (e.g. for example, for
instance ); inference( e.g. if so, in conclusion); reformulation (e.g. in other
words, rather); contrast( e.g. on the contrary, instead); and concession
(however, besides).
Wishon and Burks(1980 134-136) argue that sentences that are related to
each other in meaning may be combined by using four kinds of connectors:
coordinate conjunctions, correlative conjunction, conjunctive adverbs and
transition expression. Coordinate conjunctions are seven: and , or, nor, but,
for, so and yet. The join two or more sentences or the parallel elements of
the sentence. Correlative conjunctions are four in number and are usually
used in pairs in joins two basic sentences patterns or two parallel elements
of any kind, they are: either. or, neither..nor, both.and, and not
onlybut also.. Conjunctive adverbs are used to connect basic sentence
patterns and making compound sentences. Unlike the coordinate
conjunctions. Conjunctive adverbs are grammatically a part of the sentences
they introduce (e.g., however, furthermore, accordingly, thus). Finally
transition expression are usually prepositional phrases used as adverbs (e.g.,
in fact, at the same time, on the contrary, as a result)(ibid: 141-142).

1.2 The problem of the study

The problem to be investigated in the present research is whether our college students
who are study English language at the departments of English still find difficulty in
recognizing the semantic relationship which requires the use of specific sentence
connector, and also the use of proper sentence connecter to express a given semantic
relation on sentence and discourse level.

1.3 List of Sentence Connectors in English

Given below is the list of most commonly used sentence connectors in English with
examples:
Connectors
Examples
So
Ive finished my tea; so has he.
Yet
Murder has no tongue. Yet it will speak.
However
At first he refused to go. Later, however, he decided to go.
Too
He is an idler. He is a gambler, too.
Equally
I admitted my error. Equally, the other driver made a mistake.
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Further
Moreover
Therefore
As well
Neither
Nor
In any case
On the contrary
On the other hand

The superintendent was suspended for impudence. Further,

there was a charge of corruption against him.
I wonder why you want to marry Maria. She is vain; she is
obstinate. Moreover, she is not so rich as you think her to be.
A is equal to B. B is equal to C. Therefore, A is equal to C.
There are three houses. I have purchased two already. Ill buy
the third one as well.
The kittens have not been fed; neither has been the puppy.
She cant do it; nor can I, nor can you, nor can anybody.
He may apologize or not. In any case, I am not going to reemploy him.
You say he is my friend. On the contrary, he gave evidence
against me in the court.
On the one hand he claims to be my friend; on the other hand
he is always running me down.

Sentence connectors are words and phrases that connect sentences to help
with understanding. Sentence connectors are also known as linking
language. There are many types of sentence connectors including time cues,
subordinating conjunctions, coordinating conjunctions, introductory words
such as "Consequently", "Therefore," and so on.
Once one have mastered the basics of correct usage in written English, he
will want to express himself in increasingly complex ways. One of the best
ways to improve one writing style is to use sentence connectors. Sentence
connectors are used to express relationships between ideas and to combine
sentences. The use of these connectors will add sophistication to your
writing style (Nation,2001:58).

1.4 Types of Connectors in English Grammar

There are different types of connectors in English grammar:
1. Co- ordinating conjunctions: combine phrases, clauses and sentences that have equal
grammatical function.
2. Subordinating conjunctions: combine elements with different grammatical function,
usually dependent and independent clauses.
3. Conjunctive adverbs: show logical relationship between two independent sentences.
4. Prepositions: Indicate relationship between things mentioned in a sentence
(Hymes,1999:89)

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1.4.1 Examples on Connectors in English Grammar

Examples of sentences in which connectors are used:
1. Excessive use of computers is stressful and can be harmful to your health. (coordinating conjunction)
2.Just as excessive use of computers is stressful, it can be harmful to your health.
(subordinating conjunction)
3. Excessive use if computers is stressful; similarly , it can be harmful to
your health. (conjunctive adverb)
4.In addition to being stressful, excessive use of computers can be harmful to your
health. (preposition)
http://www.tutorvista.com/english/connectors-in-english-grammar

1.5 Connectors
A connector is a word that is used to join words or sentences.
And, as well as, but, or, yet, nevertheless, however, so that, as long as, while, until, as if,
because, when, after, though, before.
A boy and a girl
An elephant and a giraffe
A toy or a book
The music was loud nevertheless it was enjoyable.

