14-1

Pipeline Structures

Page

14. 1 Introduction

14-3

14.2

Stormwater Gravity Pipelines

14-3

14.3

Pressure Pipelines

14-6

14.4

Manholes

14-7

14.5

Sumps

14-8

14.6

Pipe Inlet Structures

14-9

14.7

Pipe Outfall Structures

14-10

14.8

References

14-13

Waterways. Wetlands and Drainage Guide - Ko Te Anga Whakaora mii Nga Arawai Repii
Christchurch City Council

Part B: Design
February 2003

14- 2

Chapter 14: Pipeline Structures

Port B: Design
February 2003

Waterways, Wetlands and Drainage Guide-Ko Te Anga Whakaora rna Nga Arawai Repa
Christchurch City Council

Chapter 14: Pipeline Structures

14.1

14.2

Introduction

The Christchurch Drainage Board was founded

in the 1870's to provide a comprehensive drainage
network that allowed Christchurch to expand over
the swampy plain. Initially, the artificial drainage
network comprised predominantly lined and unlined
open drains. Some impressive large diameter brick
barrel stormwater sewers, which are still in use today,
were installed within the central city's four avenues.
The Christchurch Drainage Board embarked on
a vigorous waterway piping programme as infill
development occurred. Post-war, the programme
accelerated to the point where many kilometres of
reinforced concrete stormwater pipe mains were laid
each year to replace open waterways.

It is now recognised that waterway piping on a

large scale is unsustainable because the pipes need
to be replaced within approximately 100 years. This
places a high cost on future generations. Waterway
naturalisation is currently seen as the appropriate
improvement option in most circumstances. Not
only is waterway naturalisation more affordable in
the long-term, but it also provides opportunities
to realise a wide range of environmental and social
values as well.
Pipeline structures include:
pipelines (including stormwater gravity pipelines
and pressure pipelines)
manholes (for maintenance access and transitions)
sumps (for direct entry of smface water)
pipe inlet structures (where open waterways
discharge into a pipeline)
pipe outfall structures (where a pipeline discharges
into an open waterway).
These pipeline structures are discussed in the
following sections. Subsoil drainage pipelines are
not discussed in this chapter; refer to Chapter 5.3.1:
Grollndwater Dmina,Re.
The traditional approach to designing waterway
structures has been to ensure hydraulic capacity,
structural integrity, and safety. While these criteria
must always be applied, the design process must now
also consider all values associated with waterways
and wetlands.

14-3

Stormwater Gravity Pipelines

Stormwater piping may be installed:

under road side channels where side channel
capacity is insufficient
at road crossings
where open drains categorised in the Proposed
City Plan (Christchurch City Council 1999)
as utility waterways have deteriorated, become
polluted, have declined base flows, and space is
insufficient for naturalisation.
Where a stormwater pipeline replaces an open drain
it may be necessary to connect a subsoil drainage
pipe to the pipeline to ensure similar groundwater
control functions to the former artificial watenvay.
Safe secondary flow paths must always be identified
as an integral component of any stormwater
pipeline design. All new designs must not only
identify secondary flow paths, but ensure they are
protected. Secondary flow paths on private property
should also be legally protected.
Stormwater pipelines on private property must always
be legally protected by way of a drainage easement in
favour of the Christchurch City Council.
When stormwater pipelines are to be replaced,
consider "day lighting" (restoring an open waterway),
where space allows. Piping is inappropriate for
waterways categorised in the Proposed City Plan
(Christchurch City Council 1999) as environmental
asset or hill waterways, and some utility waterways.
14.2.1

Pipeline Alignment and Minimum Size

Gravity pipelines should normally be laid in straight

lines and at a constant gradient between access
points such as manholes, sumps, and inspection
chambers. Refer to Section 14.4: Manholes (Location
and Spacing), for allowable lengths. With larger
diameter pipelines, bends are permissible in certain
situations.
Stormwater lines are normally located in the road
between the central sanitary sewer and a line 1.5 m
from the kerb. It is important to locate pipes where
they will not compromise any future tree planting.
It may be economic to lay pipes up to a 525 mm
diameter under the side channel. Stormwater pipes
within roads should have a minimum diameter of
225 mm.
The stormwater designer must always check that
surface floodwater cannot enter sewer manhole
vents. Sanitary sewers are normally laid in the centre
of the road equidistant from adjacent properties, but

Waterways. Wetlands and Drainage Guide-Ko Te Anga Whakaoro ~ii Ngo Arawai Repii
Christchurch City Council

Part B: Design
February 2003

14-4

Chapter 14: Pipeline Structures

Table 14-1: Access considerations - maximum pipe cover.

