The Bedan Journal of Psychology 2015 Volume I

THE BEDAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2015 | VOLUME I
Created Annually by
San Beda College Alabang
Bedan Psychological Society

2015
1
FOREWORD
This journal of quantitative psychological researches is in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the course Research Report 2 for the degree Bachelor of Arts
in Psychology. The issue includes the work of twenty-one undergraduate
students, who took the path of quantitative research, of the Bachelor of Arts in
Psychology for the Academic Year 2014 2015. The topics reflect the varied
research interests and focus of the students and their advisers. The articles were
written following the latest APA (American Psychological Association) format.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With our sincerest gratitude, we, the graduating students of the Psychology Department Class
2015, would like to thank the following people:
To Prof. Paul Hilario PhD, Prof. Rodelando Ocampo, Prof. Theresa Masilungan, Prof. Fatima
Bullecer, Prof. Juli-ann Alonzo, and Prof. Eva Castronuevo, for their patience and unceasing
mentorship that encouraged us to strive for excellence during the completion of our study and attain
the highest possible standards set by the department,
To all the participants who devoted their time and helped us with our data gathering,
To our families and friends, for their undying support and understanding that sustained us
throughout this challenging but fulfilling journey,
To the Bedan Community, for nurturing our work values, keeping us grounded as Christ centered
individuals and standing as a constant reminder of St. Benedicts philosophy -Ora et Labora, and last
but not the least,
To God, Our Father and Provider, who is the source of our strength and inspiration, making all
things possible not only in our college life but in all the aspects of our lives.
"O give thanks unto the LORD, for he is good: for his mercy endures forever...
Psalm 107:1
Ut In Omnibus Glorificetur Deus!
About the Cover Page Design & Crest
The three colors of the brain represents the Id, Ego, and Superego taking
the concept from Sigmund Freuds Psychoanalytic school of thought.
Regarding the gradient background colour of dark to light, represents the
shadow and the realization of the shadow, taking inspiration from Carl
Jungs Analytical psychology.
Delaunay Triangulation pattern represents the complexes that envelops
ones personal consciousness. For the geometrical patterns was once
intended to signify that consciousness can be portrayed into a beautiful
geometrical illustration.
The Bedan Psychological Society crest is a combination of the Greek
alphabet, psi, which is also the first letter of the Greek word psyche,
meaning mind or soul, and The Red Lion. Combined, these two characters
form a flaming torch. It symbolizes the role of Psychology as a profession
that brings light to the ignorance of man on our own conscious and
unconscious processes.
Table of Contents
Agreeableness, Attachment Style, and Relationship Commitment
As Predictors of Organizational Commitment
Savipra Alexandrio Gorospe & Rodelando Ocampo
Effectiveness of OPM Music in Enhancing Volunteerism Levels
Mary Grace Parolan & Juli-ann Alonso
Religiosity, Study Habits, Family Relations, and Peer Relations
As Predictors of Academic Achievement among College Students
Gabriel Luis Lacson & Rodelando Ocampo
29
48
Effectiveness of Self Monitored Gadget Limiting

On Procrastination Levels
Ericka Binay & Maria Theresa Masilungan
59
Parental Expectations and Perceived Parental Expectation

As Predictors of Competitiveness
Ryzza Togonon & Rodelando Ocampo
76
Correlation on the DISC Personality Profile and Leadership Styles

Of The Student Leaders of CAS in A.Y. 2014-2015
Reuelle Orense & Rodelando Ocampo
90
Levels of Stress and Coping Strategies between High

And Low Performing Students
Jamie Bellosillo & Maria Theresa Masilungan
102
Impact of Sportsmanship on Perceived Organizational Politics

Sonam Bharvani & Rodelando Ocampo
116
Helicopter Parenting, Self-Efficacy and Emotional Intelligence

As Predictors of Bullying Victims
Stephanie Edrozo & Eva Castronuevo
128
Effectiveness of Atonal Music on Reducing

ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS Test Anxiety
Kyucheol Lee & Juli-ann Alonso
143
Emotional Intelligence and SNS Usage among College Students

Nia Cayanan & Eva Castronuevo
Levels of Marital Commitment and Relationship
Quality among Couples
Vanessa Ocampo & Rodelando Ocampo
154
165
Learning Diffculties Encountered In the Use Of

Learning Management Systems among College Students
Kryshnan Vergara & Fatima Bullecer
179
The Effects of Music on the Attention Span Among

Internet Dependent Students While Doing Their Academic Work Online
Shanice Guevarra & Fatima Bullecer
190
Effectiveness of Expressive Writing and Instrumental Music

In Reducing Stress among Children Experiencing Role Reversal
Crizelda Angeli Nicolas & Rodelando Ocampo
200
Effectiveness of Gawad Kalinga SAGIP

And Childrens Aggressive Behavior
Edsha Xyra Magbanua &Juli-Ann Alonso
213
Predictors of Attitude towards Fixed Partner Selection

Among Chinoy Young Adults
Kathleen Milca Marinas & Rodelando Ocampo
229
Factors of Self-Concept and Lewins Leadership Styles

Tricia Querubin & Rodelando Ocampo
241
Peer Pressure and Parenting Style as A Predictor of Pasaway

Sam Huevas & Juli-ann Alonso
260
Soccer Intervention as Instrument to Enhance Adolescents Health

And Social Standing From Smoking
Justin Kevin Lee & Juli-ann Alonso
275
Distribution of Information: Reducing Mental Health Stigma

Of People with Suicidal Behavior Tendencies
Jose Antonio Remigio Da Silva & Eva Castronuevo
297
About the Editors
311
INTRODUCTION
Its been a longstanding tradition that theses of students are binded as an

individual book. With the innovative thought to collate each research
into a series of theses merged into onepaved way for the creation of
The Bedan Journal of Psychology.
Behind this idea is the vision of the Dean of the College of Arts and
Sciences, Paul V. Hilario, to raise the level and quality of theses done by
the students.
Beyond this idea lies a wealth of opportunity for researchers to expand
their avenues of exposure and even participate with local and
international conferences in furthering the body of knowledge in the
field of Psychology.
Volume I hosts a myriad of Quantitative studies; and the order of the
studies are based upon careful consideration of the theme, creativity,
motivation, depth, and organization delivered by the researchers during
the period of their defense.
Agreeableness, Attachment Style, and Relationship Commitment as

Predictors of Organizational Commitment
Savipra Alexandrio DJ. Gorospe
Rodelando Ocampo
Abstract
Organizational commitment is a vital factor in determining the turnover
intention of employees in the workplace. This study aimed to examine the
relationship and predictive ability of Agreeableness, Attachment Style, and
Relationship Commitment to Organizational Commitment. With the use of
purposive sampling, a total of 250 respondents were gathered from call center
agencies and former call center agents within Metro Manila. Results of the
study suggests that Agreeableness and Organizational Commitment is
significant and has weak positive correlation (r = .22; p < .01); Attachment
Style and Organizational Commitment has no significance; Relationship
Commitment and Organizational Commitment bears the greatest positive
correlation and is significant (r = .51, p < .001). In connection, using Multiple
Linear Regression showed that, as a whole, Agreeableness, Attachment Style,
and Relationship Commitment is significant in predicting Organizational
Commitment. Implication of the study suggest that an individual's
commitment to personal relationships can be a predictor of an individual's
commitment to an organization and may help in screening applicants
preventing unwanted turnovers.
Organizational Commitment has been considered as a common predictor of many variables

especially involving in any workplace setting. Some of these that organizational commitment
predicts are: the effectiveness of teams in a workplace and the job satisfaction involved in the
employees (Lee, 2003); the stress and the affected performance of the employee (Siu, 2003); and
most importantly, turnover intentions and actual turnovers of employees (Steenbergen and
Ellemers, 2009). Although, organizational commitment may be one of the most accurate predictors
of some of the variables mentioned above, however, there is a lack in what predicts organizational
commitment. There are some that involves the culture of an organization (Lok et al, 2005), also
the age, tenure, and resources of control of an employee (Brimeyer et al, 2010), and even the mere
appointment of an employee to a higher position (Bland et al, 2006). Studies in the Philippines are
limited regarding organizational commitment; and it was also done with the aforementioned
variables such as job satisfaction, stress, and also with leadership (Chavez, 2012), both these
studies are predicted by organizational commitment but it does not predict organizational
commitment.

In abroad, across the entire industry, call centers replace 26 percent of their front-line
agents annually, according to Response Design Corporation in 2009. This means that at a company
with 1,000, for instance, managers should expect 260 telemarketers to leave voluntarily or
involuntarily by the end of the year. Actual turnover rates vary by sector within the industry and
the classification of an employee may affect his expected attrition rate. For example, turnover for
part-time employees hovers around 33 percent annually (Huebsch, 2011). In the Philippines, there
is a prevalence in the turnover rate of employees in call center agencies. In an article by GMA
News Online published on March 20, 2008, Republic of the Philippines call centers reel from
worlds highest turnover. Mentioned in the article is that: Turnover rate in the countrys call
centers has gotten so worse that it has hit 60 to 80 percent, according to the Call Center Association
of the Philippines (CCAP). This has given the Philippines the worlds highest turnover rate for call
centers worldwide. Globally, it is an accepted norm in the industry to have a 30 to 40 per cent
turnover. Both Australia and India call centers have turnover rates of only six to 10 percent. Top
government officials are alarmed that an emerging industry that has generated around 2 billion US
dollars in annual revenues is reeling from a worsening turnover crisis (Pena, 2008).
In abroad, the current trend in addressing employee turnover according to Missouri

Business are: hiring the right people and continue developing their careers, company must be very
employee oriented, develop an overall strategic compensation package (Mushbrush, 2014). In
addition, A 2001 CallCenterCareer.com survey found that recognition for a job well done
motivates call center employees almost as much as an increase in pay. Managers should consider
fun ways to recognize top employees, such as a day at a spa or a gaming console, for the best
performer on a certain day. The company should also consider a reward for the employee that
shows the most improvement. Paul Weald, director at RXPerience Limited, suggests that managers
spend several hours each month developing each employee's skill set by sitting in on calls and
remotely monitoring random calls. The hiring manager should also look for good fits for a call
center job. For instance, students offer call centers a cheap and plentiful source of labor, but the
ideal candidate likely wants to use a call center job to start a career in sales (Huebsch, 2011). In
the Philippines, regarding the current trend in addressing employee turnover, in an article by
Philippine Daily Inquirer published on May 22, 2011, Work-life programs and organizational
commitment. Mentioned in the article is that: It was found that employees were generally satisfied
with their organizations work-life programs as evidenced in their positive perception of their
respective companys retirement plan, home plan, healthcare and insurance plan. Furthermore,
Results support the positive relationship of work-life policies and organizational commitment. It
also showed that employees attitude on work-life programs and organizational commitment
responds to three levels of need: (1) security, (2) socialization or belongingness and, (3)
professional and personal growth. Consequently, satisfaction with work-life initiatives lessens the
tendency of employees to leave the organization (Ramos, 2004). The implication of both trends
create the need for organizational commitment to be established in an organization to address
turnover prevention. Having organizationally committed employees creates the notion, We work
to live not live to work.
With all these scenarios, the researcher is keenly interested in understanding the predictors
of organizational commitment in the grounds of Agreeableness, Attachment Style, and
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Relationship Commitment. It is stated that relationships are affected by a personality variable, and
even attachment style in relation to organizational commitment, Tashiro and Frazier (2003).
Furthermore, this study could provide a useful additive to the literature of organizational
commitment in the Philippines, since there are few studies done locally, and would be beneficial
to any academic institutions in addressing organizational problems and issues.
This study aims to determine the predictive ability of agreeableness, attachment style, and
relationship commitment to organizational commitment in a call center agency in the Philippines.
Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions:
1. What are the degree of agreeableness, attachment style, relationship commitment, and
organizational commitment of the respondents?
2. Is there a significant relationship between agreeableness and organizational commitment?
3. Is there a significant relationship between attachment style and organizational
commitment?
4. Is there a significant relationship between relationship commitment and organizational
commitment?
5. Is the predictive model agreeableness, attachment style, and relationship commitment
predict organizational commitment of the respondents?
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Agreeableness
In a study by K. Kumar and A. Bakhshi (2010) regarding organizational commitment on
the Five Factor Model of Personality, their results indicated that Openness to experience negatively
predicted continuance and normative commitment. Conscientiousness positively predicted
affective and continuance commitment. Extraversion emerged as the most consistent predictor,
significantly relating (positively) to all three forms of organizational commitment. Normative
commitment was found to be positively predicted by agreeableness. Neuroticism was found to
have negative (non-significant) relationship with affective commitment, positive relationship with
continuance commitment and positive (non-significant) relationship with normative commitment.
In a similar study done by T. Tashiro and P. Frazier (2003) regarding one of the factors of
the Five Factor Model of Personality: Agreeableness and its significance to relationships, their
results have found that correlates of self-reported growth included causal attributions to
environmental factors and the personality factor of Agreeableness. Women reported more growth
than did men. Factors related to higher levels of distress included causal attributions to the expartner and to environmental factors surrounding the previous relationship.
In a study by Liao, Joshi, and Chuang (2004); in their study, the results revealed that
dissimilarities in ethnicity, Agreeableness, and Openness to Experience were significantly related
to organizational deviance; dissimilarities in gender, Conscientiousness, and Extraversion were
10

significantly related to interpersonal deviance. In addition, ethnic dissimilarity negatively
predicted POS and organizational commitment, age dissimilarity positively predicted perceived
coworker support, Extraversion dissimilarity positively predicted coworker satisfaction,
Agreeableness dissimilarity negatively predicted POS, and Openness to Experience dissimilarity
negatively predicted POS, organizational commitment, perceived coworker support, and coworker
satisfaction.
Attachment Style
In a study done by Boatwright et al. (2010) regarding attachment style and work related
variables such as work preferences and leadership behaviors, their findings revealed that workers
with preoccupied adult attachment styles expressed stronger preferences for relational leadership
behaviors than workers with either dismissive adult attachment styles or fearful attachment styles.
John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth founded modern attachment theory on studies of children and
their caregivers. Children and caregivers remained the primary focus of attachment theory for
many years. Then, in the late 1980s, Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver applied attachment theory to
adult romantic relationships. Hazan and Shaver noticed that interactions between adult romantic
partners shared similarities to interactions between children and caregivers. For example, romantic
partners desire to be close to one another. Romantic partners feel comforted when their partners
are present and anxious or lonely when their partners are absent. Romantic relationships serve as
a secure base that help partners face the surprises, opportunities, and challenges life presents.
Similarities such as these led Hazan and Shaver to extend attachment theory to adult romantic
relationships (Hazan C. and Shaver P.R., 1987).
Relationship Commitment
In a study done by De Goede et al. (2011) regarding relationship commitment, their
Multivariate growth curves showed that higher base levels of commitment and a stronger positive
development of commitment to parents and friends were associated with higher levels of later
commitment to romantic partners. The effects were equally strong in early-to-middle adolescence
and middle-to-late adolescence. Also, commitment to parents and commitment to friends were
associated equally strong to romantic relationship commitment. No gender differences were found
regarding these linkages. Overall, this study shows the importance of parents and friends for boys
and girls regarding committed romantic relationships. The results support the idea of one stable
and general working model used in different types of relationships. Another study done by Oner
(2000) regarding relationship commitment and its Future Time Orientation, their results found that
although a general FTO was adaptive in terms of romantic relationships, a high concern for future
commitment to a romantic relationship had a negative effect on reported relationship satisfaction.
In a similar study done by Schindler et al. (2010) regarding relationship commitment, their
results have found that whether general attachment to romantic partners was predictive of single
individuals progressing from not dating to dating and from not dating or casual dating to a
committed and exclusive relationship when simultaneously considering desire for starting a
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committed relationship, prior dating involvement, and self-perceived physical attractiveness.
Attachment avoidance, but not anxiety, was predictive of not entering into committed dating
relationships even with rival predictors included. The transition from not dating to casual or
committed dating was mainly predicted by prior dating success with some support for a potential
additional role of the desire to form a committed relationship.
Organizational Commitment
In the last 10 years, several studies done by Lee, 2003; Trimble, 2006; Zhao et al., 2007;
have been explored dealing with Organizational Commitment. Lee (2003) had findings that
indicates group cohesiveness strengthened the positive relationship between trust and
organizational commitment, while it did not affect the relationship between job-satisfaction and
organizational commitment. Similarly, Trimble (2006) had findings that sheds light on an issue
from organizational psychology: affective organizational commitment plays a mediating role
between job satisfaction and turnover intention, rather than job satisfaction mediating affective
organizational commitment and turnover intention. Also a study done by Wayne et al. (2007)
gathered results indicated that affect mediates the effect of breach on attitude and individual
effectiveness. All studies shows the role of Organizational Commitment with regards to job
satisfaction, group cohesiveness, and individual effectiveness.
In a study done by Van-Dijk and Kirk-Brown (2003) regarding Organizational

Commitment and its relation to job embeddedness and intention of leaving an organization, the
findings of the study did not demonstrate a significant relationship between job embeddedness and
intention to leave, although a significant relationship was found between organizational
commitment and intention to leave. The results did not demonstrate a consistent pattern for the
influence of gender or family responsibility. The results of the present study do however suggest
that further development and refinement of the meaning and measurement of the job
embeddedness construct will eventually result in a worthwhile contribution to the research
literature. In a similar study, by Steenbergen and Ellemers (2009) regarding the relation of
organizational commitment and work performance and behavior, Two studies (N1 = 16,389; N2
= 482) supported the distinction between these forms of work commitment, in addition to affective
and continuance organizational commitment. Corroborating our predictions, organizational
commitment predicted organizational turnover intentions and actual turnover, whereas the three
forms of work commitment substantially improved the prediction of self-reported (Study 1) and
objective (Study 2) measures of internal mobility and job performance over time.
In a study by Siu (2003) regarding Organizational commitment and job stress and work
values, Chinese work values were found to be significant moderators of the stressperformance
relationship in both samples. However, those values only safeguarded performance when work
stress was low or moderately high. When work stress was very high, employees with high levels
of Chinese work values reported lower job performance. Organizational commitment, in contrast,
protected employees from the negative effects of stressors and moderated the stressperformance
relationship in a positive direction, but for the first sample only. The implications of the study are
12

that it is essential to nourish work values among employees and cultivate employees commitment
to their organizations. However, in very high stress situations, it is more appropriate to alter the
work environment to reduce stressors at work, in order to enhance job performance. Similarly, a
study done by Fernet et al. (2012) regarding organizational commitment in work exhaustion and
motivation, their findings advance the understanding of why work motivation acts on employee
functioning and how it can play an active role in both the motivational and energetic processes of
the job demands-resources model.
In the last ten years, studies done by Freund & Drach-Zahavy (2007); Chang and Choi
(2007); regarding the relation of organizational commitment and organizational politics; Freund
& Drach-Zahavy (2007), in the findings of their study several interesting conclusions arise: first,
team members seem convinced of the importance of teamwork and its contribution to their work,
yet teamwork prevalence is still low. Second, the professional groups differ in their perception of
teamwork goals and the way to attain them. The paraprofessionals are especially salient in that
respect. Third, although clinic members see their role as structured more bureaucratically, the
combination of mechanistic and organic job structuring led to teamwork effectiveness. Fourth,
although team members are committed primarily to their profession and not to the organization, it
is self-evident that organizational commitment should lead to team effectiveness. Finally, affective
commitment exerted a much more significant influence on team effectiveness than did role
structuring variables.
In a study by Brimeyer et al. (2010) regarding age, tenure, and resources for control in
relation to organizational commitment, their findings suggest that the relationship between
organizational commitment and predictors is affected by worker career stage. Most significantly,
the commitment for older and more experienced workers increases with high levels of autonomy,
while the opposite is true for younger and less experienced workers. When workers experience
greater control at the point of production, they express greater organizational commitment.
Although empowering for older and experienced workers, having freedom at work can be
threatening or destabilizing for the younger workers, who may prefer more guidance.
In a study done by Bland et al. (2006) regarding the impact of appointment on productivity
and organizational commitment, their findings indicate that whether one looks at all full-time
faculty or just at newly hired full-time faculty in Research and Doctoral institutions, compared to
their non-tenure colleagues, faculty on tenure appointments are significantly more productive in
research, more productive in education, more committed to their positions, and work about four
more hours each week (the equivalent of one additional month of work each year).
SYNTHESIS
The different studies conducted on Organizational Commitment have shown us the

13

different variables that are correlated with Organizational Commitment. We have seen that
organizational commitment plays a mediating role on job-satisfaction and organizational
commitment predicted turnover intentions and actual turnovers. We have also found that the
fairness in the change process interact with the effects of work unit changes on organizational
commitment. In addition, we found that psychological contract breach decreases organizational
commitment. Organizational commitment also has shown that it protected employees from the
negative effects of stressors and moderated the stressperformance relationship in a positive
direction. It was also mentioned that ethnic dissimilarity negatively predicted organizational
commitment. People in their 40s in the workplace does not perceive organizational politics and
organizational commitment to be related, but those who are younger moderately believed the two
to be related. And it was also shown that organizational culture and subculture has a strong
relationship with organizational commitment. Organizational commitment also has a strong
influence on team effectiveness. It was also shown that the commitment for older and more
experienced workers increases with high levels of autonomy, while the opposite is true for younger
and less experienced workers. When workers experience greater control at the point of production,
they express greater organizational commitment. Finally, being appointed to a certain position
regardless of being a full-time faculty or a newly hired, has shown to increase productivity and
strengthen organizational commitment. Human Resource Practices also influence an
organizational characteristics called decentralization. Five Factor Model of Personality also has a
bearing on the Constructs of Organizational Commitment, each factor to the three constructs:
Affective, Normative, and Continuance. Agreeableness was found to be the importance personality
variable in predicting relationships. Attachment style also has shown that it influences workplace
behavior and attitude regarding leadership. And finally, relationship commitment was also
measured to the future time orientation of couples and relationship commitment also has a bearing
on age. Furthermore, commitment to friendships and families plays a part in predicting relationship
commitment.
Perhaps the highlight from all the variables are the perceptions of workers differing in age
in its relation to organizational commitment, there seems to be a disparity in views that takes effect
on the organizational commitment. The dominant findings suggest that organizational
commitment plays a vital role in the workplace and influences a myriad of variables that are yet to
be covered. While most of the studies suggest that Organizational Commitment is a predictor of a
plethora of variables, what most of the researches lack are the predictors that concerns and may
influence Organizational Commitment in an organization or a workplace. The study regarding the
Big Five Factor of Personality, specifically the variable Agreeableness plays a big part in
relationship commitment because of its predictive power. Even commitment to friends and
relationships affects relationship commitment and even the future time orientation of an individual
to their relationship. And attachment style has a strong influence on a persons relationship
commitment. In addition, attachment style plays a role in workplace behavior and leadership roles.
These variables namely: Agreeableness, Attachment style, and Relationship commitment happens
to have a link to one another like Agreeableness to relationship commitment, attachment and
relationship commitment, which can also be significant factors to consider in the workplace
setting. The mere fact that there is an overlapping among the three variables: agreeableness,
attachment style, and relationship commitment; the relationship of the three will have an important
bearing on organizational commitment because the aim of the study is to see if the three variables
14

can predict organizational commitment, so the relationship of each predictor to organizational
commitment is important.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The study was a Correlational quantitative research design which tackled numerous
numerical data in gathering a great number of respondents.
Participants
A sample of 250 call center agents, who are working in a Call Center Agency: FIS Global
Solutions in Magallanes and Startek Call Center Agency in Ortigas-Mandaluyong City. The
researcher has also gathered samples from former call center agents who quit their job as call center
agents. Participants were chosen by the use of purposive sampling which is directed to call center
agents only or with the experience of working in a call center agency. The researcher searched for
participants who fitted the criteria: Target Age is 18-50, roughly half would be male and half would
be female for a total of 250 respondents, a year of experience was considered to be enough. This
sampling technique was based on the population and the purpose of the study.
Research Instruments
The data needed for the study was gathered through demographic questionnaire and four
scales measuring the chosen variables.
For Agreeableness, the researcher will use HEXACO Personality Inventory Revised
(HEXACO-PI-R) (Ashton & Lee, 2009) and the HEXACO-60 a 60-item questionnaire in Likert
Scale format will be used; sample items would be, I rarely hold a grudge, even against people
who have badly wronged me. and I feel reasonably satisfied with myself overall. And it has a
high Cronbach Alphas ranging from (.76) to (.80) namely: Honesty-Humility (.76), Emotionality
(.80), Extraversion (.80), Agreeableness (.77), Conscientiousness (.76), and Openness to
Experience (.78).
For Attachment style, The Revised Experiences in Close Relationships scale (ECR-R)
(Fraley, Waller, & Brennan, 2000) a 36-item measure in Likert Scale format of adult attachment
style will be used; sample items would be, Im afraid that I will lose my partners love. and I
often worry that my partner doesnt really love me. And the Coefficient Alphas for the variables:
Avoidance (.93) and Anxiety (.92).
For Relationship Commitment, The Commitment Scale (Rusbult, 1987) a 15-item in Likert
Scale will be used; sample items would be, I will do everything I can to make our relationship
last for the rest of our lives. and I feel completely attached to my partner and our relationship.
15

And the Alphas ranged from (.91) to (.95) for Commitment Level, (.92) to (.95) for Satisfaction
Level, (.82 to -88) for Quality of Alternatives, and (.82) to (.84) for Investment Size.
For Organizational Commitment, the Three Component Model (TCM) of Employee
Commitment Survey (Meyer & Allen, 1991; 1997) a 32-Item in Likert Scale format will be used,
the sample items would be, I really feel as if this organizations problems are my own. and I
enjoy discussing my organization with people outside it. And the Internal consistency estimates
(alpha coefficients) obtained in studies that have employed these scales range from (.74) to (.89)
for the Affective Commitment, (.69) to (.84) for the Continuance Commitment, and (.69) to (.79)
for the Normative Commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1990, 1993; Meyer & Allen, 1984; Meyer, et al.,
1989).
Procedures
In order to conduct the study and gather the necessary data, the researcher went through
the following procedures:
First, the researcher contacted a person who works in the said call center agency. Through
a personal contact, it made the distribution of the questionnaires smooth without any complications
regarding the management of the said call center. Second, the researcher came to the said call
center headquarters and did an ocular inspection of the people and the venue. Third, the research
gave his contact the questionnaires for the distribution. Fourth, the researcher observed how it was
distributed and also on how the respondents were informed of the instructions. Fifth, the
participants were asked to answer the questionnaires without a given time frame. Sixth, after the
participants have answered, the questionnaires were asked to be returned for collection. The
distribution and gathering of questionnaires happened for three trips in a span of three weeks.
Data Analysis
The statistical procedure used was Inferential Statistics for it would be making predictions
about a population from observations and analyses from a sample. The data gathered from the
questionnaires was analyzed through the statistical method called multiple linear regression
analysis. Multiple Linear Regression analysis provides the relationship between the predictive
variables: agreeableness, attachment style, and relationship commitment to the criterion variable:
organizational commitment. The researcher used the Statistical Product and Service Solutions
(SPSS) software for windows v.20, as the statistical tool in analyzing the data that was gathered.
The SPSS result showed the Grand Mean of the respondents regarding with each variable, the
correlation of each independent variable to Organizational Commitment, the coefficients of each
variable, the ANOVA of each model, the Model Summary, and even P-P Plot, and scatter plot.
The basis for the degree of the variables of the respondents and their levels will be displayed on
Tables A-D:
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Table A: Data Evaluation Degree of Agreeableness
Responses
Strongly agree
Moderately agree
Agree
Moderately disagree
Strongly disagree
Range
4.50-5.00
3.50-4.49
2.49-3.49
1.50-2.49
1.00-1.49
Interpretation
Very High
High
Average
Low
Very Low
Table B: Data Evaluation Degree of Attachment Style

Responses
Strongly disagree
Slightly disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Slightly Agree
Strongly Agree
Range
1.00-1.49
1.50-2.49
2.50-3.49
3.50-4.49
4.50-5.49
5.50-6.49
6.50-7.00
Interpretation
Very Low
Moderately Low
Low
Average
High
Moderately High
Very High
Table C: Data Evaluation Degree of Relationship Commitment

Responses
Do Not Agree At All
Agree Somewhat
Agree Completely
Range
0.00-0.49
0.50-1.49
1.50-2.49
2.50-3.49
3.50-4.49
4.50-5.49
5.50-6.49
6.50-7.49
7.50-8.00
Interpretation
Very Low
Moderately Low
Slightly Low
Low
Average
High
Slightly High
Moderately High
Very High
Table D: Data Evaluation Degree of Organizational Commitment

Responses
Strongly disagree
Slightly disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Slightly Agree
Strongly Agree
Range
1.00-1.49
1.50-2.49
2.50-3.49
3.50-4.49
4.50-5.49
5.50-6.49
6.50-7.00
17
Interpretation
Very Low
Moderately Low
Low
Average
High
Moderately High
Very High

RESULTS
Degree of Agreeableness, Attachment Style, Relationship Commitment, and Organizational

Commitment of the Respondents
The table would show the degree of Agreeableness, Attachment Style, Relationship
Commitment, and Organizational Commitment of the Respondents. Also included is the alpha
coefficients of each variable.
Table E. Grand Mean, Interpretation, and Internal-Consistency Reliability Coefficients (alphas)
for Agreeableness, Attachment Style (AS), Relationship Commitment (RC), and Organizational
Commitment (OC).
Variables
Grand Mean
Interpretation
Agreeableness
3.23
Average
.69
AS
3.45
Low
.93
RC
5.54
Slightly High
.97
OC
4.31
Average
.92
N=250
By using Descriptive Statistics, four scores comprised the variables for this study were
generated for the average showed that with regards to Agreeableness, Relationship Commitment,
Attachment Style and Organizational Commitment. Agreeableness scores were obtained as a
subscale of HEXACO questionnaire, out of 60 items, 10 items were covered by Agreeableness
which was used for the study. Relationship Commitment subscales: psychological attachment,
intent to persist, and long-term orientation scores were obtained by averaging the ratings.
Attachment scales which has two subscales of Anxiety and Avoidance items were combined and
was both averaged to obtain scores for each participant, with lower scores indicating decreased
levels of the dimensions. TCM Employee Commitment Survey - Normative Commitment,
Continuance Commitment, and Organizational Commitment scores were obtained by averaging
the participants scores on the scale. Grand Mean, interpretation, and internal-consistency
reliabilities for each scale are displayed in Table E.
Correlations of Agreeableness,
Attachment
Style,
Relationship
Commitment
to
Table F shows the Pearson r of each independent variable to the dependent variable
18

including their significance level and the sample size. Each independent variables result would
be discussed below.
Table F. Correlations
Agreeableness
AS
RC
Pearson R of OC
.22
.06
.51
Significance
.000
.182
.000
250
250
250
Agreeableness and Organizational Commitment

The second hypothesis of the study, and one of the five questions that wants to be answered
by the researcher, predicted that Agreeableness would be associated with Organizational
Commitment. The result found about the Pearson Correlation between Agreeableness and
Organizational Commitment (r = .22; p < .01) is significant and has a weak positive relationship.
The Agreeableness questionnaire that was used has a Cronbach Alpha of ( = .92) based from
getting the reliability statistic of one of the predictor variable.
Attachment Style and Organizational Commitment

The third main prediction of the study was that Attachment Style would be associated with
Organizational Commitment. The result about the Pearson correlation between Attachment Style
and Organizational Commitment (r = .06; p > .01) is not significant and has no presumption against
the null hypothesis. The Attachment Style questionnaire that was used has a Cronbach Alpha of
( = .93) based from the reliability statistic as one of the predictor variable. Although the reliability
was high, it did not yield a strong correlation with Organizational Commitment. However, if the
correlation between Agreeableness and Attachment Style would be considered, the result would
be (r = -.18; p < .05) and it is slightly significant and has weak negative relationship. Though weak,
the idea that the being high in Agreeableness would indicate lesser degree of Avoidant and
Anxious attachment styles.
Relationship Commitment and Organizational Commitment

