Chapter Three: Tourism Planning

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C H AP T E R T H RE E :
TO URI SM P L AN NI NG
3.0

INTRODUCTION

Planning is about setting and meeting objectives. Although various approaches

have been developed in general planning, e.g. boosterism, integrated, interactive,
collaborative, bottom-up etc, a literature review of tourism shows that not many
authors have been concerned with tourism planning. Akehurst (1998) explains this
by the fact that plans are developed by consultancy firms that rarely publish or
divulge their secrets. Only over the last decade some authors have been
concerned with aspects of tourism planning (e.g. Inskeep, 1991; Gunn, 1994;
WTO, 1994; Wilkinson, 1997b; Timothy, 1998; 1999; Tosun and Jenkins, 1998).
Similarly, for the implementation of tourism planning, few approaches have been
proposed, mainly various product/market options and systematic approaches.

Early tourism research (Ogilvie, 1933; Alexander, 1953) into the outcomes of
tourism planning was restricted primarily to the measurement of the economic
impacts for destination areas, due to the ease with which economic impacts may
be measured, compared to environmental and social impacts (Mathieson and
Wall, 1982; Archer and Cooper, 1998; Kontogeorgopoulos, 1998) and the attempt
of local governments to optimise economic benefits (Allen et al., 1988; Stynes
and Stewart, 1993). In order to maximise economic benefits many governments
allowed the private sector to take important decisions about tourism development
in an unrestricted and unplanned way (Hawkins, 1992). However, the focus of the
private sector and tourism planning was naturally oriented toward short-term
economic gains, through the construction of facilities which attract foreign
visitors. As a result, too little attention was paid to socio-cultural effects on host
communities and environmental problems for receiving destinations, which in the
long-term, may outweigh the benefits (Seth, 1985; Jenkins, 1994).

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Thus, unrestrained tourism development easily diminished the image of many

destinations, to the extent that they attract only low-spending mass tourism. As a
result, serious socio-economic and environmental problems emerged. Since
tourism activity relies on the protection of environmental and socio-cultural
resources for the attraction of tourists, planning is an essential activity for the
success of a destination.

It is the aim of this chapter to investigate the planning process in the case of
tourism, by providing a framework whereby tourism planning processes might be
better described and explained (Figure 3.1). In doing so, this chapter explores the
main components of the planning process, starting from the nature of planning,
continuing with the various planning approaches and the ways that these broad
approaches are implemented, and ending with the outputs (what appears on the
ground) and the outcomes (measurement of planning impacts). By following this
process, planners can have a basis for evaluating whether or not the objectives of
tourism planning have been fulfilled.

Figure 3.1: The components of the tourism planning process

TOURISM PLANNING

NATURE
(Setting and
Meeting Objectives)

APPROACHES

Boosterism
Conventional
Interactive
Integrated
Market-led
Supply-led etc.

IMPLEMENTATION
Separating Tourism
System Components
Market/Product
Strategic Options

OUTPUTS
Partnerships
Community
Participation

OUTCOMES
Impacts Measurement
Economic
Environmental
Social

Source: Author.

3.1

THE NATURE OF PLANNING

Planning is an essential activity to achieve the goals of tourism development. As

Murphy (1985) suggests:

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Planning is concerned with anticipating and regulating change in a system to promote

orderly development so as to increase the social, economic and environmental benefits
of the development process. To do this, planning becomes an ordered sequence of
operations, designed to lead to the achievement of either a single goal or to a balance
between several goals (p.156).

Gunn (1979) was one of the first to define tourism planning as a tool for
destination area development, and to view it as a means for assessing the needs of
a tourist receiving destination. According to Gunn (1994) the focus of planning is
mainly to generate income and employment, and ensure resource conservation
and traveller satisfaction. Specifically, through planning under- or low-developed
destinations can receive guidelines for further tourism development. Meanwhile,
for already developed countries, planning can be used as a means to revitalise the
tourism sector and maintain its future viability (WTO, 1994, p.3). To this end,
Spanoudis (1982) proposes that:
Tourism planning must always proceed within the framework of an overall plan for
the development of an areas total resources; and local conditions and demands
must be satisfied before any other considerations are met (p.314).

Every development process starts with the recognition by local/central

government, in consultation with the private and public sector, that tourism is a
desirable development option to be expanded in a planned manner. In order
successfully to design a development plan, it is necessary to have a clear
understanding of the development objectives to be achieved at national, regional
or local levels. According to Sharpley and Sharpley (1997), these objectives are:
A statement of the desired outcomes of developing tourism in a destination and may
include a wide range of aims, such as job creation, economic diversification, the
support of public services, the conservation or redevelopment of traditional
buildings and, of course, the provision of recreational opportunities for tourists
(p.116).

The nature of these objectives depends on national, regional and local preferences
grounded in the countrys scale of political, socio-cultural, environmental and

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economic values, as well as its stage of development. Development objectives

may be:

political, such as enhancing national prestige and gaining international

exposure;

socio-cultural, the encouragement of activities that have the potential for the
advancement of the social and cultural values and resources of the area and its
traditions and lifestyles;

environmental, e.g. control of pollution; and

economic, such as increasing employment and real incomes.

On the other hand, objectives can represent a combination of political, sociocultural, environmental and economic aims, although they should take into
consideration the desires and needs of the local community in order to retain its
support.

Unfortunately, objectives are often in conflict each other and cannot all
realistically be achieved (WTO, 1994). For example, if the two main objectives of
a government are to achieve spatial distribution of tourism activity and increase
tourist expenditure, these objectives are opposed, since to increase tourism
expenditure, tourists should be attracted to the capital or the largest cities of the
country, where more alternatives for spending exist, e.g. in entertainment and
shopping. Therefore, Haywood (1988) proposes that the choice of objectives will
have to be limited to those aspirations which the industry is capable of meeting or
are the most appropriate to serve.