Pipe Diameter
(mm)

Single Sump
Cover (m111)

Double Sump
Cover" (mm),
aligned with
pipe

100

450*

750

150

600*

750

200

700*

750

225

750*

850

300 and greater

750*

1100

" Also limited by maximum sump depth.

* May require additional protection if pipe extends out onto a
carriageway.

as this is not always the case, the stormwater designer

mu st che c k that surfa ce floodwater cannot ente r
sewer manhole vents .
When maintenance access to a pipe is via a sump, the
maximum pipe cover (Table 14-1) should be observed
to allow rodding or high-pressure water cleaning.
Stormwater lines are usually at optimum depth when
the pipe soffit coincides with the calculated hydraulic
grade lines. However, it is acceptable to allow sections
of a pipeline to surcharge to avoid services but reverse
grades should be avoided. Similarly, pipes may be
laid invert to invert or centreline to centreline to
increase invert gradient and low flow velocities. The
preference however is to lay pipes with the inlet soffits
not lower than the pipe soffit of the outlet.
Direct connections of pipes should always be made
in accordance with standard detail SD361. Sump
connections may be directly co nnected to a mall1
with a satisfactory approved junction, provided:
there is no suitable manhole close by
the length of connection does not exceed 10m
for cut-ins, diameter of the main is at least twice
the diameter of the connection plus one size
for junctions, diameter of the main is at least twice
the diameter of the connection.
14.2.2

Pipe Selection

Product Approvals

Figure 14- 1: Laying of a 175 mm roading related

stormwater pipe.

All pipe brands and product types are subject to

specific approval in terms of relevant standards and
Council's additional specific requirements, including
those requirements relating to sa tisfactory jointing
sys tems. All approved products are listed on the
Christchurch City Council's Materials Approval
web site; http: //www.ccc.govt.nz/ DoingBusiness/
ApprovedMaterials/
Pipe Materials

The following materi als are in general us e in

Christchurch stormwater systems:
PVC: commonly used 100 to 400 mm diameter
(Figure 14-1) .
Polyethylene (PE): generally used for trenchless
applications.
Ceramic: generally for roading related stormwater,
150 to 300 mm diameter.
Reinforced Concrete: RCRR] pipes generally
225 to 2100 mm diameter (Figure 14-2) .

Figure 14-2: Laying of a 1200 mm stormwater pipe.

Wildern ess Drain .

Part B: DeSign
February 2003

Corrugated Metal Pipes: usually only suitable for

a limited range of works, such as short culverts.

Waterways . Wetlands and Drainage Guide-Ko Te Anga Whakaora mii Ngii Arawai Repii
Christchurch City Council

Chapter 14: Pipeline Structures

Care should be taken when specifying because

pipe friction is significantly greater than th at
of other pip es, jointing systems are often not
watertight, and the joints are often open enough
to permit entry of fine soil particles.
Flexible pipes more than 4 m deep require special
design and specific approval of Council.
Structural Design

Manufacturer's loading and structural design criteria

must be followed .
Pipe Sizes

When specifying pipe sizes, care should be taken

when rounding up to nearest pipe size to utilise
ranges that are currently available. For example, if
calculations indicate a pipe diameter of 240 mm ,
then 250 mm should be specified, allowing for either
250 mm or 300 mm. Also, to avoid confusion, always
specify pipes by nominal inside diameter (ID) .

14.2. 3 Pipe Laying

Bedding and Haunching

Pipes shall be haunched and bedded in accordance

with one of the standard detail options shown on
standard detail SD344.
For concrete pipes use standard detail SD344/Sheet 1:
Type C: concrete haunching on metal foundation
(now rarely used)
Type M: metal haunching, with or without metal
foundation (normal use)
Type H: concrete haunching for full trench width
(for hillside pipes close to rock).
For PVC, PE, and ceramic pip es use standard detail
SD344, Sheet 2. For hill piping special lime stabilised
mixes shall be used (refer CSS Part 3; Christchurch
City Council 2002) .
Earth loads on deep pipelines can increase quite
significantly when the pipelines are laid in overvvide
trenches. This might be countered in part with special
bedding and side support, or the use of co ncrete
haunching with rigid pipe typ es.
Where weak soils such as peat occur at , or below
bedding level, the replacement of highly compressible
soils with the usual imported granular fill material
can cause settlement of both the pipeline and trench
surface. This is because of the substantial difference
in weight of the imported material. Such conditions
may warrant the use of piling, in which case smaller
pipes may require some form of reinforced concrete
strengthening to take bending between piles. Joint