The fourth main prediction of the study was that Relationship Commitment would be
associated with Organizational Commitment. The result about the Pearson correlation between
Relationship Commitment and Organizational Commitment (r = .51; p < .001) is significant and
has a moderate positive relationship. The Relationship Commitment questionnaire that was used
has a Cronbach Alpha of ( = .97) based from the reliability statistic as one of the predictor
variables. This has a very moderate reliability to measure the Relationship Commitment. Among
all the predictive variables, Relationship Commitment yield the greatest positive relationship. The
19

result has a Moderate Positive Relationship, within the range of .40 to .59, based on Evans (1996)
guide on the absolute value of r. Which the result of the research got a correlation coefficient of
.51. The implication of this result would be Relationship Commitment has moderate positive
relationship with Organizational Commitment. People in an organization can become as
committed to an organization as much as they are committed to their spouses or significant other;
since there is moderate and positive relationship, the greater the commitment to relationships the
greater the commitment to organizations.
Agreeableness, Attachment Style, and Organizational Commitment as Predictors of

The fifth main prediction of the study was that the prediction model: Agreeableness,
Attachment Style, and Relationship Commitment would significantly predict Organizational
Commitment. To further illustrate the prediction model, the Model Summary result would be
included.
Table G. Model Summary
Coefficients
Model
R
Square
Adjusted
R Square
Sig.
Unstandardized
Coefficients B
Standardized
Coefficients
Sig.
.51a
.26
.26
.000
Agreeableness = .568
Agreeableness = .168
3.071
.002
.53b
.28
.27
.000
AS = .094
AS = .165
3.033
.003
.55c
.31
.30
.000
RC = .452
RC = .507
9.341
.000
a. Predictors: (Constant), Relationship Commitment

b. Predictors: (Constant), Relationship Commitment, Agreeableness
c. Predictors: (Constant), Relationship Commitment, Agreeableness, Attachment Style
d. Dependent Variable: Organizational Commitment
Since the statistical procedure used is Multiple Linear Regression, the Adjusted R Square
would be considered in interpreting the result of the predictive model. If the first model would be
considered with only Relationship Commitment as the predictor, it would yield to a Pearson
Coefficient of .51 the same in reference to the Correlation chart that was previously shown. By
considering the Adjusted R Square of Regression Model 1: Relationship Commitment, with a
result of .26, by converting it to percentage, the result would report that 26% of the total variability
in Organizational Commitment is explained by Regression Model 1: Relationship Commitment as
the predictor. By considering the Adjusted R Square of Regression Model 2: Relationship
20

Commitment and Agreeableness, with a result of .27, by converting it to percentage, the result
would report that 27% of the total variability in Organizational Commitment is explained by
Regression Model 2: Relationship Commitment and Agreeableness. What the study was aiming to
answer is Do agreeableness, attachment style, and relationship commitment significantly
predict organizational commitment? By considering the Adjusted R Square of Regression Model
3: Relationship Commitment, Agreeableness, and Attachment Style, garnering a result of .30, by
converting to percentage, the result would report that 30% of the total variability in Organizational
Commitment is explained by Regression Model 3: Agreeableness, Attachment Style, and
Relationship Commitment as the predictors. Since there are no big discrepancies from the result
of the R Square and Adjusted R Square, the R Square was not considered. Hence, the Independent
Variables in the regression model are not redundant. Considering the Pearson R of Regression
Model 3, a score of .55 would indicate that it has a moderate positive relationship and significantly
predicts Organizational Commitment.
By looking at the Model 1, there is a significant effect of Relationship Commitment as the

lone variable to Organizational Commitment (F1,248 = 86.4, p < .005). With Model 2, there is also
a significant effect of Relationship Commitment and Agreeableness to Organizational
Commitment (F1,247 = 47.8, p < .005). With Model 3, there is also a significant effect of
Agreeableness, Attachment Style, and Relationship Commitment to Organizational Commitment
(F1,246 = 36.0, p < .005). The null hypothesis is rejected (the models having no predictive power)
for the F test result for each model: 86.4, 47.8, and 36.0 were greater than their corresponding
critical value 6.73, 4.69, 3.86 respectively.
Using the predictive model: Agreeableness, Attachment Style, and Relationship

Commitment, the result shows that Agreeableness, Attachment Style, and Relationship
Commitment are all significant (p < .01). Each independent variable has a predictive ability for
the dependent variable Organizational Commitment. The high t score (t = 9.34) of Relationship
Commitment is worth noting as it was the consistent independent variable with moderate
predictive power that keeps on appearing from the different tests that were made.
Focusing on the Unstandardized Coefficients B, the signs are all positive. Having for each
variable: Agreeableness = .568, AS = .094, and RC = .452. The interpretation for the coefficient
of Agreeableness would be: for a .568 increase in Agreeableness the model predicts Organizational
Commitment will increase or decrease by .168 holding all other independent variables equal. For
Attachment Style, a .094 increase in Attachment Style the model predicts Organizational
Commitment will increase or decrease by .165 holding all other independent variables equal. Also
for Relationship Commitment, a .452 increase in Relationship Commitment the model predicts
Organizational Commitment will increase or decrease by .507 holding all other independent
variables equal. This shows the sensitivity of the dependent variable to the changes of the
independent variable. Considering the significance level, each variable possess a unique significant
contribution to the prediction. Relationship Commitment delivers the greatest contribution to the
outcome, followed by Agreeableness, and lastly Attachment Style.
21

Another useful piece of information to consider is the Part Correlations Coefficient. Each
variable contributes to the total R Square of the Model. Looking at the result, Relationship
Commitment delivers the greatest influence by how it predicts Organizational Commitment.
Removing Relationship Commitment would drastically affect the predictive power of the model.
DISCUSSION
The purpose of the study was to determine if individuals commit to their organizations as
they do to their partners in their personal relationships, and if Organizational Commitment is
correlated to Agreeableness, Attachment Style, and Relationship Commitment. Using purposive
sampling, a total of 250 respondents were gathered from call center agencies and former call center
agents within Metro Manila. What the researcher has found was that Agreeableness has a
significant weak correlation with Organizational Commitment; Relationship Commitment has a
significant positive correlation to Organizational Commitment, and Attachment Style was not
significant and not correlated; Relationship Commitment was the highest correlated and greatest
significant predictor of Organizational Commitment. Overall, there was a moderate positive
correlation between Relationship Commitment and Organizational Commitment; increase in
Relationship Commitment were correlated with increases in rating of Organizational
Commitment. In connection, using Multiple Linear Regression showed that, as a whole,
Agreeableness, Attachment Style, and Relationship Commitment are significant in predicting
Organizational Commitment. Considering the three independent variables as one unified model
would account for 30% of the variability in predicting Organizational Commitment. Implication
of the study suggest that an individual's commitment to personal relationships can be a predictor
of an individual's commitment to an organization and in application may help employers in
screening applicants preventing unwanted turnovers. Since Organizational Commitment is a
significant predictor of turnovers (Dijk and Brown, 2003); the problem of the study was about
turnovers of employees, if there would be predictors of Organizational Commitment, it will
precede and address the turnovers of employees by considering an applicants Relationship
Commitment.
Regarding the studys limitations, it is important to keep in mind that the Multiple Linear
Regression model: Agreeableness, Attachment Style, and Relationship Commitment accounts for
only 30% of the variability of Organizational Commitment. The 70% was not covered by this
research and recommends future research to be done that will cover other unknown variables that
accounts for Organizational Commitment as a whole. Although the model has great predictive
ability, it should be taken in moderation since it does not cover the full Organizational
Commitment of an employee. Furthermore, Relationship Commitments moderate correlation and
predictive power does not mean it is an absolute, but only to be a factor to be considered in hiring
an employee.
22

Findings
Result of bivariate analysis revealed that employees agreeableness and relationship
commitment significantly correlated with organizational commitment. Multiple linear regression
analysis revealed that variances in organizational commitment can be significantly explained by
the employees relationship commitment, attachment style, and relationship commitment. In
addition, although attachment style isnt strongly significant predictor, it has an influence when
considered as a whole with agreeableness and relationship commitment. Relationship commitment
alone can be a predictor of Organizational Commitment.
Conclusion
Present research used three variables such as Agreeableness, Attachment Style, and
Relationship Commitment in predicting Organizational Commitment of Call Center employees.
Previous research suggests that Organizational Commitment is a predictor of wide set of variables,
but there were few studies done here in the Philippines regarding organizational commitment, one
is the study of work-life programs and organizational commitment in addressing turnover
intentions (Ramos, 2004). All in all, present research conclude that Attachment Style is not a
predictor of Organizational Commitment, but has an influence when Agreeableness and
Relationship Commitment were held as constant. Agreeableness on the other hand is a weak
predictor of Organizational Commitment. Relationship Commitment show as the strongest
predictor of Organizational Commitment among all the independent variables.
Recommendation
Turnover is one of the greatest challenges that faces every organization, especially those
in industries that has no promotion and are on contractual basis. Standardized test regarding
Organizational Commitment can be used to obtain more quantifiable data with a larger sample.
The use of Organizational Commitment as cited is not commonly used here in the Philippines with
regards to Industrial Psychology. Therefore, different setting such as Construction or in business
can be a preferable setting for studying Organizational Commitment. Given that Agreeableness as
weak positively correlated and Relationship Commitment as moderate positively correlated to
Organizational Commitment, it is recommended that it can be used to screen applicants for being
potentially hired and preventing future turnovers, but it will not be the basis of recruitment.
Directions for future research would encourage to find the other 70% that accounts for
Organizational Commitment as a whole, since the study only covered the 30% accounted for
Organizational Commitment.
23

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28
Effectiveness of OPM Music in Enhancing Volunteerism Levels

Mary Grace M. Parolan
Juli- Ann Alonso
Abstract
Previous researches has revealed that exposure to negative media contents
such as aggressive violent video games increased the likelihood of creating
an aggressive thought, feeling and behavior. This present research examined
the hypothesis that just as negative media content produces negative
outcomes, prosocial media can promote prosocial outcomes as presented by
the General Learning Model, with specifically using OPM music as an
instrument to promote and increase levels of volunteerism. A total of 32
participants, ages 17 to 19 years old, were gathered through purposive
sampling technique from a large college in the south of manila and were
equally divided into groups being the control and experimental group. The
study used Quasi-experimental research method with the use of a pretest and
posttest design. The findings revealed that unlike previous researches done in
natural setting (where music is always present, e.g. gym), exposure to
prosocial lyrical OPM music in a classroom set-up was not effective in
eliciting positive results (p>.o.o5), such as promoting and enhancing
volunteer levels in either motivation or in actual behavior itself. However,
results also suggest that this music exposure has only caused volunteer levels
to remain the same even after the intervention took place. Likewise, the
research has taken into consideration a few other factors involved such as
number of songs played, time exposure, procedure and personality that
possibly have failed the experiment to be effective.
Prosocial behavior is generally defined as any voluntary action or behavior projected to

achieve a goal for the benefit another person. It takes in various forms of examples such as
altruism, helping hand, cooperation, sympathy and concern, sharing, friendliness, offering,
acceptance from different groups and even volunteerism. It practically deals with the acts of good
intention for the direct benefit of another, without having to expect something in return from the
same person. In a sense, it is also the behavior of offering ones time and effort to help a person
or community without feeling obligated to do so, in this matter is the operational definition of
volunteerism.
The framework of social learning theory is valuable in conceptualizing volunteerism. As

explained accordingly to an article by the National Statistics Coordination Board (Virola, 2010)
entitled Volunteerism in the Philippines: dead or alive? for if we found any organizations like
churches or NGO or family members in our specific locality directing a volunteer work, we
29

become driven and thereof encourage others to participate in the same activities. Furthermore, the
idea of volunteerism, or in general, engaging in Prosocial behavior, provides a way for the
enhancement of our social solidarity, quality of life, social belongingness, a sense of personal
satisfaction, well being and many more. It all boils down to a simple perception of a good and
improved way of life, that demonstrates equality between self interest and public interest.
Music is all around us even if we do not always notice it. We hear music from restaurants,
to comfort rooms, when we go to the gym, in our car stereo/radio, in hospitals and even in
supermarkets. Its everywhere. It has long been known by science that a human person has a brain
that is so unique that it can elicit a change in a persons mood just by simply listening to music.
Likewise, it has been identified that certain types of music are used to treat depressed patients with
the more liker term of using music therapy. Correspondingly, studies suggest (Carlson, Charlin &
Miller, 1988) that being in a positive mood leads individuals to engage in helping behaviors. This
is because generally, being in a positive mood makes a person focus on the bright side of things
rather than the negative one. And all the more that helping others has a tendency to a generally
feeling of feeling good follows doing good, accordingly to Glomb, Bhave, Miner, & Wall
(2011). In the Philippines however, Filipinos generally love music. We even devote a month to
celebrate the festivities of our own local bands called October Music fest.
The same could perhaps be said about Filipinos wanting to volunteer. We have plenty of
organizations and groups that are asking for volunteers every now and then to help aid those
communities who need assistance. Many people do devote their time and effort to help others
through these organizations. In fact, 5 years ago in the year 2009, one of our fellow citizen was
awarded as the CNN hero of the year for volunteering his time educating the uneducated less
fortunate children of Cavite. Moreover, according to statistics provided by Dr. Virola (2010),
volunteers from all over the Philippines rendered an estimated 312.3 million hours of volunteer
service in the year 2000. Even so, the years following after, specifically during 2009, the total
value of volunteer work increased and reached Php 44.5 billion from the Php 20.1 billion of
volunteer work in 2000. On the average, it said that the value of volunteer work increased yearly
by 10.2 percent at current prices and by 6.4 percent at constant prices, during the 9-year period
from 2000-2009. In the end, the totality of volunteer work had established and comprised about
0.6 percent of GDP from 2000-2009.
However, according to an article of Civic and Political Health of the Nation (CPHS) Survey
by Marcelo (2007), from the year 2000 and 2006, show that volunteer rate among youth with
college experience aging from 19 to 25 years of age, had a decrease by 4 points from a percentage
of 40.9 during the year 2000 to a 36.9 percentage by the year 2006.
Furthermore, it has also been long known in the field of psychology that people do certain
things because of intrinsic and extrinsic reasons, also termed as motivation. We can all agree that
we only engage in acts that will more likely result in favour of their motivation which includes the
30

costs and benefits in doing the so called corresponding activities. No one does something out of
non-existing reasons. Likewise, knowing the motivation of people who engaging in prosocial
behaviors such as the like of volunteerism is essential in organizing events related to such and
similarly help determine what will make volunteers to continue to volunteer the next time around.
It is believed that the more motivation one has, the more likely an individual will exert this in
performance or behavior itself
Respectively, this research believes that a positive mood together with a corresponding
motivation is what drives people to engage in volunteerism acts, which is why it aims to provide
the same environment by using music to uplift mood as well as to enhance volunteerism levels
either in motivation or in behavior itself.
This study in particular will seek to answer the following: (1) identify the level of the
participants volunteerism as seen through their motivations to volunteer and the actual behavior
itself. Moreover, the study will also (2) identify the significant difference between the pretest and
posttest level of volunteerism of the control and experimental group and will (3) similarly
determine the significant difference of the scores of the experimental group in their pretest and
posttest levels of volunteerism.
The study however is limited in a sense that it has no control over the outside environment
of the participants since they are only met whenever the intervention, music exposure, takes place.
The study also is limited to the course of psychology since the researcher have identified that
including other courses may cause extraneous variable such as forced or pressured participation.
This also took into consideration that being psychology students, we have an implied goal to devote
our time and effort to the direct benefit of another as part of our advocacy. In addition to that, all
possible participants coming from different courses may not all at once come together due to
differences in schedule in school. Furthermore, the study will only use a limited, if not more than
5, songs for the experiment because the researcher has determined that the use of a lot of songs
would become an extraneous variable to the participants, since the researcher would only try to
borrow the last 15 to 20 minutes of a specific professor. This will likely help control the
environment setting the participants are exposed to. Likewise, asking students to stay after their
class would cause extraneous variables such as forced participation or have no actual participants
due to other committed schedules.
For the past ten years, different studies (Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2010; Greitemeyer, 2008;
Bosancianu, Powell, & Bratovic, 2013; Houle, Sagarin & Kaplan, 2010; Burns, Reid, Toncar,
Anderson & Wells, 2005; Carpenter & Myers, 2010) have been conducted to gain greater knowledge
of our prosocial behavior that is distinct to us humans alone.
31
Correlation of media effect

In Video games
A study conducted by Greitemeyer & Osswald (2010), has shown that for the last 3 years,
research has been made regarding the effects of media exposure that does not always tend its focus
to be on the negative aspect. Their study had revealed that playing prosocial video games more
likely leads an individual to a few number of positive behavior traits such as they are willing to
assist as a volunteer, they intervene when harassment situation arise, and in general, tend to help
others. Moreover, teenage parents who are technologically intelligent have been linked to engaging
in more civic behavior (Ferguson & Garza, 2010). Furthermore, it was found out that video games
were correlated to online prosocial behaviour whereby both teenagers and parents who play action
games are more engaged in civic activities.
On the other hand, a negative effect of media exposure can result to an aggressive behavior
when individuals are exposed to violent games, which leads to decreased empathy and prosocial
behaviour (Anderson, lhori, Bushman, Rothstein, Shibuya, Swing, Sakamoto & Saleem, 2010).
What's more is that this exposure to violent video games as revealed through the study of Carnagey,
Anderson, & Bushman (2007), can likewise lead to desensitization to violence (lower heart rate
and galvanic skin response.)
In Music
Media in itself can come in various kinds apart from video games. It can similarly come
into the like of music. Music is all around us, whether we stay in coffee shops, be inside comfort
rooms or in our commute to our way home, etc, it is always present. It is easily accessible and is
considered by most people as a reflection of their own personality and mood, as discovered through
the genre of music they listen to. Likewise, like video games, music can stimulate a positive effect.
Similar study on media effect has been researched but this time, Greitemeyer (2008)
tackled on the media effect of music. In his study, he experimentally had 2 conditions which are a
prosocial kind of lyrical music and a neutral kind of lyrical music, each having 2 list of songs
played in a natural setting. As revealed through his investigation, those students who listened to a
prosocial lyrical music had gradually increased their openness and idea to prosocial thought,
feeling and behavior. But however, as indicated the results are only limited to the short term
effects. Indeed, still in line with the good effect brought about by prosocial music, found out in a
study done by North, Tarrant & Hargreaves (2004) that uplifting kind of music had lead
participants in a gym set up to offer more helping behavior by donating money and whereby help
in tasks like leaflet distribution than it did with the effect on annoying music. In this case, each
kind of music used the top 20 selling singles from recent years and has accumulated over 1 hour
and 3 minutes for each kind of music played. This similar behavior was also present in a restaurant
setting according to a research by Jacob, Gueguen & Boulbry (2010). In their study they have
32

altered the kind of music played in a restaurant during dining periods of lunch and dinner and as a
result, prosocial songs had a significant increase and influence on the tipping behavior (act of
giving tip) of customers. In this experiment, however, as compared to the first two researches done,
exposed participants to three Audio CD containing 15 songs each with the time accumulation of
over an hour and 4 minutes and repeating each Audio Cd twice. In this case, media in the form of
video games and music has its effects not only then for entertainment but for effects of prosocial
behavior too.
In Social networking
Media is not just limited to music and video games. Nowadays, it includes online social
networking. In a recent study by Bosancianu, Powell, & Bratovic (2013) results from their online
survey, revealed that online prosocial behavior has implicated a strong impact on online social
capital or networking whereas offline prosocial behavior has the said same effect on either offline
or online social networking. In another study conducted by Wright & Li (2011), it has shown that
face to face prosocial behavior are closely related to engaging in online prosocial behavior through
social networking sites, chats, text messaging and email. After All, we can say that technology
especially the internet is place wherein positive interactions can take place and because it is just
new or have just bloomed into our generation, further call for research investigation on online
prosocial behavior is suggested by this study.
Correlation of Different Volunteer Activities

In Volunteer tasks and motives to Volunteer
Different people have different reasons why they engage in volunteer work activities.
Ultimately, no one would join such things if they had no direct benefit from it. A study by Houle,
Sagarin & Kaplan (2010), show that different people perform certain volunteer task based on the
motives they want to satisfy. In addition, participants indicated that they would prefer to do
volunteer task that directly benefit their personal motives.
In Gender differences of Volunteer motivation

Little study has been made about the gender differences in motivation to volunteer of young
adults. Although results indicate that there was an existing gender difference in motivations to
volunteer, the result however was not significant enough that it was relatively weak to say so,
according to the research done by Burns, Reid, Toncar, Anderson & Wells (2005). More so that
the result of the study suggested that gender stereotypes indicated more of the differences.
In Volunteer work with image, incentives and altruism

A study by Carpenter & Myers (2010) reveals through survey and experimental methods
via dictator games that a group of volunteer firefighters decision to volunteer is directly correlated
with altruism as well as their concern for the social image or reputation. In addition to that, is that
33

when monetary incentives were present, the concern for social image declines, revealing that
incentives overpowers the possible image building of volunteers.
Theoretical Perspective Research

This study on media effect of music takes its stand on mainly the theory explained in the
General Learning Model (GLM).
It is apparent in previous researches ( Anderson et al, 2010) that violent exposure to media
effects such as video games contribute to the influence that affects the thought, emotion and feeling
that in turn result to an aggressive behavior either short or long terms effects. This idea is supported
by the General Aggression Model (GAM) by Anderson et al (2010) which accordingly to them,
exposure to such violent media activities trigger a person's internal being (cognition, affect and
arousal). Whereas this former idea mainly focuses on the negative effect of violent media exposure,
The General Learning Model is the extended research of which that focuses on both the positive
and negative effect of violent and non-violent media activities. The GLM propose that positive
media can have positive effects in the same manner that negative media can elicit a negative effect.
It is thus understood that exposure to media activities (video games, television, music, etc.)
depending on its content are to result either a positive or negative effect on social behavior.
However, it is also believed that repeated encounters with pro-social media may yield long term
changes.
SYNTHESIS
Prosocial behavior has taken its research together with its correlations on many levels for
the last ten years. From all the many levels of prosocial behavior that has taken place, the
correlation of it with media effect has also taken its form. Its form varies widely from the use of
video games to music and even to online networking. Playing prosocial video games has seen to
produce helping behavior in the manner of helping others, be willing to volunteer and engage in
situations that call for help as found out by Greitemeyer & Osswald (2010). This study was
similarly confirmed by Ferguson & Garza (2010) by revealing that those who played action video
games were correlated to online prosocial behavior and that both teens and parents who play these
kind of games were more inclined in civic activities. Video games although shown to have a good
effect also has its downside. Exposure to violent games has revealed that it can decrease empathy
and prosocial behavior and can lead to cause aggression in emotion, feeling and behavior. In
addition, as shown by the study of Carnagey et al (2007), that violent games could also lead a
cause to desensitization to violence. Music on the other hand has revealed its own effects. Playing
music of the kind: prosocial lyrics, uplifting music and prosocial songs, has been shown to
influence helping behavior. Research has also revealed that prosocial behavior is not limited to
personal contact alone but as well as through social networking as portrayed by the study of
Wright & Li (2011) that face to face prosocial behavior was closely related to online prosocial
behavior. In addition to that, different studies have been made about volunteer motivations
including its correlation to volunteer tasks. It was found out by Houle et al (2010) that individuals
34

perform volunteer tasks based on their need to satisfy personal motives and would prefer choosing
tasks that have direct link in those motives. Additional studies reveal that there are no significant
gender differences in terms of motivations to volunteer in young adults. And lastly, it was found
out that volunteer motivations were highly related to altruism, concern for social image building
and incentives.
The researcher believes it would be best to focus on the effects of music on the prosocial
behavior of Filipino youth using our own official pinoy music through the portrayal of prosocial
lyrics. The researcher suppose Filipinos have a different scope and idea of Prosocial behavior than
that with the Western countries and in the same way, Filipino music has a different effect on us
being that it is from our own. Filipinos love music, especially during birthdays (karaoke). The
researcher identifies that there are several questions that arises from the previous researches done
with music: Will prosocial music exposure in areas other than a natural setting (where music is
always present, e.g. gym) still elicit the same positive result? What would be the result if the
prosocial music exposure done makes use of music other than foreign songs, for example in the
like of our own language or is made by our Local Music Artists? Can positive music exposure
have a long term effect on the helping behavior of volunteerism?
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
A quasi experimental study was conducted with a single group repeated measure design at
a college in the south of Manila. An experimental group and a control group participated in the
study. The level of volunteerism was measured before and after OPM music was introduced.
Participants and Sampling

This study got participants of an approximate of 32 second year psychology college
students from a large college in the south of manila. The 32 students were divided into two groups;
one control group (without music) and one experimental group (with music), with each having 16
participants. Since the freshmen years is the formulating year of the benedictine values of the self,
together with values of volunteerism and solidarity, it is best to conduct the study to second year
college students because they have already acquired and are accustomed to the core values of such.
The study aims to enhance the benedictine value of volunteerism that was formulated in the
students and hopefully, help continuously improve their behavior, which is why it would use
purposive sampling. In purposive sampling, students are initially assessed by taking the
volunteerism scale and the behavioral checklist. An inclusive group of this study were students
who are in their 2nd year college, aging from 17 to 19 years of age with a medium or average level
score of volunteerism (either in motivation or actual action behavior) who do not have subjects in
BLF and PEP classes. The excluded group on the other hand were students from the 1st, 3rd and
4th year level who qualify to have PEP classes, BLF classes and/ is or graduating. It also consists
35

of students with a low level and high level volunteerism scores. The study would need participants
who are only at a medium level of volunteerism level because if otherwise already high, the
objective of the study to enhance the level would be useless. It only seeks to enhance and not
formulate, which is why low level volunteerism participants are not included as well.
Instrument
Volunteer Functions Inventory
The study used the Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI) scale by Gil Clary and Mark
Synder. It is a 30 item measurement tool that assesses the motivations to volunteer. Respondents
answer each item on a 7 point likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all important/ accurate) to 7
(extremely important/accurate). The authors of the scale used a functionalist approach thus the
scale being divided to six functional motives: Protective, Values, Career, Social, Understanding
and Enhancement (see appendix for each definition). As indicated, the Cronbachs alphas for these
functions range from .80-.89.
Generative Behavioral Checklist

Furthermore, apart from enhancing the volunteerism levels of motivation, the study also
aims to check the levels of the actual volunteerism behavior of the participants. Thus, it also made
use of a volunteer behavioral checklist. This checklist test that was used in the study was the
Generative Behavioral Checklist by MacAdams, Hart and Maruna created in 1998. It is a 50 item
measurement tool (not all items are going to be used), which was narrowed and modified down to
29 behavior list. Participants were asked to rate each item from 0 to 2; 0 meaning you have not
performed the act, 1 meaning you have performed the act at least once and 2 meaning you have
performed the act twice or more than in a span of 2 weeks.
The test had undergone a pilot testing first to ensure the reliability and validity of the scale
since it was modified. It was given to 10 students (a 10% of the actual sample size) who are
otherwise not included in the actual study. If the test scores reveal a .80 to .95 percent, then the
test could be used as a measurement tool.
Music Exposure Survey and Playlist of Songs

The playlist of songs used as an instrument in the study also undergone pilot testing through
the Music Exposure Survey (see appendix). Respondents not included in the actual study were first
asked to listen to the list of songs and then answer the 10 item survey. Below are the partial list of
songs to be used.
One of the songs to be used in the study would be the song entitled Hand in Hand by the
Session Road. The song is about 3 minutes long and the message of the song promotes the concept
36

of volunteering to work together as a means achieving a difference in the world. Another chosen
music is the song entitled Listen with Your Heart which is a thank you to the world by the ABS
CBN sang by various famous Filipino artists for the efforts of people who volunteered to help the
victims of Yolanda. The song is generally 5 minutes long. Another song to be used is entitled
Pagbabago Para sa Karaniwang tao by Karl Ramirez. The song last for almost 5 minutes. The
message of the song highlights the idea of promoting Volunteering the initiation of change together
as one.This song entitled SOS philippines which is composed and sang by different young adults
in Iloilo will also be included in the list.The message of the song sought to encourage volunteering
to help other people.Another song to be used in the music exposure playlist would be the song
entitled Hawak Kamay by Yeng Constantino. The meaning of the music portrays volunteering
to help one another. Lastly, the OPM Music entitled sige lang by Quest will also be played as
part of the music playlist.The message of the song is trying to uplift our spirits by stating that we
can achieve anything as long as we dont give up.
Procedure
The study first conducted a pre-test to the pool of participants using the Volunteer
Functions Inventory (VFI) scale to measure the volunteer motivational levels of the students.
Likewise, participants were also asked to answer a volunteer behavioral test using the Generative
Behavioral Checklist (GBC) which aims to see the level of the participants actual volunteer
behavior through engaging in volunteer acts .The pre-test aims to measure the volunteer
motivational levels as well as the actual volunteer behavior of the students without the use of the
intervention, music exposure (OPM music). Second, only participants with medium level scores
in either the motivational or behavioral tests are considered qualified for the criteria of the study
and are randomly assigned to the two treatment groups through a form of a raffle draw. Papers
numbered 1 to 30 was placed inside a box. Those who got the even numbers were placed in the
control group while those who got the odd numbers were placed in the experimental group.
The control group was not given any intervention, thus no music exposure was used. The
experimental group on the other hand were asked to go through a program of intervention designed
to be exposed to prosocial lyrical music (see appendix). As indicated the program was designed to
expose music to students inside a classroom set up within a span of 10 to 15 minutes borrowed
from a specific professor. The Experimental Group was met twice in a week after the pre-test was
conducted, with each day having been exposed to the music playlist only once. After all this have
been done, the post test (given the following week after the intervention) of the same VFI and
GBC scale were given to the participants to measure whether the intervention had helped enhance
volunteer levels.
Data Analysis
The study in order to predict the results made use of paired t test, whereby two mean scores
of the two groups ( control and experimental) was compared. For this, it also made use of the data
37

software called Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and even made use of a simple excel
spreadsheet both of which helped the researcher encode and interpret the gathered data.
RESULTS
Result of Music Exposure Survey
Figure 1. Votes on whether the songs played brought about a positive feeling
Figure 2. Votes on whether one would actually voluntarily help someone after listening to
the list of songs
Based on the results shown in figure 1, among the 11 respondents, the survey indicates that
all 6 songs were uplifting music, indicating that the songs created a positive environment for them.
However, in figure 2 when asked if they would actually help volunteer someone in need (Behavior
wise) after listening to the songs, only 9 (82%) out of 11 said they would do so. Despite the number,
the researcher believes that this result, marks that the songs have the ability to create a positive
outcome in terms of behavior.
38

Figure 3. Votes on which song best integrated the concept of volunteerism
Figure 4. Votes on which song did not in any way integrate the idea of volunteerism
It was also found out that the song that best integrated the idea of volunteerism as shown
in figure 3 was the song Listen with Your heart with 27% of the votes while the least song that
does not integrate idea of volunteerism as shown in figure 4 was the song Sige Lang with 45%
of the votes. This identifies that the song Listen with Your Heartis the song that signifies the
best message and lyrics in relation to volunteerism. Whereas the song Sige Lang indicates to us
that its message and lyric content is far or totally has no relation to the concept of volunteerism.
Figure 5. Votes on whether the list of songs integrated volunteerism in its lyrics
39

Furthermore, results show that all 5 songs (except Sige Lang) received more number of
YES than No when asked if the message and lyrics of the song portrayed the concept of
volunteerism. The song Sige Lang on the other hand, received 6 yes and 5 no, which makes the
researcher conclude that it must not be used for the music exposure program, since it did not have
the strength to convey volunteerism and was voted as the least song that integrated it.
Result for Generative Behavioral Checklist Pilot testing