3.2

PLANNING APPROACHES

This section will present the major approaches to tourism planning. A major
tradition to tourism planning, or as Hall (2000) debated a form of non-planning, is
boosterism. According to boosterism, tourism is beneficial for a destination
and its inhabitants; environmental objects are promoted as assets in order to
stimulate market interest and increase economic benefits and barriers to
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development are reduced (Getz, 1987; Hall, 1991; Dredge, 1999). As Page (1995)
remarked local residents are not included in the planning process and the
carrying capacity of the region is not given adequate consideration (p.177). As a
result, this approach does not provide a sustainable solution to development and is
practised only by politicians who philosophically or pragmatically believe that
economic growth is always to be promoted, and by others who will gain
financially by tourism (Getz, 1987, p.10).

Tourism evolution brings many problems to the local community, i.e.

overcrowding, traffic congestion, superstructure, and socio-cultural deterioration.
Most of these problems can be attributed to laissez-faire tourism policies and
insufficient planning (Edgell, 1990), and although some destinations have
benefited from tourism development without any conscious planning, there are
others suffering from inattentive planning (Mill and Morrison, 1985).

Although the majority of countries have prepared tourism development plans,

many of these plans are not implemented, and others are only partially or very
partially implemented (Baud-Bovy, 1982, p.308). This may be due to
conventional planning as defined by Gunn (1988), that has too often been
oriented only to a plan, too vague and all encompassing, reactive, sporadic,
divorced from budgets and extraneous data producing (p.24).

Rather than conventional planning, Gunn (1994) proposes interactive planning,

Bramwell and Sharman (1999) suggest collaborative planning and Timothy
(1998; 1999) recommends co-operative and participatory planning, all directed
along the same lines, the incorporation of the local communitys opinions and
desires in the planning process. The reason for this is that:
Better decisions can be reached by means of a participative process, even though it
is far more difficult. This shift in emphasis does not mean that research and
concepts by professional planners are abandoned. Rather, it means that many other
constituencies, other than planners, have experiences, opinions and constructive
recommendations. Final decisions have a much better chance of being implemented
if publics have been involved (Gunn, 1994, p.20).
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As a result, interactive planning proposes top-down, together with bottom-up

input, for the better implementation of plans. On the other hand, Braddon (1982)
proposes that tourism planning should be market oriented, providing the right
product for the consumer - the tourist (p.246). Inskeep (1991) states:
A completely market-led approach provides whether attractions, facilities, and
services the tourist market may demand could result in environmental degradation
and loss of socio-cultural integrity of the tourist area, even though it brings shortterm economic benefits (p.30).

Therefore, he proposes that in order to avoid this situation a product led

approach is more applicable. This approach is also mentioned by Baud-Bovy and
Lawson (1977) with their product analysis sequence for outdoor leisure
planning (PALSOP) where emphasis is put on the product (or in other words
the supply), indicating the need for a supply-led approach to tourism planning.
According to Inskeep (1991) the supply-led approach implies:
Only those types of attractions, facilities, and services that the area believes can best
be integrated with minimum impacts into the local development patterns and society
are provided, and marketing is done to attract only those tourists who find this
product of interest to them (p.30).

Mill (1990) and Gunn (1994) agrees with Inskeep (1991) that only integrated
planning can reassure communities that the type of development results will be
appropriate. Therefore, Baud-Bovy (1982) declares:
Any tourism development plan has to be integrated into the nations socioeconomic and political policies, into the natural and man-made environment, into
the socio-cultural traditions, into the many related sectors of the economy and its
financial schemes, and into the international tourism market (p.308).

Tourism planners should learn from mistakes made elsewhere and realise that the
planning process is not a static but a continuous process which has to integrate
exogenous changes and additional information (de Kadt, 1979; Baud-Bovy,
1982; Gunn, 1994; Hall, 2000). Therefore, tourism planning should be flexible
and adaptable; to cope with rapidly changing conditions and situations faced by a
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community (Atach-Rosch, 1984; Choy, 1991). Nevertheless, many decisionmakers and developers are often located at a very considerable distance from the
destination under development which means they may be unaware of, or
unconcerned about any costs resulting from tourism development (Butler, 1993b).
As Gunn (1988) remarks, planning is predicting and it requires some estimated
perception of the future. Absence of planning or short-range planning that does
not anticipate a future can result in serious malfunctions and inefficiencies
(p.15). Therefore, Wilkinson (1997b) proposed that strategic thinking should be
incorporated into planning. Strategic thinking is defined as:
A continual processing of external and internal information and adjusting to
changing situations. The manager looks out into the future and identifies the changes
the future may bring: changes in markets, changes in products, changes in
technology, or changes in regulatory or financial environments. The plan becomes a
statement of how to deal with these changing conditions. The plan is subject to
continuous evolution as the manager attempts to achieve a strategic competitive
advantage in a changing environment (Porter, 1985, p.467).

Next, tourism planning can take place at various levels ranging from the macro
national and regional levels to the various micro local planning levels (WTO,
1993, p.39). As Pearce (1995b) proposes, plans prepared at one level should be
focused almost exclusively on that level, although it should be ensured that they
fit into the context of the other levels, since planning at one level can be
influenced by planning at another level. For example, some countries, such as
France and Spain rely heavily on regional tourism plans to complement the
national ones.

To sum up, the evolution of tourism development planning can be broken down
into five stages (Tosun and Jenkins, 1998, p.103):

Unplanned tourism development era: during this stage tourism planning is

uncommon, unpopular and an unwanted idea, and therefore tourism emerges
as an unplanned activity.

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Beginning of partly supply-oriented tourism planning stage: this stage is

characterised by the construction of basic infrastructure, such as hotels,
restaurants, transportation etc.

Entirely supply-oriented tourism planning stage: at this stage, planning is

directed toward the creation of facilities that satisfy increased tourism
demand, although it ignores most resulting problems.

Market or demand-oriented tourism development planning stage: at this stage,

tourism planning is focused mainly on greater numbers of tourists and how to
satisfy them.

Contemporary planning approach stage: after the increase in the number of

tourist arrivals and the careless and myopic tourism development planning
approaches, environmental, socio-cultural and economic problems increase
which attracts the attention of developers and planners.