1.6 Types of connectors

1.6.1 Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions join together clauses of equal importance. Some examples
of coordinating conjunctions are - and, but, or,
Use of 'and'
And' is used as a conjunction when the words or phrases are of equal importance and
both conditions exist. Other words that can be used in place of and are: moreover, in
addition to, along with, plus, as well as, further more (Gates, 1997:67)
Tom and Harry play hockey
A lion and a fox live in this cave.
We need some gloves and a ball in addition to bats.
The soldiers rose moreover they cheered the leader.
We found the thief along with the bags.
The gurgling stream along with the howling wind added to the charm of the place.
Use of 'but'
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The conjunction 'but' is used to show a contradiction between two phrases. Let's say the
first phrase leads you to expect a certain event and the second phrase tells you quite a
contradictory outcome. In such an event, but, is used. Other words like: nevertheless,
yet, however, can be used in place of 'but'
He ran, but he missed the bus.
She studied hard but could not score well in the test.
The hill was very steep but the old man could climb it easily.
Sharon fell from the horse nevertheless she did not cry.
The lion was hungry yet it did not attack Androcles.
He is from England however he speaks Chinese very well.
Use of 'Or'
When we need to express a choice between two words or phrases we use 'or'. Here
only one of the two conditions exists.
Would you take a cup of tea or coffee? Shall we buy a book or a toy? Sit on the bench
or on the grass.
Are you tired or shall we go out for a walk? We can learn to talk English or we can
depend on sign language.
1.6.2 Correlative conjunctions:
Conjunctions used in pairs are correlative conjunctions
Either..... or Either Peter or John has taken the book.
Neither.....nor It is neither hot nor tasty.
Both.....and My sister is both smart and intelligent.
Whether..... or Tell me whether you know the route or not.
Not only..... but also Not only is she stupid but also stubborn (Wilkins,1974:88)
1.6.3 Compound conjunctions
Compound conjunctions are groups of words that behave like conjunctions. In order
that, on condition that, provided that, as soon as
Conjunction
In order that
On condition that
Even if
So that
Provided that
As though

Usage
I bought all the books in order that you may study
The teacher excused him on condition that he would not repeat
the mistake.
Sarah would not marry him even if he proposed to her.
I kept away my work so that I could spend time with my
daughters
You can take leave provided that you work overtime later
Rex behaves as though he is the boss.
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As well as
Monica as well as veronica was present there
As soon as
Mr. Ford plans to pay off his loan as soon as he gets his bonus.
As if
It looks as if there is going to be a storm.
1.6.4 Subordinating conjunction
A subordinating conjunction joins a clause to another on which it depends for its full
meaning. The chief subordinating conjunctions are after, because, if, that, though,
although, till, before, unless (Robert,2003:56).
I will not go to the market if it rains.
The situation 'I will not go to the market' is dependant on the condition 'if it rains'.
You could go and play after you have done the dishes.
King Midas was unhappy because his daughter turned to gold.
You must dig the earth till you find water.

Observe the use of connectors in these sentences:

Lydia likes to sing and dance when she is happy.
We can paint our house red or white but we must select a good painter.
Harry is intelligent however he is lazy. He must wake up or he will regret it.
I left the party because I was bored, moreover it was quite late.
He was sad and tired along with being very hungry when a wizard appeared and
offered him food however he laid down some conditions.
He is cheerful though he has worked the whole day.
I allowed him in as I thought he was a friend but he tried to rob me.
You will do well if you study hard.
My daughters either watch TV or sleep on Sundays.
Susan is very fat but very active.
I met by friend in the park and invited her to tea.
A student must obey or he may leave.
Jane and Peter have been chosen to receive the guest.
After the trip Sam came to work but he was very tired.
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Bring some sandwiches or you will be hungry.

They jumped over the stream and ran home.
The dog ran after the rabbit but could not catch him.
My aunt is ill so I will visit her tomorrow.
The show started as soon as the chief guest arrived.
You will enjoy the concert since you love music.
This horse will take you to the village you even if he is tired.
He was rowing the boat while I slept.
The bridge fell though it was made of stones.
You will pass if you work hard.
He will not try unless he is forced to.
We will come after we complete the work.
The old man cared for the puppy as though she was his baby.