14-5

fle xibility should be retained even with piling. Test

bores may be required.
As an alternative to piling, a raft foundation will often
b e adequate. However, this must allow ade quat e
load spreading such that the long-term soil bea ring
capacity is not excee ded . In areas where the re are
no special scour, aggressive groundwater, or bedding
problems, bedding shall be as follows:
concrete pipes: Type M (metal) from SD344
PVC, PE, or ceramic pip es: Type P (standard
haunching).
Should th e trench bottom be unsa tisfactory as a
foundation (and /o r where there is danger of the
surrounding soils or bac kfill migra ting into the
haunching or foundation metal s) an appropriate
geotextile shall be placed prior to placing the
foundation and h aunching metal (Figure 14-1) .
Aggressive groundwater, such as water with high
CO 2 , may require concrete bedding (Type C), or
the provision of a protective coating, or polyethylene
loose sleeve wrap. A map showing areas of high CO 2
is included in the City Council's Code of Prac tice
(Wastewa ter Drainage).
Hillside Pipes On Bedrock

Where the pipeline is within 150 mm of bedrock,

concrete haunching and concrete water stops as
described in CSS: Part 3 (Christchurch City Cou ncil
2002), and standard detail SD347 shall be use d at
the spacings in Table 14-2. For the purposes of this
table, the following apply:
intermediate grades are determined by interpolation
manholes poured against a trimmed excavation
may be reckoned as water stops
where a flatter grade occurs below a steeper grade,
at least one further water stop is located on the
upper section of the flatter grade at a distance from
the change in grade equal to the above spacing for
the upp er grade.

Table 14-2: Spacings for concrete water stops.

Pipe Gradient

Maximum Spacing (m)

1: 5 or steeper

1:15

10

1:25

15

1:50

30

1:100

60

Waterways . Wetlands and Drainage Guide - Ko Te Anga Whakaora rno Ngo Arawai Repo
Christchurch City Council

Part B: Design
February 2003

14-6

Chapter 14: Pipeline Structures

Hillside Trenchline Scour

Maximum Gradient

Special requirements for hillside pipes are aimed at

ensuring the stability and durability of pipelines by
providing the most appropriate bedding and backfill
to control movement of groundwater along the
trench and erosion of loess. In general this will be
achieved by the addition of hydrated lime to the
backfill materials to bind the finer constituents
and, through lime migration, the soil immediately
adjacent to the trench. Where lime stabilised backfill
is used and the pipeline is not close to rock, then
concrete waters tops are not required. The specific
requirements are described in more detail in CSS:
Part 3 (Christchurch City Council 2002).

When pipe gradients are steeper than 1 in 3 for

lengths greater than 3 metres, consider the problem
of erosion of concrete and ceramic pipes by high
velocity waterborne grit. When flows are continuous
or frequent, wear resistant pipes such as cast iron, ABS
or mPVC PN12, or other specially approved materials
can be used. Concrete channelling can be protected
with hard surfacing (e.g. epoxy sand mortar), or a
resilient rubbery coating. Sacrificial layers can be used
both in special concrete pipes or ill sitll structures.

A hillside is defined (in this section) as any location

where either the pipe gradient or smface slope directly
uphill or downhill is steeper than 1 in 20, or any other
location where large variations in groundwater levels
could cause enough water movement within a trench
for bedding scour to occur.
Joints at Sumps or Manholes

Where pipes are connected to sumps or manholes, at

least two yield joints and one short pipe should be
provided. At manholes in roads, 2 shorts and 3 yield
joints are required (in accordance with standard detail
SD341, Sheets 1,2, and 3).
Pipe Protection

Concrete pipe protection may be used where the

pipe cover does not comply with the manufacturer's
design criteria. Options for pipe protection, both
surround and capping are shown in standard detail
SD342. Note that for PVC and PE, only Type E is
suitable. Sufficient cover should be allowed for any
road surfacing.
14.2.4

Longitudinal Gradients

Minimum Gradients

In flat areas, gradients should be kept as steep as

possible to control silt deposition. The designer
should aim to achieve a velocity of at least 0.6 m/s
at a flow of half of the 2 year storm flow. Reverse
grades should be avoided wherever possible, even
when the 0.6 m/s velocity provision is achievable.
For larger pipes (> 600 mm ID), and especially for
those pipes conveying hillside discharge into a tidally
influenced outfall, consideration should be given to
a more detailed sedimentation analysis, as well as
future maintenance cleaning provisions.
Also refer to Chapter 7.4: Design Considerations for Hill
Hlaterways.

Part B: Design
February 2003

Small diameter pipes carrying 'clean' stormwater may

not need any special lining. Care must be taken to
provide adequate pipe anchorage on steep gradients.