The checklist was given to 10 respondents (M= 19.30, SD=9.322) not otherwise chosen to
be participants in the actual study. Reliability Statistics of the checklist under Cronbachs Alpha
indicate a .871 revealing that this is the percent of the true score of the respondents and that this
instrument could be used in the researchers study because it is above .7
However, among the 30 item questions, in question 22 Offered to Restore or rehab a

house, part of a house, a piece of furniture, etc. all 10 respondents answered 0 indicating that
over the past two weeks they have not done the behavior. SPSS did not recognize this item and
removed it from the reliability analysis. This gave impression on the researcher that this item is
not relevant and needs to be taken out of the total item questions.
Levels of Volunteerism of the Participants

The pretest given to the participants allowed the researcher to identify what their levels of
volunteerism were, either in motivational level or in actual behavior level. It was through this that
the researcher was able to distinguish possible participants for the study with those whose score
lies between the medium score of 70 to 140 in the Volunteer Functions Inventory (divided into 6
factors of protective, values, career, social, understanding and enhancement) and/or scored a
medium level of 20 to 39 in the Generative Behavior Checklist (GBC). A total of 32 participants
qualified for the criteria and has been divided into 2 equal number of groups, 16 in the control and
16 in the experimental group.
Table 1. Paired T-test Analysis between the Motivational Levels of the Control and Experimental
Group
Volunteerism
Profile
Control
Group
(n=16)
Means
Experimental
Group (n=16)
SD
Mean
Mean
Difference
SD
40
df
p
Interpretation
valu
e

Pre test
142.56
29.
599
158.00
27.4
03
-15.438
- 15 .139 No
1.5
significant
63
Difference
Post test
135.75
31.
032
152.31
25.8
01
-16.563
- 15 .226 No
1.2
significant
63
Difference
*Significant if p value is < 0.05
Table 1 illustrates the paired T-test analysis done to compare the two groups on their
volunteer motivational levels. In the pretest scores, the t value is -1.563 and the p value is 0.139,
which is greater than p value of 0.05. The findings suggest that there is no significant difference
between the volunteer motivational levels of the two groups, implying that both groups had a
similar volunteer motivational level before the intervention was provided. Meanwhile, in the
posttest scores, the t value is 1.263 and the p value is .226, which is greater than 0.05. This
indicates there was no significant difference in the motivational levels of the second year
psychology students in the experimental group as compared to the control group. Correspondingly,
this identifies that the music exposure done to both groups were not successful in strengthening
and increasing participants motivation to volunteer.
Table 2. Paired T-test Analysis between the Volunteer Behavior Levels of the Control and
Experimental Group
Volunteerism
Profile
Control
Group
(n=16)
Experimental
Group (n=16)
Mean
Difference
df
p
valu
e
Interpretation
Means
SD
Mean
SD
Pre test
24.00
9.27
4
28.06
7.5
32
-4.063
1.
97
0
15
.068
No significant
Difference
Post test
20.75
7.97
1
30.69
9.3
22
-9.938
3.
60
0
15
.003
Significant
Difference
41

However, Table 2 demonstrates to us the paired t-test analysis that was done to compare
the two groups on this time their volunteer behavioral levels. In the pretest scores, the t value is 1.970 and the p value is .068, which is greater than p value of 0.05. This findings propose that
there is no significant difference between the volunteer behavioral levels of the two groups,
implying that both groups had a similar volunteer behavioral level before the intervention was
provided. On the other hand, in the posttest scores, the t value is 3.600 and the p value is .003,
which is less than 0.05. This designates there was a significant difference in the behavioral levels
of the second year psychology students in the experimental group as compared to the control group,
implying that the intervention worked on the experimental group when differentiated to the control
group, who had no music exposure.
Table 3. Paired T-test Analysis between the Motivational Levels of the Experimental Group
Volunteerism
Profile
Experimental Group
(n=16)
Mean
SD
Pre test
158.00
27.403
Post test
152.31
25.801
Mean
Difference
df
p
value
Interpretation
5.324
1.608
15
.302
No significant
difference
Conversely, as shown above in Table 3 illustrates to us the paired t-test analysis done to
the experimental group alone (from its pre-test and post-test) with regards to their volunteer
motivational levels. In its pretest and posttest scores, the t value is 1.608 and the p value is .302,
which is greater than the p value of 0.05. This outcome proposes that there is no significant
difference between the volunteer behavioral levels of the two time periods, implying that both
groups had parallel volunteer motivational levels before and after the intervention was provided.
Table 4. Paired T-test Analysis between the Volunteer Behavior Levels of the Experimental Group
Volunteerism
Profile
Experimental
Group (n=16)
Mean
Mean
Difference
SD
42
df
p
valu
e
Interpretation

Pre test
28.06
7.532
Post test
30.69
9.322
-2.625
-1.374
15
.190
No significant
difference
Likewise, table 4 demonstrates to us the paired t-test analysis done to the experimental
group alone (from its pre-test and post-test) with regards to their volunteer behavioral levels. In its
pretest and posttest scores, the t value is -1.374 and the p value is .190, which is greater than the p
value of 0.05. This result suggests that there is no significant difference between the volunteer
behavioral levels of the two time periods, implying that both groups had equivalent volunteer
behavioral levels before and after the intervention was provided.
DISCUSSION
Relatively speaking most of the findings suggest that the intervention did not work,
especially with enhancing the motivational levels as observed in tables 1 and 3. Nevertheless, at
first glance we have seen that the intervention did however work in the volunteer behavior levels
between the comparison groups of the control and experimental (table 2) since the p value was less
than 0.05. Making us believe that this result supports the theory of The General Learning Model
which signifies that positive messages in media forms such as music can elicit positive thoughts,
feelings and behavior. Likewise, without a doubt confirm the prior researches done with the
manipulation of music that likely leads to helping behavior of volunteerism. Although being said
that such significance based on the results exist, this result in table 2 otherwise indicate that there
have been no actual significant difference between the pretest and post test of the control and
experimental group, because we can also observe that in table 4, in the comparison between the
experimental group alone with the two time periods, was however not significant. These two
results implies that the intervention was not successful in enhancing the behavioral level, because
in the first place, the pretest mean scores of the experimental group was already higher as compared
to the control group. It further suggests that the experimental group only retained their behavioral
levels scores even after the intervention that is already higher than as compared to the control
group to begin with. The same goes for the control group, the mean scores were only similar to the
previous scores gathered in the pretest, and in this case, it was lower than the experimental group.
In general, results suggest that using short playlist of OPM music in a classroom set-up as a means
to enhance volunteer levels was not effective. It is thus presumed that what was done in a natural
environment (where music is always present and people have other reasons to focus and not listen
to music alone) may not be applicable in a set-up where music is not always present and whereby
participants are asked to listen to songs alone in a room.
43

This study has considered possible reasons why such case happened. It supposes that there
are other factors involved such as the number of music used and the time of exposure that probably
somehow failed the experiment to be effective. Although the study was somewhat patterned to
previous researches (North et al, 2004; Jacob et al, 2010) done that had use over 20 list of songs,
this study only relatively used 5. This was done because there were a lot of extraneous variable
that could have added to the alteration of the experiment if the researcher would use more than 5.
In addition, it is presumed by the researcher that since most of the findings had a good result
regarding prosocial lyrical music, it only made use of 5 songs that were actually prosocial in lyrics
as seen through the Music Exposure Survey (see appendix IC). Whereas if we would compare it
to the previous researches (Geitemeyer, 2008, North et al, 2004 & Jacob et al, 2010) that had made
use various types of music such as of a prosocial one, a neutral and an annoying music. Likewise,
the said former researches had done the exposure for more than an hour or so while this research
only consumed 15 to 20 minutes maximum and had only played the list of songs twice, whereas it
is believed that repeated exposure will yield long term changes. In addition to that, the preceding
studies (Geitemeyer, 2008, North et al, 2004 & Jacob et al, 2010) had failed to test the previous
volunteer levels of the participants prior to the experiment and had given the test, as to whether
the experiment was effective the same day as it was done. Unlike this study that had considered
the time frame of their previous levels and their post levels after which the intervention had taken
place. Furthermore, all three previous researches have used activities such as the likes of donation
as part of their tests to examine whether prosocial music follows prosocial behavior, unlike the
present study that had only asked participants of both groups (control and experimental) to answer
a checklist of behavior relative to volunteering to help. More so, both the present and previous
studies have failed to consider personality as one key factor in the measurement of volunteerhelping behavior. It is believed by studies made by Carpenter et al (2010) that there is an existing
correlation between volunteer work and personality such as altruism. Similarly, this study based
on its results as well as from the patterned study, believes that music can only have a temporary
effect on the mood of an individual that will last only for a day or two, unlike this study that had
considered using a week to maintain volunteer levels. Moreover, all three existing researches done
in the manipulation of music had only quantified their study to a natural environment (where music
is always present) making other variables become involved, whereas the study conducted used a
different environment (classroom set-up) where music is not always present and whereby music is
the main focus of the participants.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were made. The research
conducted was not supported by the hypothesis that positive media directly results in positive
outcomes. The respondents showed that the intervention, music exposure, was not effective in
terms of stimulating a positive result in a set-up that is apart from a natural environment, such as
the like of enhancing volunteer levels in classrooms by using a short playlist of songs and a
relatively short number of exposure periods. Likewise, it has taken into consideration several key
aspects that have caused its ineffectiveness such as again number of songs, exposure periods,
procedures and even personality that have taken place with regards to previous researches
conducted.
44

In addition to the noticeable need to repeat the present finding, the present study
recommends several other opportunities for future research. They must consider those several key
aspects indicated above. First is that researchers may want to increase the number of songs to be
played, that is of different genres so as to lessen the tendency of the factor boring and the factor
that it is not their type of music. Second, is for future researchers to expand the number of repeated
exposure periods that may perhaps support the hypothesis that this method will as believed would
produce long term changes. Correspondingly, it is suggested that aside from the present and
previous research procedure done, future researchers may want to include direct activities to test
whether music exposure was effective with still the likes of using a pretest and posttest design
since it is helpful in determining significant changes. Lastly, it is highly suggested that researchers
in the future include tests that will determine the personality of the individuals which in the present
study have failed to consider, so as identifying if in the beginning they already have a helpful kind
of behavior and nature.
45

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incentives. Journal of Public Economics, 94, 911-920
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role of organizational citizenship behaviors. Personnel Psychology, 64, 191-223
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46

Houle, B., Sagarin, B. & Kaplan, M. (2010). A Functional Approach to Volunteerism: Do
Volunteer Motives Predict Task Preference? Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 27,
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North, A., Tarrant, M. & Hargreaves, D. (2004). The effect of music on helping behavior: field
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Wright, M. & Li, Y. (2011). The association between young adults face to face prosocial
behaviors and their online prosocial behaviors. Computers in human behavior, 27, 19591962
47
Religiosity, Study Habits, Family Relations, and Peer Relations as predictors

of Academic Achievement among College Students
Gabriel Luis L. Lacson
Rodelando Ocampo
Abstract
This study focuses on the relationship of Religiosity, Study Habits Peer and
Family related behaviors with respect to Academic Achievement in college
students of San Beda College Alabang. A total of 325 participants were
sampled from the 2nd year college students of SBCA using stratified random
sampling. Descriptive correlational research method was utilized in
determining the relationships between the variables and their various levels.
The results of the study suggested that all the variables frequency levels were
at above average. The results of the study also yielded a significant
correlation between Study Habits and Academic Achievement at .247 at a
significance level of .001 (p<0.01) where the data can be accepted at 99%
confidence level. Findings also showed that there was no significant
relationship between Academic Achievement, Religiosity, and Peer and
Family Related behavior. The results also suggested that only Study Habits
is a significant predictor of Academic Achievement by .058 or 5.8%.
The Philippines is a country that is deeply rooted in values and tradition. Due to its
predominantly Catholic-Christian background, the schools are mostly vested upon by the religious
faculties that are akin to the nation. The researchers school is part of that demographic. Being one
of the more prominent schools in the Southern Tagalog area, it is well known for its community
type development and learning environment which is observed by the community it has weaved
for over 40 years. The schools motto is Ora et labora, in English it means prayer and work,
prayer and work are the two core values that the schools promotes in order to excel in whatever it
is that a person is doing. From a students standpoint, their academic life revolves around these
two core values.
In the United States, there has been a significant decrease in their students national
academic achievement in comparison to the global perspective of education, according to an article
published in Forbes in 2012 the U.S. is jeopardizing its national security because of its students
declining academic achievement, despite that it pours a lot of funding and support to its K-12
system. Also, in the past 3 years the researcher has observed a unique pattern of change when it
comes to the academic achievement of the students. Students of SBCA have been going in and out
of the elite group of students in which the school labels as its Deans List. In the past three years
more than 50% of the people that have qualified for a semester into the deans list have not
qualified for it again the following semester (SBCA Deans List A.Y.13-14 1st and 2nd Semester).
Recent studies suggest that a relationship can exist where religious practice acts as a facilitating
48

agent by influencing pro-social behaviors, thus impacting academic performance in positive ways
(Line, 2005).
This study examines the different factors that influence the Academic Achievement of
students. Is it their religiosity, peer relation, family relation, or study habits? The main argument
this study postulated is that the students can achieve Academic Excellence through these factors.
The study pursues to answer the following research questions: What is the behavioral condition of
religiosity, study habits, family, and peer related behavior of students in San Beda college alabang?
What is the relationship of the religiosity, study habits, family and peer related behavior with
respect to academic achievement of students in San Beda College Alabang? What is the best
predictor to Academic achievement considering the above stated variables?
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Religiosity
A study conducted Schubmehl, Cubbellotti, & Ornum (2009) showed the effects of campus
ministry and spirituality on academic accomplishment in college students in this experiment the
effect of spirituality and campus ministry involvement on academic accomplishment was studied.
It was hypothesized that students who scored higher on the Index of Core Spiritual Experiences,
hereafter known as the INSPIRIT, taken from Measures of Religiosity (Hill, 1999), and who were
more involved in campus ministry activities, would have higher grade point averages. A total of
247 Marist College sophomores and juniors were administered a questionnaire that contained the
INSPIRIT and a list of campus ministry activities. A similar study was conducted by Mooney
(2010) that showed the relationship of religion, satisfaction, and grade point average, in college
students of elite universities. she found that, Even when controlling for time spent partying,
studying and in extracurricular activities, regular attendance at religious services increases
academic achievement and students who attend religious services weekly and those who are more
observant of their religious traditions also report being more satisfied at college. Also, in the study
of Line (2005) it showed that religion may serve as a facilitator to prosocial behavior as a
relationship to academic achievement, the study was done in college students and yielded the same
result with high school students.
Study Habits
Study habits are becoming a huge trend in prediction of academic performance and
outcomes in academes today. A study was conducted by Cred and Kuncel in 2008 wherein Study
habit, skill, and attitude inventories and constructs were found to rival standardized tests and
previous grades as predictors of academic performance, yielding substantial incremental validity
in predicting academic performance. Scores on traditional study habit and attitude inventories are
the most predictive of performance, whereas scores on inventories based on the popular depth-ofprocessing perspective are shown to be least predictive of the examined criteria. Overall, study
habit and skill measures improve prediction of academic performance more than any other
noncognitive individual difference variable examined to date and should be regarded as the third
pillar of academic success (Cred and Kuncel in 2008). In the study of Nonis & Hudson in 2010,
49

it showed that study habits had a direct positive relationship on student performance when they
conducted the study on business majors.
Family Relation
Findings in the study of Neumeister indicated that gifted students scoring high on either
the measure of socially prescribed or self-oriented perfectionism attributed the development of this
tendency in part to a lack of experience with failure in their early school years. The socially
prescribed participants also believed their perfectionism developed due to pressure they
experienced from their perfectionist parents. The study of Cheng, Ikes, & Verhofstadt in 2012
sought to clarify how two distinct aspects of perceived family support-social support and economic
support-affect college students' academic performance. Second, sought to determine how these
two aspects of family support influence not only cumulative GPA scores but also the overall trend
(slope) and stability (variability) of students' GPA scores across semesters. The participants in this
longitudinal study were 240 university students (62 men, 178 women). The results revealed that
the level of perceived family social support was important not only as a 'main effect' predictor of
the magnitude and stability of the students' GPA scores across three successive semesters, but also
as a factor that helped female students to succeed regardless of their level of family economic
support. In general, the data suggest that family social support is more important to women's
success in college than to men's (Cheng et al, 2012).
Peer Relation
Peer relationship plays a big factor and influence in the lives of people. According to
Bowlby, peer influence should take over during adolescent years over the major influence of the
parents because they might develop improper attachment to their parents at this time. In a study
conducted by Cook, Ying Ying, & Morgano they found that nearly all the friendship effects are
domain-specific. That is, peer attributes in the school domain affect individual school performance
outcomes, while peer attributes in the social behavior domain affect individual social behavior.
Second, friends' grade point average (GPA) is the most powerful single friendship attribute.
Another study conducted by Riegle-Crumb & Callahan showed that for Latina girls, there are
positive effects of having more friendship ties to third-plus-generation Latino peers in contrast to
dominant culture peers; yet Latino boys benefit academically from ties to all co-ethnic peers.
Having friends with higher parental education promotes achievement of both genders. Our results
counter notions of a pervasive negative peer influence of minority youth and suggest that co-ethnic
ties are an important source of social capital for Latino students' achievement. In the study of Chen,
Chang, & He It was found that peer groups were highly homogenous on academic achievement.
Hierarchical linear modeling analysis revealed that academic achievement and social adjustment
were associated at both the within-group individual level and the group level. Moreover, group
academic performance moderated the relations between academic achievement and social
adjustment such as peer acceptance, social competence, and leadership, suggesting that individuallevel relations might be enhanced or exacerbated by group academic norms.
Academic Achievement
50

Academic Excellence is measured in a students academic achievement which is most
commonly measured through the GPA (Grade Point Average). Schools have a different scale or
method of computing for their students average accumulated grade for the semester, for the
academic year, and for their whole college transcript. The GPA of each institution is almost unique
to itself, but there is of course a universal or more common way of measuring academic
achievement, through the deans list or honor roll. Each school has a deans list or honor roll in
which students strive to qualify for, it is a way to qualitatively put a title on something that is
usually measured quantitatively (Grades, or Academic Achievements).
In the study of Mounsey, Vandehey, & Diekhoff in 2013, Grade point average was used to
measure academic achievement in both working and non-working students in an attempt to
correlate it with their levels of anxiety and depression. A similar article was written by Volwerk
& Tindal (2012) about the use of GPA as measure of academic achievement again. The article
discusses the significance of grade point average (GPA) in the students' overall post academic
achievements and performance in secondary and postsecondary education in the U.S; and. another
related study also used GPA as a measure of academic achievement. In the study of Harman &
Sato (2011), they found out that, surprisingly, the students who had a higher GPA were more
comfortable texting in class.
SYNTHESIS
In the past 10 years, a lot of factors have been correlated with academic achievement, a lot
of these studies do not actually predict the relationship of their dependent variable from their
dependent variable.
This study aims to predict academic excellence through a childs academic achievement
which is measured by the GPA of a student. The standard of academic achievement everywhere is
a students grade point average and it has been used by several studies (Mounsey, et al. 2013) as a
measure of academic achievement. Moreover in correlation studies that have been conducted with
academic excellence such as the variables of religiosity (Ornum, 2009), study habits (Nonis and
Hudson, 2010), and family relation (Cheng, et al. 2012), grade point average has been used to
measure academic achievement.
Results from the above seem to validate that there is a relationship between religiosity,
study habits, peer relation, and family relation with each other and the use of GPA as a measure
of academic achievement in college students. It shows that there is a correlation of each
independent variable to the independent variable, but no study yet has been seen to show a
regression analysis or correlation between all independent variables and academic excellence.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The study is a descriptive correlational research for the reason that this study describes and
determines how one variable may predict another (Heffner Media Group, 2004). The purpose of
this study is to know how Religiosity, Study habits, Family does and peer related behavior affect
51

the Academic Achievement of students in San Beda College Alabang. In order to do so, this study
aims to use a Multiple Regression Analysis as its method of research in this study because it is
able to predict which factor affects Academic Excellence the most, and which of the factors that
are reacting with each other affect the Deans listers behaviour the most in achieving academic
excellence in San Beda College Alabang.
Participants
The age range of the participants were 16-22 years old and were from the 2nd year college
students of San Beda College Alabang (A.Y. 2014-15) regardless of Gender and Major. 2nd year
students have been chosen as participants for the reason that they were the first batch of college
students in SBCA to have undergone the implementation of the zero-based grading system.
Sampling
A sample of 325 has been randomly selected from the batch of 2nd year students which
shall then be stratified across all courses to evenly distribute the sample. The researcher has opted
to use slovins formula to determine the appropriate number of participants at .05 margin of error
to increase his rate of reliability. The formula yielded a number of 225 participants but the
researcher has decided to add 100 more participants to strengthen the outcome of the study
Stratified Random Sampling has been used by the researcher for reasons that it provides
the least amount of bias and threat to validity and reliability in choosing the participants for this
study. It also provides a well distributed sample reducing the risk of irregularities.
Instrument
The instrument that has been used in this study was a self made behavioral frequency scale
which will be answered only by checking the space provided if agreeing with the statement and if
not, leaving it blank and consist of 38 items and contained behavioral questions about the sub
topics of religiosity, family relations, work habits, and peer relations. The dependent variable has
been measured through the GPA of the student, which the researcher has asked the students to
indicate in the questionnaire.
The subscales include: 1.) Religiosity: involves the religiosity of a person, observance of
religious activities or culture. 2.) Peer Relation: involves communication and time spent with
them. 3.) Family Relation: involves communication and time spent with family. 4.) Study Habits:
involves environment, preparedness, and tools conducive to learning and time management. The
questions have been derived from several studies and literature that indicate the subject of each
item in the questionnaire to be able to capture the component of the subtopic in the survey. The
researcher made this questionnaire keeping in mind that his respondents are be college students so
the researcher phrased the questions in a manner comprehensive to this level. The layout of the
questionnaire is a four point likert type scale test which measured the frequency of the statement
beside the check boxes.
52

Content validity has established by getting 3 experts in the field of psychology, and 2
laymen (people who are similar to the criteria of the respondents but will not be able to
participate in the study anymore i.e. deans lister and non deans lister) to validate the
questionnaire. A grammarian was also consulted to check the phrasing and grammar of the
questions.
Finally a pilot test of 40 participants, consisting of students that are similar to the
participants, has been conducted to determine the inter-item reliability of the test. The data
gathered from the pilot test has been encoded into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS) for data analysis to get the alpha reliability of the questionnaire (Radhakrishna, 2007). The
reliability output turned out as follows, .702 for the study habits, .899 for religiosity, .789 for
family relation, and .741 for peer relation.
The respondents have been asked to answer a behavioral frequency scale to determine
which variables predict academic achievement. The scores were only scaled from 1 to 4 in terms
of frequency which are 1-never, 2-seldom, 3-often, 4-always. The questions were derived from
comprehensive study of literature about academic achievement, religiosity, study habits, peer, and
family relation.
The study aims to have students of San Beda College Alabang as its respondents for the
study. Academic achievement in San Beda College Alabang, like in any other college, is also
measured by a students Grade Point Average (GPA). The GPA is calculated every end of a
semester. This study aims to use the GPA because it is the standard in which students are
recognized for academic achievement in most schools and is a standardized measurement of grades
making it an apt measurement tool of academic achievement for this study.
Procedure
The participants were chosen at random from a stratified sample per course determined by
the total number of sophomore college students by the slovins formula at .05 marginal error..The
participants have been asked to write down their GPA the previous semester to indicate the
academic achievement which after is asked to answer the questionnaire. After which the
questionnaires were encoded into the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for further
processing and analysis.
To avoid problems in comprehension and reliability the questionnaire has been pilot tested
by 40 freshmen students which resulted in .702 for the study habits, .899 for religiosity, .789 for
family relation, and .741 for peer relation reliability scores.
Statistical Analysis
Logistic regression has been used to analyze the factors associated with academic
achievement. Logistic regression is used to predict the probabilities of the different possible
outcomes of a categorically distributed dependent variable, given a set of independent variables.
The dependent variable in the study is Academic excellence, measured through the standard of
53

whether a student has entered the Deans list at least twice; and. The independent variables are
religiosity, study habits, peer relation, and family relation.
Logistic regression has been found suitable for this study referencing the work of Calaod
in 2014 in which she used this similar method of statistical analysis to predict the factors that
prevented fatherless girls into engaging in premarital sex. The use of this method of analysis is
suitable for both studies because both studies have a categorical independent and dependent
variable/s.
The dependent variable for this study is GPA and the independent variables are religiosity,
study habits, family relation, and peer relation.
RESULTS
Descriptives
Religiously practices behavior indicated in the questionnaire. Behavior is
practiced almost if not every day
High
3-4
Average
1.1 2.9
Low
0-1
Regularly practices behavior indicated in the questionnaire.

Behavior is practiced often or several times in a week.
Rarely practices behavior indicated in the questionnaire.
Behavior is seldom or less times practiced in a week.
Table for Religiosity and Study Habits
Intimate
3-4
Intimate relationship ties. Spends most if not all free time with people
involved
Close
1.1 2.9
Close relationship ties.

Spends time often or regularly with people involved, usually taking up
most to half of free time
Distant relationship ties. Only communicates out of necessity, sometimes
not even conversing for a period of days.
Detatched
0-1
Table for Family and Peer Relations

The results of the study shows that all the mean of the variables are categorized in the highaverage zone study habits 2.74, religiosity 2.71, family relation 3.08, and peer relation 2.868 (See
Appendix 1 and 2). The results also suggest that only study habits was the only variable correlated
to academic achievement which was measured by the GPA. The result of the study also shows that
only study habits and peer relation are the predictors of academic achievement, but only study
54

habits shows a significant value of .058 (p < 0.01) which means it predicts academic achievement
by 5.8%. Peer relation may be a predictor but it is not significant enough, and only study habits
correlates with academic achievement. Also, the table of correlations support the data by stating
that only study habits has a correlation with GPA at -.247 (p < 0.01), making it the only significant
predictor of academic achievement. This implies that how a student approaches studying with the
use of study habits significantly influences the academic achievement of a student. The two other
variables which are family relation and religiosity have no significance in predicting academic
achievement.
Correlations to GPA
Pearson Correlation
GPA
Study Habits
Religiosity
Family Relation
Peer Relation
-.247
-.071
-.028
.080
.000
.199
.609
.152
325
325
325
325
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
325
Regression
Model Summary
Model
Adjusted R Square Sig. F. Change
Study Habits
.247
.058
.000
Peer Relation, Study Habits .275
.070
.025
Regression Model; Y = 2.786 + [- .225 ] + [.114 ]

(x1)
(x2)
DISCUSSION
According to the results of this study all independent variables were found to be above
average in level with the students of San Beda College Alabang. This puts the frequency of the
means at High-Average or between 2.5-3.5, which indicates that students of SBCA often practice
the behaviors stated in the questionnaire that was provided to them.
Although, the correlational results yielded that only study habits is the only correlated
variable to GPA which was used to measure academic achievement. This means that the more
students adhered to the methods and principles of study habits the higher their academic
achievement would be. This is supported by the study of Nonis & Hudson in 2010, it showed that
study habits had a direct positive relationship on student performance. Implying that as students
practice study habits more, the higher their tendency to get better grades. Although, results also
indicated that religiosity is not a predictor of academic achievement. Possibly because that a person
may be religious but if said religious behavior is only observed without observance of work
towards the goal of achieving high academic performance then the religious behavior is then void
of helping to raise academic achievement. This is similar to the findings of Line (2005) wherein
he stated that religion can be a facilitator of prosocial behavior to increase academic achievement
55

but without said prosocial behavior towards academics, religion and academic achievement yield
negative or insignificant correlation. Family relation scored the highest frequency mean but did
not yield correlative results. This could be because in previous studies which rendered positive
relationships in family relations is because they were focused on the social implications of the
study. This study aimed to study family related behavior which was not directed toward support
but to intimacy and time spent together. In regards to Peer Related behavior, according to the
results, students also kept a close relationship with their friends (scored second highest frequency
mean), this implied that peer related behavior actually had a significance in other aspects of their
friends life, as seen in the correlation table peer relation is correlated to every variable except GPA.
Supported in the study of Chen, Chang, & He it was found that peer groups were highly
homogenous on academic achievement. Peer related behavior was also determined to be a
predictor in the regression analysis, although, comparison to the correlation table deems it to be
insignificant in its predicting power.
The results also stated that the best predictor of academic achievement among the variables
is Study Habits related behavior which yielded a positive correlation at 5.8%. The other three
variables have no or little significance in predicting academic achievement in students of SBCA
(see Appendix 3).
Conclusion
From the data gathered and analyzed from the study, the researcher concluded that
following proper and regular study habits is a factor which can help improve academic
achievement in college students. The time spent studying, the discipline, the routine of studying
will surely help students in maintaining or improving their academic achievement in college. The
result of the study indicated that Study Habits related behavior significantly influences the
academic achievement of college students while Religiosity, Peer and Family related behavior
does not have a significant relationship with academic achievement.
The generalizability of the findings is also limited by the questionnaire which was a
behavioral frequency scale which had the questions designed to create a construct specific to
behaviors related to Study Habits, Religiosity, Family, and Peer relation, and were not directed
towards academic achievement. This could possibly be also a reason why the other three variables
did not correlate with academic achievement, because the behaviors provided for Religiosity, Peer
and Family related behavior had no congruence with academic achievement. In comparison with
the study habits related behavior which had previous congruence with academic achievement. It is
further recommended that a comparative study be done with non-zero based students or with
deans listers and non-deans listers. It is also recommended to use other schools for future studies
so as to compare and add more depth to the study.
56

REFERENCES
Cheng, W., Ickes, W., & Verhofstadt, L. (2012). How is family support related to students' GPA
scores? A longitudinal study. Higher Education, 64(3), 399-420. Doi: 10.1007/s10734-0119501-4
Cred, M., & Kuncel, N. R. (2008). Study habits, skills, and attitudes: The third pillar supporting
collegiate academic performance. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(6), 425-453.
Cook, T. D., Yingying, D., & Morgano, E. (2007). Friendship Influences during Early
Adolescence: The Special Role of Friends' Grade Point Average. Journal of Research on
Adolescence (Wiley-Blackwell), 17(2), 325-356. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00525.x
Chen, X., Chang, L., & He, Y. (2003). The Peer Group as a Context: Mediating and
Moderating Effects on Relations between Academic Achievement and Social Functioning in
Chinese Children. Child Development, 74(3), 710-727. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00564
HARMAN, B. A., & SATO, T. (2011). CELL PHONE USE AND GRADE POINT AVERAGE
AMONG UNDERGRADUATE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. College Student Journal,
45(3), 544-549.
Nonis, S. A., & Hudson, G. I. (2010). Performance of college students: Impact of study time and
study habits. Journal of Education for Business, 85(4), 229-238.
Neumeister, K. (2003). Perfectionism in Gifted College Students: Family Influences and
Implications for Achievement. Roeper Review, 26(1), 53.
Mooney, M. (2010). Religion, College Grades, and Satisfaction among Students at Elite Colleges
and Universities*. Sociology of Religion, 71(2), 197-215. doi:10.1093/socrel/srq035
MOUNSEY, R., VANDEHEY, M. A., & DIEKHOFF, G. M. (2013). WORKING AND NONWORKING UNIVERSITY STUDENTS: ANXIETY, DEPRESSION, AND GRADE
POINT AVERAGE. College Student Journal, 47(2), 379-389.
Radhakrishna, R. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe/2007february/tt2.php
Riegle-Crumb, C., & Callahan, R. M. (2009). Exploring the Academic Benefits of Friendship Ties
for Latino Boys and Girls. Social Science Quarterly (Wiley-Blackwell), 90(3), 611-631.
doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00634.x
Schubmehl, J., Cubbellotti, S., & Ornum, W. (2009). THE EFFECT OF SPIRITUALITY AND
CAMPUS MINISTRY ON ACADEMIC ACCOMPLISHMENT IN COLLEGE
STUDENTS. Adolescence, 44(174), 499-502.
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Volwerk, J. J., & Tindal, G. (2012). Documenting Student Performance: An Alternative to
the Traditional Calculation of Grade Point Averages. Journal of College Admission, (216), 16-23.
Calaod, B. (2011). 32 predictors of premarital sex among father-absent daughters. Bedan
journal of psychology, doi: 2244-5382
Line, C. (2006). The relationship between personal religiosity and academic performance
among LDS college students at Brigham Young University. (2006, February). Retrieved from
Proquest.
58
Effectiveness of Self Monitored Gadget Limiting on Procrastination Levels