Conjunction ) (
For plural, with or without arrangement (order)
. ---
According to the combination and arrangement and comment without an interval
. ---
According to the order lax
-----
benefit of doubt
. ----
According to the question asked Appointment
2 ----
According to the strike in two equal
----
According to the settlement
---
Accrued benefit
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 ---- -
According end
--- -- ) . (148: 1997,
:
-- - --- . . ) . (213 :2006 , :
-- . ) ( + ).(403 :2003,

) ( -
-

--
-- .

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--- ). (185/186 ,2003,

) ( - :
:
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.

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) ( ) ( ). .(45 :2001,

) ( - :
)( - :
:
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: ). (184 :2004,
) ( - :
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)( - :
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)( - ) ( :
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 :
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.
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:
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....
....
.... )(555 :1997,

)( -
: .... . ..... . ...... .... .
: ..... ..... : + + .-

:
+ + + + .
+ + + +
.

: :
:
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: + +
:
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:
.... , .... ,... , ...

: _:
:
:
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.......
:
, , , , , , , , ,
:
.(169 :2003,) . ,

1.7 Discussion
The source of difficulty in recognizing and using sentences connectors has been thought of
differently in the literature on the subject. Kaplan (1967 in Bacha and Hanania 1980)
think it lie in the difference between the theoretical system of English and Arabic: the
assumption been that Arabic relies more on coordination than on complex hierarchical
relationships. Hawrani (1974 and Carthy 1978 in Bacha and Hanania 1980) suggest that the
difficulty appear to stem more directly from a restricted knowledge of linking words in
English and the logical relations associated with them. Zamel (1983) holds the view that the
problem might be due to the methods used in teaching the connectives which categories them
according to function, thus ignoring their semantic restrictions and giving students erroneous
idea that they can be used interchangeably. It seems to the present researcher that the source of
difficulty may lie in the fact that this vital area has either been neglected or taught only casually
through essay and letter writing or on grammar classes through coordination or subordination
only the emphasis being on formal relations between phrases and sentences. Reference on
semantic and functional relations expressed by these connecters have been seriously neglected.

1.8 Suggestions and Recommendations

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Accordingly and as a remedy to overcome the difficulty faced by our learners in using
the proper sentence connectors in the appropriate context. The present researcher suggest
the following:
1.
Owing to its importance in turning separate clauses, sentences and paragraph into units of
connected writing and discourse, teaching these connectives should be an essential part of
teaching letter and essay writing and not to be restricted to grammar lesson.
2.
When presenting sentence connectors:
a)
Distinction between coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions and
conjunctive adverbs should be made according to their grammatical function. Students
should learn that coordinating conjunctions connect independent clauses or sentences
without affecting their grammatical structures, subordinating conjunctions turn the
independent clauses to which they are appended into subordinate ones and that the
conjunctive adverbs have no semantic weight but grammatical function (Zamel, 1983, 25).
b)
The semantic function ought to be accounted for as well. Students need to understand the
semantic difference that result from replacing for example and by but ; nevertheless
by therefore.
3.
Emphasis should not be limited to sequences of pairs of sentences. Students should be
provided with exercises to work with sentence connectors on sentence and discourse level
taking the following into consideration:
a)
On sentence level
Teachers should provide adequate examples that enable the student to figure out: the nature
of the relationship between one clauses or sentence and another; the proper connector that
can properly connect the related sentences and make the relationship between them explicit;
and whether the use of connectors is syntactically possible. This presentation should be
followed by various types of exercise in which students practice the various grammatical
and semantic function of the sentence connectors and the syntactic possibilities open to the
students to choose from.
b)
On discourse level
Students should be exposed to adequate examples on supra-sentential level. They can be
given texts or passages with missing words to be filled with the sentence connectors that are
semantically appropriate and syntactically possible.

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http://www.tutorvista.com/content/english/english-i/work-book/connectors.php
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Brown, J. D. (1995), Understanding Research in Second Language Learning. Cambridge:

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.6 , , , , ,, ,2004 ,1
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