14.3

Pressure Pipelines

Any rising main from a stormwater pumping station

is a pressure pipeline. Construction materials are
usually PVC or Polyethylene. The selection of pipe
class and diameter shall be matched with pump and
flow characteristics. Velocities should be high enough
to transport solids but should not exceed 1.5 m/s and
should not be lower than 0.6 m/s.
The pipeline shall be designed for static and friction
heads, and some consideration should be given to
possible water hammer or surge pressures. Given
the relatively low operating pressures likely to be
associated with stormwater pressure mains within
Christchurch it is unlikely water hammer pressures
will be significant.
Pressure Pipeline Gradients

Ideally, pressure pipelines should slope continually

upwards from the pumping station to terminal. If
summits are unavoidable, they must be provided with
vents or combination air release valves of a type not
prone to blockage. Gradients are less important for
temporary pressure pipelines, but consider inclusion
of vertical sections to provide pump starting head
and pipeline charging.
Bedding

Pressure pipelines shall be bedded as per standard

detail SD344.
Thrust Blocks

Pressure pipelines shall be provided with thrust blocks

at bends as per standard detail SD346. In the case of
upward thrust, full restraint must be obtained from the
dead weight of the thrust block. Special design may
be warranted when there are high heads, large pipes,
or unusual ground conditions.

Waterways. Wetlands and Drainage Guide-Ko Te Anga Whakaora rna Nga Arawai Repa
Christchurch City Council

Chapter 14: Pipeline Structures

14.4

Manholes

Location and Spacing

Manholes are located at regular intervals along a
pipeline to provide access and changes in dire ction.

Manhole s should preferably be positioned on

roadways, However, where this is not possible
vehicle access should be provided to facilitate any
maintenance activities.
Table 14-3 below indicates the range of ma ximum
spacings. Factors that indicate the choice of a lower
maXll11um spacll1g are:

14- 7

Unreinforce d vertical concrete panels in manholes

or other underground structures, subject to so il and
traffic loading, should either be specifically designed
or, in the case of a square panel, the length of the side
should not exceed seven times panel thickness.
The 28 day concrete crush in g strength for all
manholes shall be 25 MPa.
Ladders shou ld be placed clear of the flow from
sidelines.
The maximum size of pipe for a standard 900 mm
square manhole should be 825 mm diameter ID.

deposition of silt (especially adjacent to hills)

Fall Through Manholes

tidal conditions

When there is a change of pipe size at a manhole, the

soffit of the inlet pipes should generally not be lower
than the soffit of the outlet pipe, except where pipes
will not run full at maximum design flow. In this
situation it will be permissible to lay the pipes so that
surface levels corresponding to uniform maximum
flow in each pipe coincide.

sand entry
cleaning methods (manual, water jet, or bucket
machine) .
Vented Manholes

Vented manholes are not normally required in the

stormwater system as there is generally adequate
venting at the entry points. However, where high or
low air pressures could occur, the need for venting
should be assessed. Such locations include sea outfalls
subject to wave surge and steep hill lines where
significant suction and blowing can occur.
Structural Aspects

Manholes sha ll either be standard, narrow, or

spec ial , as shown on standard details SD302, 303,
and 304. Special manholes are usually required for
larger pipes, especially where changes of direction are
involved. They should incorporate the same opening
as a standard manhole and sho uld be designed to
withstand heavy traffic loading HN-HO-72 (see
Appendix 4). For small structures, a wheel load of
70 kN should be allowed for, with impact allowances
as follows:
cover less than 300 mm:

30 %

cover less than 600 mm:

20 %

cover less than 900 mm:

10%

thereafter:

0%

Larger manholes should be checked for flotation . The

factor of safety against floating should be at least 1.2,
excluding skin friction in the completed condition,
with empty manhole and saturated ground. Increased
forces resulting from larger depth and spans may be
resisted by thicker walls, or reinforcing. Yield joints
between manholes and pipes shall be provided in
accordance with standard detail SD341.

To fully utilise the ungorged capacity of a piped

system operating at uniform flow, the fall across a
manhole should reflect the energy loss across it.
However, in approved circumstances it may be
preferable to have a smaller inlet pipe with soffit
lower than the outlet pipe, in order to avoid other
services, to increase cover, or to increase the grade to
reduce silting.
Refer to the Chapfer 22.9.5: Cu/'Jerf aud Pipe BC/ld
Losses,Jor typical bend loss coefficients.
Table 14-3: Maximum spacings for manholes.
Diameter

Maximum Spacing (111)

150-710

100*

710-920

100-120

920-1120

100-150

1120-1320

100- 180

1320-1420

120-220

1420-1850

120-250

1850 and above

150-250

*May be increased to 120 m e tres if the manholes are fixed

ill position by virtue of being existing, or required by other
co nnections.