Ericka Jean G. Binay
Maria Theresa C. Masilungan
Abstract
This study aims to determine the effectiveness of intervention and to see if
there is a relationship between self-control and self-monitor. 30 freshmen
college students from De La Salle University - Canlubang were divided into
2 groups being the control and experimental group. A pre-test and post-test
on procrastion test and self-control was given to both groups, and a log book
as additional instrument for the experimental group to monitor their own
behavior as part of the intervention. Findings have shown significant
difference in experimental group for both procrastination test and self-control
test. Findings also suggested no correlation between self-control and selfmonitor (r = -.058) at p>.839.
Procrastination is avoiding unpleasant or unwanted stressful-tasks which are often very

important but is given not much attention. A person who tends to avoid doing these tasks, engages
in a sudden relief for stress focusing exactly on social networking sites which links them primarily
to the act of procrastinating in the succeeding time. Anyone with a laptop, desktop, tabs, and other
electronic gadgets which can access the internet usually stay up late with the reasons that they are
doing school works, while others do not. Other people stay up late just because they are
entertaining themselves and engaging to things that would distract themselves from stress. Some
wanted to go to a computer shop to type an essay for school and have a research on Google but
ends up opening another tab for checking e-mails, and so does Facebook tab follows, Twitter,
Tumblr, and other media sites. It is somehow helpful to escape oneself from stress, however, we
oftentimes end up bringing more pain in ourselves.
Academic procrastination is a special form of procrastination that occurs in the academic
settings. It involves knowing that one needs to carry out an academic task or undertake an academic
activity, such as writing a term paper, studying for examinations, finishing a school-related project,
or undertaking the weekly reading assignments, but, for one reason or another, failing to motivate
oneself to do do within the expected time frame (Ackerman and Gross, 2005). Students
procrastination in studying for examinations which was identified by Solomon and Rothblum
(1984) will be the main concern of this study. Oftentimes, students rely on last minute review
which results to low scores and by which can be deflected in their examination results. There are
several ways to minimize procrastination, in fact according to Knaus (2010) there are five phases
of change that can help in minimizing procrastination.
Almost 90% of college students procrastinate (Knaus, 2010), and as stated beforehand
there are different aspects in which students procrastinate. Procrastination thus can be perceived
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as a barrier in academic success in college. Despite students motivation and extensive research
efforts to curtail this debilitating habit, academic procrastination has become increasingly
prevalent, which suggests that procrastination is not entirely understood, and more research is
needed (Kachgal, Hansen, & Nutter, 2001; Steel, 2007). Procrastination does not only waste your
time, but also it does cost an individual important opportunities. Procrastination in the academic
realm holds many negative consequences including lost time, increased stress, lower grades,
poorer health, decreased long-term learning and lower self-esteem (Hoover, 2005).There are many
times when you have to act, and act quickly, in order to seize the opportunity that has brought to
you. If one does procrastinate, as far as taking advantage of that opportunity, that small window
of opportunity may well disappear in any moment. You have to be prepared to act, and then take
action because in many cases, tomorrow is already too late. Not making a decision is simply
procrastinating where the decision process is concerned, and this can cause you to lose many good
opportunities.
One particular cause of procrastination is being socially connected in different social media
sites. A lot of people check in with Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Foursquare, and all of the
countless other blogs and boards at stoplights, in line at the grocery store, during meetings, and
even in the bathroom. Even when homework has been completed, students go on Facebook, saying
to themselves "only a couple of minutes" but those minutes turn into hours. Social media pulls
people away from the things that that really want out of life in favor of more time with such
distractions. This may be a great way to communicate or to keep in touch with friends and family,
but when it comes to school, it swiftly becomes something of a threat. There are already suggested
interventions in reducing procrastination, however none of those points out the distraction brought
by social media.
Thus, in this study, the researcher would like to establish a new intervention by limiting
the use of gadgets via self-monitoring which will be conducted to college students that will help
in reducing procrastination. This study aims to answer the following questions: (1) What is the
level of procrastination between the combined pretest means and posttest means of both groups?,
(2) What is the level of procrastination between the pretest and posttest means of each group?, (3)
Does self monitored gadget limiting an effective intervention for procrastination?, (4) What is the
level of control between the combined pretest and posttest means of both groups?, (5) What is the
level of self-control between the pretest and posttest means of each group?, and (6) Is there a
relationship between self-control and self-monitoring?
Procrastination
Procrastination is an act of intentionally delaying tasks or activities that needs to be
completed or can be something that you know you should be doing, and wanting to complete yet
cannot be done on the desired time frame. The English verb itself is based on the Latin verb
procrastinare, combining the common adverb pro implying forward motion with crastinus,
meaning belonging to tomorrow. Here, Ferrari and his colleagues note (Ferrari, Johnson, McCown,
1995), "the combined word is used numerous times in Latin texts . . . Roman use of this term
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seemed to reflect the notion that deferred judgment may be necessary and wise, such as when it is
best to wait the enemy out and demonstrate patience in military conflict".
Popoola (2005) defines procrastination as a dispositional trait which has cognitive,
behavioural and emotional components. According to him, this dispositional trait makes an
individual postpone doing things that make him or her anxious and apprehensive. Students
reported that course materials become less boring, more interesting, and more engaging when they
procrastinate (Schraw, 2007). There are two types of procrastination which are passive and active.
Active procrastinators make intentional decisions to procrastinate, thus applying strong motivation
under time pressure, they are able to complete tasks before deadlines, and achieve satisfactory
outcomes (Choi & Moran, 2009). In contrast, passive procrastinators are traditional procrastinators
who postpone their tasks until the last minute with feelings of guilt and depression and are more
likely to fail to complete tasks. Chu and Choi (2005) suggested that active procrastinators differ
from passive procrastinators in cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions. Up to 70% of
university students consider themselves procrastinators (Schouwenburg, 2004) and 50%
procrastinate consistently and problematically (Day, Mensink, & OSullivan, 2000; Solomon &
Rothblum, 1984). Students have reported that procrastination typically accounts for more than one
third of their daily activities and is often carried out through sleeping, reading, or watching TV
(Pychyl, Lee, Thibodeau, & Blunt, 2000). Generally, such behaviors are much more common
among the students who were graduated from high school and have just entered university
(Kachgal, Hansen, & Nutter, 2001; Lee, 2005).
There are five different forms of procrastination: (1) academic procrastination, referred to
delaying academic tasks such as doing homework, handing in term paper or preparing for
examinations at the last minute; (2) decisional procrastination, defined as inability to make timely
decisions; (3) neurotic procrastination, defined as a tendency to postpone decisions about
important matters in individual life; (4) life routine procrastination, describ ed as having problems
in scheduling and accomplishing routine life tasks on time; (5) compulsive procrastination, defined
as decisional and life routine procrastination occurring in the same person.
Academic procrastination can therefore be understood as a type of anti-motivation
wherein individuals decide not to move towards carrying out and finishing a chosen academic task.
(Wolters, 2003). As what is stated, it is most prevalent among high school and college students
and to what aspects does it supports? According to Solomon and Rothblum (1984), procrastination
has been found most widespread when writing term papers, studying for examinations, and
completing weekly assignments. The results of a study by McCown and Roberts (1994) revealed
that 23% of freshmen, 27% of sophomores, 32% of juniors, and 37% of seniors reported a tendency
to procrastinate. These findings also suggested that procrastination increases over years during
university life (Ferrari, 2004). Everybody has experienced some symptoms of chronic
procrastination but not all are chronic procrastinators. According to Dryden (2000) some people
are chronic specific procrastinators, which means that procrastination is characteristic of only some
(and always the same) tasks or some areas of their life. Chronic general procrastinators tend to
procrastinate in a number of important areas of their life.
Self-monitoring
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Individuals who pay attention to social situations or any instances in order to change their
behaviors to be able to fit into that situation is said to have a personal characteristic of selfmonitoring. According to Gangestad and Snyder (2000), in the postulate of this theory, people
differ meaningfully in the extent to which they can and do engage in expressive control/ Some
people, out of a concern for the situational appropriateness of their expressive self-presentation,
have come to monitor their expressive behavior and accordingly regulate their self-presentation
for the sake of desired public appearance. There are also high self-monitors and low self-monitors.
High self-monitors are those who easily blend into the situation by knowing what to do or to say
with each person. They are also more friendly and less anxious to observers, and are sensitive to
social cues are likely to vary their behavior from situation to situation. They also are able to read
non-verbal behavior better, and will change their behavior to suit the situation as they perceive it
and most likely to act appropriately than being their true selves.
Low self-monitors on the other hand, act regardless of the situation and so they rarely
conform to the norms of the social setting. They are less sensitive to social cues, and less likely to
change thier behavior from one situation to another. Those who are self-monitors are seen to be as
what they really are, and they behave so as to express internal attitudes and dispositions and they
have greater consistency between their attitudes and their behavior.
Self-monitoring is considered to be one of the first steps to self-regulated behavior
(Schunk, 2011). It is one of the most researched group of self-management interventions (Cooper,
Heron, & Heward, 2007), and research suggest that students at all levels can successfully learn to
use and benefit from self-monitoring interventions (Reid, Trout, & Schartz, 2005). To be
successful self-monitors, students need to learn to keep track of what they are doing and how they
are thinking so they can adjust their behaviors and thoughts in order to meet goals or complete
tasks (Porter, 2002; Smith, 2002)
Self-Control
Self-control is defined as controlling and managing of ones feelings, thoughts, and
behaviors in order to provide compatible relationships with other people; it is comprised of not
following fads, controlling negative feelings, and being able to work and inhibit impulsive
behaviors (Feldman, Martinez-Pons, & Shaham, 1995). It is widely regarded as a capacity to
change and adapt the self so as to produce a better, more optimal fit between self and world
(Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982). It is also an ability to change ones inner responses, as well
as to interrupt undesired behavioral tendencies and refrain from acting on them. Self-control
should be contributed as a factor producing a broad range of positive outcomes in life. Studies on
the relationship between academic success and self-control have shown that individuals have a
more successful academic career if they possess self-control which provides effective time
management and prevent performance limiting mood disorders (Akbaba, 2012).
Interventions
Grade Incentives as Motivation
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Maintaining grades is the most concern of the students especially those in college degree
because they already have an idea that there grades are their key to a successful job in the future.
In this study, grade incentives will be used as an instrument to lessen the procrastination practiced
by a number of students, it will act as an extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation as defined is a
motivation that comes from the outside of an individual in which its motivating factors are external
and the satisfaction that it will bring is something that cannot be provided by the task itself.
Grading system affects student behavior in an introductory college. Evidence is presented
that course performance of students is clustered slightly above the boundaries between grade
levels, and the students were slightly below a grade boundary going into the final exam exhibit
more effort even controlling for pre-exam performance. Thus, students respond to the incentives
created by the grading system (Oettinger, 2002). Incentives are facets of the environment that are
attractive or unattractive to an individual. It is also the motivational focus of a persons activity.
They represent the desirable outcomes people value and provide an impetus toward behavior,
which is expected to provide benefits. (Raviv and Netz, 2007).
Ackerman and Gross (2005) identified and examined task characteristics, and from their
findings it was found out that instructors could help students reduce procrastination by providing
interesting assignments, clear instructions, and rewards. It was reported that rewards reduced
procrastination in students by 80%, it was perceived as an incentive to begin assignments early.
Being extrinsically motivated will make a person work on the task even when he has low interest
on it. Example would be though the task is boring, the student will still be motivated to do work
on it because of the good grade reward.
Time Management
Time management is one of the most effective and efficient way to reduce procrastination
in educational setting. It is a way of properly utilizing ones time to achieve personal goals; a way
of setting things first hand and which to prioritize. Time management involves identifying tasks to
be performed, planning and scheduling organizational activities, prioritizing such activities,
allocating time to the tasks according to the degree of importance in enhancing productivity,
minimizing interruptions and frivolities and then declining with routine tasks in such a way that
truly important task could be given due attention. (Obi, 2001). Proper time management directly
affects the potential achievements of the students, thus improper time management may result to
students underachievements. In order to achieve effective time management, it is necessary to
write down your schedule, to plan ahead and to work with a realistic schedule (Nelie, 2003).
Goal Setting Theory
Goal setting theory is a theory that emphasizes the relationship between goals and
performance. It was proposed by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham and stated that people are more
likely to achieve a difficult yet attainable goals than they are to achieve less difficult goals. It was
also mentioned that goals can either be directional or accuracy goals. Directional are goals worked
by people without knowing the precise steps that should be done to achieve them thus it is more
motivational, while accuracy goals are by which a careful planning is to be done to identify the
best paths to achieve goals with minimal aberrations. Goal setting theory includes five principles
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namely clarity, challenge, commitment, feedback, and task complexity. When linked to
procrastinating behavior, according to Steel (2007) with other self regulatory and planning
techniques, showed a negative correlation of -.36 with procrastination (K=25, N=4757). Hence,
goal setting seems to be beneficial for overcoming procrastination.
SYNTHESIS
Procrastination in general is an act of delaying tasks that needs to be completed. It is said
to be prevalent among high school and college students. Based on Solomon and Rothblum (1984),
procrastination has been found most widespread when writing term papers, studying for
examinations, and completing weekly assignments. It is also identified that there are five forms of
procrastination that includes academic procrastination, decisional procrastination, neurotic
procrastination, life routine procrastination, and compulsive procrastination. Focusing on
academic procrastination it was given that is the act of deciding not to finish a chosen academic
task. Several interventions was found to prevent procrastination including grade incentives, time
management, and goal-setting. Self-control and self monitoring is also tackled in this study for it
also plays an important role in studying procrastination. It controls and manages ones feelings,
thoughts, and behaviors through which it could avoid ones tendency to procrastinate. This study
aims to establish self monitored gadget limiting as new intervention for the widespread cause of
procrastination.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
A quasi-experimental research design was the prime method in this study which
specifically included manipulated independent variables but lacks important controls or lacks
manipulated variable but includes important controls. This research design was used because
participants are not possible for random assignment, but rather are chosen and assigned to
treatment groups composing of college students based on the basic standards of the level of
procrastination. This design was used to evaluate the effects and benefits of the intervention, and
establishing causal relationship between intervention and outcome.
Participants
A sample of at least 30 students was presented in this study. These students are college
freshmen from De La Salle University Science and Technology Complex - Canlubang taking up
Bachelor of Science in Business management. The reason of the researcher for choosing the
university was to take advantage of its trimester system which was just in time for the deadline of
this study. Business management students were also chosen for the reason of easy access and
having 70 students as the largest population in this new building of De La Salle University. The
researcher determined if procrastination was evident in them by tallying the results of the
procrastination test that was given to the participants, which was the Procrastination Assessment
Scale-Students. Based on the standard basis of Procrastination Assessment Scale-Students, high
procrastinators were defined as those who scored a 36 or above on the scale and low procrastinators
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were defined as those who scored a 35 or below. Students that was classified as high
procrastinators were selected for the study.
Instruments
Procrastination Assessment Scale-Students
Solomon and Rothblums Procrastination Assessment Scale-Students (1984) was used in
the study to classify students who were low or high procrastinators (Appendix B). PASS is a 44item instrument that measures the frequency of cognitive-behavioral antecedents of
procrastination. It measures academic procrastination from multiple areas: writing term paper,
studying for an exam, keeping up with reading assignments, performing administrative tasks,
attending meetings, and performing school activities in general. Scores are on a 5-point likert-type
scale (a=1 to e=5) and are summed up for each academic task by which scores ranges from 2 to 10
and across the six areas of academic functioning which ranges from 12 to 60. The most recent
research shows low levels of internal consistency for the PASS with split-half correlations of .58
for men and .31 for women regarding procrastination frequency. The correlation for
procrastination as a problem was .26 overall and for reasons for procrastination was .80.
Self Monitoring Scale
Mark Snyder developed Self Monitoring Scale (1974), that measures the extent to which
one consciously employ impression management strategies in social interaction (Appendix C) The
scale assesses the degree to which one manipulate the nonverbal signals that he/she send to others
and the degree to which his/her behavior to situational demands. Research shows that some people
work harder at managing their public images than do others. It consists of 25 true-false items and
using the provided answer key (Appendix C), scores are summed up and individuals scoring 13
and above are considered high self-monitors.
Brief Self-Control Scale
Brief Self-Control Scale of Tangney, Baumeister, and Boone (2004) is a 10 item test rated
on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 = Not at all like me to 5 = Very much like me (Appendix D).
Self-control is, the ability to override or change ones inner responses, as well as to interrupt
undesired behavioural tendencies and refrain from acting on them, (Tangney et al., 2004). The
scale assesses four domains of self-control including the control of ones thoughts, emotions,
impulses and behaviour. Among other things, this measure of self-control is associated with better
grades, fewer impulse-control problems (e.g., binge eating), and less depression and anxiety
(Tangney et al., 2004).
Procedure
Participants from business management department who are in their first year were asked
to complete a Procrastination Assessment Scale-Students (PASS) to measure their procrastination
level and to determine whether they are qualified for the study, and then followed by the pre-test
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of Self Control Scale for all the participants. Those who were qualified for the study determined
by the Procrastination Assessment Scale-Students (PASS) were informed of the purpose and
nature of the study followed by the interview where they were asked if they would be willing to
participate in the study which should be obtained before proceeding. A demographic form was
distributed to the qualified and willing participants to be filled out to obtain demographic
information that includes their age, gender, year level, and academic status. The 30 participants
were divided into two groups where one received the proposed intervention which was cutting off
the distractions from social media sites or limiting the gadgets used for accessing internet, and the
other group was only informed and instructed of the ways to minimize procrastination. The
treatment group received the limitation of using electronic gadgets used for access on social media
sites. They were only required to access their online accounts such as Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr,
AskFm etc., for 1-2 hours in the morning and in the evening during weekdays and for atleast 3-4
hours during weekends exclusion of long exams and midterm week. A log book was also given
that monitored their performance which includes the date and time of completion of each task done
prior to its deadline and the results of possible quizzes or examinations and was checked by the
researcher every end of the week to determine if there are any progress and if the treatment given
was effective. It is expected to have an improvement for both groups on how they handle
procrastination by the end of the study.
At the end of the program, participants completed a post-test of the Procrastination
Assessment Scale-Students (PASS) and a Self Control Scale. The results of their PASS pre-test
was compared to the results of their post-test to determine if the treatment was successful or not;
same as with the pre-test and post-test of Self Control Scale which determined if the control on
ones behaviour have changed relatively. Participants were also asked to complete the Self
Monitoring Scale as for further comparison with the post-test of Self Control Scale.
Data Analysis
In this study, paired-samples t-test was used to calculate the results. A paired sample t-test
was used to determine whether there was a significant difference between the average values or
means of the same measurement made under the two different conditions which was the treatment
and control group in minimizing procrastination. The data that was measured was the
Procrastination Assessment Scale-Students (PASS) and Self Control Scale that was given to
students. Both groups were given a pre-test and post-test in use for the comparison of the results.
In determining the relationship between self-control and level of procrastination, and also the
relationship between self-control and self monitoring, the researcher used Pearsons r correlation.
The data that was measured was the post-test results of the procrastination test and the self control
test of both the treatment and control group; and the post-test results of the self control test and
results of the self monitoring test that was given at the end of the program.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The participants were chosen and grouped based on the results of their procrastination test
that was given before the intervention. Both groups were identified high procrastinators, however,
15 of those who scored higher were the ones chose to be in the experimental group, and the other
15 belonged to the control group.
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Levels of Procrastination
Table 1: Paired T-test analysis of PASS between pretest results of experimental and control, and
post-test results of experimental and control.
Table 1 shows the comparison of the means of the pre-test and post-test of the experimental
and control groups for the Procrastination Assessment Scale-Students. The researcher used a
paired t-test for the analysis of the data and comparison of means for the two groups. The mean
for the pre-test of the experimental was 41.20, indicating that their level of procrastination is high.
For the control group, the mean for the pre-test was 40.67, which also indicated a high level of
procrastination.
The post-test result of the experimental group produced a mean of 39.67, while the control
group had a mean of 40.53. From these results, there is a slight change that can be seen between
the means of the experimental and control group. However, based on the provided standard rating
scale, the results still indicates a high level of procrastination for both groups.
The means of both groups were compared using paired-samples t-test which resulted to
(t(14)=1.835, p>.05) for the pre-test, and (t(14)=-.2.476, p<.05) for the post-test. Based from these,
there was no significant difference between the pre-test means of the experimental and control
groups. However, for the post-test, a significant difference can be seen between the means of the
two groups. The intervention that was given to the experimental group may have attributed to
minimizing their procrastination habit of the students.
Table 2: Paired T-test analysis of PASS between the pretest and posttest results of
experimental and control group
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Table 2 shows the comparison between the pre-test and post-test results of each group. For
the experimental group, having the score (M=41.20, SD=1.373) for the pre-test, and (M=39.67,
SD=1.718) for the post-test, there shows a significant difference; (t(14)=7.122, p<.05). These
results suggest that the intervention that was given to the participants did help in minimizing
procrastination.
For the control group, having the score (M= 40.67, SD=0.488) for the pre-test, and
(M=40.53, SD=0.516) for the post-test, shows no significant difference; (t(14)=1.468, p>.05). It
can be seen in the table that the difference in the mean of the pre-test and post-test for the control
group, shows a very little difference. Thus, the use of verbal instructions on some ways on how to
minimize procrastination was not effective compared to the given intervention of self monitored
gadget limitations that was given to the experimental group.
The verbal instructions that was given to the control group are tips on how to minimize
procrastination which were based from Michael Pitts and Jennifer Benetts article (2011). Some
tips were (1) breaking the assignment into small pieces, (2) make a detailed to-do list with specific
deadlines, (3) make a time schedule, (4) first things first, and (5) dont be afraid to turn to other
people for help. The researcher encouraged the control group to practice these tips, but they still
have the choice if they would follow the tips or not.
Log Book
Table 3: Summary of means of hours used per day for weeks 1&2
This graph shows the mean scores for the number of hours used by each participant of the
experimental group for the 2 weeks intervention. For weekdays, participants are expected to have
a maximum of 4 hours usage of gadgets for internet access for the whole day; for weekends, they
have allowed for a maximum of 8 hours usage for the whole day.
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For week 1, the mean scores for each day of the experimental group shows that at some
days, participants were exceeding the instructed number of hours, but at some days they were not.
The researcher purported that the participants are still adjusting and coping with the intervention.
For week 2, the mean scores for each day of the control group shows a significant change
in their gadget usage, though on Friday they have actually exceeded by 15 minutes, and at most
days they used their maximum number of hours. The researcher affirmed that self monitoring
through logging their gadget usage in the log book provided, helped in monitoring their habitual
usage of gadgets which also caused them to decrease their level of procrastination.
The log book that was given to the experimental group was used as a track for the number
of hours the participants used their gadgets for social networking, and also to track down their
performance in accomplishing tasks. The log book contains the number of hours used for social
networking, due tasks, expected deadlines and when did they actually finished the task. This was
also used to enhance their self-control by which they were able to discipline themselves in limiting
the use of gadgets and being responsive to due tasks. The log book was also used to make the
participants able to observe their own performance, learn from it, and be able to change the
behavior into a more desirable and productive one. Based on the results, the intervention showed
to be effective in minimizing procrastination and has improved the participants performance. The
researcher also rechecked their log books by looking into the sudden change of number of hours
used, expected dates of submission of each task, and the date when they have actually finished the
task.
Level of Self-Control
Table 4: Paired T-test analysis of BSCS between pretest results of experimental and control, and
post-test results of experimental and control
The pre-test and post-test means for the experimental and control group was presented and
showed a significant difference. For the pre-test, experimental group had a mean score of 2.90,
and control group had a mean score of 2.91. This showed that the control group had a higher self
control than experimental group. However, after the intervention there was a significant difference
between the two groups.
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The post-test mean score of experimental group was 2.99, and the mean score for the
control group was 2.92. The researcher used paired samples t-test to compare the analysis of the
means of the two groups and resulted to (t(14)=-.853, p>.05) for pre-test and (t(14)=2.615, p<.05)
for post-test which means that there is no significant difference in the pre-test, but a significant
difference can be seen in the post-test.
Table 5: Paired T-test analysis of BSCS between pretest and posttest results of experimental and
control group
Table 5 shows the comparison between the pre-test and post-test of experimental and
control group. The experimental group had a score of (M=2.90, SD=0.399) for pre-test, and
(M=2.99, SD=0.392) for post-test, resulting to (t(14)=-4.107, p<.05). This shows that there is a
significant difference between the scores and can be affirmed that the intervention also caused the
participants self control to increase.
However, for the control group there is no significant difference between the scores. The
control group had a score of (M=2.91, SD=0.392) for the pre-test and (M=2.92, SD=0.395) for the
post-test, resulting to (t(14)=-1.524, p>.05). The table still presents a little difference in the mean
scores of the pre-test and post-test of the control group, thus the verbal instruction of some tips of
minimizing procrastination was not that effective.
Self-control is conceived of as a core feature of an individual, leading to success and
happiness in life. People who control or regulate desires, behaviors, performance and responses,
achieve better in various domains. In this study, the intervention aside from successfully
minimized procrastination also increased the level of self-control which resulted to a better
performance in academics. Also, through the use of log book, participants was able to observe
their own performance and commit to a good behavior.
Self Monitoring
Self Monitoring Scale was given at the end of the program. The results of both the
experimental and control groups were compared through a paired sample t-test. The experimental
group had a mean score of 9.73, indicating an intermediate level of self monitoring based on the
standard scoring of the scale. The control group had a mean score of 6.87, indicating a low level
of self monitoring. These results to a significant difference between the scores of both groups
where for the experimental group (M=9.73, SD=0.458), and for the control group (M=6.87,
SD=0.352), resulting to (t(14)=3.26, p<.05).
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Table 6: Pearsons r Correlation for Self Monitoring and Self Control
The researcher used Pearsons r Correlation to identify if there is a relationship between

self monitoring and self control and showed, r = -.058, n = 15, p = -.839, which only means that
self control is different from self monitor.
Self-monitoring only refers to how people regulate and control the image of themselves
that they display to another person. For high self-monitors. They are more sensitive to situations
and expectations, and they are more concerned with acting appropriately than being true to
themselves. While low self-monitors are less interested in controlling the impression of other
people, they are less sensitive and less likely to change their behavior from one situation to another
and they prefer to be seen as they really are. Self-monitoring is more of paying attention to a social
situation so that they can change their behavior to fit the situation. It is somehow the same thing
in academic perspective of self-control; controlling ones own performance and behavior to change
it in a more desirable one. However in general, self-control is just one of the many important
aspects of self monitoring together with identifying the target behavior, reinforcers and criteria,
and proper use of system.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The study resulted to the effectiveness of the intervention in minimizing procrastination
through self monitored gadget limiting. It showed a significant difference between final
procrastination test of those who received the intervention and those who did not. Aside from the
self monitoring intervention, the logbook also helped in minimizing procrastination. However, the
final mean level of procrastination still indicated high level procrastinators based on the standard
scoring guide of Procrastination Assessment Scae-Students. The researcher found out also using
Pearsons r correlation that there is no significant relationship between self control and self
monitor.
This study focused mostly on the decisional form of procrastination by which participants
observed their own behavior and gradually changed it to a more productive one. For future
researchers interested in this same topic, it is recommended to have additional measures for
behavioral forms of procrastination such as anxiety or stress which may attribute to the cause of
delay in starting ones academic work in addition to the log book which is in a form of self-report
71

instrument. Since self-report instrument maybe given by students according to a socially desirable
responses, additional behavioral measures for academic procrastination can be considered.
72

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75
Parental Expectations and Perceived Parental Expectation