3.3

IMPLEMENTATION OF PLANNING

Little planning literature in tourism concentrates on the implementation of

planning approaches through the use of appropriate tools and techniques in the
planning process. These techniques are:

3.3.1 A systems approach to tourism planning

For a better understanding of the relationships within tourism, it is necessary to
separate the components of the tourism system, in order to reduce its complexity
and to identify the relationships of the components before drawing them back
together (Pearce, 1989, p.280; Liu, 1994). According to Tosun and Jenkins
(1998), this approach has the advantage of taking a broader view instead of being
myopic and isolated (p.104). As a result, a systematic approach to tourism
planning has been adopted by various researchers (e.g. Mill and Morrison, 1985;
Gunn, 1988; Pearce, 1989; Inskeep, 1991; Harssel, 1994; Page, 1995; WTO,
1998).

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Among the researchers who have adopted the system approach, Mill and Morrison
(1985) considered four components of the tourism system, namely market, travel,
destination and marketing, while Leiper (1990) identified: the tourists, the
geographical elements and the tourism industry. Harssel (1994) viewed the
tourism system as a mixture of demand and supply components and Laws (1991,
p.7) went further by identifying the following features of the tourism system:

The inputs (e.g. the supply of tourism facilities and tourism demand);

The outputs (e.g. the tourism satisfaction); and

External factors conditioning the system (e.g. tourists preferences, political

environment and economic issues).

Liu (1994, p.21) identified three environments of the tourism system (Figure 3.2):

Figure 3.2: The three environments of the tourism system

Economic

Natural

Competing Industries
Legal

Social
Policy
Planning
Marketing
Organisational
Personnel
Financial
Cultural

Political

Competing Destinations

Technological

The Tourism System

Demographic

Internal Environment

Operating Environment

Macro Environment

Source: Liu (1994).

The internal environment includes policy, planning, marketing, organisational,

financial, and human variables.
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The operating environment includes the tourists (domestic and foreign), the
suppliers of the input (capital, labour, land, technology, materials, power etc.),
the competition from other industries (e.g. leisure) and the competition from
other destinations.

The macro-environment. As planning is a many sided phenomenon (Tosun

and Jenkins, 1998), the system approach supports that successful tourism
planning is essential to incorporate socio-cultural, economic, political,
technological and geographical variables.

To sum up, as the components of the tourism system are inter-related, tourism
development of a country or region should be examined as a whole. Components
exhibit a high degree of independence. The behaviour of the whole system is
usually something very much more than the sum of the parts (Wilson, 1981, p.3).

3.3.2 Market/product strategic options

Empirical studies of general planning practices have presented a wide variety of
popular planning tools and techniques for the fulfilment of development
objectives, using various market/product strategic options.

From the review of the market/product strategic options shown in Appendix A it

is apparent that the four authors (Ansoff, 1965; Henderson, 1979; Porter, 1980;
Gilbert, 1990) share a similar motivation by proposing alternatives on how a firm
(or destination) can achieve leadership in the market through competitive
advantage. For the achievement of this, strategists suggest a type of
differentiation/leadership. Ansoff (1965) views differentiation as new products for
new markets and Henderson (1979) suggests differentiation through products with
high market share in a fast growing market (star products). Gilbert (1990)
proposes a move from a position of commodity to a position of a status area,
through a development of tourism product benefits and Porter (1980) views
leadership from three angles: low-cost, differentiation and/or focus strategy.

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Although a low-cost strategy is widely applied to most consumer goods,

competitive advantage through low-cost is not advisable for tourist destinations.
This is because a low-cost strategy reduces profit margins of destinations leaving
them unable to invest in environmental preservation, infrastructure, services
improvement and promotional initiatives. As a result, this strategy leads to the
attraction of a low-spending market. As most package tourists are concentrated in
time and space, the local resources are exploited to the maximum degree, with all
the consequent adverse effects.

Although star product destinations should have a high market share, they should
not exceed the carrying capacity of the destination and destroy local resources. An
increase in the number of visitors does not always mean benefits for the
destination. Higher-spending visitors may bring better results. If a destination
promotes and sells new or existing quality products to new or existing
environmentally-friendly markets, it may pass from a position of commodity to a
position of status which may be achieved through an improved image which may
attract higher spending, loyal customers. This market may respect the
environment and the host societys welfare and may bring more benefits than
costs to the destination. Thus, demand may not be incidental, but intentional. This
can be achieved only if development is planned and not occasional.

The above-mentioned strategies can be used by developers as tools for the

formulation of planning approaches and for the enhancement of their strategic
decisions. The essence of strategy formulation is an assessment of whether the
destination is doing the right thing and how it can act more effectively. In other
words, objectives and strategies should be consciously developed so that the
destination knows where it wants to go. To this end, strategy formulation should
be carried out with the involvement of the community, so as to ensure their help
for the achievement of the plans. In summary, not all destinations will be in the
position to expand or achieve sustainability in the future. Only the destinations
that choose the best strategies may be reinforced with a competitive advantage
that will bring them the most benefits from tourism development.

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3.4

OUTPUTS OF TOURISM PLANNING

From the implementation of the approaches discussed above the following

planning outputs emerge.

3.4.1 Partnerships in tourism planning

In the tourism industry, there are examples where partnership arrangements are
highly effective for the success of tourism planning and development. Since the
public sector is concerned with the provision of services, the resolving of land-use
conflicts and the formulation and implementation of development policies, and
the private sector is mainly concerned with profit, partnerships between the
private and public sector on various issues can benefit destinations (Sharpley and
Sharpley, 1997). As Timothy (1998) highlights:
Co-operation between the private and the public sector is vital ... a type of symbiotic
relationship between the two sectors exists in most destinations (since) public sector
is dependent on private investors to provide services and to finance, at least in part,
the construction of tourism facilities. Conversely, without co-operation, tourism
development programmes may be stalled, since private investors require government
approval of, and support for, most projects (p.56).

Examples of partnership include National Tourism Organisations (NTOs) working

collaboratively with tourism industry operators to develop attractions and
facilities; regional tourist boards providing a range of services for their
commercial members, including hoteliers, attraction operators and coach
companies; and local authorities co-ordinating the development of privately
funded tourist facilities in their areas (Youell, 1998, p.177). Partnership
arrangements can also be identified within the private or the public sector. For
instance, tour operators very often contract with accommodation providers and
local authorities work together with the NTO to promote a destination.