Waterways . Wetlands and Drainage Guide-Ko Te Anga Whakaora mii Ngii Arawai Repii
Christchurch City Council

Part B: DeSign
February 2003

14-8

Chapte r 14: Pipeline Structu res

14.5 Sumps
The purposes of roadside sumps are to :
co nvey sto rmwater fro m th e gro und/ roa d slll{ace
into the piped system

in these situations would depend o n desired capacity,

proximity to commercial or tree/ bush areas that may
produ ce signifi ca nt debris, and the susceptibility of
dow nstrea m pipin g to blockage fro m de bris t hat
could pass throu gh the larger side entrance.

separate rubbish from the flow

trap silt, gravel, etc
give access to the stormwater pipe.
Stormwater Entry

If side e ntry sump s are use d , miti ga ti o n me as ures

includin g method s to redu ce se dim e nt a nd litte r
transported dow nstrea m must be co nsidered . T his is
required to meet co nditions relating to the disc harge
of clean stormwater in the Prop osed R egional Policy
Statement (Ca nterbury R egional Council 1998) .

Fo r all typical roadin g projects, sump s an d gratin gs

should be chose n to fit the side chann el. R efer to
standard details SD321-SD328. H eavy-duty gratings
m ay be n ecessary fo r h eavy wh eel loads. All sump
gratin g types use d in C hristchurch require sp ec ial
approval after w hi ch they will be listed on C oun cil's
materials approval web site at http ://www.ccc.govt.
l1Z/D oingBusiness/ ApprovedMaterials/

Side entry sumps are permi tted and reco mmended on

th e d owns tream e nd of all " bubble up " sys te m s.
Howeve r, sump ca pa citi es n o tw ith standin g, th e
designer should ca refully investiga te requirements for
valley p ositio ns whe re secondary fl ow paths are no t
available, or in know n flood prone areas.

The use of side entry sumps is generally discouraged,

due to th e ri sk o f sig nifi cant a m o unts of litt e r
entering the drainage system throu gh th e side-entry
slot. For this reason side- entry sumps are prohibited
in or nea r commercial and industrial areas.

For retrofitting sumps w ithin hillside channels where

p ea k run o ff do es n o t exceed 10 lis, it is p ermitted
to use standard detail SD324, Shee t 2. Appropriate
hill sid e ca tc hm e nts includ e sh o rt le n gths of hill
right-of- ways.

Side e ntry sum.ps may be conside red in lo ca ti o ns

w h ere sto rmwater o utflows from blocked inle ts o r
outlets could lead to inundation of properties, serious
restri cti o n of traffi c o n collec tor o r arterial ro ads,
or where lon ger co nve ntional sump s (includin g hill
sumps) are not practical. The use of side entry sumps

When designing hill sump s, care mu st be take n to

e n sure ad e quat e ca pture of c h annel flo w w h e re
stormwa ter flow velocities may be high (Figure 14- 3) .
See Chapter 22. 10: SIIIIIPS- Co llection of Water froIII
Side Channels, for information on sump hydraulics.
Silt and Gravel Trapping

Th e well provided in sumps , below the outle t pip e

inve rt level , collec ts ston es and heavy debris. In the
case of a multiple grating sump, this ca n sometimes be
achieved by placing a bulkhead in th e middle , which
will also support the walls and rem ove the need fo r
deeper excavation.
D eep, narrow sumps should be avoided as they make
access fo r cleaning pipelines difficult. Ge nerally, th e
ma ximum depth for suction cleaning is two m etres.
Submerge d outlets shall b e use d fo r sump s w hi c h
collec t stormwater fl ow from large h ard-standing
areas, such as carparks, w here there is potential for the
build-up of flo atable pollutants.

Figure 14-3: Th e design of hillside sumps requires special

consideration to ensure the capture of adequate chan nel
flo w during stormflow conditions.

Part B: Design
February 2003

Master traps (standard detail SD 374, Sheet 1) may be

required where priva te drains (pip ed or op e n, w here
pipelin es are 225 mm o r large r in diame t er) m eet
public piped drains. T he fun ctio n of m aster traps is
to control silt depositio n in the pipeline as well as the
movement of floatables and any po tentially dangerous
gas es. Typ e 2 sump s (E 1 / AS1 ; Building Indu str y
Auth o rity 2000) are gen erally accep table for hardstanding areas up to 800 m 2 .