As Predictors of Competitiveness
Ryzza Elline C. Togonon
Rodelando E. Ocampo
Abstract
This study examined the expectation of parents have for their children and
what is the expectation that children perceives and the relationship of
Parental Expectation and Perceived Parental Expectation to the
Competitiveness of the child in the academic settings. A total of 145
respondents from Statefields School Inc. participated in the study and
descriptive were used to determine the level of parental expectation and
perceived parental expectation. Linear regression was used to determine the
relationship of parental expectation and perceived parental expectation to
competitiveness. Self-administered tests such as Parental Expectation =.67,
Perceived Parental Expectation =.69 and Competitiveness =.91. Results of
the study suggest that parents are not much expecting while students perceive
that parents are moderately expecting. Students are also sometimes
competitive in the academic setting. The study also suggests that there is no
significant relationship between Parental Expectation and Competitiveness &
Perceived Parental Expectation and Competitiveness. Implication of the
study suggests that the expectation of parents and the expectation that
children perceive cannot be a predictor of competitiveness.
In every classroom, there are students who raise their hand in every question that was asked
by the professor, students who strive hard to get the highest remark in class and sometimes these
students doesnt care if they step on others, as long as they are achieving well and they are the ones
who are considered the smartest in class, they will be competitive in every aspect.
Competitiveness is frequently associated with maladaptive consequences such as increased
stress, depression (Dykman, 1998), and avoidance of school work. (Harackiewicz, Barron,
Pintrich, Elliot, & Thrash, 2002). Unhealthy competitions tend to produce stress and depression to
students, especially if they are not succeeding in the competition. (Barron, 2002) Although, this
generally negative view towards competition is slowly being challenged (e.g Ryckman et. al.,
1996), the psychological literature still defines it a suboptimal. Most researchers measure
competition as direct opposite of cooperation. (Stapel & Koomen, 2005). Competitiveness also
holds different meaning for peoples from different cultures (Grum & Kolenc, 2008 ; Housten,
Moore, Brummett & Kametani, 2005; Stapel & Koomen, 2001) More specifically, within the
educational domain it has been found that students from individualist countries more likely
perceive competition as negative while students from collectivist societies more likely perceive
competition as positive (Fulop, 1999, 2005; Watkins, 2007, 2009). These divergent views on
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competition may lead to differences in how competitiveness influences various
outcomes. Researchers have discussed that competitive students begin feeling pressures to
succeed in academics at a very early age. (Raffini, 1986). The pressure to succeed has a profound
meaning to students of all ages (Raffini, 1986). These pressures may come from their parents
(Harp, 1995), from their peers (Tang & Zuo, 1997), and/or from themselves. (Tang & Zuo, 1997).
Students put a lot of pressure in themselves as they competed with other students. (Harp, 1995.
Sometimes, because of the pressure, they tend to embrace forms of academic dishonesty, some
examples of types of academic dishonesty includes copying from peers and cheating (Gerdeman,
2000)
Competitiveness may be destructive or it can be a factor that can contribute to the success
of the child in the academic settings (Barron, 2002). Childs competitiveness can be destructive
when its level is too high, it makes the child compete with his peers even if they are not competing
with them, if the child cannot accept defeat and it may come up to a point that it will affect how
the child will cooperate with other people (Stapel & Krooman, 2005). It can be also destructive if
the competitiveness of the child is too low, the child will not compete with his or her classmates,
and it that way he or she will just be contented with his or her performance, even if it is not that
good.
Competition has received a lot of bad press. It has been associated with a lot of host of
maladaptive outcomes such as negative well-being, suboptimal learning, extrinsic orientation,
aggression (Ryckmen, Hammer, Kaczor, & Gold, 1996), low self-efficacy (Cham & Lhan, 2008),
prejudice (Sassenberg, Moskowitz, Jacoby, & Hansen, 2007) and conflicts among friend
(Schneider, Fonzi, Tomada, & Tani, 2000)
Competitiveness may be constructive on the other hand because it can motivate students to
carry great accomplishments. Competition is beneficial in that it motivates people to perform at
their highest potential (Johnson, 1997). Students will be motivated to obtain higher GPA to enter
graduate school (Pullen, et al., 2000), perform well and put forth the most effort by reviewing their
materials every night for 2-3 hours; preparing and attending all their classes (Albaili, 1997).
The study aims to know how parental expectation influences their childrens
competitiveness; and moreover, to delve into knowing the respondents profile in terms of:
Parental Expectation, Perceived Parental Expectation, and Competitiveness, if there is a significant
relationship between Parental Expectation and Competitiveness, if there is a significant
relationship between Perceived Parental Expectation and Competitiveness and which of the
following predictor variables (Parental Expectation and Perceived Parental Expectation) better
predicts Competitiveness?
Parental Expectations
In the Academic Setting, the parental expectations have significant relationship to factors
such as academic performance and success but the relationship of pressure with parental
expectation will depend on the nationality of the child.
77
According to the study by Nauman, Funder, & Guillame (2002) the parental expectations of
Asian parents are correlated to the pressure of the students in getting high grades while the parental
expectations of the Latinos are not correlated to that pressure. In contrast with the study by Leung
and Shek (2011) the parental expectation of Chinese parents in the performance of their children
in the future is not correlated to the educational levels of their child. According to Anderson (2010),
parental expectation can have a strong effect on kids motivation and self-expectation. He said that
healthy and realistic expectations can encourage kids success while unrealistic expectation can
lead to anxiety and discouragement and on the other hand, low expectation can make it difficult
for kids to see and achieve their full potential. Kean, Pearce and Vantanian (2001) said that students
whose parents hold high expectation receive higher grades, achieve higher scores on standard tests
and persist longer in school than those parents hold relatively low expectations. In the study by
Glock and White (2004), seven out of eight articles found out that Asian American parents tend to
hold higher expectations than do parents in other racial groups.
Seigner (1983) said that parental expectations can be contrasted to with parental aspirations,
whcih typically refer to the desires, wishes, or goals that parents have formed regarding their
childrens future attainment rather what they realistically expect their children to achieve.
Perceived Parental Expectation
In the Academic Setting, the perceived parental expectation have significant relationship to
factors such as performance, stress, pressure and bulimic symptoms. The study conducted by Zhan
(2006) found out that the expectation that the child perceives and the performance of the child is
positively correlated. Also, according to the study by Yamato & Holloway (2010), the perceived
parental expectation in Asian American countries has higher correlation to educational
performance than other races. On the other hand, the study by Low (2013), wherein they have done
a qualitative research that the parental expectation that the child perceives affects the decision
about the course that the child will take in the future. In another study by Peterson and Irving
(2008), parents considered a successful future for their children and often a future better than the
parents themselves enjoyed and for some students, this means they have to strive and perform
better to please their parents.
When it comes to perceived perfectionism in the academic setting, based on the study by
Bardone-Cone, Harney & Boyd (2012), the bulimic symptoms between these two races are
determined based on the perfectionism they perceive from their parents. When perfectionism is
perceived as negative, bulimic symptoms and perfectionism has a negative correlation and same
with if the perfectionism is perceived as positive, bulimic symptoms will be lessen and that
indicates a negative correlation. Comparing to the study by Stoeber & Rambow (2007), indicates
that parental pressure and perfectionism at school are positively correlated. Another study by J.
Castro & K. Rice (2003), find out that the scores involving the concern over mistakes, parental
criticisms, and doubts which are measured through a structured test called The Personal Standard
are higher in the Asian Americans and African Americans than the Caucasian Americans. This
means that the perfectionism of the Asian Americans and African Americans parents are higher
than Caucasian Americans. In addition to these studies, the study by Wang, Slaney, & Rice (2006),
finds that there is a correlation between high standards or perfectionism and discrepancy.
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Competitiveness
According to the Global Competitiveness Index (2014), Switzerland is the country who
ranks first when it comes to competitiveness while the country Chad ranks last. In Southeast Asian
Nation, Singapore ranked 1st when it comes to competitiveness while Cambodia ranked last (Luz,
2011). Using the Global Competitiveness Index, Philippines ranked 59th out of 148 countries when
it comes to competitiveness. On the other hand, Philippines ranked seventh among nine Southeast
Asian Nation in the area of education and innovation (Luz, 2011). The Philippines is falling behind
Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam.
According to Karetepe and Olugbade (2009), competitiveness increased individuals work
engagement, it means, trait competitiveness has been found positively associated with work
engagement. In the study of Jiang, Huang and Chen (2012), competitiveness increased the
possibility of winning and as a result, it increased students self-value. In neuroticism affecting
competitiveness, according to Jiang, Huang and Chen (2012), if an individual has high
neuroticism, competitiveness tended to counteract any diminishing professional efficiency. Also,
according to this study, competitiveness increased the possibility of winning and as a result, it
increased the students self-value, especially for those students whose neuroticism was high and
emotional condition could easily change.
According to the study done by Grum and Kolenc (2008) in the recent research in crosscultural psychology indicated that competition is a culture bound-construct. This is supported by
the study of Housten, Harris, Moore, Brummet, & Kametani (2005) saying that competitiveness
holds a different meaning for people from different cultures.
A study done by Zeng and Le Tendere (1998) investigated adolescent suicide and academic
competition in East Asia, where there has been speculations that their society is the most
competitive in the world. What they found out through their research on middle school and high
school age students was overall competition appears to increase as the number of students suicide
also increased. In another study by Raffini (1986), in the United States, real competition between
students has been found to begin early in their education. In a research, there are students who are
not satisfied with their performance unless they have obtained perfect marks in their classes. These
individuals can be identified as the ones who need to be the best in whatever they do.
SYNTHESIS
Perceived Parental Expectation has a significant relationship to the stress of the students.
The higher the perceived parental expectation is, the higher the pressure the students feel in getting
higher grades. Perfectionism is also a factor that contributes to the stress of students; students tend
to have a perfect performance due to their parents expectation. Competitiveness, on the other hand
increases an individuals work engagement and also, this increases the possibility of winning and
as a result it also increases the students self-value (Karapteape & Oblugbade, 2009). But these
researches lack if the expectation that children perceives from their parents correlates to the
students competitiveness and if the expectation they perceive are really the expectation of their
parents.
79
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The study was a Descriptive- Correlational quantitative research design, which is used if the
study is based on observation using a statistical tool which measures the relationship between two
or more variables (Houghton, 2014). This design is used by the researcher because the study aimed
to know the Means of Parental Expectation, Perceived Parental Expectation and Competitiveness
and this study aimed to know the relationship of Parental Expectation
Participants
The participants of the study were 145 Grade 10 students from Statefields School Inc and the
parents of these students; it can be their mother or their father. Selection of participants was done
through purposive sampling, ages between 15-16 years old, male and female and all of the
participants came from the 4th year students. The respondents are chosen for the reason that 4th
year students students are needed for this study and they are the last batch of 4 th year students.
Graduating students strive harder when it comes to academics to have good records when they
enter college. (Thomas, 2003)
Instruments
The researcher used a survey questionnaire that measured the competitiveness level of the
child as well as the expectation they perceived from their parents. The researcher has 2 surveys for
this study. The first questionnaire is entitled Competitiveness Test (Ryckmen, 1990). The
questionnaire is composed of 18 questions. The test was free of use. The second questionnaire
was constructed by the researcher and checked and approved by a statistician. The questionnaires
for the parents and the children have the same thoughts.
In the first questionnaire the researcher used 5-point Likert type scale (1-Always, 2Often, 3-Sometimes, 4-Rarely, and 5-Never). This questionnaire composed of 18 different
questions about competitiveness in the academic settings that measured the competitiveness of the
student. The third questionnaire is given to the parents, it is also a 4-point Likert Scale (1- Very
Much, 2- Moderate, 3- A Little, 4- Not At All, it has the same contents as the questionnaire that
is given to the children, the only difference is that this questionnaire is changed depending on the
person who answered it.
Data Gathering Procedure
Before the research actual, the researcher asked 40 students from San Beda College Alabang
and their parents to answer the questionnaires, 3 days to answer the questionnaires were given to
them. The results of the Pilot Testing showed a Cronbach Alpha of.67 for Parental Expectation,
while .79 for the Perceived Parental Expectation This means that each test gained a considerable
reliability; implying consistency in measuring the constructs on study
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After having an instrument that can be used for data gathering, the researcher went to
Statefields School to submit a letter of request that asked the school for permission to conduct a
study at their school. The guidance counselor, level coordinator and the principal approved the
letter and questionnaires in a span of 1 week and they have given a schedule to the researcher. The
researcher conducted the survey in an area where all the Grade 10 students were gathered. The
researcher instructed them to answer the two questionnaires and then asked them to return the
questionnaires for the parents, which is sealed inside a white envelope and it will be returned sealed
inside that white envelope, in the span of 3 days. The researcher went back to Statefields School
after 3 days to collect the questionnaires that were answered by the parents. After gathering the
data, they were tabulated, encoded, and treated statistically using SPSS (Statistical Package for
Service Solutions)
Data Analysis
The researcher used descriptive statistics to know the Means, which refers to one measure of
the central tendency and Standard Deviation, which measures the amount of variation or dispersion
from the average, of the Parental Expectation and Perceived Parental Expectation questionnaires.
The researcher also used Linear Regression, which predict scores on one variable from the scores
on a second variable. This is used to know the relationship of Perceived Parental Expectation and
Parental Expectation to the Competitiveness of the child in the academic setting. The researcher
used Parental Expectation and Perceived Parental Expectation for the independent variable and
Competitiveness for the dependent variable.The researcher used the Statistical Product and Service
Solutions (SPSS) software for windows 20, as a statistical tool in analyzing the data that was
gathered. The SPSS showed the Descriptives of Perceived Parental Expectation and Parental
Expectation, the correlation of Perceived Parental Expectation and Parental Expectation to the
Competitiveness of the child in the academic settings.
Levels of Parental and Perceive Parental Expectation
Levels of Competitiveness
81
RESULTS
Respondents Level of Expectation (Parental Expectation and Perceived Parental Expectation)
and Respondents Level of Competitiveness
The content of Table 1 is the Mean and Standard Deviation of Parental Expectation,
Perceived Parental Expectation and Competitiveness. This table will determine the level of
Parental Expectation, Perceived Parental Expectation and Competitiveness.
Table 1 Respondents Level of Expectation: Parental and Perceived Expectation and Respondents
Level of Competitiveness
Based on the data that the researcher gathered, it can be implicated that the level of parental
expectation has a mean of 2. 60 and has a standard deviation of 0.90, which indicates that parents
are not much expecting when it comes to the academic performance of the child. In perceived
parental expectation, it can be indicated that the level of this has a mean of 1.78 and has a standard
deviation of 0.90 which indicates that children are perceive that their parents are moderately
expecting in their performance in the academic setting.
Comparing the two, the perceived parental expectation or the expectation that the child
perceives is stronger than the parental expectation or the expectation that parents really have for
their children.
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Supporting the results, children perceived parental expectation tend to be higher than the
expectation that parents really have for their children (Rambow, 2007)
Additionally, the data that the researcher gathered, it can be concluded that the level of
competitiveness has a mean of 2.75 (Mean=2.749444) and has a standard deviation of 1.22
(SD=1.215833), which indicates that children are sometimes competitive in the academic settings.
The reason behind this is that Philippines ranked 6th out of 9 countries in South East Asia
when it comes to academic competitiveness (Luz, 2011). This means that most students in the
Philippines are not that competitive in the academic setting.
Parental Expectation and Competitiveness, and Perceived Parental Expectation and
Competitiveness
This table shows the R value and P value of Pair 1 which is Parental Expectation and
Competitiveness and Pair 2 which is Perceived Parental Expectation and Competitiveness. This
table will determine if parental expectation and competitiveness has a significant relationship as
well as the perceived parental expectation and competitiveness.
Table 2: Parental Expectation, Perceived Parental Expectation and Competitiveness
Table 2 shows the computed r-value of .079 and p-value of 0.172, gained in correlating
Parental Expectation and Competitiveness. Further, in pairing the child respondents Perceived
Parental Expectation with Competitiveness, an R-value of 0.064 and a p-value of 0.223 were
obtained. The two P-values indicate an absence of relationship while the computed P-values were
above the allowable significance value.
Predictor variables (Parental Expectation + Perceived Parental Expectation) better predicts
Competitiveness.
This table shows the R-value and P value of Pair 1 which is Parental Expectation and
Competitiveness and Pair 2 which is Perceived Parental Expectation and Competitiveness. This
table will determine which of the following predictor variable (Parental Expectation and Perceived
Parental Expectation)
Table 3: Parental Expectation, Perceived Parental Expectation and Competitiveness
83
Table 3 shows the rank of the predictor variables which are Parental Expectation and
Perceived Parental Expectation. This table indicated that the two predictor variables have no
relationship with competitiveness. However, in pairing Parental Expectation and Competitiveness,
an R-value of .079 and P-value of .172 were obtained while in pairing Perceived Parental
Expectation and Competitiveness, an R-value of .064 and P-value of .223 were obtained. This
implicated that the relationship of Parental Expectation and Competitiveness is stronger, for that
reason, it can indicated that Parental Expectation is a better predictor for competitiveness.
DISCUSSION
The results shows that parents are not much expecting when it comes to the performance of
their children in the academic setting but children perceive that their parents are moderately
expecting in their performance in the academic setting. Similar to the study by Leung and Shek
(2011), found out that the expectation that parents have for their children have no correlation to
the academic levels of the child as well as in the study by Nauman, Funder, & Guillame (2012)
the parental expectation of Latinos is not correlated to the pressure that is felt by the children. This
results means that the expectation of parents doesnt really have a significant relationship to the
pressure that students feel but comparing to the study of Zhan (2006), there is a correlation between
the academic performance and the expectation that the children perceive from their parents, in the
studies by Yamato & Holloway, Peterson and Low, the expectation that children perceives from
their parents have a relationship to the factors such as stress, bulimic symptoms and pressure. The
results shows that most of the time, parental expectation has no relationship to the pressure these
students are feeling, it will just depend on the culture of the family. On the other hand, perceived
parental expectation has a relationship to the pressure the students are feeling because most of the
time, the expectation that children perceives from their parents are higher than the expectation that
parents have for them. Basically, these results mean that most of the time, it is the perceived
parental expectation, not parental expectation, have a relationship with different factors such as
stress, depression or pressure. According to Rambow (2007), children perceives higher expectation
than the expectation that their parents really have for them and this perceived parental expectation
will have a relationship to the academic performance, as well as to the stress and pressure of the
students. This researches supported the results of that were gathered by the researcher that level
perceived parental expectation is stronger than parental expectation which means that the
expectation the children perceives is stronger than the expectation that parents really have for them.
The results also show that children tend to competitive sometimes at the academic settings..
According to the study done by Luz (2011), the Philippines rank 7th of 9 countries in South East
Asia when it comes to competitiveness, this indicates that Philippines is falling 6 countries when
it comes to competitiveness, supporting the results of this study, the reason why students are just
84

competing sometimes is that the country just ranked 7th out of 9 countries which indicates that the
country is not that competitive when it comes to the academic setting.
When it comes to the relationship of parental expectation and perceived parental expectation
to competitiveness, using the results that were gathered by the researcher, it is concluded that two
have no significant relationship. The same with the results gathered for perceived parental
expectation and competitiveness, it can be concluded that the two has no significant relationship.
The reason behind the result is the place where the study is conducted. According to the study
by Luz (2011), Philippines ranked seventh among the Southeast-Asian countries when it comes to
competitiveness. This indicates the Philippines are falling behind 6 countries and it indicates that
Filipinos are not naturally competitive. This simply means that no matter how high or low the
parental expectation or perceived parental expectation are, its relationship with competitiveness
will not be significant for the reason that Philippines is not a competitive country when it comes
to the academic setting.
Another reason is cultural limitation. According to Grum and Kolenc (2008), competition is a
cultural-bound construct. It means that competition hold a different meaning for people from
different cultures. Another reason is cultural differences. An example of this is that parental
expectation has relationship with the pressure that students have in getting higher grades in Asian
but with the Latinos, it has no relationship (Nauman; Funder; Guillame, 2012). Supporting the
study, since it, is conducted in the Philippine settings, the students may be pressured that they
should get a higher grade than their classmates, but they will not be competitive because of the
setting of the study, and Philippines just ranked 59 out of 148 countries. The students in the
Philippine settings may just be pressure by the expectation that their parents have for them, but
their competitiveness level, because the rank of the Philippines in regards of competitiveness is
low and the rank of the Philippines in regards of competitiveness in the educational setting is just
7th among 9 countries, is not correlated in either to parental expectation or perceived parental
expectation.
There is no significant relationship between Parental Expectation and Competitiveness as
well as Perceived Parental Expectation and Competitiveness, but if the degree of relationship and
significant relationship were compared, it can be also concluded that Parental Expectation is a
better predictor of Competitiveness
These are the reasons that the researcher saw why there is no significant relationship between
parental expectation & competitiveness and perceived parental expectation & competitiveness
Conclusions and Recommendations
Based on the data that were presented during the data gathering, the researcher concluded that
children tend to perceive a stronger expectation that their parents really have for them but despite
of this, this expectation they perceive or what their parents expect for them dont have any
significant relationship to the childrens academic competitiveness.
85

The researcher concluded that the parents are not clear to their children regarding the expectation
they really have for them, because most children are receiving the wrong expectation and this
expectation tends to be stronger than the expectation that the parents really have.
The researcher concluded that the expectation that children perceives from their parents
and the expectation of parents for their children has no significant relationship to competitiveness
mainly because of the culture in the Philippines, which is, Filipinos are not naturally competitive
and that is based on the Global Competitiveness Index (Luz, 2011). Also, the Philippines ranked
40th out of 52 countries in Asia which is considered to be low (Garrelli, 2001)
The researcher concluded that the expectation that children perceives from their parents and the
expectation of parents for their children has no significant relationship to competitiveness mainly
because of the culture in the Philippines, which is, Filipinos are not naturally competitive and that
is based on the Global Competitiveness Index.
For the future researcher who would like to take consideration of this topic and would also
conduct a similar study, it is recommended that the following researcher would look for a bigger
number of respondents. It is also recommended that the researcher should correlate both the
parental expectation and perceived parental expectation to different factors such as productivity at
school. Another suggestion is to focus the study to the children who are achievers or awardees at
their schools.
This paper would want to inform the society, especially the parents that they should have an
open communication with their children in regards of the expectation they have for their children.
This research is also made to inform that the expectation that the child perceives from their parents,
no matter how high or low, has no effect to the competitiveness of the child.
86

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89
Correlation on the DISC personality profile and Leadership styles

Of the Student Leaders of CAS in A.Y. 2014-2015
Reuelle C. Orense
Rodelando Ocampo
Abstract
This study focuses on the DISC personality profile of an individual in relation
to its leadership style in 140 student leaders of College of Arts and Sciences
in San Beda College Alabang with the use of systematic random sampling.
The participants were chosen as the researcher seen a need to study because
of the changes in the mix of the student leaders , which was from a body ruled
by a single party they became a combination of two party lists with different
approach. The result of the study suggests that the most commonly used
leadership style in the community of CAS is democratic and it is mostly used
by those who have influential personality profile. The result of the likelihood
ratio is at 0.042, lower than the level of significance of 0.05 which suggests
that we should accept the alternative hypothesis. Thus stating that there is a
relationship between the DISC personality profile and Leadership styles.
Leadership nowadays is essential for it massively affect the whole organization. The head
leads wherever his whole will go but it does not necessarily mean that the body cannot decide on
its own. It is just that each and every part should be guided correctly, and if the one who leads is
not functioning well then the problem arises, thus each and every organization should find a leader
that will fit the groups lifestyle, needs and the ways one should be handled for a better society.
Less than three years into Estrada's six-year term, the economy was failing, crime and
insurgency were rampant, and allegations of presidential corruption filled the media
Macapagal-Arroyo used her first three years in office to continue economic-reform policies that
President Fidel Ramos had first launched back in the mid-1990s. She put the economy back on a
modest growth track, and emerged as a major supporter of the global war on terror, drawing a
substantial increase in U.S. aid. Her no-nonsense governing style provided welcome relief from
the drunken carousing of Estrada's "midnight cabinet" of cronies. Rogers (2004).
In relation to the article, it only shows that leadership is a question especially when we talk
about our want to have a better output may it be as a big nation or a simple group. For example in
a banking industry of Nigeria, charisma style of leadership, transactional style of leadership, and
bureaucratic style of leadership do not induce employees to perform as expected. However,
transformational style of leadership, autocratic style of leadership and democratic style of
leadership have positive effect on organizational performance which induce employees to perform
as expected (Ojokuku et al, 2012).
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A leader is a person who leads, acts as a guide or conductor or a person who has
commanding authority or influence as defined by merriam-webster. In school setting a student
leader is the one who leads an organization may it be co-curricular or extra-curricular. A student
leader is the one who implements the rule, guides his members, inspire others to do things that
should be done and the head of his respective group but everyone differs in dealing with things
because they differ in the environment they are used to and also they differ in culture per
organization. Each student leader is selected or voted by his colleagues, he just need to have the
right mix of personality and style in handling things. The question is what personality or which set
of traits and characteristics make up a leader in a school-setting organization is it about his wits,
his knowledge, his skills, and his influence or is it about his abilities that defines a good leader.
The notion that poor-quality leadership has negative effects for individuals is not new, and the
research that has been conducted on the link between leadership and mental health has invariably
focused on the potentially negative effects of poor-quality leadership. Poor leadership also has
been associated with increased levels of employee stress and retaliation (Kelloway et al, 2005)
thus we should avoid poor practice of leadership skill to avoid or omit unwanted or negative
effects.
The development of leadership is now becoming an integral part of the educational
program of college students, with courses and activities scattered throughout the co-curricular
experience. Komives and her colleagues argue that leadership, like any other skill, needs to be
learned and practiced (Posner, 2004). In college things like leadership are essential because this
helps someone to be responsible and be more open to situations and people and learn different
ways to handle it.
The researcher noticed that in the community of College of Arts and Sciences in San Beda
College Alabang student leaders differ from one organization to another in a way they handle
things, organizes their scheduling of work and implements the ideas and plans they have in mind
to their co-officers up to their respective group members. And the main reason for this study is to
identify if each certain personality types will result to a certain leadership style. Also it could help
in screening the future student leaders of San Beda College Alabang to help make it better and
more effective. The researcher would like to know if there is a correlation between DISC
personality types to the type of leadership style an individual uses. And identify which DISC
personality type is common for the student leaders of SBCA and which leadership style are they
using.
DISC Personality Profile
Dominance
Hovden (2004) found out that most of the female board members reported that
gender equality issues were treated like non issues. And gender political significances of
male dominance were silenced and not really of much significance.
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A study of Anceaux (2013) found out in this study that the limited influence of
voice pitch and facial dominance on voting behaviour and perceptions of a well known
leader's dominance, honesty and power has a high effect of others.
The results of coefficient of correlation indicate that decision making behaviour is
significantly correlated with task oriented leadership style, people oriented leadership style,
right hemisphere, integrated hemisphere and type A behaviour. Further, results show that
there is significant mean difference in decision making behaviour between high and low
task oriented leadership style, people oriented leadership style, right hemisphere, integrated
hemisphere and type A behaviour groups based on the study of Singh and Phiutongngam
(2007)
Influence
Based on the study of Cable and Judge (2003) results revealed that individuals
scoring high in both emotional stability and agreeableness were more likely to engage in
coalition tactics and legitimization tactics. Individuals scoring high in both emotional
stability and openness were less likely to engage in legitimization tactics. Individuals
scoring high in both emotional stability and conscientiousness were less likely to engage
in exchange tactics and more likely to engage in personal appears. Individuals scoring high
in both extraversion and conscientiousness were more likely to engage in rational
persuasion tactics.
The most salient finding is that teachers occupation perceptions strongly affect
teachers satisfaction. Teachers occupation perceptions are influenced by principals
transformational leadership and by participative decision-making style. Principals
transformational leadership affects teachers satisfaction both directly and indirectly
through teachers occupation perceptions. The principals participative decision-making
style affects teachers satisfaction only indirectly through teachers occupation perceptions
based on the study of Bogler (2001).
According to the study of Voon et al. (2011) all four dimensions of transformational
leadership were found to be positively related to working condition. The dimensions were
inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration and
idealized influence.
Steadiness and Compliance
Charlesworth (2007) found out that CIS students had an almost even distribution
between Steady and Compliant and did not significantly differ from the General
Education students or Honors students leadership styles. This means that the majority of
participants in these populations are great listeners, loyal, self-controlled, comfortable with
routines, great team players, systematic, conservative, follow directions, and have a good
sense of humor
The correlation between belongingness and perceived charismatic leadership is
positive and significant, and charisma also correlates positively and significantly with
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helping and compliance. Belongingness, however, only correlates significantly positively
with helping. The correlation of belongingness with compliance is positive but low and not
significant according to the study of Den Hartog et al (2007).
Leadership Styles
Autocratic Leadership
In a study of Omolayo (2007), revealed that workers under autocratic leadership
style do not experience higher job-related tension than workers under democratic style.
De Vliert (2006) found that autocratic leadership was seen as less effective in richer
countries with more demandingcolder or hotterbioclimates.
On the other hand on the study of De Cremer (2006) he found that the condition in
which the leader did not push his opinions (low autocratic), motivation was significantly
more strongly influenced by the self-sacrifice manipulation, than in the condition in which
the leader did push his opinions. In the self-sacrifice condition, the effect of autocratic
leadership was significant, but this was not the case in the self-benefiting condition.
Democratic Leadership
Bhatti et al (2012) found out that the higher the employees score are on democratic
type of a leadership style, the more job satisfaction they will seek. Thus it is concluded
leadership style yield healthy degree of impact upon the employees satisfaction and
quality improvement as indicated by the trend line and further the hypothesis that
leadership style constitute effect on satisfaction and quality proven to be true.
Group members were more dissatisfied with procedures in the autocratic leadership
condition than in the democratic leadership condition according to the study of Van Vugt
et al (2004).
Based on the study of Molero et al (2007) very high correlations were observed
between transformational leadership and relations-oriented leadership, democratic
leadership, and task-oriented leadership. The relation dropped in the case of the
transactional factor contingent reward, although it was still high. The correlations with
autocratic leadership are practically inexistent.
Laissez Faire Leadership
In a study of Jones & Rudd (2008), this study imply academic program leaders,
both male and female, are using transformational leadership styles more often than
transactional or laissez-faire leadership behaviors. This is a positive reflection of the
current academic program leaders because literature states transformational leadership
behaviors are more successful for attaining and fulfilling goals (Tichny & Devanna, 1990).
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The overall validity of laissez-faire leadership was moderately strong and was
especially strong for two criteria, follower satisfaction with the leader and leader
effectiveness. For management by exceptionpassive, in general the effect sizes were
smaller, but in several cases management by exceptionpassive significantly predicted
the specific criteria in the multivariate analysis as well. Overall, the results revealed that
the absence of leadership (laissez-faire leadership) is nearly as important as the presence
of other forms of leadership according to Judge & Piccolo (2004)
And based on the study of Gardner & Stough (2002) Laissez-faire leadership and
management- by-exception (passive) are both similar in that they are forms of nonleadership; thus it could be inferred that individuals with particularly low levels of
emotional intelligence would not make effective leaders.
SYNTHESIS
In the past year, leadership and personality has been correlated, it has been proven that
attitudes of leaders towards work can affect their relationship with their people and task. It is
discussed that a leaders dominance involves decision making (Singh & Phiutongngam, 2004),
which plays an important role and is related to task and people oriented aspects of leadership,
moreover, it formulates the leadership style executed in the organization. Also voice pitch and
facial dominance are factors of whom an employee would consider following more. Honesty and
power has high effect on others, on which, it provides influence among other people (Anceaux,
2013). Emotional stability and agreeableness engage in coalition tactics and legitimization tactics,
Extraversion and conscientiousness engage in rational persuasion tactics (Cable & Judge, 2003).
Perception are influenced by leadership (Bogler, 2001). Steady and Compliant personality has
similar leadership style may it be GE studs or Honor studs (Charlesworth, 2007)
Workers under the autocratic style of leadership do not experience higher job-related
tension compared to workers under democratic leadership style (Omolayo, 2007). It was also seen
that autocratic leadership was less effective in richer countries (De Vliert, 2006). And autocratic
type of leadership is inversely proportional with the motivation of someone (De Cremer, 2006).
On the other hand those workers who are under democratic leadership style seeks more job
satisfaction (Bhatti et al, 2012) and job dissatisfaction is more present in autocratic leadership style
(Van Vugt et al, 2004). Laissez faire leadership although seen as less effective it is said that it is
as important as the other leadership styles (Judge & Piccolo, 2004) but is less used because it offers
less chance for attaining and fulfilling goals (Jones & Rudd, 2008).
The highlight from all variables, in relation to leaders personality and style, focuses on
how the attitude of a leader creates and manages an organization implementation, their leadership
style among their colleagues and subordinates.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
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The study is a correlational quantitative research design. The test used are DISC
Personality Profile and Leadership Styles Questionnaire. This design is used to identify under
which personality profile an individual belongs and which leadership style he is using. From there
they would be correlated and see if the research problem could be affirmed.
The participants are the 140 student leaders in the community of College of Arts and
Sciences of San Beda College Alabang. The number was identified with the use of Slovins
formula to identify the number of respondents in the group at .05 margin of error. Participants
were chosen randomly where in every 3 sets of survey only 2 of them were chosen in order to
fulfill the 140 participants and with that being said the type of sampling used is systematic random
sampling.
Instrument Design
The instruments used in the study are DISC personality profile and Leadership styles
questionnaire. DISC personality profile, is based on the work of William Moulton Marston and
deals with the behaviours and emotions of normal people. It will measure if someone is dominant,
strong-willed, strong-minded people who like accepting challenges, taking action, and getting
immediate results; influential, people people who like participating on teams, sharing ideas,
and energizing and entertaining others; steady, helpful people who like working behind the scenes,
performing in consistent and predictable ways, and being good listeners; or conscientious, sticklers
for quality and like planning ahead, employing systematic approaches, and checking and rechecking for accuracy (Beamish, 2005). The test is made up of 24 items consisting of 4 2-pair
words per number and the goal is to choose which pair of words describes you the least. This test
has a Cronbach alpha of 0.89, 0.87, 0.89 and 0.89 in each personality profile of dominant,
influential, steady and compliance respectively.
The second test is Leadership style questionnaire which will identify the type of leadership
an individual uses. It is an 18-item likert scale which has a range of 1 being strongly disagree, 2
being disagree, 3 being neutral, 4 being agree and 5 being strongly agree. The test is a standardized
test with Cronbach Alpha of 0.826.
Procedures
The participants were chosen specifically for the study requires a student leader. The
number of participants were identified with the use of Slovins formula at a .05 margin of error.
At first each of the student leaders were given the two survey tests, DISC Personality Profile and
the Leadership Style Questionnaire. After gathering all the data needed upon correlation SPSS was
used to compute for the results needed.
And since the reliability of the Leadership Style Questionnaire was not known, it
undergone a pilot test with 40 student leaders in the University of Perpetual Help System - Dalta.
Pilot test was given there to avoid using the participants in San Beda College Alabang.
Data Analysis
95
The researcher tabulated the results of the tests with the help of the program SPSS version
17.0. In the program under the category of analyze button in SPSS, descriptive statistics was used
then picked the subcategory crosstabs and then performed the chi-square tests which gives the
result needed. The chi-square test would be used to fulfill the design, it is a statistical test used to
examine categorical variables like the two variables present in this study (Upton, 2014) and find
if they are fit. The following results of the crosstabs of the DISC personality profile and leadership
styles was gathered and also the result of the Pearson chi-square and the likelihood ratio.
Table A. For identifying the levels of leadership styles.
Response
Level
Interpretation
Strongly Agree
4.6-5.0
Very High Range
Agree
3.6-4.5
High Range
Neutral
2.6-3.5
Moderate Range
Disagree
1.6-2.5
Low Range
Strongly Disagree
1.0-1.5
Very Low Range
Table A. Leadership Style
RESULTS
Crosstabs
The distribution of the personality that the 140 student leaders have are the
following, 52 SLs are dominant, 49 SLs are influential, 18 SLs are steady and 21 SLs are
compliant. And for the distribution of leadership style they use 26 SLs are autocratic, 104
SLs are democratic and 10 SLs uses laissez faire. Each crosstabs show both observed and
expected count where the expected count are counts wherein it is the expected value to be
seen if the relationship between two variables have been implied. The expected count of
dominant and autocratic is 9.7 which is lower from the observed count of 12. The expected
count of dominant and democratic is 38.6 which is higher from the observed count of 34.
The expected count of dominant and laissez faire is 3.7 which is lower from the observed
count of 6. The expected count of influential and autocratic is 9.1 which is higher from the
observed count of 4. The expected count of influential and democratic is 36.4 which is
lower from the observed count of 44. The expected count of influential and laissez faire is
3.5 which is higher from the observed count of 1. The expected count of steady and
autocratic is 3.3 which is higher from the observed count of 3. The expected count of steady
and democratic is 13.4 which is lower from the observed count of 14. The expected count
of steady and laissez faire is 1.3 which is higher from the observed count of 1. The expected
count of compliant and autocratic is 3.9 which is lower from the observed count of 7. The
expected count of compliant and democratic is 15.6 which is higher from the observed
96

count of 12. The expected count of compliant and laissez faire is 1.5 which is lower from
the observed count of 2.
Table 1. Crosstabs of the DISC Personality Profile and Leadership styles of the students
DISC and Leadership style