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3.4.2 Community participation in tourism planning

Community involvement in tourism can be viewed from two perspectives: in the
benefits of tourism development and in the decision-making process (McIntosh
and Goeldner, 1986; Timothy, 1999; Tosun, 2000).

For residents to receive benefits from tourism development they must be given
opportunities to participate in, and gain financially from, tourism (Timothy,
1999, p.375). However, benefits from tourism are often concentrated in the hands
of a limited number of people who have the capital to invest in tourism at the
expense of other segments of the community (e.g. lower class, uneducated and
poor people). Therefore, Vivian (1992) finds many traditional societies repressive
since they often exclude large numbers of people from the development and
planning process. As a result, Brohman (1996, p.59) proposes that tourism
benefits and costs should be distributed more equally within the local community,
allowing a larger proportion of the local population to benefit from tourism
expansion, rather than merely bearing the burden of its costs.

Pearce et al. (1996) have seen community participation from the aspect of
involving:

individuals within a tourism-orientated community in the decision-making and

implementation process with regard to major manifestations of political and socioeconomic activities (p.181).

Potter et al. (1999, p.177) refer to the term of empowerment as something more
than involvement and Craig and Mayo (1995) suggest that through
empowerment the poorest of the poor may be included in decision-making.
According to Potter (1999):

Empowerment entails creating power among local communities through consciousness

raising, education and the promotion of an understanding within communities of the
sources of local disenfranchisement and of the actions they may take. It may also

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involve the transfer of power from one group, such as the controlling authority, to
another (p.178).

Shepherd and Bowler (1997, p.725) reviewed the literature and identified four
major propositions for public participation:

1. public participation as proper, fair conduct of democratic government in

public decision-making;
2. public participation as a way to ensure that projects meet citizens needs and
are suitable to the affected public;
3. developments carry more legitimately, and less hostility, if potential affected
parties can influence the decision-making process; and
4. decisions are better when expert knowledge is publicly examined

Murphy (1985) has identified a wide variety of interpretations associated with the
concept of community participation in the planning process. Painter (1992)
observed three types of participation: pseudo where attempts are made to offer a
feeling of community participation, mainly restricted to informing and
endorsement, partial where community is given some opportunities to influence
the development process, but the final decisions are taken from the authorities,
and full where each individual has equal influence on the outcome of the process.

Through participation, communities can shape their own lives and the society they
want to live in and how to sell it (Timothy, 1998). Communities are the
destination of most travellers, and therefore tourism industry development and
management must be brought effectively to bear in communities (Blank, 1989,
p.4). According to Hall (2000) community participation in tourism planning is a
bottom-up form of planning which emphasises development in the community
rather than development of the community (p.31).

Since each group of people has different needs and receives different costs and
benefits from tourism development, they can have different views towards the
development of their community (WTO, 1993). Thus, it might be appropriate to
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involve the community in the development process. When communities do not

have input into the process they may feel that they lose control of their
communities, as they may prefer to exploit their resources in ways that will
protect their environment and culture (Holland and Crotts, 1992; Thomlison and
Getz, 1996). Undoubtedly, bottom-up input together with top-down is the
best way to avoid confrontation and achieve harmonious development (Pigram,
1990, p.7). Only through the co-operation of businesses, citizens, local authorities
and governmental and non-agencies, can a balanced tourism development be
achieved.

Smith (1984) identified four prerequisites for planning participation: opportunity

and legal right, access to information, provision of resources for the public to get
involved, and genuine public (broad involvement of the public rather than
selective). Additionally, Painter (1992) identified three major forms of community
participation:

1. Information exchange. The outcome of the process is determined by the

available information, e.g. through surveys on community opinions, public
hearings and media representations.
2. Negotiation through face-to-face contact and public discussions between a
usually small number of individuals and the public authority.
3. Protest. In this case, there are oppositional direct actions, rather than cooperative forms of participation, such as demonstrations, strikes and blocking
traffic.

Some authors (Murphy, 1983; 1985; Joppe, 1996) based community development
on an ecosystem approach. They suggested that since the host community is the
destination in which individual, business and government goals become the
tangible tourist products and images of the industry (Murphy, 1985, p.181), the
ecosystem approach ensures that all interested parties truly have the opportunity
to shape the outcome by determining the process (Joppe, 1996, p.315). Murphy
(1985) was the first to associate tourism with an ecosystem (Figure 3.3), where in
destination areas, visitors interact with local living (hosts, services) and non- 75 -

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living (landscape, sunshine) parts to experience (consume) a tourism product

(p.167). Only when all interactions result in an equilibrium state, can an
ecological balance be achieved (Murphy, 1985, p.167).

Figure 3.3: Ecological model of tourism

Source: Murphy (1985).

Murphy (1985) with his model paid attention to the opinions of the local
population and indicated that since tourism involves putting the whole
community on show, including its residents, it needs to consider and involve the
same residents in the planning and management decisions (Murphy, 1988b,
p.133). Concurrently, he identified the limits of a communitys carrying capacity
in the planning process. Haywood (1988) observed that tourism and tourists are
consumers and users of community resources, (therefore) community is a

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commodity. The naturalness of the community, its way of life, its institutions, and
its culture are bought and sold. In fact some communities are intentionally
planned and constructed for consumption by tourists (p.105).

Pearce et al. (1996, p.218) proposed the idea of social representation in tourism
and suggested that it can be used to understand the emerging social views and
subjective cultures of developing tourism communities, as well as voicing
community input into the shaping of sustainable tourism development. As
Schroeder (1996) suggested, residents can help the building of a propitious image
through their contact with tourists. The opposite can occur when the host
population proceeds to anti-tourist protests to incoming tourists, something that
will affect negatively visitors satisfaction and the extent of repeat visitation.

Potter (1999) remarks that although since the 1970s various agencies have
promoted community participation in practice most of the time community
participation has little influence in policy making. Likewise, Dowling (1993)
remarked that although research into community attitudes towards tourism is
reasonably well-developed, incorporation of such views into the planning process
is far less common (p.53). On the other hand, although there is evidence that
informed citizens are willing to be involved in the development process and the
future of their communities (Keogh, 1990), past experience in planning has shown
that communities have limited knowledge of tourism development (Pearce et al.,
1996),

There are occasions where the government (which very often has the role of
planner and developer) is unwilling to negotiate on particular problems for
political reasons or because of other interests (Pearce et al., 1996, p.191). Inskeep
(1991) disapproves of the reluctance of some governments to pursue community
involvement and noted: planning is for the residents of an area, and they should
be given the opportunity to participate in the planning of its future development
and express their views on the type of future community they want to live in
(p.27).