Waterways , Wetlands and Drainage Guide - Ko Te Anga Whakaora mii Ngii Arawai Ri!pii
Christchurch City Council

Chapter 14: Pipeline Structures

14-9

Sump Spacing

14.6

Sumps above underchannel piping shall be either:

Inlet structures, usually in the form of a headwall, are

normally required where an open waterway discharges
into a pipeline. The function of an inlet is to:

(i) double sumps (with standard well) spaced no

greater than 90 m apart; or
(ii) single sumps (with standard well) spaced no
greater than 45 m apart, where the soffit of the
underchannel pipe at the sump is no greater than
750 mm below the fender.

Pipe Inlet Structures

retain earth filling over and around a pipeline

prevent scouring
provide support for a grill
reduce inlet losses (e.g. with angled wingwalls).

No well is necessary where a sump is 'bubbling up'

storm water to the channel. The downstream 'bubble
up' sump is to be the Side Entry IExit Type (standard
detail SD 321).
Sumps on kerb and channel should be located to
avoid access crossings. Preferred locations are opposite
property side boundaries and one metre back from
tangent points on the straight.

14.6.1

Public Safety Considerations

Where there is a headwall at a pipe inlet handrails

may be required for pedestrian safety if there is the
danger of falling or tripping. Also in the interests of
public safety, a grill should be provided across a pipe
inlet in the following situations:
Long. Large Diameter Pipelines

Vehicles and Safety

These are> 50 m length, and> 700 mm diameter.

Where larger, non-standard sumps are to be used,

then unreinforced walls should be checked for their
capacity to withstand heavy traffic loads. Grates
must also be able to carry the impact weight of a
heavy vehicle.

The need for a grill or other barrier is greater at the

upstream end of a pipeline where, as well as voluntary
entry in dry conditions, children could be washed in

The installation of sump grates must also consider

safety issues. For example, grates on streets and
pathways can cause bicycle accidents or trip
people. Normally, the hazard to cyclists is minimal
where a clearly defined side channel is provided. This
is particularly important at intersections or locations
where a cyclist may be crowded by a vehicle into
the side channel.
The hydraulic efficiency of bars parallel to flow
versus bars at right angles varies little for low flow
velocities up to 1 mls (as is nonnally found on the
flat), but can make a significant difference on the
hills. Obviously, bars at right angles present less of a
hazard to cyclists. Consider both factors in design.
Sumps as Features

The ground surface components of sumps and

manholes are highly visible structures within the
landscape. Consideration should be given to their
appearance, especially their potential to become
attractive features (Figure 14-4). For example, a
common design theme could be used on grills
around trees, fences, and signage, together with the
tops of manholes and sumps.
However, since the primary function of sumps is
to convey stormwater, proposals to treat them as
landscape design elements should be discussed with a
drainage engineer at an early stage.

Figure 14-4: The standard design for sump covers

throughout the Christchurch area is relatively simple (top).
However, there is a less common design that has had more
consideration given to appearance (above).

Waterways. Wetlands and Drainage Guide - Ko Te Anga Whakaora mii Ngo Arawai Repa
Christchurch City Council

Part B: DeSign
February 2003

14-10

Chapter 14: Pipeline Structures

by flood flows. In a long pipeline, a child could be

trapped under the water long enough to drown.
Short, Large Diameter Pipelines

A grill should be considered if there is deep ponded

water within the pipeline or a hidden step down on
the invert, otherwise the danger level could normally
be considered as low.
Small Diameter Pipelines

Protection is not usually required for these. However,

in the case of pipelines steeper than, say 1 in 2, where
a small child could fall in and slide down, protection
should be considered at the upper end if the diameter
exceeds 300 mm.
Refer to Chapter: 13.4: Grills in TIVaterways, for
information on grill design.

14.6.2

Debris Separation

Pipe Blockage

Short, straight pipelines often perform satisfactorily

without protection. However, long pipelines,
especially those less than 500 mm in diameter and
incorporating changes of direction, need protection
near the inlet from debris that can cause blockages.
Remember that a suitably designed grill is much
easier to clear than a blocked pipeline.

With smaller diameter pipelines below 750 mm

diameter, it may be possible to avoid concrete
headwalls, depending on water velocities and scour
potential. Dry wall rockwork with metal fill backing
around a bevelled inlet pipe can be a practical, visually
pleasing and cost-effective alternative. Landscape
planting can add to such inlets.
For larger diameter pipe inlets, or where material is
limited by hydraulic or soil constraints, design must
provide for good visual appearance or incorporate
careful landscape planting to soften hard lines, whilst
not restricting hydraulic capacity. Rock or timber
facings over concrete walls or a distinct rock band
embedded in concrete are good design solutions.
Future Piping

Where piping is liable to be extended in the future,

a headwall can be designed to be incorporated in
a future manhole, or temporary headwalls can be
constructed of treated timber or dry stone. Where the
future piping may extend in a straight line, it may be
useful to complete the pipeline with a socket.