Chi-square test
On the chi-square result, the condition written under the table 2 which is 6 cells
(50.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum count is 1.29 suggests that on an
assumption of a crosstab bigger than 2*2 the expected count should be less than 5. Having
a value greater than 5 tells us to invalidate the chi-square result and look at the likelihood
ratio. The a level of significance 0.042 which is lower than the level of significance 0.05
suggests that we should accept the alternative hypothesis that there is a correlation between
the two variables.
97
Table 2. Pearson Chi-square result for the correlation between DISC personality profile and leadership styles of the students
DISCUSSION
As seen on the table 1, there are two type of counts that were given, one is the real count
of the participants and the other is the expected count to be seen. The expected count is based on
what we should observe if theres no association present between the two variables. Moving on,
the count given according to the table says that most of the student leader present in the community
of College of Arts and Sciences in San Beda College Alabang have Dominant personality which
are the type who seeks challenge more and the type who has a high-effect on its members
perception about him and their honesty (Anceaux, 2013). On the other hand the least number of
personality some of the student leaders use is the steady personality profile which are the shy and
submissive type of person. Also they are great listeners, loyal, self-controlled, and comfortable
with routines (Charlesworth, 2007). For the type of leadership the student leaders use, the most
frequent type they use is the democratic style of leadership which suggests that the leaders in their
community offers guidance to his members and allows input and suggestions from them and
provides less dissatisfaction compared to autocratic type of leadership (Van Vugt et al, 2004).
While the least used type of leadership style they use is the Laissez Faire (Jones & Rudd,
2008) which is the type who does not really care much to his members and the leader just assign
task/s to his members and just let them to whats assigned to them and do not show or guide them
on how the work given to them should be done. In combining the two variables the most student
leaders they have are those who are democratic and influential which is the type who inspires his
members because those who have influential personality types are active and people oriented type
who wants to interact with other people. On the other hand the least is the steady and uses laissez
faire which suggests that he is just passive which compliments with his leadership style which
does not convey any interaction with his members.
On the chi-square result, it shows that the two variables, DISC personality profile and
leadership styles are related in the context of the community of College of Arts and Sciences in
San Beda College Alabang.
98

CONCLUSION
According to the the data gathered and the results of the study the researcher may conclude
that the leadership present in the academe of the College of Arts and Sciences of San Beda College
Alabang falls mainly into democratic style of leadership which is probably acquired because it is
also the type of government that is being implemented in the Philippines.
Also according to the results of the study that there is a relationship between the two
variables used by the researcher which means that this is a factor in acquiring the style of leadership
an individual uses. Does it tells us that whatever an individual is it affects how he deals with
situation especially when he needs to step-up as a leader of a group or an organization. The
researcher could recommend a further study on the leadership style of an individual, and on what
are the reasons why someone is holding on to that leadership style, for it could mostly affect the
way things could run in an academic setting. And it is in school where an individual is helped to
be who he could be in his future.
99

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101
Levels of Stress and Coping Strategies between High

And Low Performing Students
Jamie Bellosillo
Fatima Bullecer
Abstract
The goal of this study was to examine the levels of stress and what coping
strategies are being used by high performing students and low performing
students. One hundred (N = 100) students, fifty high performers and fifty low
performers, completed the Student Academic Stress Scale to measure their
level of stress and the COPE Inventory to examine which coping strategies
are being used. Results show that the high performing students level of stress
was lower than the level of stress of low performing students. It was also
found that both high performing and low performing students mostly use
positive reinterpretation and growth as their coping strategy (high performers
with a mean of 3.37 and low performers with a mean of 3.26 for this strategy,
4 being the highest possible mean). In addition to this, both high performers
and low performers used substance use the least of all coping strategies in the
SASS. The topic and relationship of students stress and coping strategies
should be explored in future examination.
Stress has always been a part of every persons life, especially during ones time in school.
Based on the previous studies gathered, there are different coping strategies used by adolescents
today to cope with different stressful events in their lives. There are many coping strategies known
to deal with different stressors, which come in forms of withdrawal, religion, restraint, denial,
substance use, and a lot more. According to the study of Misra and Castillo (2004), students who
experience higher self-imposed stressors (or stressors they brought upon themselves) have also
developed greater behavioral reactions to them. With the use of the Gadzellas Life Stress
Inventory, they have identified five categories of academic stressors which are frustrations,
conflicts, pressures, changes, and self-imposed. With the five stressors came the four reactions to
the stressors as physiological, emotional, behavioral, and cognitive.
Further exploring the topic of stress, a study of Persike & Seiffge-Krenke (2011) found
that adolescents coping is dependent on the type of stressor at hand. As for parental domain,
withdrawal is most likely used to cope with that stress. Problems with family were perceived as
stressful to adolescents due to family obligations yet it was noted that in Asian regions, it was
perceived less stressful compared to other regions, due to the Asians culture of a high family value
and commitment. For the academic domain, support seeking is made to deal with those stressors.
It was reported that adolescents experienced low levels of perceived stressfulness in peer and
romantic domains while they perceived school as the most stressful due to the accordance with the
102

pressure of achieving good grades. Based on the study by Saipanish (2003), 61.4% of students
experienced a significant degree of stress; it was also revealed that the greatest root of academic
stress was examinations and tests.
In exploring another factor academic stress, a study by Lo (2002) found that students in
their first year experience significantly less stress. As the stress grew in the further years, the selfesteem of the student becomes more positive. Another study conducted by Shaikh et al. (2004)
concluded that stress factors are inability to cope, helplessness, increased psychological pressure,
mental tension, and too much workload; which causes the inability to concentrate, loss of temper,
and low moods. The reported coping mechanisms were hanging out with friends, sleeping, music,
sports, and going into isolation. This has caused the students to demand more recreational activities
on campus, revised schedule of academics and examinations, better counselling facilities, and
improvement in student-teacher relationships.
Another study focused on the higher education environment was a study by Busari (2012)
which said that experiencing stress in considered normal for college students but when stress
becomes severe, it may cause negative effects on the student such as a decrease in their academic
performance, it becomes a hindrance in the participation and contribution of the students in their
campus, and it may even cause substance abuse and damaged behavior.
After examining the profile of both high performers and low performers (academic status),
this study aims to find out what the high performing students are doing differently from the low
performing students or those students on probationary status which will be done through
examining what type of coping strategies these students are using. This study also plans to answer
the following questions:
1. What is the level of stress of high performers?
2. What is the level of stress of low performers?
3. What coping strategies are being used by high performing students?
4. What coping strategies are being used by low performing students?
Academic Stress
A study done by Shah, Hasan, Malik, Sreeramareddy (2010) concluded that students do
undergo high levels of stress and that main stressors were of academic and psychological domains
which concerned the frequency of their examinations, high parental expectations, and vastness of
academic curriculum. In connection to this, a study conducted by Ongori & Agolla (2009) found
out that the factors causing the academic stress of the students were academic workload,
continuous poor performance in academics, and questioning whether they would be able to get a
job after graduating.
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In addition to those factors, Azizah et al. (2009) found that the lack of proper sleeping
habits, nutrition, financial problems, social activities, and trouble with boyfriends or girlfriends
contributed to the list of stress factors for the students. Other factors consisted of course load, class
attendance, problems with roommates and other peers, and over exercising or not getting enough
exercise.
Also exploring academic stress, a study by Burant, Crist, and Misra (2003) higher levels
of academic stress are predicted by higher levels of life stress and at the same time lower levels of
social support; and according to the study done by Chung & Rayle (2008), the social support given
by college friends was the strongest predictor of mattering, as mattering to the college was the
most dominant predictor of academic stress levels.
Al-Dubai, Al-Naggar, Alshagga, and Rampal (2011) discovered that students tend to use
the coping strategies of positive reframing, acceptance, and religious coping instead of more
avoidant strategies like denial and alcohol and substance use.
A research accomplished in a Greek university by Theodoratou, Tafiadis, and Fotiadou
(2006) found that a variety of coping strategies were used by their students, which were listed as
social support, focusing, diversion, and denial.
Perception of Academic Stress
According to the study of Busari (2012), there are four common components of academic
stress which are frustrations, financials, conflicts and self-expectations. Frustrations consists of
text books which were hard to understand, no proper place to study, not enough materials in their
library, low motivations by instructors, continuous poor academic performance, inadequate
resources to do assignment, and failing to accomplish their goals; while to financial component
dealt with not having regular pocket money, lacking the possession of nice clothes as well as fellow
students gossiping about their appearances, packing lunch instead of buying in the cafeteria, and
lacking the money to take care of themselves. Students also agreed that conflicts have caused them
academic stress, examples of this is not getting along with teachers, teachers who lack interest in
their students, too much workload under different courses, unfair tests, and conflict with other
students. Lastly, self-expectations were caused academic stress by the liking of competing and
winning, the urge to feel noticed and loved by all, tendency to procrastinate, being anxious about
taking tests, and worrying too much about everyone and everything.
The study by Vigil (2005) concluded that students perceived stress in terms of the pressure
the gain from it and the negative effects of stress. A large number of students agreed that stress is
related to stressful situations like examinations and work overload. The effect of academic stress
on the students performance, emotions, and health were pointed out. Due to the stress
experienced, the students have had incidents of stomach aches and muscular tensions. As for the
emotions of the students, it was reported that academic stress has caused them to be in bad moods
and has even caused them depression at some point.
104

While also exploring the opinions of the students, Sandler (2002) found that the academic
and social systems of the adult undergraduate experience should be more in line with adult
students' perceptions of academic performance and perceived stress. Higher education institutions
should offer curricula and services that are testing, supportive, and applicable to the adult students.
Deshpande, Karani, Pandya (2012) found that academic stress has also been caused by the
lack of recreational activities which has sometimes caused the students to experience headaches,
sleeplessness, nervousness and moodiness. It was reported that 65% of students reported that they
do not have time for extra activities and 41% said that they are able to manage those activities.
Kausar (2010) found that there is a relationship between academic stress, anxiety, time
management, and leisure satisfaction among university students. Students said they experienced
anxiety and they used time management and enjoyed leisure activities to cope with academic
stress. In semester system, stress-inducing academic demands consisted of grade competition, the
lack of time and problems relating to time or task management. Other important findings of this
study were that the students experienced stress under the workload, they reported the need or
importance of counseling services.
Academic Performance
According to Kaplan, Kaplan, Liu (2005), negative daily events have a great effect on the
students behaviour and academic performance which leads them to depression, lower GPA, and
delinquent activity. It has consistently been shown that when students have viewed school as a
source of negative experiences, it causes a negative effect on the students performance. In addition
to this, Nadeem and Muhammad (2012) found that the course load of the student, sleep problem,
and social activities were a big cause for stress that affects the academic performance of the
students.
Ahn, Park, Baek, & Chung (2007) from Korea concluded that the educators must be aware
that their students perceived stress and academic motivation affects their performance in
academics.
Based on the study of Duckworth & Seligman (2005), a major cause of students lack in
academic performance origins from their lack of discipline in school selection, attendance, hours
spent on homework and the same time, hours spent watching television.
SYNTHESIS
Academic stressors come in different forms such as frustration, pressures, conflicts, and
changes. Others may experience the inability to cope, may have too much workload, and have the
occurrence of mental tension. Students have complained that the frequency of examinations have
also caused them to get stressed. In addition to that, there are parental expectations, vastness of
their academic curriculum, continuous poor performance, and uncertainty that they would be able
to get hired after graduation.
105
In these academic stressors, the students seek for support to cope. Coping mechanisms are
also present in hanging out with peers and other activities like sleeping, listening to music, and
sports. The adolescents suggested that building better teacher-student relationships, improvement
in examination schedules, and enhanced counselling facilities would be an aid in coping with
stress.
It has been reported that students view academic stress as things like not having enough
materials in the library, continuous poor academic performance, being anxious about tests, lacking
the possession of nice clothes, worrying about being gossiped about, and many others. Stress has
caused students to experience muscular tensions, stomach aches, depression, and bad moods.
After examining the gathered research, it has been obvious that many types of subjects
have been covered which are gender differences, multicultural differences, and different academic
levels (freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors). This shines light on the question what are the
high performing students doing that low performers arent and whether or not the stress levels are
the same for this kind of population.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
In dealing with the task given, the researcher will be using the quantitative data in order to
figure out the levels of stress of both high performers and low performing students (determining
which group has a higher level of stress), and to determine what coping strategies are used by both
groups. To fully understand the topic, the researcher will employ the use of the Student Stress
Scale and the COPE Inventory.
The participants who will be given the scale will be 50 Deans Listers and 50 Probationary
Students who have been in that academic status during the Academic Year 2013-2014. Being that
the participants must only be Deans Listers and students under probationary status, purposive
sampling is the form of sampling. This group of participants will be selected due to their academic
status, confirming whether they are high or low performers in school.
Research Instruments
The instruments to used in the study consists of the Student Academic Stress Scale and
COPE Inventory in order to measure the participants level of stress and to determine which coping
strategies they use.
Student Academic Stress Scale
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The SASS is a self-reported questionnaire that has 31 items that are events or occurrences
students often encounter, the participants will answer whether or not that event (e.g. increased
workload in school, change in sleeping habits) has occurred to them during the past year. The
Student Academic Stress Scale was made by Mullen and Costello (1981) under their work on
Health Awareness through Self-Discovery. According to Busari (2011), findings indicate that the
SASS is a reliable and valid measure for stress. The internal consistency of the SASS was found
to be good with all alphas above .80. It has shown to be a psychometrically sound academic stress
scale and that it should be submitted to further statistical analysis in order to be used as valid scale
to measure of students stress. The SASS only has one limitation with differing gender emphasis
in measuring stress.
COPE Inventory
The COPE Inventory consists of 60 items of possible coping strategies the students may
have used which will be answered by 1 = I usually dont do this at all, 2 = I usually do this a little
bit, 3 = I usually do this a medium amount, and 4 = I usually do this a lot. The COPE Inventory
was developed by Carver, Scheier, and Weintraub in 1989 for the Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology which was found to be of good psychometric properties and the evidence for validity
was provided. With the use of the Cronbachs alpha, the values of coping aspects used in the
inventory were acceptably high with an average alpha of .79. As cited in a research by Litman
(2006). Examples of the items of this inventory are I put my trust in God which falls under the
Religious coping strategy and I try to get emotional support from friends or relatives which is
an example of the Use of Emotional Social Support strategy.
Procedure
Participants, both the high and low performing students, are given the Student Academic
Stress Scale (31 items) and the COPE Inventory (60 items). The questionnaires will be given and
answered by the students during their free time which will take them at least 20 minutes to finish.
After tallying the SASS to determine the students stress level and the COPE Inventory to find out
which coping strategies they use, the data gathered will be statistically analyzed.
In analyzing the results, the researcher will be using a frequency count for the level of stress
for both high and low performing students. Averaging or finding the mean will used in order to
determine what coping strategies are being used by the two groups.
RESULTS
Table 1. Level of Stress of High Performing Students
107
High Performers
25
50
Mild
16
Moderate
16
Serious
Major
14
50
100
Very Little
TOTAL
Table 1 shows the level of stress of high performing students. It shows that the level of Very Little
stress leads with 50% and has the smallest percentage of 4% for the level of serious stress. The
individual scores for the Deans Listers level of stress has an average of 163.4 which according to
the Student Academic Stress Scale is considered as mild stress.
Table 2. Level of Stress for Low Performing Students
Low Performers
Very Little
15
30
Mild
10
20
Moderate
Serious
12
Major
16
32
TOTAL
50
100
Table 2 shows the level of stress of low performing students. It shows that the level of Major stress
leads with 32%, close to the second highest of 30% which belong to the level of Very Little stress.
Moderate stress is shown to be the lowest. The individual scores for the Probationary Students
level of stress has an average of 244.64 which according to the Student Academic Stress Scale is
considered as moderate stress.
Table 3. Coping Strategies used by High Performing Students
108
Coping Strategy
Mean
Std.Deviation
Positive Reinterpretation and Growth
50
3.3700
.48508
Religious Coping
50
3.2550
.97610
Planning
50
3.1700
.53079
Active Coping
50
3.0550
.43825
Use of Emotional Social Support
50
2.9400
.81997
Use of Instrumental Social Support
50
2.9300
.68705
Acceptance
50
2.9250
.60451
Mental Disengagement
50
2.8050
.47189
Focus on and Venting of Emotions
50
2.7350
.80402
Restraint
50
2.7050
.48364
Suppression of Competing Activities
50
2.6250
.49808
Humor
50
2.5900
.70305
Denial
50
1.6950
.57430
Behavioral Disengagement
50
1.6750
.42031
Substance Use
50
1.2100
.50346
Table 3 shows the coping strategies used by the high performing students. It shows that Positive
Reinterpretation and Growth is the most frequently used strategy that the respondents usually use.
Substance Use is shown to be the least used by the high performing students.
Table 4. Coping Strategies used by Low Performing Students
Coping Strategy
Mean
Std.Deviation
Religious Coping
50
3.2600
.74908
Positive Reinterpretation and Growth
50
3.2550
.66718
Planning
50
3.1150
.57855
Active Coping
50
3.0050
.54279
109
Acceptance
50
2.8800
.83946
Use of Instrumental Social Support
50
2.8200
.74922
Mental Disengagement
50
2.8000
.57143
Suppression of Competing Activities
50
2.7900
.49580
Use of Emotional Support
50
2.6900
.75856
Restraint
50
2.6900
.66155
Humor
50
2.6850
.84033
Focusing on and Venting of Emotions
50
2.6450
.72859
Denial
50
2.1400
.74086
Behavioral Disengagement
50
2.0650
.68663
Substance Use
50
2.0000
.94626
Table 4 shows the coping strategies used by low performing students. It shows that Positive
Reinterpretation and Growth is the most frequently used strategy that the respondents usually use.
Substance use is shown to be the least used coping strategy used by the Probationary Students.
DISCUSSION
Level of Stress of High Performing Students and Low Performing Students
Respondents data express that the high performing students scored 25 participants with
Very Little stress, 8 with Mild stress, another 8 for Moderate stress, only 2 with serious stress, and
7 students scored as students with Major stress which was examined with a frequency count. The
high performing students achieved an average of 163.4 in the Student Academic Stress Scale which
is considered as Mild Stress. Mild Stress is believed to be a minimal level of stress, more than very
little stress but still at a level which is not to be taken seriously with no need of urgency.
On the other hand, 15 low performing students scored a level of Very Little stress, 10 with
Mild stress, only 3 with Moderate stress, 6 students with Serious stress, and 16 of the probationary
students resulted to have Major stress. These students average a level of Moderate stress or 244.64
on the Student Academic Stress Scale. Moderate stress, which sits between mild and serious stress
level, is considered as a regular level of stress but nearing the peak towards developing into serious
stress. Research by Kaplan, Kaplan, Liu (2005) suggests that negative activity or events are factors
that affect a students academic performance: meaning the greater number of negative events, the
110

higher or more serious the effect on academic performance. This supports the results imply that
students on academic probationary status are more stressed than Deans Listers.
Coping Strategies used by High Performing Students and Low Performing Students
Results show that both high performing and low performing students mostly use positive
reinterpretation and growth (high performers with a mean of 3.37 and low performers with 3.26,
4 being the highest possible score). This coping strategy is done through rethinking and turning
the stressful events into positive ones or interpreting it as a learning experience. This coping
strategy is closely followed by Religious Coping with a mean of 3.26 for both groups of students.
Religious coping is finding comfort in God or ones religion. This is presumed to be caused by the
values of Filipinos as a religious country and that the participants are from San Beda College
Alabang which is a catholic community.
Community and values were not only an assumed factor in the mostly used coping strategy
(Positive Reinterpretation and Growth, and Religious Coping) but also for the least used coping
strategy for both groups which was Substance Use (A mean of 1.21 for high performers and 2.00
for low performers). A semestral/annual drug test is conducted in San Beda College Alabang which
lessens the alcohol use/substance use of the students during the school year. Also, a low amount
of Substance Use may be in line with the high use of Religious Coping which is rooted from an
individuals values and upbringing.
Conclusions and Recommendation
The present study on the levels of stress of high performing and low performing students,
and which coping strategies are used by both produced findings that support negative events is a
factor that affects academic performance. The high performing students who were Deans Listers
from San Beda College Alabang resulted to have an average of 163.4 which is considered as mild
stress when checked with the Student Academic Stress Scale. The low performing students who
were students on academic probationary status from the same school, resulted to have an average
of 244.64 which is considered as moderate stress. The low performing students were concluded to
be more stress than high performing students. After examining the results of coping strategies used
by the students with the COPE Inventory, there was a minimal difference between which coping
strategies were being used by both groups. Both resulted positive reinterpretation and growth
coping and religious coping as the mostly used coping strategy to manage the stressful events in
their lives and both barely show dependence on substance use or behavioral disengagement. In
short, the choice of coping strategies and how you become stressed are weakly related.
More specific factors are recommended to be concentrated on. Examples of this are what
events in a students life they found stressful (the most stressful, the least stressful, etc). Another
factor that may help this topic grow could be shining light on individual coping strategies. Research
may examine how powerful an individual coping strategy could be on student (e.g. how much did
this strategy help lessen a students stress).
111

Furthermore, a qualitative type of research will be very helpful to expand the findings on
this topic. The data will be used to not only get the quantitative data of how stressful students are
or how often they use a coping strategy but also to extract their opinion of what do they consider
as stressful events and how stressful that perceive an event. Also, the qualitative data may provide
research of how helpful students find a certain coping strategy is and why that is their chosen
strategy to cope with their stress.
112

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115
Impact of Sportsmanship on perceived Organizational Politics

Sonam R. Bharvani
Rodelando E. Ocampo
Abstract
This study aimed to know the relationship between Sportsmanship and
Organizational Politics and its domains. The study also aimed to know which
among the domains of Organizational Politics best relates to Sportsmanship.
A total of 120 sales employees were selected through purposive sampling as
respondents and data were gathered through quantitative method. The
researcher used descriptive statistics to know the level of the variables,
Pearson r to know the correlations and paired t-test to know which domain of
Organizational politics best relates with sportsmanship. Results showed that
there's a high level of sportsmanship and an average level of organizational
Politics (considering its domains) among the respondents. Results also
showed that, Sportsmanship has moderate positive correlation with
organizational Politics (GAGA and PPP). Finally, results showed that among
the three domains of Organizational Politics; General Political Behavior was
found to best relates with Sportsmanship.
In every social group, there is a high percentage that there would be politics. Politics is seen
all around organizations whether it be small or big organization and cannot be avoided. While it is
highly common, organizational politics are least publicised to protect the organizations public
reputation. According to Dhar (2011), politics is often regarded as a fact of life in organizations.
Organizations are political entities where power and influence play a substantial role in shaping
relationships and behaviors among employees and other stakeholders (Ofoegbu et al 2012).
According to the Human Resource manager of company A, the employees of the company
are not able to reach their target sales for the past 3 months because of politics in the company.
The companys sale went down by 25% because the employees are affected by the politics. The
employees motivation decreased because the benefit that they are supposed to receive just goes
to the other employees or to their superiors. The company generated a total income of 200 million
on the month of October and November 2013, while during December 2013, January and February
2014 it generated an income of only 150 Million. In the same manner, another company similar to
company A which experienced lesser workplace politics was company B. As stated by the Human
Resources Manager, they have been experiencing income loss, such that their sales went down
10% over the past 2 months; for the month of October and November 2013 is 170 million, down
to only 153 million in December 2013 and January 2014. The study of Abbas Zaidi et al,.(2012)
described organizational politics as an activity that permits people in organizations to accomplish
goals without going through proper channels, also, it represents devious behavior of employees
116

towards their work environment only for their self interest. Vigoda (2003) also describes
organizational politics as the unique domain of interpersonal relationship in the workplace. An
issue that is not openly talked about in companies and other companies go to the extent of denying
that it exist in their company.
In today's world, everything is so competitive that people will do anything to get ahead,
even if it means stepping on someone else to move forward. Based on the study of Grimm (2004),
employees and employers alike need to understand the dynamics of organizational politics in order
to handle the issues it might cause in the workplace environment. Politics can harm or assist an
employee depending on his/her anticipation regarding the situation. Further he said, once
employees understand, recognize and accept that politics is everywhere, employees can begin to
work with them to advance their career. Organizational politics can contribute to the behavior of
the employee in the workplace.
The main purpose of this study is too delved into knowing the relationship of
sportsmanship on organizational politics and its domains, namely; general political behavior, go
ahead to get along and pay and promotion policies. To achieve the stated main purpose of this
research work, the study sought to answer the following questions:
1. What is the respondents profile in terms of their:
a.
Sportsmanship level and
b.
level of perceived organizational politics
2. Is there a significant relationship between sportsmanship and the domains of perceived
organizational politics; general political behavior, go ahead to get along and pay and promotion
policies?
3. Sportsmanship is greatly related to which domain of Organizational Politics?
Sportsmanship
Sportsmanship as a domain of Organizational Citizenship behavior which according to
MacKenzie, Organ & Podsakoff (2006) is considered an act of maintaining a positive attitude
when things do no turn out as desirable. He further defines it as an employees ability to roll with
the punches even if they do not like or agree with the changes that are occurring within the
organization. By reducing the amount of complaints from employees that administrators have to
deal with, sportsmanship conserves time and energy. Delaney (2010) added that sportsmanship
involves fair play, decency, and respectfor oneself, the competitor, and for the sport itself. Ideals
of sportsmanship, such as competitiveness, hard work, fair play, obedience to authority, and
dedication, are tied to a societys cultural morality. He further said that sportsmanship is tied to
morality because it represents an ideal form of behaviorto be a good sport and play fairly.
Sportsmanship, then, is an expression of morality and provides a code of acceptable behavior for
athletes to abide by in their pursuit of fair play. Good sportsmanship involves conduct and attitudes
considered befitting to participants, especially in regard to a sense of fair play, courtesy toward
teammates and opponents, game officials, and others involved in sporting contests, and grace in
117

losing. Good sportsmanship generally implies that participants play sports for the joy of playing.
However, it should be noted that because sportsmanship is tied to cultural standards of morality,
norms, and values, ideal types may vary from one society to the next.
A study done by Ahearne, MacKenzie & Padsakoff (1997) states that the more willing
employees are to be "good sports and go along with necessary changes in their work environment,
the less time and energy manager wastes in getting their cooperation. Further the results show that
sportsmanship allows managers to devote a greater proportion of their time to productive activities
like planning, scheduling, problem solving and organizational analysis but on the contrary, lack of
sportsmanship is likely to have detrimental effects on group cohesiveness and make the
atmosphere in the workplace less attractive to coworkers. Lastly study proves that sportsmanship
is positively related to agency performance, work group and organizational effectiveness.
Organizational politics
Organizational politics as described by Gull & Zaida (2012) is a devious behavior of
employees towards their work environment only for their self interests. Political behavior are
actions which are both positive and negative and are not part of the job description of an individual
and are not officially sanctioned by the organization and it is considered a common phenomenon
in almost every organization (Byrne, 2005; Cohen & Vigoda, 2002). Perception of Organizational
politics is defined as individual's observation of another person's self-interest (Ferris et al 2005).
Over the past 10 years there have been a number of studies regarding organizational politics.
A study done by Ferris, Goodman, Hochwarter, Perrewe, Treadway, and Witt (2005) showed that
perception of politics has a big impact on the job performance for older employees and that
organizational politics does not have an impact on the younger employees job performance.
Contrary to a study done by Kolodinsky, Miller, and Rutherford (2008), it showed that there is no
relationship between perception of organizational politics and in-role job performance. Also,
perception of organizational politics mediates the relationship between interpersonal conflict and
intention to quit of the employees (Ul Haq, Inam 2011). Similarly, Hall, Levy, Rosen (2006)
investigated on Perception of politics and the outcome of the study showed that when perception
of organizational politics are reduced, work outcomes are enhanced.Witt (1998) cited in a study
done by Beeri & Vigoda-Gadot (2011) that the negative impact of politics stems from the fact that
politics affects both the economic and social aspects of the employer-employee exchange.
In a study done by Ben-Zion, Vigoda-Gadot, & Vinarski-Peretz (2003) perception of politics
usually reflects employees views about the level of power and influence used by other
organizational members to gain advantage and secure their interests in conflicting situations.
Further stated, that the higher the perception of politics, the lower the sense of fairness and equal
treatment. People with more power are in better position to satisfy their interest and needs at the
expense of others who have fewer political resources and influence. Treadway et al., 2005 states
that the perception of organizational politics represents the subjective reality upon which
individual behavior is based. Hsiung, Lin, and Lin (2012) showed, this perception of organizational
118

politics does not always diminish the incidence of organizational citizenship behavior. Instead, the
perception of organizational politics evokes some beliefs and attitudes that promote organizational
citizenship behavior and also evokes some beliefs and attitudes that impede organizational
citizenship behavior.
Gull & Zaidi (2012) cited that there are three dimensions of organizational politics: general
political behavior which is a behavior of the employee that is acting politically; go along to get
ahead is another dimension which is the silent actions of the employees, its when the employees
remain silent and shows passive actions which show political behavior; lastly, pay and promotion
policies is when employees act politically on the basis of their policies. Pay and promotion policies
influenced by political behavior also affect the individuals who do not act politically in
organizations. Consequently people who are perceived inequity regarding rewards may become
more involved in political activities in future (Kacmar & Ferris, 1993; Kacmar & Carlson,
1997). In this approach, individuals silently achieve the desired goal. Conflict arises in an
organization when the self-serving behavior shows peril to curiosity of others (Porter, Allen &
Angle, 1981). Despite of organizational politics being a known topic there hasn't been any studies
that focus on the domains separately.
A study done by Aryee, Chen & Budhwar, 2004; Ferris et al., 2002 specify that perception
of organizational politics are related directly to employee behaviors and attitudes. Similarly,
Byrne, (2005) states that perception of organizational politics has negative work outcomes and is
harmful for employees as well as for organization. According to Ferris and Kacmar (2011),
employees who score high on the POPS scale feel, there is less procedural justice, fairness, and
equity in their work environment,
SYNTHESIS
The above literature is a compilation of different meaning and studies of the variables.
Sportsmanship is defined as a positive attitude being maintained even when things do not work
out (MacKenzie, Organ & Padsakoff., 2006). Good sportsmanship involves conduct and attitudes
considered befitting to participants, especially in the areas of fairness, courtesy and grace in losing.
Organizational Politics is said to be a devious behavior of employees towards their work
environment for their own self interest (Gull & Zaida., 2012). While perception of organizational
politics is the way the attitude or behavior is being perceived by the employees and people around
the company. It is used for ones own benefit to move forward in the business world. Being able
to experience politics would most likely lessen the motivation of an individual to do better in their
work. Politics affects the behavior and attitude of the employee as well as their performance.
There are three types of organizational politics which consist of General political behavior, go
along to get ahead and lastly, pay and promotion policies.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
119