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Only by having the locals on their side can tourists hope to cohabit peacefully; and
only then host community can make sure that the environment to which tourists were
attracted in the first place will be safeguarded for the lasting economic well-being of
the local people, and for the enjoyment of a continuity influx of tourists (Dogart and
Dogart, 1996, p.73).

Although governments have realised the great potential of tourism for economic
development, they ignore the importance of public participation in planning, and
choose very often top-down planning that leaves host communities with little
input and control over the development of their community. A number of factors
may be found that hinder and constrain participatory development. According to
Botes and van Rensburg (2000, p.42) they range from institutional to sociocultural, to technical, to logistical, and are spread over a seemingly endless
spectrum. Botes and van Rensburg (2000) also identify that these obstacles may
be external, internal and a combination of both. As they state:

External obstacles refer to those factors outside the end-beneficiary community that
inhibit or prevent true community participation taking place. External obstacles suggest
the role of development professionals, the broader government orientation towards
promoting participation, the tendency among development agencies to apply selective
participation, and their techno-financial bias. Internal obstacles refer to conflicting
interest in groups, gate keeping by local elites, and alleged lack of public interest in
becoming involved. Some of the obstacles such as excessive pressures for immediate
results and techno-financial bias include both internal and external characteristics
(p.42).

According to Shepherd and Bowler (1997) many community members may lack
specific expertise or education and, therefore, their participation may be
considered unnecessary. Timothy (1999) gives as an explanation for limited
involvement of the community in the decision-making process during the infancy
of the tourism industry in many developing countries indicating that there is little
experience and knowledge of the industrys dynamics by community members.
Tosun (2000) identifies as a limitation of community participation in developing
countries

the

requirement

of

costly

administrative

procedures

(time,

organisational skills and money). There is the fear that community involvement
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may delay schedules of plans or may force developers to revise projects (Jenkins,
1993; Shepherd and Bowler, 1997). Since resources are scarce in many
developing countries, developers and planners prefer to allocate them to physical
investments rather than to bureaucratic formalities. Hall (2000) identifies as a
problem in the incorporation of the community to tourism planning the structure
of the government. As he mentions:

The nature of systems of governance leads to difficulties in ensuring that tourism

policies at different levels of government are adequately co-ordinated and that decisions
and policies at one level are not at odds with decisions at another (p. 32).

Often authorities cannot reject or oppose decisions undertaken by transnational

tourism organisations because of the fear that they will lose economic returns. As
a result, the tourism industry often is controlled by outsiders. Tosun (2000) asserts
that public bodies may not want to spend their limited financial resources on
organising community participation whose benefits appears to be relatively long
term. Private sector may avoid practising participatory tourism development
strategy since it involves contradictory investment criteria (p.624). In addition,
community participation may lead to conflicting objectives amongst the local
aims (WTO, 1994, p.10).

Concern is also being expressed that participation will not obtain a representative
or collective community view, and residents are often sceptical of community
involvement, for past practise has tended to be ineffective in their empowerment
to affect decisions, and use time wisely (Godfrey, 1993, p.250). Moreover, it
should be considered that many community members may be more interested in
their own interest rather than their communitys (Chesterman and Stone, 1992;
Jenkins, 1993).

To sum up, greater community involvement may mean more time wasted in
reaching decisions and consequently it is seen as unnecessary and unwieldy. As
Haywood (1988) remarked, the costs for such a policy are not only financial but
also executive burdens, such as the possible dilution of power, the lack of time to
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interact with citizens, the patience to educate others, the forbearance to be

educated by outsiders, the determination to improve negotiation skills, the courage
to risk some loss of control over matters previously internal to the industry, and,
ultimately, the danger of failure and the pain of bad publicity (p.107).

3.5

MEASURING TOURISM IMPACTS

The aim of planning is to evaluate whether objectives have been fulfilled through
measuring the economic, environmental and social impacts.

3.5.1 Economic measures

A review of tourism studies shows that development is mainly associated with
economic prosperity. Therefore, the most frequently used measures in tourism
research have been concerned with the economic impacts. Frechtling (1994a,
p.359) asserted that tourism economic potential can be understood as the gross
increase in the income of people located in an area, usually measured in monetary
terms, and the changes in incomes that may occur in the absence of the tourism
activity. Measures dealing with the direct benefits of tourism include labour
earnings, business receipts, number of jobs, and tax revenue (Frechtling, 1994b).

The focus of tourism economic research is based on the measurement of the

economic benefits of tourism to communities. Most work (e.g. Archer, 1977; Liu
et al., 1984; Ruiz, 1985; Jackson, 1986; Milne, 1987; Witt, 1987; Archer and
Fletcher, 1988; Oosterhaven and van Der Knijff, 1988; Wanhill, 1988; Fletcher,
1989; Khan et al., 1990; West, 1993; Archer, 1995; Archer and Fletcher, 1996;
Henry and Deane, 1997) has been based on the concept of the multiplier analysis
which is based upon the recognition that the tourism impact is not restricted in the
initial consumption of goods and services but also arises through the calculation
of the direct and secondary effects created by additional tourism expenditure
within the economy. There are four different types of tourism multipliers
application in common use (Jackson, 1986; Fletcher and Archer, 1991): sales (or

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transactions), output, income and employment. The extent of the multiplier

depends on the size, structure and diversity of the local economy.

3.5.2 Environmental measures

In an attempt to eliminate environmental costs, many countries have included in
their legislation Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for all projects,
including tourism. The aim is to predict the environmental consequences of a
proposed development activity, and to ensure that potential risks are foreseen and
necessary measures to avoid, mitigate or compensate for environmental damage
are identified (ODA, 1992, p.90; Green and Hunter, 1993). EIA usually examines
the following (Cooper et al., 1998, p.156):

Environment auditing procedures;

Limitations for natural resources;

Environmental problems and conflicts that may affect project viability; and

Possible detrimental effects on people, flora and fauna, soil, water, air, peace
and quiet, landscapes, and cultural sites.