14.7

Pipe Outfall Structures

Pipe outfall structures are generally necessary where a

pipeline discharges into an open waterway. Design of
outlet structures, shall have regard to:
bank and pipe stability

Inlet Blockage

In creating inlets regard must be given to their

potential to act as debris traps, whether grilled or
not. Consideration should be given to the amount
and type of debris that can arrive at a point. For
example, whether debris has already been separated
by a debris trap a short distance upstream, or whether
large volumes of twigs and branches could be washed
into the waterway during storms.

streambed erosion
opportunities to incorporate these as a landscape
feature and integral to the design of the waterway
and surrounding environment.
Concrete and PVC stormwater pipe outfalls that
project beyond the bank are generally undesirable due
to the following reasons:
they have a significantly adverse visual effect on
open waterways (Figure 14-5A)

Consider also the economic and other consequences

of blockage of the pipe or grill, resulting from
ponding and secondary overflow paths.

they ensure that any litter entering the stormwater

system is deposited into a natural waterway

Refer to Chapter: 13.4: Grills ill TIVaterways, for

information on grill design.

protruding outfalls, often protected by a reinforced

concrete beam, cause local scour of the bank.

14.6.3 Other Considerations

Appearance

The final appearance of any inlet structure and its

setting within the existing landscape is considered
very important. Utilitarian fair face finish vertical
concrete walls should be used only as a last resort.
Designers are encouraged to be innovative within the
context of the landscape setting.

Part B: Design
February 2003

The designer should consider alternative materials

where size, soil conditions, and outlet velocities
permit (generally for outlet sizes below 750 mm
diarneter).
Litter Interception

Site specific designs that meet landscape criteria and

provide an opportunity for litter to be trapped before
it enters the natural waterway are required. Potential
options include the following:

Waterways, Wetlands and Drainage Guide-Ko Te Anga Whakaora mii Nga Arawai Repii
Christchurch City Council

Chapter 14: Pipeline Structures

A litter trap at, or upstrea m of, the pipe outfall.

Locating the pipe outfall seve ral metres back from
the water's edge and providing either a reed bed
or ro ckwork chute to intercept litter. R egular
removal of litter will be required.

14.7.1

Pipe Termination Details

The treatment of stormwater pipe terminations at

waterways will depend on the pipe invert elevation
above the dry weather water level.
Elevated Pipe Outfall

Where a stormwater pipe approaches a waterway at

an elevated level, it can be dealt with in one of these
two ways:
Termina te the pipe ou tlet a t the high level in
an unobtrusive manner (similar to the low pipe
ou tfaIl method), and cascade the flow down
to the receiving water level via a rockwork
chute (Figure 14-5B). This will help provide a
landscape feature that will create a more natural

14- 1 1

look . Exposure of concrete required to anchor

any rockwork should be kept to a minimum, and
the area should be planted to further naturalise
th e outfall (Figure 14-5C) .
Incorporate a drop structure (e.g. a manhole
or co rner sump) away from the bank and then
terminate using one of the methods de sc ribed
below for a low pipe outfall.
Low Pipe Outfall

Where the pip e outfall terminates at the water's

edge, it is generally preferable to select a pipe invert
level slightly below the dry weather water level in
the receiving waterway- ideally with pipe invert
submergence to 15 % to 25 % of pipe diameter.
Enhancing the appearanc e of the outfall ca n be
achieved by various means, including:
Using a pipe colour th at will blend into the
surrounding landscape.
Cutting the pipe end at an oblique angle, say 45 .
Placing bank planting close to the outlet.

Figure 14-5A: Original outfall at

Farnley Reserve. Heathcote River/
6pawaho. 1992.
Figure 14-5B: The outfall was
terminated at a high level. and a
rockwork chute created to reduce
the stormwater energy potential
and erosion.
Figure 14-5C: With established
vegetation the outfall has become
a natural landscape feature. with
the pipe outfall hidden from view.