This study used quantitative research design which helped the researcher gather data
through the use of survey forms. Correlational research involves collecting data in order to
determine whether, and to what degree, a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable
variables (Johnson, 2001).
The participants of this study were chosen by purposive sampling. The criteria of the
chosen participants are the following: from different IT and construction company, industrial field
salespeople and at least 3 years in the company. A total of 120 participants were included in this
study.
Instruments
The instrument that the researcher used to measure sportsmanship was extracted from
organizational citizenship behavior of Podsakoff et al. (1990). It is a 24 item self report scale, items
was measured using a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 being strongly disagree and 7 being
strongly agree. The researcher extracted 5 items under sportsmanship for the study. The coefficient
alpha for sportsmanship is 0.86. The scoring for sportsmanship was reversed.
The survey questionnaire that was used to measure the individuals perceived organizational
politics is adopted from Kacmar KM and Carlson DS (1997) and is entitled "Perception of
Organizational Politics Scale". The questionnaire consists of 15 items which measured the power
structure and organizational politics of the company. The scales identifies three dimensions,
including: General Political Behavior (2 items), Go Along To Get Ahead (7 items), Pay and
Promotion Policies (6 items). The Cronbach alpha for general political behavior subscale is= 0.77;
go along to get ahead=0.78 and pay and promotion policies= 0.73. The questionnaire uses 5-point
Likert format (Strongly agree, moderately agree, Agree, Moderately disagree and strongly
disagree). The higher score the five point Likert scale means the higher level of perceived
organizational politics. While the perception of organizational politics scale as a whole has
achieved a reliable Coefficient alpha of .81 to .91.
Table A: Data Evaluation Sportsmanship
Responses
Range
Strongly agree 1.00-1.49
Interpretation
Very high
Slightly agree 1.50-2.49 Moderately high

Agree
2.50-3.49
High
Disagree
3.50-4.49
Low
Slightly disagree 4.50-5.49 Moderately low
120
Strongly disagree 5.50-6.49

Undecided
6.50-7.00
Very low
Undecided
Table B: Data Evaluation_Perceived Organizational Politics

Strongly agree
4.50-5.00 Very High
Moderately agree 3.50-4.49

Agree
High
2.49-3.49 Average
Moderately disagree 1.50-2.49
Low
Strongly disagree 1.00-1.49 Very Low
Procedure
The researcher used a combination of online survey (95%) and distributed survey (5%) to
collect data. The study questionnaire was distributed over an Internet site, a method that has been
found to be reliable and effective (Gosling, Vazire, Srivastava, & John, 2004.) The researcher sent
the link to participants who work in the sales department. Before the link was sent, the researcher
made sure that the participants were okay with answering the questionnaire. The researcher
informed the participants about the study. Aside from sending the link online, the researcher also
printed copies of the questionnaire and distributed it to one company. After the researcher collected
and reached the total amount for the study, the researcher thanked the participants individually.
Lastly, the researcher encoded all the forms and tallied the data gathered.
Data Analysis
The researcher used descriptive statistics, Pearson Correlation, and paired t-test. The
researcher also used descriptive statistics which allowed the researcher to describe the main
features of the collected data. Pearson R was used to look for the significant relationship between
the dependent and independent variable. While paired t-test was used to determine whether there
is was significant difference between the average values of the same measurement made under two
different conditions. The researcher also used Microsoft excel and SPSS in encoding and
processing the data gathered.
Table C: r_value
Value of r Strength of relationship
0.5 to 1
Strong
121
0.3-0.5
moderate
0.1-0.3
Weak
-0.1 to 0.1
Non or very weak
RESULTS
Problem 1- Participants profile in terms of Sportsmanship, Perception of Organizational
Politics and its domain levels
Table 1 shows the respondents level of Sportsmanship, Perception of Organizational
Politics (POP), and General Political Behavior (GPB), Go ahead to Get along (GAGA), and Pay
and Promotion Policies (PPP).
Table 1: Respondents Profile
Variables
Mean
Sportsmanship
120
3.21
1.23
3.12
0.64
POP-GPB
3.47
0.99
POP-GAGA
3.14
0.71
POP-PPP
2.98
0.84
Perceived Organizational Politics
Std. Deviation
Results show that there are a total of N=120 Participants that were included in this study.
Also, results show that there is a high level of Sportsmanship as shown by a mean value of 3.21,
and a standard deviation of 1.23. While there is an average level of Perceived Organizational
Politics shown (M=3.12, SD=0.64). The three domains of Organizational Politics; General
political behavior shows average level (M=3.47, SD= 0.99), Go Ahead to Get Along shows the
same level which is average (M=3.24, SD=0.71) and lastly, Pay and Promotion Policies also shows
an average level (M=3.12, SD=0.84).
Problem 2- Relationship between Sportsmanship and Perceived Organizational Politics and
its domains
122
Table-2 presents the Correlation between Sportsmanship (S) and Perception of

Organizational Politics (POP) and its domain; General Political Behavior (GPB), Pay and
promotion policies (PPP), Go Ahead to get along (GAGA).
Table 2: Sportsmanship and Perceived Organizational Politics
r-value Sig. p-value
S-POP
0.45
0.00
S-GPB
0.37
0.00
S-PPP
0.32
0.00
S-GAGA
0.38
0.00
Sig.(1-tailed);N=120. Sig at 0.01

Table 2 shows the r value of the following variables. Perceived organizational politics has
an r-value of 0.45 at 0.00 level of significance. It shows that Sportsmanship and organizational
politics has a moderate positive correlation. Also, the domains of Organizational Politics such as
General Political Behavior, Pay and Promotion Policies, and Go Ahead to Get Along are also
correlated to Sportsmanship. General Political behaviors has an r-value 0.37 at 0.00 level of
significance, it shows that Sportsmanship and General Political Behavior has a moderate positive
correlation. While the second domain which is Pay and Promotion Policies has an r-value of 0.32
at 0.00 level of significance. It shows that Sportsmanship and pay and promotion policies has a
moderate positive correlation. The last domain is Go Ahead to Get Along has an r-value of 0.38 at
0.00 level of significance, it shows that Sportsmanship and Go Ahead to Get along has a moderate
positive correlation. Among the domains of organizational politics, Go ahead to Get Along has the
highest correlation followed by General Political Behavior and lastly, Pay and Promotion Policies.
Problem 3- Rank difference: Sportsmanship and Perceived Organizational Politics domains
Table 3 shows the paired difference among Sportsmanship and the three domains of
Organizational Politics; General Political Behavior (GPB), Go ahead to get along (GAGA) and
Pay and promotion policies (PPP).
Table 3: Ranked Differences: POP Domains
S-POP Domains Difference Std. Deviation t-value Sig. (2-tailed) Rank
123
S-GPB
-.264
1.257
-2.301
.023
1st
S-PPP
.226
1.241
1.996
.048
2nd
S-GAGA
.069
1.157
.649
.517
3rd
Based on the table above, when organizational politics is divided into the three subcategories, there are differences on General Political Behavior with a t-value of 2.301 significant
at 0.02; and has slight significant difference on Pay and Promotion Policies at a t-value of 1.996
significant at 0.04 when paired with sportsmanship. Results show that in their t-value,
Sportsmanship is greatly related to general political behavior, followed by, pay and promotion
policies. However, Sportsmanship is not related go ahead to get along.
DISCUSSION
The results of the study show that the employees show a high level of sportsmanship which
according to Mackenzie, Organ & Padsakoff (2006) it means that employees have a positive
attitude when things don't work out as desired; they are able to roll with the punches even if they
do not agree with the changes that occur in the organization. Also as mentioned by Delaney (2010),
competitiveness, hardworking, fair play, obedience to authority and dedication are ideal of
Sportsmanship and they are portrayed by the employees. Due to high level of sportsmanship, it
gives the managers less time and energy to waste in getting cooperation and focus on planning,
scheduling, problem solving and organizational analysis (Ahearne, MacKenzie & Padsakoff.,
1997). The results also show that the employees perception of organizational politics is at average
level. This means that there is a sense of injustice and lack of fairness in the system (Ferris &
Kumar., 2011). Employees view their superiors and co-workers use power and influence to gain
advantage and secure interest in conflicting situations (Ben-Zion, Vigoda & Vinarski-Peretz.,
2003). The employees feel that it is better to remain quiet then to fight the system and prefer to
agree with authorities even when they disagree. General political behavior according to the
employees are also perceived at average level, as stated by Gull & Zaidi (2012), that superiors and
co-workers behavior are shown in a political manner. Co-workers and superiors often build
themselves up by tearing other people down and there is always an influential group in their
organization that people don't dare cross. Respondents view superiors Pay and promotion policies
as having an average level, this means that the employees feel that the superiors act politically
when it comes to the promotion and pay of their subordinates (Gull & Zaidi., 2012). Often times,
favoritism plays a major role in the promotion of an employee, job performance is not something
that is considered when promotion takes place. They also feel like telling others what they want to
hear is better than telling them the truth. While, Go ahead to get along is also perceived at an
average level, as stated by Gull & Zaidi (2012) that this type of domain, employees remain silent
and show passive actions which show political behavior. Employees feel that it's best not to rock
the boat; they choose to keep silent so that they won't cause any problems.
Regarding the main objective of the study, results showed that, Sportsmanship has a
moderate positive correlation to Organizational Politics and its domains; General Political
124

Behavior, Go Ahead to Get Along, and Pay and Promotion Policies. This shows that despite the
high level of positive attitude shown by the employees there is still political behavior being
experienced, which is contrary to the study done by Beeri & Vigoda-Gadot (2011) which states
that the negative impact of politics stems from the fact that politics affects both the economic and
social aspects of the employer-employee exchange. But agrees with the study of Hsiung, Lin, and
Lin (2012) showed, this perception of organizational politics does not always diminish the
incidence of organizational citizenship behavior.
Furthermore, results suggest that among the three domains, Sportsmanship is greatly
related to General Political Behavior and Pay and Promotion Policies than Go Ahead to Get Along.
In the perspective and definition Gull & Zaidi., (2012) of General Political Behavior and Pay and
Promotion Policies, the importance of an employee to think politically and behave with
Sportsmanship is a good combination in the workplace. However, Sportsmanship has no
significant difference to Go Ahead to Get. Go Ahead to Get Along may not be related to
Sportsmanship because as stated by Porter, Aleen, & Angle. (1981), individuals silently achieve
the desired goals. Since it is done in a discreet manner, other co-workers dont dwell much into
the action.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The results of the study shows that politics exist in the workplace of the respondents,
despite the politics employees still show a sportsmanship attitude. Results show that
Sportsmanship is shown at a high level while organizational politics was perceived in an average
level. Organizational politics should not be taken lightly by superiors and people with power and
influence. The following are recommended by the researcher; for further studies, include other
respondents in order to gather more data that will enable to explore the relationship of the variables.
Also, include both managerial level and non- managerial in the study to be able to get both
perspective on politics and organizational behavior. Also for future studies, a researcher could do
a comparative study between the level of politics and citizenship behavior among private and
public sectors and different job descriptions. Lastly, future researchers could also look
interventions to avoid politics in the workplace.
125

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127
Helicopter Parenting, Self-efficacy and Emotional Intelligence

As Predictors of Bullying Victims
Stephanie D. Edrozo
Eva Castronuevo
Abstract
This Study focuses on Helicopter Parenting, Self-efficacy and Emotional
Intelligence among the victims of bullying in San Beda College Alabang. A
total of 90 respondents out of 470 respondents were gathered from the first
year level. Descriptive Correlational Research Method was used in
determining the relationship of the three independent variables to the
dependent variable and to determine the levels of each variables. The results
from the study suggest that the level of helicopter parenting among the
victims of bullying are average, high in self -efficacy and emotional
intelligence. The research results also suggest that there is a significant
relationship between helicopter parenting with the correlational value at 0.22
significance at 0.01 (p<0.05) and emotional Intelligence with the
correlational value at 0.26 significance at 0.01 (p<0.05). How ever Selfefficacy has no significant relationship among the victims of bullying with
the correlational value at 0.16 significant at 0.07 (p>0.05). The research
results suggest that Emotional Intelligence is the highest predictor to be
followed by Helicopter parenting.
Bullying is defined as intentional, repeated aggression perpetrated by a more powerful

person or group on a less powerful victim. It can happen anytime and anywhere to any ages of
people that must be stop and prevent by the school and government especially for the welfare.
In 2010 on statistics of bullying 38% was affected by bullying, 31,599 children called childline
about bullying, 46% have experience h bullying, 38 % disable children worried being bullied
and 18% would rather not talk about it with their parents, Chamberlain (2010). This statistics
shows the percentage of the victims of bullying in the western and European country is really
increasing. In the Philippines, one in two Filipino school children is being bullied. This was
supported by Australian newspaper involving 117, 00 nine years old from 25 different
countries, said 50% of Filipino students are being bullied (Ancho and Park 2013).
There are different factors that causes bullying like low self esteem and the upbringing
of the childs parent. In the study of Shetgiri (2012) the bullying odds is higher for those
childrens parents who are always angry and thinks that their child bothered them , while it is
lower when the parents give time to talk to their children.
Parenting is a complex activity that includes many specific behaviors that work
individually and together to influence child outcomes. There are different styles of parenting,
128

Authoritative parents tend to develop clear guidelines and expectations for their children, while
providing lots of nurturing and love. They are consistent with rules, but can be flexible too.
Authoritarian parents tend to set high standards and guidelines, and obedience is required.
Authoritarian parents equate love with success and are not as nurturing as the other two styles
of parenting. Permissive parents have little or no expectations for their children. They often
view their children as friends and have few limits imposed (Berg 2011). Authoritative,
Authoritarian, Permissive and univalve parenting styles is important dimension in their
behavior for bullies and it is the same with the victim said Klomek, Marroco and Kleinman
(2012).
There is another kind of parenting style which is the Intensive parenting style. Intensive
parenting will give a negative effect in well being of the child. One of the intensive parenting
effort is the term helicopter parenting which simply means being involve in the life of their
kids too much. It involves hover[ing] closely overhead, rarely out of reach, whether their
children need them or not (Locke 2011). Helicopter parenting is an entirely new dimension of
parenting. Instead, it represents a unique patterning of the basic dimensions of parenting that
represents parenting that is high on warmth/support, high on control, and low on granting
autonomy. Comparing helicopter parenting style to the other, Authoritarian is low in
warm/support and high in control while Authoritative is high in warm/support and high in
control. Indulgent is high in warm/support and high in control while Neglecting is low in
warm/support and low in control. According to Padilla- Walker and Nelsob (2012) In that
regard, the popular notion of helicopter parenting appears to involve the same major
dimensions of parenting (e.g., responsiveness/involvement, control, and autonomy granting)
that comprise other forms of parenting (e.g., authoritative parenting, psychological control) but
is unique in how those dimensions are prioritized.
Luszczynnska & Gutierez-Dona (2005) defines General self-efficacy (GSE) is the
belief in ones competence to tackle novel tasks and to cope with adversity in a broad range of
stressful or challenging encounters, as opposed to specific self-efficacy, which is constrained
to a particular task at hand. In the study of Luszczynska & Schwarzer (2005) said that self
efficacy influences the behavior one puts for the change risk behavior and the persistence to
continue striving despite barriers and setback that may determine motivation.
People with high self efficacy prefer to do challenging task than those people who has
low self efficacy just like what Boehmer,Mohamed & Schwarze (2005) said that people with
high self efficacy set themselves higher goals and stick to them. Actions are reshaped in
thought and once action has been taken, highly self efficacious people invest more effort and
persist longer than low self efficacious people.
Leedy and Smith (2012) stated that emotional Intelligence (EI) as knowing the
emotional state of self or other people. Having a low emotional intelligence or low emotional
management can case a person to be a victim of bullying. According to Lomas, Stough and
Kanse (2011) said that Ei dimension of emotions cognition emotional management and control
significantly predicted the propensity of adolescents to be subjected to peer victimization.
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The present study aims to describe the levels of helicopter parenting, emotional
Intelligence and Self Efficacy among the respondents. It also aims to know if theres
relationship between these three variables to the victims of bullying. Lastly this study aims to
see if there is significant relationship in the variables helicopter parenting, self-efficacy and
emotional intelligence towards the victims of bullying
The problems that this study will try to answer are: (1) what is the level of helicopter
parenting style, self-efficacy and emotional intelligence among the victims of bullying? (2) Is
there a relationship among the three variables helicopter parenting style, self efficacy and
emotional intelligence toward s the victims of bullying? (3) What among the three variables
has the highest percentage to be the predictors of bullying?
Helicopter Parenting
In the past studies that have been conducted by Insch, Heames, Mclyntyre
(2010), Ruder (2012) and Simmons (2008) on the variable Helicopter parenting/ parents: The
phenomenon popularly referred to as helicopter parenting refers to an over involvement of
parents in their children's lives. It implied that parents are struggling when their kids are
leaving from their home, specially those kids who are going to live in a dorm.
In the study of Simmons (2008) students are reported that they are also relying on their
parents when it comes for general support and as an adviser about their academic and career
decision. Same with the study of Insch (2010) both meddling and monitoring are valid and
initially useful constructs in examining the suitability of parental involvement in the job
search. In this studies it implied that the college or undergraduate students are still dependent
to their parents.
Padilla-Walker and Nelsob (2012) said that helicopter parenting was positively associated
with parental involvement and with other positive aspect of the parent-child relationship; but
negatively associated with parental autonomy granting and school engagement.
Bullying
James (2010) defined bullying as a pervasive type of aggression, which often occurs in
schools. Relationship with parents and friends plays an important role in bullying, either in the
victims or the bullies. According to Shetgiri, Lin, Avila and Flores (2012) Parents who are
always angry and felt that they are being bothered by the kids are higher in bullying odds and
parents and friends who are there to talk with the child has a lower bullying odds in the same
study children who are living in poverty might be involve in the higher odds of bullying while
in the study of Isiklar (2012) said that getting support from friends and family makes it negative
to bullying.
On the other hand Klomek, Marroco and Kleinman (2012) said that four types of
parenting style namely Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive and Uninvolved parenting
styles is an important dimension in their behavior for bullies and it is the same with the victim.
130
Bullying also causes depression and some leads to suicide. In the study of Patchin
(2012) traditional bullying and cyber bullying were associated in suicidal ideation and
attempts. Bullying has significant effects on depression and suicidal attempts on female
population than the male population according to Vanderwa and Hirasing (2003). Boys and
girls offender is reported of delinquent behavior than when bullying in-directly.
In the study conducted by Schnieder, ODonell. Stueve and Coulter (2012) and Guerra,
Williams and Sadek (2011) said bullying and victimization were predicted to be decline self
esteem. The victims of bullying is also reported that has lower performance in school and
school attachment. They also gained negative perceptions of the school environment.
General Self-efficacy
In the study of Ebstrupa, Eplovb, Pisingera and Jorgeusen (2011) general self efficacy
is an important factor to consider in link between perceived stresses. Same that conducted by
Strobel, Tumasjann and Sporrle (2011) said that self efficacy functional connects personality
factors and two self well being (life satisfaction and subjective happiness). These studies
explaining that self efficacy plays an important role in the development of personality and even
perceiving stress.
According to Tanzer, Shahar and and Avidan (2012) Self efficacious individual create
an adaptive Social environment. People that has high self efficacy can adapt to any situation
or can socialize with different people. While in the study of Ergeneli, Camgoz and Karapinan
(2010) said that high self efficacy individual likely to use integrating style for handling conflict
within peers and low self efficacy prefer to use compromising or avoiding styles when conflict
occurs. In this study individual with high self talk to people personally to solve the conflict
while on the other hand individual who have low self efficacy prefer avoiding the conflict and
not confronting the other person involve.
According to Rasic, Asbridge, Kisely and Langille (2013) increase of Self efficacy can
make depression lower among the girls.
Emotional Intelligence
In the study of Schutte, Thorsteinsson, Tine, Foster, C Binns Ouchic (2010) emotional
intelligence fully mediated the effect of rational processing on well being and partially
mediated the effect of experiential processing, in the same study related to relationship with
well being of individual Agusto, Landa, Manuel, Martos and Zafra (2010) confirm that there
is prognostic significance for emotional intelligence on psychological well being.
On the other hand in the study that conducted by Murphy and Janeke (2009) results
show that thinking styles are significant predictors of emotional intelligence and that
participants who has have high emotional intelligence prefer more complex and creative
thinking styles.
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While in the study of Winters, Slifft, and Dutton (2004) batterers score significantly
lower than the general population on all components of EQ-i. Additionally EQ-i total and
subscale scores for both samples correlate negatively and significantly with scores on PAS,
suggesting that deficits in various components of emotional intelligence are related to an
increase in the propensity to be abusive. In this study it simply says that there is a relationship
between the batterer and their emotional intelligence. If you lack in some components of
emotional Intelligence may cause people to be abusive, just like in the study of Leehu Zysberg
(2012) said that emotional intelligence emerges as potentially important in the understanding
of loneliness. If a person couldnt understand the situation or the emotion of other people they
will not stop abusing the other people.
SYNTHESIS
Bullying is really an important matter that the authority should focus on because of its
increasing numbers. Parents, social support and friends are factors in bullying as it said in the
study of Shetgiri, Lin, Avila and Flores (2012) said that if the parents of the child has time for
their kids the chances of the child to be a victim of bullying is lower, while parents who neglect
or ignored their child has the higher chances to be a victim of bullying. Parents has a very
important role in this matter and there are different kinds of parents namely authoritarian,
permissive, uninvolved and authoritative which mentioned byKlomek, Marroco and Kleinman
(2012). There is another kind or parenting style which is intensive parenting style, under of
this is helicopter parenting Locke (2011). While emotional intelligence may cause of abusing
and if a person have high emotional intelligence they prefer doing challenging task and at the
same time they have good relationship with other people. If a person have a high self efficacy
it only means that they can adapt and cope up in their problem or certain bad situation.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
To understand whether helicopter parenting predicts bullying the research design that
was utilized in this study was descriptive correlational research design, this design described
the levels of helicopter parenting style, self efficacy and emotional intelligence. This described
the relationship among the three variables in a particular sample. To relate helicopter parenting,
self efficacy, emotional intelligence and bullying, the researcher used multiple regression
statistics.
Participants/Sampling
180 participants (90 students and 90 parents) were collected in San Beda College
Alabang by using purposive sampling. The researcher administered questionnaires to 470 first
year students and at least one of their parents. The researcher screened the result and only get
those participants who are victims of bullying and the parents of the victims.
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Instruments
There are three instruments that was utilized in this study, these are the following:
The General Self Efficacy Scale (GSE)
This was develop by Matthias Jerusalem & Ralf Schwarzer in 1992. This scale has 10
items of number which is now has a translation in 28 languages Mikkelsen, Schwarzer,
&Jerusalem, (1999). GSES has 4 likert scale format. (E.g. If someone oppose me, I can find
the ways to get what I want). The reliability and validity of this scale is Cronbachs alphas is
0.90.The response format are: 1= Not at all true 2= Hardly true 3= moderately true 4= exactly
true. To get the scores sum up all the answers from 1-10.
The Schutte Emotional Intelligence Test
The Schutte Emotional Intelligence Test was developed by Nicola S. Schutte in 1998.
It comprises 32 self referencing statement and requires subjects to rate themselves according
to their own perspective. SEIS has 5 likert scale format (1= strongly disagree to 5 = strongly
agree) and has Alpha of .70 - .85. Some Items used were (1) I know when to speak about my
personal problems to others, (2) When I am faced with obstacles, I remember times I faced
similar obstacles and overcome them, (3) I expect that I will do well on most things I try, (4) I
like to share my emotions to others, (5) I am aware of nonverbal messages I send to others.
Helicopter Parenting Scale
To measure the helicopter parenting style there are 5 questions to assess the degree to
which parents make important decisions for their emerging adult children (Padila- Walker and
Nelson 2012) in there study the reliability of the scale is ranging from 0.59- 0.90 Items used
were (1) My parents makes important decisions for me, (2) My parents intervenes in settling
disputes with my roommates or friends, (3) My parents intervenes in solving problem with my
professors, (4) My parents solve any crisis that I might have (5) My parent looks for jobs for
me or tries to find other opportunities for me. There will be 1 (not at all like me/him/her) to 5
(a lot like me/him/her)
Illinois Bully Scale
Illinois Bully Scale has 18 items with three subscale which is assessing the frequency
of bullying behavior, fighting and victimization (Espalge and Holt 2001). This test has 5 likert
scale from 0 (Never) to 5 (7 or more times). Each subscale has cronbarchs alpha from bullying
which is 0. 87, fighting 0.83 and victimization 0.88. Some of the items used were (1) I upset
other student for the fun of it, (2) In group I teased other students, (3) I fought students I can
get easily beat (4) Other students picked on me,(5) Other students made fun of me. The higher
scores indicating more victimization.
Data Gathering Procedures
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To be able to get the participants for the study, the researcher made a letter of
permission to administer the test among the participants of first year college students of San
Beda College Alabang and letter for the parents who will take the test. After the letter has been
approved, the researcher administered questionnaires to the first year college students of San
Beda College Alabang and also gave the envelope to the students consisting of letter and 1
questionnaire for at least one of their parents. When the data has been collected, it shall be
analyzed and explained by using descriptive correlational and multiple regression. The
researcher shall also use the SPSS.
Data Analysis
The data was analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Product and Services Solutions),
Pearson r and multiple regresssion analysis. Regression analysis was used in correlation of
multiple variables. Pearson r was utilized to know the relationships of the three independent
variables Helicopter parenting, Self-efficacy and Emotional Intelligence to the dependent
variable which is the victims of bullying.
RESULTS
Descriptive Statistics
Mean
Std. Deviation
Bullying Victim
3.31
0.33
90
Self-efficacy
2.78
0.50
90
emotional intelligence
3.76
0.53
90
helicopter parenting
3.08
0.62
90
Table 1. Descriptive Value of Victims of Bullying, Helicopter Parenting, Self efficacy and Emotional Intelligence
The grand mean of the bullying victim is 3.31 which means that the bullying victims
have suffered 5-6 times in the last 30 days (see in Appendix)
The grand mean for the childs perception on the helicopter parenting is 3.08 and the
perception of parents on their parenting style is 3.26. Both are interpreted as a little like
him/her. Helicopter parenting is characterized as full of warmth and support and low on
granting autonomy. It can be seen as the victims feel that their parents exercise control as
indicated by the highest value as parents make important decisions for their children with a
mean of 3.59. This is confirmed with the highest mean for parents, with a mean of 4.06. The
perception of the students indicate that their parents exercise a considerable degree of
helicopter parenting at 3.08.
The grand mean for emotional intelligence is 3.76 with an interpretation of agree. The
respondents have a relatively high emotional intelligence based on the grand mean and the
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statements which mostly range under 3.50-4.49 or agree. This means that they can handle their
emotions well.
The grand mean for Self Efficacy of 2.78 is also interpreted as moderately
true. Indicators show that the victims believe that they can overcome challenges or problems,
such as bullying situations.
Level
Frequency
Percentage
Low
18
20%
Average
52
57.80%
High
20
22.20%
Table 2 Percentage and frequency of Helicopter Parenting on Childs Perception
Out of 90 respondent, 20% of the child scored low in helicopter parenting style while
57.80% responded that their parents are average in helicopter parenting and 22.20 % responded
that their parents are high in helicopter parenting style. This only means that the bully victims
believe that their parents used helicopter parenting style.
Level
Frequency
Percentage
Low
3.30%
Average
65
72.30%
High
22
24.40%
Table 3. Percentage and frequency of Helicopter Parenting on Parents Perception
Out of 90 respondents or 3.30% of the parents scored low in helicopter parenting while
72.30% scored average and 24.40 % parents scored high. The result showed that the parents
believes that they are using this kind of parenting style.
Frequency
Percentage
Low
2.20%
Average
20
22.20%
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High
68
75.60%
Table4. Percentage and frequency of Emotional Intelligence
Out of 90 respondents, 2.20% respondents have low emotional intelligence, 22.20 %