A variety of other indicators can be used, often included in EIA procedure, to

measure environmental impacts, such as climate change, urban environmental
quality, natural resources, eutrophication, acidification, toxic contamination,
waste, energy and transport indicators (OECD, 1994).

3.5.3 Social measures

According to Cooper et al. (1998, p.180) the socio-cultural impacts of tourism are
the most difficult to measure and quantify, because they are often highly
qualitative and subjective in nature. There are two key methods for collecting
information for social impact measurement:

primary research through surveys or interviews including attitudinal surveys,

the Delphi technique and participant observation (Crandall, 1994); and
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the analysis of secondary sources found in government records, public

documents and newspapers.

3.5.4 Other measures

Apart from the above measurements of tourism impacts, recent attempts have
been made to develop more comprehensive indicators (Lundberg, 1974; de
Albuquerque and McElroy, 1992; Sezer and Harrison, 1994; Oppermann and
Chon, 1997; McElroy and de Albuquerque, 1998), such as:

The Travel Intensity Index (the ratio of visitors to local population);

The Tourism Intensity Rate (the number of visitors per 1,000 population and
per square kilometre of total land area);

The Tourism Penetration Ratio (the number of visitors x the average length of
stay divided by the population x 365);

The Tourism Density Ratio (the number of visitors x the average length of
stay divided by land area x 365); and

The Human Development Index (HDI) used by the United Nations

Development Programme (UNDP) that integrates financial and social
variables.

Since attitudinal surveys are considered the most important method of

investigating the host communitys attitudes and perceptions of tourism, the
following section will present past research of community attitudes to tourism
impacts.

3.6

RESEARCH
IMPACTS

INTO

COMMUNITY

OPINIONS

ON

TOURISM

In the tourism literature, many studies have tried to investigate the opinions of
residents on tourism development and their desire for further tourism expansion.
According to Phillips (1994) and Andriotis et al. (1999), it is important to realise

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that local communities are not fixed in their attitudes, nor are they likely to share
identical attitudes.

Therefore, in many impact studies, it has been argued that attitudes towards
tourism development may be due to several factors (independent variables). In an
attempt to investigate these factors, many researchers have divided the total
population into subgroups. Such a method enables planners to appeal to, and
enlist the support of highly positive segments of people. Conversely, it permits the
anticipation of points of resistance which need to be addressed if tourism
development is to go ahead successfully (Ritchie, 1988, p.210). The major
single-factors found in the literature are:

Economic reliance on the tourism industry. Positive attitudes from residents

increase with an individuals economic and/or employment dependency on
tourism (Rothman, 1978; Thomason et al., 1979; Murphy, 1981; Pizam and
Pokela, 1985; Ap, 1990; Caneday and Zeiger, 1991; Glasson et al., 1992;
Snaith and Haley, 1994; 1999).

Distance from the tourist zone. The distance of residents from the tourist zone
very often explains variations in attitudes (Pearce, 1980; Sheldon and Var,
1984; Murphy and Andressen, 1988; Glasson et al., 1992). More specifically,
negative impacts of tourism decrease as the distance between the individuals
home and the tourist zone increases (Pizam, 1978; Long et al., 1990).
However, a study by Belisle and Hoy (1980) found that the greater the
distance from the development, the more negative the attitudes toward
tourism.

Degree of tourists-residents ratio. Duffield and Long (1981) illustrate that

communities with a small tourists-residents ratio tend to be positive about
tourism. Thus, as tourist development increases and becomes pervasive, the
level of satisfaction in the local community correspondingly decreases. Allen
et al. (1988) compared the impact of tourism development on residents
perceptions in 20 rural communities and found that lower to moderate levels
of tourism development appeared beneficial, but as tourism development
increased, perceptions of residents took a downward trend (p.20). Therefore,
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Doxey (1975); Dogan (1989); Ryan et al. (1998) suggest that in the initial
stages of tourism development, residents have a favourable opinion of
tourism, but end up with a negative outlook.

Socio-demographic characteristics. According to some researchers gender

(Pizam and Pokela, 1985; Ritchie, 1988), education (Husbands, 1989;
Haralambopoulos and Pizam, 1996; Jones et al., 2000) and age (Murdock and
Shriner, 1979; Brougham and Butler, 1981; Dogan, 1989; Husbands, 1989;
Jones et al., 2000) can explain attitudes toward tourism. However, the
majority of researchers (e.g. Belisle and Hoy, 1980; Brayley and Var, 1989;
Husbands, 1989; Mok et al., 1991; Allen et al., 1993; Brown and Giles, 1994;
Ryan et al., 1998; Tomljenovic and Faulkner, 2000) found that sociodemographic characteristics do not to any significant degree explain
variations in residents attitudes.

Pearce et al. (1996, p.81) asserted that communities having little contact with
others, have greater difficulty in dealing with tourism than those with a longer
history of dealing with other cultures, and they gave the example of Bermuda
(Manning, 1979) and the larger Greek islands (Loukissas, 1982) noting that these
islands have few difficulties in dealing with tourism because of their long history
of contact with other cultures. Researchers, such as Murphy and Andressen
(1988); Snepenger and Johnson (1991); Lankford and Howard (1994);
Haralambopoulos and Pizam (1996); and Pearce et al. (1996) have identified
additional single factors. They include: occupational status, number of minors in
the family, size of household, length of residence, residents involvement in
tourism decision-making, birthplace, perceived impacts on local outdoor
recreation opportunities, voting/political patterns and differences in perceptions
between those living in the less developed peripheral areas and those living in the
capital city. Unfortunately, research into these variables is limited and therefore
their significance in explaining communitys attitudes has not been proven.