Waterways. Wetlands and Drainage Guide-Ka Te Ango Whakaora mi5 Nga Arawai Repi5
Christchurch City Council

Port B: Design
February 2003

14-1 2 Chapter 14: Pipeline Structures

Terminate the pipe outfall several metres back

from the water 's edge. Create a fa nn ed area
extending out from the terminated pipe to the
water's edge, that can be planted with variou s
marginal plants such as rushe s (Figure 14-6).
Create a rock headwall bonded with concrete
as necessa ry for stability. Iflaid back at an angle
then dry stone wa lling may be possible. Ro ck
size shou ld be around 0.5 to 1 pipe diameter in
size, although variety in size is important for a
naturalistic effect. Exposed rocks less than about
400 mm diameter are prone to disturbance by
children and so may need to be concrete mortared
in place. With laid back walling it may be sufficient
to just bury the top edge with topsoil to reduce
finger access. See Figure 14-7 for design details.

Figure 14-6: This low outfall was terminated back from

the stream and the area planted in rushes . The rushes now
hide the outfall from view. Kaputone Creek, Sheldon Park.

Boulders set in M/4 :AP40

and concrete as required

Pipe end cut at 45 for

pipes less than 600 dia .
For pipes greater than
600dia cut end 45 to mid
p ipe grind back exposed
steel20mm and place
bead of epoxy mortar
on cut surface

Drop structure
as required

End View

protection

Outfall with Drop Structure

Pipe end cut at 45

Grind back exposed
steel20mm and place
be ado f e po x y mor t ar r=_'f'VJr-;J~~~~~~:-,-~~::-;
on cut surface - - - - {
\...

Topsoil
Standa rd PVC kerb
entry adaptor with

~~~1b~;;,e",~g~~_

~~~~~~~~~~~~~==~~PVC

or
concrete pipe

Concrete pipe must be

used as last pipe section

150-400mm Diameter Outfall

Figure 14-7: Termination details for storm water pipe outfalls.

Top: High bank and drop structure to reduce exit flow energy
and scour potential. Above: Outfall detail suitable for low
energy pipe flow situations. Right: 100 mm diameter outfall
options with a camouflaged end.

Part B: Design
February 2003

seal
pipe

. . '. -. '

Placed~

Rock
around adaptor

100mm Outfall through Rock Bankwork

Standard PVC kerb
ent r y adaptor with long
dimension ver tica l to
bank slope and encase
in concrete .

~100

100mm Outfall through Vegetated Bank

Waterways, Wetlands and Drainage Guide -Ko Te Anga Whakaora

Christchurch City Council

mo Ngo Arawai Repo

Chapter 14: Pipeline Structures

14.7.2 Pipe Stability

Projecting concrete beams, as used in the past, are
now considered unacceptable. In many cases these
have been constructed without adequate bank
protection, which has led to displacement of the
entire beam and failure of upstream pipes.
Stabilising the riverbank and riverbed IS an
important design consideration. In weak or scour
prone soils, or where the pipeline discharges directly
into a deep waterway channel, the end section of
pipeline must be set onto an adequately stabilised
base. This must extend beyond any potential zone of
creep or settlement.

14-1 3

the City (if Christchllrch. Christchurch City Council,

Christchurch.
Christchurch City Council 2002. Constl'llctioll
Standard Spec~fication (CSS), Part 3: Utility
Pipes. Christchurch City Council, Christchurch.
Available from: http:www.ccc.govt.nz/Doing
Business/ css/

Full concrete surround will only be necessary away

from the bank to protect pipes from surcharge loading
in a low cover situation.

14.7.3 Outfall Erosion Protection

Streambed erosion can result from excessive velocity
from a stormwater outfall, or from the induced
turbulence in the receiving stream flow where
the outfall pipe protrudes past the line of the
bank. Erosion can be mitigated by the following:
following the guidelines given for low pipe outfalls
or elevated pipes (Section 14.7.1: Pipe TerJllillatioll
Details)
stabilising the streambed; this could incorporate a
properly designed plunge pool.
Outlet velocity should be determined by detailed
hydraulic analysis, or by the generally conservative
approximation for low gradient pipes that velocity
head will be no more than the height from pipe soffit
level to the dry weather water level. Conversion
of velocity head (Hv) to a velocity follows the
relationship of Equation 14-1:

V=~2gH\

Eqn (14-1)

Refer to Chapter 22.7: Bed Shear Stress alld the Stable

Bed, for further information on stable substrate sizes.

14.8

References

Building Industry Authority (BrA) 2000. Approl'ed

DO(l//IIentE1: SllIface Tater. Standards Association,
Wellington.
Canterbury Regional Council 1998. Proposed
Regional Policy Statement. Report No 98/4.
Canterbury Regional Council, Christchurch.
Christchurch City Council 1999. City of
Christchllrch City Plall. The Proposed District Plall for

Waterways. Wetlands and Drainage Guide-Ko Te Anga Whakaora ma Ngo Arawai Repa
Christchurch City Council

Part B: Design
February 2003