Similarly, although residents image of their community may be used to explain

their attitudes to tourism development not many authors have made any attempt to
prove it. Alternatively, research on tourism image has been focused on the
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influence of destination image on tourism behaviour and choice (Hunt, 1975;

Pearce, 1982; Gartner, 1986; Phelps, 1986; Chon, 1990; Echtner and Ritchie,
1991; 1993; Lubbe, 1998; Walmsley and Young, 1998; Coshall, 2000; Tapachai
and Waryszak, 2000). Hunt (1975) defined tourism image as the impression held
by people about a state in which they do not reside. However, it is important for
planners to investigate the opinion of people on their states image, in order to
achieve their support on tourism development.

In the literature, the two major perceptions of image are the cognitive and the
affective (Hanyu, 1993; Baloglou and McCleary, 1999; Vaughan and Edwards,
1999). The cognitive perception of a destinations image from the residents point
of view is how residents would describe the physical attributes or features of the
area, such as landscape, built environment and people, and the affective is the
interpretation of the cognitive perceptions by the individual into feelings of like or
dislike (Vaughan and Edwards, 1999, p.3). Both the cognitive and affective
perceptions form the overall image of an area (Stern and Krakover, 1993;
Baloglou and McCleary, 1999).

Milman and Pizam (1988) found that residents of Florida believed that tourism
development had improved their own image of their area. Schroeder (1996, p.72)
suggested that residents of North Dakota indicating a more positive image were
more likely to recommend their area to others and be more supportive of state
funding for the promotion and development of tourism. In this sense, residents of
Frederickburg, Texas who are satisfied with and proud of their communitys
image, are willing to work hard to maintain it (Huang and Stewart, 1996).
Compliments from outsiders can affect residents perception of their own
community and can ultimately influence their behaviour (Huang and Stewart,
1996, p.29). To this end, Schroeder (1996) supported:
Improving the residents image could help develop political support for increased
tourism spending and could help make residents better ambassadors for their state or
region (p.73).

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Residents attitudes have also been investigated using multiple factor studies,
which acknowledge that residents attitudes are made up of both positive and
negative perceptions of the economic, social and environmental implications of
tourism development. Thus, such studies have attempted to classify people
according to the extent to which overall perceptions are positive or negative;
whilst accepting that they are made up of negative and positive perceptions of
different intensity (Andriotis et al., 1999). For example, according to Madrigal
(1995):
Residents are forced to take some kind of position on development. Residents who
share perceptions may be considered part of the same nested community, whereas
residents with competing views of development belong to different nested
communities. Membership does not necessarily have to be formally stated; rather
membership in this context refers only to those individuals whose reactions to
decisions lead to similar perceptions of outcomes (pp.87-88).

As a result, segmentation of residents based on attitudes held, has resulted in the

finding that any host community is not homogenous but comprises a number of
groupings of like-minded individuals.

Studies of residents, based on the multiple factors behind residents attitudes are
limited in number in the literature. Figure 3.4 presents information about the
findings of some of these studies, which reflect that there is a continuum of
segments according to the degree of positivity in attitudes ranging from advocates
to haters, although the number of groupings along this continuum varies from
study to study.

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Figure 3.4: Multi-factor studies and degree of positivity towards tourism development
Degree of
Positivity
High

Davis et al.
(1988)

Evans
(1993)

Lovers
(20%)

Lovers
(20%)

Love Em for a
Reason (26%)

Selfish
(3%)

Ryan and Montgomery Madrigal

(1994)
(1995)
Enthusiast
(22.2%)

Extreme
Enthusiastics
(17.5%)
Moderate
Enthusiastics
(42.5%)

Cautious Romantics Controlled

(21%)
(32%)
In-Betweeners
(18%)

Lovers
(13%)

Ryan et al.
(1998)

Realistics
(56%)

Cautious Supporters
(40%)

Middle of the Roaders

(54.3%)
Somewhat Irritated
(24.2%)

Low

Haters
(16%)

Haters
(11%)

Haters
(31%)

Andriotis et al. (1999).

Other studies (e.g. Belisle and Hoy, 1980) have attributed the positive attitudes of
residents toward tourism to a function of the incipient stage of tourism
development. Consequently, in order to investigate all the aspects of tourism
impacts through the stages of development, Brougham and Butler (1981) noted:
An ideal investigation of the social, cultural and economic effects of the tourist
industry would need to look at a destination area both before and after the
appearance of visitors and their associated phenomena (p.570).

Such studies have so far constituted something of a rarity in the literature

depriving researchers of the opportunity to measure change over time (Butler,
1993b, pp.140-141). Only four studies have sought to examine perceptions of
tourism impacts on a longitudinal basis. Getz (1986) investigated the long-term
change in the human system in the Badedenoch and Strathspey district of the
Scottish Highlands and found that tourism can have a significant, positive impact
on attaining population stability and growth (p.125). However, this study was
focused on tourism impacts and population change and did not investigate the
overall tourism environment. A second study by Getz (1994), in the Spey Valley,
Scotland, investigated changes in residents perceptions of tourism and related
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issues over a 14-year period. He found that residents views were positive in both
surveys, although an increasing negativity was apparent in the second study,
mainly due to the failure of tourism to provide the desired benefits. Soutar and
McLeod (1993) measured the attitudes of residents of Fremantle, Australia,
regarding the impact of the America Cup competition in their city before, during
and after the event. However, this study dealt with a single event, rather than the
development of a destination area. A study by Johnson et al. (1994) in Shoshone
County, Idaho, tried to investigate residents attitudes over the developmental
phase of a new year-round ski resort. Unfortunately, the low response, 34 percent
in the pre-development stage, with a three percent increase after the resort opened,
makes the assessment of residents attitudes difficult.

The type of tourist very often influences residents attitudes towards tourism
impacts. Cohen (1972) examined tourism growth from the angle of varying
traveller characteristics. He classified tourist experiences and roles as follows: the
non-institutionalised (explorers and drifters) and the institutionalised (individual
and organised mass tourists). Each of these types has different impacts on host
societies. Similarly, Smith (1978) linked community impact from tourism
development in terms of waves of tourist types. She identified seven tourist types
in order of expanding community impacts, and increasing tourist flows (Figure
3.5). Smith (1978), like Cohen (1972) earlier, suggested that independent
travellers and explorers, are more likely to directly experience local culture and
lifestyles, and impact less on the community, compared to package tourists.

Figure 3.5: Typology of tourist types linked to community impacts

Type of tourists

Number of tourists

Community impacts

1.
2.
3.

Explorer
Elite
Off-beat

Very limited
Rarely seen
Uncommon but seen

Very few

4.
5.

Unusual
Incipient mass

Occasional
Steady flow

Gradually
increasing

6.
7.

Mass
Charter

Continuous flow
Massive arrival

Substantial

Source: Smith (1978).

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Cohen (1972) and Smith (1978), although they identified that each type of tourists
has different impacts on the host community, they failed to incorporate the stages
of development experienced by a community and as a result to explain why
certain destinations fail or succeed, as Doxey (1975) did with his Irridex Model.
In particular, Doxey (1975) investigated changes in residents attitudes as a
community moves from a discovery stage to moderate and finally to full tourism
development. In particular, he proposed that community residents attitudes pass
through a predictable sequence of stages from euphoria in which residents are
enthusiastic about tourism development and welcome strangers, to apathy, and
from annoyance to antagonism in which irritation is expressed and outsiders are
seen as the cause of all problems (Figure 3.6). Mathieson and Wall (1982)
considered Doxeys Irridex Model as an initial attempt to clarify communities on
the basis of attitudes towards tourism ... there is a cycle of community attitudes
towards tourism ... (and) at any time there will be differences in attitudes towards
tourism within a community, some being for and others being against and, at the
same time, the nature of the issues is likely to change (p.189).

Figure 3.6: Doxeys IRRIDEX of resident irritation

EUPHORIA

Initial stage of development, visitors and investors are welcomed,

little planning or control mechanism.

APATHY

Tourists are taken for granted, contracts between residents and

outsiders more formal, planning is concerned mostly with
marketing.

ANNOYANCE

Saturation points are approached, residents have misgivings about the

tourist industry, policy makers attempt solutions in increasing
infrastructure rather than limiting growth.

ANTAGONISM

Irritations openly expressed, outsiders are seen as cause of all

problems, planning has to be remedial but promotion increased to offset
the deteriorating reputation of destination
Source: Doxey (1975).

All the aforementioned studies on tourism impacts are concerned with the
perception of residents towards tourism development. In effect, there is limited
research on the opinions of other community groups, such as businessmen and
local authorities on tourism development. Exceptions include the following
studies.

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Thomason et al. (1979) compared the attitudes of three groups affected by tourism
expansion: residents, entrepreneurs, and public sector providers, and highlighted
significant differences between their attitudes towards environmental issues, with
entrepreneurs having more positive attitudes than the other two groups. Tyrrell
and Spaulding (1987) surveyed household, business and town official attitudes
toward tourism growth in Rhode Island, and found that the three groups expressed
favourable attitudes. However, households were more concerned over the location
of specific tourism facilities close to home, because of traffic congestion and litter
problems, although businesses and town officials believed the benefits of tourism
in employment and earnings to be higher when tourism activity is close to home.

Murphy (1983, p.9) studied three decision-making groups (residents, business

sector and administration) to test whether a certain set of related variables can
successfully discriminate these groups. He found significant differences between
the perceptions and attitudes of the three groups toward tourism development,
with the business sector being the most distinct. Nevertheless, Murphy (1983)
remarked that all groups were sufficiently close in their overall interest in their
communitys future.

Lankford (1994) examined residents, government employees, elected officials

and business owners attitudes to tourism development, in 13 cities and six
counties within the Columbia River Gorge region of Oregon and Washington. He
found that although all the groups recognised the economic significance of
tourism within their community and region, residents were more sceptical than the
other groups regarding additional tourism development. Pizam (1978) focused on
community views in Cape Cod, Massachusetts, with interviews with 1,636
residents and 212 entrepreneurs, where some incongruity in attitudes towards
tourism impacts appeared with residents employed in non-tourism enterprises
being the most negative.

Kavallinis and Pizam (1994) investigated tourists, residents and entrepreneurs

attitudes towards environmental impacts and concluded that tourists were more
critical of the environmental impacts than entrepreneurs and residents. In addition,
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tourists considered the other groups to be more responsible than themselves for
negative environmental impacts. They also concluded that residents considered
themselves more responsible for the creation of negative impacts than the other
two groups.

3.7

CONCLUSION

Tourism development has both positive and negative effects on a tourism

destination. Communities are very often threatened with unwanted developments
and face problems from unplanned or carelessly planned tourism expansion. In
order to overcome these multi-faceted problems, comprehensive tourism planning
is needed to maximise the benefits and minimise the costs or disadvantages of
tourism development through the involvement of the local community who have
to live with the tourists and the costs and benefits they bring.

The above literature review indicates that although there is a strong argument for
the need for planning in tourism development. However, it is not important only
to design a development plan but also to implement it. Therefore, it is necessary to
develop policies that will be widely accepted by the local community. Planners
and governments should consider the fact that there are limits to how much
tourism a particular destination could absorb. Destinations need to consider these
limits and plan their tourist industry accordingly. Planners and governments must
continuously measure environmental and socio-economic impacts of tourism, in
order to ensure long-term benefits for residents and tourists alike without
damaging the man-made and natural environment.

Tourism has been seen by many governments as an economic development

strategy and if a destination area wishes to maintain tourism as a long-term
activity, it should be concerned through planning to differentiate its product from
competing destinations through better preservation of its environment and culture,
understanding the needs and desires of the local community and increased
awareness in the community as to what the industry means in terms of costs and
benefits. Planning for tourism will benefit only through input from a wide range
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of participants including governmental and non bodies, local and regional

organisations, businesses and the host population, since it is extremely difficult to
formulate and implement a tourism plan without the strong support and
involvement of all these groups.

To conclude, integrated and holistic planning can be considered as a mechanism

for future and present problem-solving orientations and as a tool to provide a
balance between the positive and negative effects of tourism (Atach-Rosch, 1984;
Gunn, 1994). The encouragement of the involvement and the active participation
of the local community in the planning process are of primary importance for
keeping the control of the tourism industry in the hands of the local population
and achieving a balanced tourism development.

After the literature review on development and planning the next two chapters
will provide a basis for understanding the development and planning of tourism in
Crete, in order the last Chapter to propose the preferred routes for the
development of the island.

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