respondents have average emotional intelligence while most of the respondents have high
emotional intelligence having a percentage of 75.60%. The level of emotional Intelligence of
the victims are high which means that the victims can handle their emotions very well. While
the the victims who got average in the level of emotional intelligence means that they can
handle their emotions but there are times that they lose control of it. The respondents who
scored low only means that they cannot manage their emotions very well.
Frequency
Percentage
Low
22
24.40%
Average
59
65.50%
High
10.10%
Table 5. Percentage and frequency of Self Efficacy
Out of 90 respondents, 23.40% respondents score low which determine that they
have low self efficacy, while 65.50% respondents has average self efficacy and only 10.10 %
respondents has high self-efficacy. The victims of bullying who have high level of selfefficacy means that the victims believe that they can overcome challenges or problems, such
as bullying situations. While those who got average thinks that they can overcome it but
sometimes think that they cant and just give up. The victims who got low in self efficacy only
means that they think that they cant cope up and they cant overcome the problem such as
bullying.
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Table 6. Table of Anova for significance of the variables
Coefficients
Table 7. Coefficient table for estimated coefficient values
For multiple regression, the researcher sought first multicollinearity. It means that two
or more predictor variables in this multiple regression model are highly correlated.
Multicollinearity can cause strange results when attempting to study how well individual
independent variables contribute to an understanding of the dependent variable. To check for
multicollinearity, the table on Coefficients indicate a column on Tolerance and VIF
respectively. Tolerance explains how much of the variability of a specified independent
variable is not explained by the other independent variables. If the value is very small (less
than 0.10), it indicates that the multiple correlations with the other variables is high, suggesting
the possibility of multicollinearity. In this case, the value of Tolerance is more than 0.10 or
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0.99 and 1.00. The other value given is VIF (Variance Inflation Factor) which is just the
inverse of Tolerance. Values of more than 10 is a concern. For the results above, VIF is only
1.01 indicating that the study is safe for multicollinearity.
Based on the above values, the results do not violate the multicollinearity
assumption. Furthermore in the Correlation table, it can be seen that the predictors show some
relationship with the dependent variable, victim of bullying, specifically emotional intelligence
(0.26, significant at a pvalue of 0.01) and helicopter parenting (0.22, significant at a pvalue of
0.02) respectively.
In the Model Summary, the R value is 0.357 (see appendix). This value tells how much
of the variance is explained by the model which includes self efficacy, emotional intelligence,
and helicopter parenting. It means that 35.7% of the variance in bullying.
To assess the statistical significance of the result, the table ANOVA indicates also that
multiple regression is significant, at a pvalue of 0.00.
To find out which among the independent variables have a high impact on the
dependent variable, bullying, the table Coefficients should be considered. The column Beta
under Standardized Coefficients compare the different variables. Standardized means that
these values for each of the different variables have been converted to the same scale. The
highest Beta value is emotional intelligence at 0.24. The next contributor is helicopter
parenting which is -0.20 (ignoring the negative sign). The Beta value of self-efficacy is slightly
lower, which is 0.14. This means it is the least contributor in the dependent variable,
bullying. In the significance column, it is shown that emotional intelligence has a significant
contribution as a predictor variable of bullying with a pvalue of 0.02. Another contributor,
helicopter parenting has a pvalue of 0.05. Not significant is self-efficacy with a pvalue of 0.17.
DISCUSSION
Based on the results, the level of independent variable helicopter parenting was found
to be average among the victims of bullying. This only means that the parents of the victims
are practicing helicopter parenting. The other two independent variables Emotional
Intelligence and Self Efficacy were found out to be high in level in the victims of bullying in
San Beda College Alabang. This result implies that the students can manage their emotions
well and they can overcome their problems.
According to the correlational results, there is a multicullinearity. It means that two or
more predictor variables in this multiple regression model are highly correlated, this two
independent variables are Helicopter Parenting and Emotional Intelligence. Emotional
Intelligence with the correlational value at 0.26 significance at 0.01 (p<0.05). This results
contradicted the study of Lomas (2012) adolescents with better developed EI skills are less
likely to become targets of bullying behaviours which may have implications for managing
bullying and peer victimisation within schools. This only means that even having a high
emotional Intelligence or well Develop EI there is no guarantee that you will not be a victim
of bullying since the victim has no control of the situation and it is the bullies who are doing
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the act.. It can also be a factor since the victims can control their emotion as said in the result
above, in table 4. They can be an easy target because they dont fight back, they hold back and
just ignore them.This may result a challenge for the bullies since they cannot get any reaction
from the victim. Possibly they are being motivated to bully the victim more. This result was
supported by the study of Stough, Konse and Downy (2011) said that EI dimension of
emotional management and control significantly predicted the propensity of adolescents to be
subjected to peer victimization. Since the bully victims got high emotional intelligence mean
they understand other people and even their own emotion, which is important in understanding
loneliness according to Zysberg (2012). People who understand loneliness will lead to
understanding other people and ending up having good relationship with them. Individual who
has high managing emotion were more likely to report positive relationship with others, and
less likely to report negative interaction with other friends said Lopes, Solovey and Straus
(2002). In this case most of the victims rationalized the situation, they might also try too
understand the bullies.
Helicopter parenting has significant relationship in the victims of bullying with value
at 0.22 significance at 0.01 (p<0.05). This parents are positive in helicopter parenting which
they are overly involved in their childs life and at the same time they are over protective. Even
they are in college their parents still check them all the time, checking their grades, their friends
and a lot area of the childs life. This results was supported by the study of. Damas (2006)
sited in Hunt (2008) parents who are practicing this parenting style hover willingly and
tirelessly, organizing many areas of the childs life. Even in College and now starting in
graduate school, parents stay on the job. Which only means that this kind of parents stay like
this even their child is already in a graduate school or working in a company or even they
already have their own family. The child doesnt develop autonomy and they are dependent to
their parents which may cause to bullying. Most helicopter parents are just over involved, and
that means calling or texting their children three-four times a day, reading and proofing their
childs papers, making to-do lists for them, driving two hours each way to the dorm every two
weeks to clean, do dishes and do the laundry, or calling to wake the children up for classes,
Hunt (2008). Showing this kind of parenting, it may cause to other people make fun of the
child, tease and cold him by names like mamas boy, mamas girl, papas boy and papas
girl. Parents enjoy an extend adolescence which becomes problematic because it does snot
allow the students or the child to learn to survive independently or interact effectively with
authority figures. It also does little to teach them responsibility and how to function in the real
world, Armour (2007).
However, the results suggest that there is no significant relationship between selfefficacy and victims of bullying base on the table 7 with the correlation value at 0.16
significance at 0.07. There are factors and reason why self Efficacy has no relationship and
the least factor for bullying. First to according to Tanzer, Shahar and and Avidan (2012) Self
efficacious individual create an adaptive Social environment. If a person can adapt to any
situation it wouldnt be hard for him to struggle in a particular problem like bullying. Second
Ergeneli, Camgoz and Karapinan (2010) said that high self efficacy individual likely to use
integrating style for handling conflict within peers and low self efficacy prefer to use
compromising or avoiding styles when conflict occurs. There are two coping strategies that
the victims may use its either approach or avoidance strategy. Approach which aims to direct
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effort of the victims at modifying a stressful situation such as bullying, while avoidance aims
on controlling emotions and cognitive in the situation. There is a high probability that the
victims of bullying are using this strategy to cope up with bullying situation. This results was
supported by the study of Putter (2007) that if the victims have high self efficacy and can cope
up in a stressful situation it may reduce victimization and psychological maladjustment.
The results also stated that Emotional intelligence is the highest predictor among the
three independent variables, to be followed by helicopter parenting. While self-Efficacy is not
a predictor for bully victims.
CONCLUSION
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were made. The
respondents are experiencing bullying 5-6 times in a month. The level of helicopter parenting
among the victims of bullying are average and most of the victims have high Emotional
Intelligence and Self Efficacy. The coefficient that was shown in table 6 indicates that there is
significant relationship between the 2 independent variables (Helicopter Parenting, Emotional
Intelligence) and the dependent variable (victims of bullying). The highest predictor of
bullying victim is Emotional Intelligence to be followed by helicopter parenting. Therefor the
higher the emotional Intelligence, the higher the tendency to be a victim of bullying because
the victims can control their emotions, they dont fight back and just let the bullies to keep
doing the act. This causes the bullies to keep on going because they are being motivated or
they are being challenge that the victims dont response. While in helicopter parenting the
victims dont learn how to be independent in the real world, their parents keep on doing
everything for them which causes other people to make fun and tease the victims.
However Self-efficacy is not a predictor of bullying victim, because the higher your
self- efficacy is, the higher you know that you can overcome and cope up with the problem
like bullying which may reduced the victimization..
The researcher suggests that future researchers should also tackle the relationships of
three independent variable with each other. The researcher also recommend that future
researchers should get the respondents from the school who have high rate of bullying and also
include the bullies in the future studies.
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Effectiveness of Atonal Music on Reducing

ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS Test Anxiety
Kyucheol Ann L. Lee
Juli-ann Alonso
Abstract
This research was aimed to discover the effectiveness of atonal and selfselected music in the reduction of algebraic test anxiety. Sixty 7th and 8th
graders, 30 females and 30 males, were grouped to two then exposed to
atonal and self-selected music while having an algebraic test. A singlefactor multi level design was conducted in the determination of effects of
atonal and self-selected music while using silence as the baseline treatment
for both groups. Results indicate that no significant positive effect was
brought about by the intervention. Rather, the exposure of participants to
atonal and self-selected music produced higher levels of anxiety.
For students, tests have always been part of academic load other than assignments,
recitations and projects. Tests have always given students stress regardless of grade or year level.
From preschool education to collegiate and higher levels of education tests are given to measure
learning and skills. The jitters minutes before the tests, hearts beating faster and the sweaty palms;
these are just some of the physiological manifestations of test anxiety.
Test anxiety refers to an individual's disposition to react with extensive worry, intrusive
thoughts, mental disorganization and physiological arousal when exposed to evaluative situations
(Zeidner, 1999). It has been conceptualized as the perception of assessment situations as
threatening to the person's esteem and offering possibility of derogatory judgment from others
(Spielberger, 1966 cited in Putwain 2008). Test anxiety decreases adolescents' learning capabilities
and hinders excellent academic performance, this may decrease motivation towards the ability for
attention, concentration and worst, it leads to academic failure (Yousefi et al., 2010). Math and
social derogation; a social aspect of test anxiety; was not correlated with test performance however
it is only significant with math test and not other academic areas (Embse et al., 2012).
During early adolescence usually referred to as terrible teens (Majeres, 1976 cited in
Hurlock 1982) the developmental tasks during the life span adolescence is the time for preparing
for an economic career and the time to acquire set of values and ethical system as a guide to
behavior (Havighurst, 1972). Having knowledge that at this stage the level of their aspiration may
lead to either feeling of inadequacy or self-satisfaction making them vulnerable to judgement.
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Music may be a medium to help young people reduce negative emotions (Labb et al.,
2007). Hours of listening to pop music has a significant relationship to academic performance on
college students (Tui, 2013). Popular music is the same as music which is for the urban middle
class that include different music from classical to heavy metal. However, pop music had come
from the roll n' roll evolution (Lamb, 2013).
The present study was designed to investigate are: (1.) what is the level of test anxiety
before the intervention? (2.) What is the level of anxiety after the intervention? (3.) Is there a
significant difference between the anxiety scores between atonal and self-selected music?

Test Anxiety and Adolescence:
Socio-Economic Background
David William Putwain (2008) studied the effect of gender and socio-economic
background and its relation to test anxiety and GCSE performance of 557 participants. The
participants were composed of Year 11 students aging from 15-16 and they come from 3
Secondary schools in UK which were chosen to represent certain socio-demographic background
Academic Achievements
Fayegh Yousefi, Mansor Abu Talib, Mariani Bte Mansor, Rumaya Bte Juhari and Ma rof
Redzuan (2010) created a study focused on Iranian adolescents based in Sanandaj, Iran. They
(Yousefi, F. et al, 2010) gathered 400 student comprising of 200 boys and 200 girls in the age
range of 15 to 19 years old from nine randomly selected schools in Sanandaj, Iran. They used a
self-administered questionnaire to gather data Test-Anxiety Inventory (TAI), Grade Point Average
(GPA) score and personal information. The result of the study (Yousefi, F. et al, 2010) shows that
a significant correlation exist between test test anxiety and academic achievements among Iranian
adolescents and that female scores higher in academic achievement than males.
Learned Helplessness
Figen Akca (2011) researched on the relationship between test anxiety and learned
helplessness on students preparing for the Turkish High School Placement Test (HSPT) and
University Entrance Examination (UEE). They sampled 708 students from Aksaray Province in
Turkey, 319 of the participants were preparing for the HSPT and the 389 were preparing for UEE.
Akca (2011) used the Learned Helplessness Scale (Aydin, 1985; Seligman et al., 1984) and Test
Anxiety Scale (Baltas, 1993). The results showed that male students suffer helplessness severely
than female students significantly due to socioeconomic status. No interaction between learned
helplessness and test anxiety was found on Akca's (2011) research.
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High Stakes Exam
Nathaniel Von Der Embse and Ramzi Hasson (2012) focused on the effects if high-stakes
examination on high school students in Calvin High School an urban and Oak Tree High School a
suburban high school. The study investigated on the effects of high-stakes examination and
socioeconomic status of the the high schoolers on their performance considering their academic
achievement, educational practice and efficacy.
Music Behavior
Jeroen Stouten, Sandra Gilissen, Jeroen Camps, and Chlo Tuteleers (2012) focused on the
distinction between tonal and atonal music to examine the relation of music with unethical
behavior and the results from an experimental study showed that harmonic or tonal music
encouraged unethical behavior in adolescents and this was mediated by negative affect. Tonal
music are sounds harmonious, such as most music on the radio and atonal music sounds
disharmonious (Stouten et al., 2012). This music is usually performed at concerts or special music
programs because it sounds a little odd. Atonal music is by definition quite distinctive in contrast
to harmonic music (Gistelinck, 1991 cited in Stouten et al., 2012). The experiment showed that
tonal music arouses negative affect which led to increased deceitful conduct and that music we do
not like or cannot relate to affects our subsequent behavior, which in the present research indeed
was dishonest. As such, music may signal moral and immoral behavior through how feelings sound
like (Stouten et al., 2012).
Introversion and Extroversion
Adrian Furnham and Anna Bradleys (1997) study looked at the distracting effects of `pop
music' on introverts' and extraverts' performance on various cognitive tasks. It was predicted that
there would be a main effect for music and an interaction effect with introverts performing less
well in the presence of music than extraverts. Stacey Dobbs, Adrian Furnham and Alastair
Mcclelland (2011) extended the previous research (Furnham n. et al., 1997) by examining whether
or not background noise would prove to be as distracting as music and the results showed that
performance would be worse in the presence of music and noise than silence. Results confirmed
this prediction with one exception.
Academic Performance
Kimberlyn Tui (2013) created a study that will explain a significant relationship between
background music and academic performance on college students using four variables such as
hours listening to music, the type of music, sex and hours of studying. The survey was conducted
on college students in the Philippines, the survey used data gathered from 35 randomly selected
respondents with the use of Google Form and Google spreadsheet.
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Songs:
Silence in a study conducted by Dobbs, Furnham and McClelland in 2011 results showed
through Ravens matrices test were precisely as predicted; performance in silence was better than
with music, which in turn was better than performance in conditions of simulated office noise.
Self-selected according to Labbe, conducted Listening to self-selected and classical music
produced increased feelings of relaxation as well as sitting in silence but not for the heavy metal
condition. Listening to classical and self-selected music elicited reductions in state anxiety after
exposure to a stressor.
Atonal music is by definition quite distinctive in contrast to harmonic music (Gistelinck,
1991 cited in Stouten et al., 2012). In a sample of adolescents we could show that tonal music
elicits more negative emotions than atonal music (Stouten et al., 2012).
SYNTHESIS
Test anxiety has been known to affect test performance negatively Research shown
extensive studies on variables that causes test anxiety (Spielberger, 1966; Egbochuku, and Obodo,
2005; Meijer and Oostdam, 2007; Putwain, 2008; Yousefi, Talib, Mansor, Juhari, and Redzuan,
2010; Acka, 2011; Embse and Hasson, 2012) and general studies on the grounds of music
(Furnham and Bradley, 1997; Stouten, Gilissen, Camps, and Tuteleers, 2012) globally. Yet,
research focused on the correlation between the test anxiety and music (Labb et al, 2007; Tui,
2013) that aims reduce test anxiety (Egbochuku and Obodo, 2005,) least researched especially in
the Philippines.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
An experimental design was used in the study as it allows detection of interaction effects
and non-linear effects. A single-factor multi level design will be used to allow one independent
variables having two levels to determine their significance in the reduction of test anxiety.
Participants Description and Sampling Procedures
Pubescent 7th & 8th graders of a local public school in Laguna. All participants are within
the age range of 13-15 years old in both gender. Participants will be selected through random
sampling to reflect the purpose of the study. The target number of participants is at least 60
participants inclusive of 30 female students and 30 male students in the experiment which will be
selected using random sampling that was conducted first to measure math ability test results and
randomly assigning target participants that will qualify for the participant description.
Instruments
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For the study to be successful, 2 anxiety questionnaire and 1 math activity sheet will be
given under all four conditions and 1 math ability test examination.
21-item algebraic expression test consisting of items ranging from the simplest to difficult
algebraic computations. This questionnaire will be used to cluster the target participants into
groups for the experiment as well as to balance the intelligence of the students.
Hamilton Rating Scale for Anxiety or HAM-A (Hamilton, 1969) a general anxiety rating
scale consisting of 14-items, defined by series of symptoms and measures. This questionnaire
having an internal consistency of .96 and test-retest of .92 is used to assess anxiety symptoms of
general anxiety disorder.
18-item activity sheet about variables and expressions which will be taken from
document.com will be used to test the performance of the students. This activity sheet will also
induce the dependent variable test anxiety of early adolescent students.
Westside Test Anxiety Scale (Driscoll, 2006) a 10-item instrument designed to identify
students with anxiety impairments. This questionnaire having .44 coefficient validity will be used
to measure performance impairment due to test anxiety
Music List:
SILENCE: No music.
SELF-SELECTED Music: Any song selected by the participant
ATONAL Music: Op. 11 set Composed by Arnold Schoenberg and performed by Glenn
Gould. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xrjg3jzP2uI
Procedures
The experiment began when the researcher acquired the permission of the school principal
to conduct an experiment under the guise of a free math tutorial session to for 7th and 8th graders
of a Public School in Laguna.
Two Saturdays was used for data gathering. During the first Saturday there was two
sessions for the first meeting, Grade 7 in the morning and Grade 8 in the afternoon. The day was
dedicated in getting baselines for the experiment. Each group were asked to answer a series of test
to measure both math ability and test anxiety. First the participants answered the HAM-A to
measure the physiological effects of test anxiety followed by the Westside Test Anxiety scale to
measure performance impairment due to test anxiety which lasted for 10 minutes. After the
participants were finished with the HAM-A and Westside Test Anxiety Scale, they were given a
21-item algebraic expression test to measure math ability for purpose sampling completed within
30 minutes. After the completion the three tests a 1 hour tutoring program will be conducted by a
hired tutor about algebraic expressions. All the data gathered during the first day, the researcher
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purposely divided the participants into two groups. The researcher balanced both test anxiety and
math ability in grouping the participants.
On the second Saturday of the experiment guised as a math tutorial, there were two math
tutorial sessions one held in the morning and one in the afternoon. Regardless of the grouping, the
hired tutor conducted a 30 minute recap of what they were taught on the first saturday and they
answered the HAM-A again followed by Westside Test Anxiety Scale accomplished within 10
minutes then followed by an 18-item activity sheet about variables and expressions accomplished
for 20 minutes and another set of HAM-A and Westside Test Anxiety Scale accomplished for
another 10 minutes. The first experimental group went through the experiment under the exposure
of atonal music were asked to leave the room after the 30 minute recap for 5 minutes while the
researcher prepared music needed for the experiment. The length of exposure to music lasted from
the moment they began to the end of it, they went the experimental procedures after 5 minutes of
exposure to music upon entering the room. The final experimental group went through the
experiment under self-selected music, they were asked prior to the experiment to bring their
personal MP3s after grouping the participants. Unlike the control group they did not need to leave
the room as they used their own earphones throughout the experiment and but similar to the first
experimental group they started with the questionnaires after 5 minutes of exposure to their selfselected music that played throughout the experiment. Once all data has been collected the
researcher may proceed to data analysis.
Data Analysis
The researcher used the Independent sample T-Test for the analysis and interpretation of
the data to compare the mean of two groups of data in order to find any statistically significant
difference. The comparison will be significant in understanding the possible effect of the
independent variables which are atonal and Self-selected music on the dependent variable which
is the Test Anxiety towards the Algebraic test they will take.
RESULTS
The levels of test anxiety before the intervention is shown in Table 1. The initial
Westside Test Anxiety Scale (M=1.77) is lower than the secondary WTAS administered test
(M=1.90). Hamilton Rating Scale for Anxiety produced almost similar results as the WTAS with
the initial test (M=1.82) is lower than the second test (M=2.10).
Table 1. Level of test anxiety before the intervention
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The level of test anxiety after the intervention is shown in Table 2. Showing that there was no
significant difference between the first and the initial results of the administered test.The mean of
the Westside Test Anxiety Scale did not change from the initial result (M=2.00, SD=.689) to the
the second administration (M=2.00, SD=.803). Hamilton Rating Scale for Anxiety mean
descended from the initial (M=2.20, SD=.798) to the secondary (M=2.10, SD=.796) test
administration.
Table 2. Level of test anxiety after the intervention

An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare test anxiety in atonal and selfselected music conditions as shown in Table 3 and 3.1. The Westside Test Anxiety Scale (WTAS)
shows that there was n significant difference in the scores for atonal music (M=2.13, SD=.629)
and self-selected music (M=1.87, SD=.730) while Hamilton Rating Scale for Anxiety (HAM-A)
proves no significant result as well for the atonal music (M= 2.40, SD= .724) and self-selected
music (M=2.00 SD=.830) before the first algebraic test. After the first algebraic test there were
still no statistical significance between the atonal (M=2.03, SD=.809) and self-selected music
(M=1.97, SD=.809) similar to HAM-A which detected no significance between the atonal
(M=2.07, SD=.785) and self-selected music (M=2.13, SD=.819). There was no significant
difference between the initial scores for WTAS; t(58)=1.516, p=.135 and HAM-A; t(58)=1.989,
p=0.58 and the secondary score for WTAS t58)=3.19, p=.751 and HAM-A; t(58)=-.322, p=.749
administered after the test.
.Table 3. Independent t- test to compare the test anxiety in atonal and self-selected music
conditions
Table 3.1 Means and Standard deviation for atonal and self-selected
149
DISCUSSION
The result of the study invalidates the hypothesis that anxious individuals taking algebraic
tests when exposed to atonal or self-selected music over silence will experience significant
reduction of anxiety. Listening to atonal music produced higher levels of test anxiety both
psychologically and physically to the individuals exposed to it. While self-selected music produced
lesser anxiety than that of atonal but is still unable to reduce their psychological anxiety but leveled
their physical anxiety at an equal for both initial and secondary testing.
Interestingly, most studies shows that certain music produces relaxation to individuals
exposed to it while other produces higher anxiety and or distress to the individuals but results
gathered from the current experiment shows little significance to other studies producing minimal
similarity in terms of reducing anxiety. Though atonal music hasn't been studied profoundly in
terms of effect in reduction of anxiety, results from this experiment shows that it elevates anxiety
similar to heavy metal music which produced similar effects based on a previous study (Labb et
al, 2007). No significant positive relationship with atonal and self-selected music as means of
reducing test anxiety. Rather, atonal music increased the mean of anxiety and self-selected music
did not affect anxiety significantly.
Conclusion
The experiment examined if atonal music and self-selected music will be able to reduce
test anxiety on 7th and 8th grade students. The results showed no significant effect between atonal
music and test anxiety, the probable cause for this is that students found the atonal music as
irritating as it was disharmonious and odd (Stouten et al.,2012). Another possibility is that sounds
that can be classified as extraneous variable such as other loud noises around the vicinity of the
experiment was not controlled since the given room for the experimentation was the standard
public school classroom with open windows that does not filter outside noises. Similar researches
should find the most efficient ways of controlling such variables by using closed doors classrooms
which can amplify the volume of the music being used as an intervention.
Other findings showed that self-selected does not show any significant effect in reducing
test anxiety but neither does it increase it. One possibility for such findings is that self-selected
music in application to other researches showed that it can aid in relaxation, similar to silence and
classical music it can help reduce state anxiety after being exposed to a stressful experience.
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Another possibility is that the factors such as the anxiety caused by time pressure. The gender of
participants could be a possible factor in the experiment as females are known to handle stress
better than men. The researcher recommend that better isolation of external variables that may
affect the relaxation of students be controlled, additional independent variables and an additional
dependent variable that may help in determining effects of music towards test anxiety for future
research as well as a construction of a new anxiety test suited for the Philippine setting that would
allow future researcher better measurement for the variable.
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153
Emotional Intelligence and SNS Usage among College students

Nina Cayanan
Eva A. Castronuevo
Abstract
The study focuses on Trait Emotional Intelligence and its 4 factors which are
well-being, self-control, emotionality and sociability and the usage of Social
Networking Sites (SNS) among college students in different universities
and/or colleges from Metro Manila. A total of 200 respondents were gathered
through online survey questionnaire. Descriptive correlational research
method was applied in determining the relationship between the two
variables. The results from the study shows that Global Trait EI of the
respondents exhibited on the average level. Among the 4 factors, well-being
is above average while self-control, emotionality and sociability were on the
average level. The results of the study also suggests that there is no significant
correlation between the Trait Emotional Intelligence and usage of SNS of the
respondents.
Interactions are mediated in many ways by our emotions, through which we attain useful
information for creating and maintaining various relationships. Emotional intelligence (EI) refers
to the ability to perceive and identify emotions in self and other, and to manage ones own affective
states to enhance well-being and the quality of ones personal and professional relationships
(Killian, 2012). It is through emotional intelligence where we are able to figure out socially
relevant information and interact appropriately based upon how individuals in a relationship feel
about each other. Piles of research over the last two decades has shown that emotional intelligence
is likely the single most powerful factor yet discovered, affecting everything like behavior, mood
and satisfaction in life (Bradberry, 2012).
Social networking sites provide an open platform to accommodate online users and enable
them to develop interpersonal networks and enjoy friendships (Wang, 2009). Social networking
sites continue to increase in popularity. The latest survey shows that 47 percent of online adults
used social networking sites worldwide and that 73 percent of teens and young adults were
members of at least one social network (Lenhart et al., 2010). Online social networks have
dramatically changed the ways college students manage their social relationships and their time.
Nowadays, the generation are dependent on the social networking sites that it could affect
their way of socializing and could even affect the way they manage their time. The importance of
social media in our society today are purely about sharing and posting their thoughts and
experiences that create a rapport of dependency. The study now pertains if the level of trait
emotional intelligence predicts social networking sites usage.
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Research Questions
1. What is the EQ profile of the respondents?
2. What is the SNS usage of adolescence?
3. What are the respondents purposes in using SNS?
4. Is there a significant relationship between EQ and SNS usage?
This review includes a summary of the related literatures gathered for the study that gives
background materials for the research
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability of an individual to use emotions intelligently for
positive outcomes. This ability is said to have an impact on many aspects of our personal and
professional lives (Krishnaveni & Deepa, 2013).
A study in 2011 suggests that emotional expression mediates the associations between
subjective emotional experiences of fear, horror, and helplessness and growth following adversity
and that the effects of emotional expression are moderated by emotional intelligence (Linley,
Felus, et. al, 2011). Similarly, correlations were found between attachment avoidance and EI,
indicating that people who have high attachment avoidance, characterised by the avoidance of
emotional expression and suppression of feelings, are less able to perceive emotional information
and use their emotions to facilitate thinking (Cherry, Fletcher & OSullivan, 2013). Another
finding of a present study indicates that there is a positive correlation between self-esteem and
emotional intelligence skills and negative correlation between emotional intelligence and
loneliness. If there is irregularity in the individuals emotions, it might lead to deteriorating
interpersonal relations, increased anxiety and mental disorders. Therefore, such a relationship
between emotional intelligence skills and loneliness can be expected (Yilmaz, Hamarta, et. al,
2012).
Trait Emotional Intelligence
Trait emotional intelligence itself is neither positive nor negative, but it can facilitate
interpersonal behaviors for achieving goals (Nozaki & Koyasu, 2013). The characteristics of trait
EI is valuable in psychological investigation because of it conceptual and explanatory framework
(Petrides & Furnham, 2003). A study in 2007 suggests that Trait EI was positively associated with
adaptive coping styles and negatively associated with depressive thoughts and frequency of
somatic complaints (Mavrovelli, Petrides, Rieffe & Bakker, 2007). Similarly, people with high
trait EI exhibited greater sensitivity to the mood induction procedure than their low trait EI
counterparts (Petrides & Furnham, 2003) and trait EI was positively associated with affective
overprediction (Sevdalis, Petrides & Harvey, 2007). Furthermore, findings suggest that trait
emotional intelligence is an important role in peer relations and socioemotional competence
(Frederickson, Petrides & Simmons, 2011).
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Time Management in Academics
In 2003, students from middle school reported extensive time spent watching television or
hanging out with friends in school days. Weekends presented a similar pattern of unstructured
social activity with even more television viewing and considerably less homework (Shann, 2003),
while students who were highly engaged in multiple domains tended to remain so across grade
levels, whereas students focused on one or two domains frequently changed their commitments
(Shanahan & Flaherty, 2007). Furthermore, the primary predictor for the desired amount of free
time was hours of screen time (television, computer, etc.). The single greatest predictor of activityrelated stress was the reported number of hours spent on homework. Students who averaged at
least 2 hours on homework per night were nearly twice as likely to report frequent activity-related
stress (Brown, Nobiling, et. al, 2011).
Social Networking Sites
Social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter are virtual communities where
individuals can create public profiles, interact with friends and meet other people. In a study it
found that enjoyment is the most influential factor in peoples continued use of SNS, followed by
the number of peers, and usefulness (Kuan & Hsi, 2011). Similarly, people used SNS to connect
and reconnect with friends and family members and suggests that internet used was clearly
important in their lives (Subrahmanyam, et. al, 2008). Furthermore, a study in 2012 shows that
decrease in real life social community participation and academic achievement, as well as
relationship problems are caused by social networking sites usage which may also indicate
potential addiction (Meena, Mittal & Solanki, 2012). Also, a study on promoting positive
psychology using social networking sites states that relationships of individual engagement and
social influence can partially explain the observed student behavior (Chan, et. al, 2014).
SYNTHESIS
Based on the literatures gathered, emotional intelligence can be a factor for positive
outcomes that could impact a persons professional and personal lives (Krishnaveni & Deepa,
2013) and trait emotional intelligence can facilitate interpersonal behaviors for achieving goals
(Nozaki & Koyasu, 2013) and is associated with adaptive coping styles (Mavrovelli, Petrides, et.
al, 2007). Further findings suggest that trait emotional intelligence is important in socioemotional
competence (Frederickson, Petrides & Simmons, 2011). It was predicted that students spend their
time watching television or hanging out with friends in school days same as for weekends and who
are focused on one or two domains frequently change their commitments (Shanahan & Flaherty,
2007). Hours of screen time predicts the desired amount of free time and the greatest predictor of
stress among students is the hours spent on their homework (Brown, Nobiling, et. al, 2011).
Furthermore, enjoyment is the most influential factor in using SNS (Kuan & Hsi, 2011) and they
use it to connect and reconnect with friends and family members (Subrahmanyam, et. al, 2008).
Also, a relationship in individual engagement and social influence explains the observed student
behavior (Chang, et. al, 2014).
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
156
The research design used was quantitative and descriptive in nature. Quantitative research
design is used to quantify data and generalize results from a sample to the population of interest.
It is usually a representation of a social group with a specific schema. Descriptive method is
designed to gather information about present existing conditions. Descriptive research is defined
as involving collection of data in order to test hypothesis or to answer questions concerning the
current status of the subject of the study. The main goal of descriptive research design is to describe
the data and characteristics about what is being studied (Richley & Klein, 2007).
The participants for this study are undergraduate college students from different colleges
and universities. 100 females and 100 males were surveyed, for a total of 200 participants in the
study with aged ranging from 16 - 22 years old. The participants chosen were believe to be the
best representation for the population of adolescents who use SNS that is within the reach of the
researcher. The study used purposive sampling technique which is selecting a sample base on the
researchers knowledge of the population, elements and nature of what the research aims. This
method aims a small subset of a larger population in which many members of the subsets are easily
identified but the enumeration of all is nearly impossible (Latham, 2007). It is a nonrandom
technique that does not need underlying theories or a set number of informants. The researcher
decides what needs to be known and sets out to find people who can and are willing to provide the
information by knowledge and experience (Tongco, 2007).
Instruments
The researcher used a questionnaire and a survey form as the research instrument. First part
of the questionnaire is the basic information of each respondents and their purposes and hours of
internet use (See Appendix 1). The main instrument for the research is Trait Emotional Intelligence
Questionnaire (TEIQue) - Short Form by K.V. Petrides & A. Furnham, a 30-item questionnaire
designed to measure global trait emotional intelligence (See Appendix 2). It is based from the full
form of TEIQue. Two items from each of the 15 facets of the TEIQue were selected for inclusion,
based primarily on their correlations with the corresponding total facet scores (Cooper & Petrides,
2010). The instrument measures 4 factors of Trait Emotional Intelligence which are well-being,
self-control, emotionality and sociability. TEIQue-SF instrument has shown excellent
psychometric properties in a series of studies (Freudenthaler, Neubauer, et. al, 2008; Mikolajczak,
Luminet, et. al, 2007) TEIQue - SF is an openly accessible instrument and is free of charge for
academic research purposes. The test would determine the persons global trait EI. The results
would undergo a series of scoring and interpretation to conclude specific category.
In gathering data, the researcher did an online survey-questionnaire and distribute it to
different people among her connections through facebook. The respondents were asked to answer
the questionnaire which is the Trait Emotional Intelligence - Short Form (TEIQue-SF) which
consists of 30 items. Questionnaires were distributed until it reached the target number of
respondents. The data was gathered for about 3 weeks and respondents were reached through
157

Facebook chat asking them if they could comply with the researchers requirements for her thesis.
Respondents were obtained through the help of the researchers connections.
Data Analysis
To answer the problem of the study, SPSS was used to tabulate and compute for the results
of each respondent. The authors of the questionnaire has provided a syntax for the scoring in SPSS.
Pearson product-moment correlation was used to measure the relationship between EQ and usage.
The interpretations for the results were also provided by the authors.
RESULTS
Profile of Respondents
Most of the respondents are 19 years old, which accounts to 24.5% of the total
respondents while 16% of the respondents are 16 years old. 15% of the respondents are aged 18
while 14.5% are 17 and 20 years old. Furthermore, 10% of the respondents are 20 years old and
5.5% are 22 years old. Most of the respondents are third or fourth year college students from
different universities and/or colleges.
Age
Frequency
Percentage
16
32
16.0%
17
29
14.5%
18
30
15.0%
19
49
24.5%
20
29
14.5%
21
20
10.0%
22
11
05.5%
Usage of Social Networking Sites

Results shows that most of the respondents who engaged in SNS spend 1 - 3 hours a day
with a percentage of 37%, while 34% of the respondents spend 4 - 6 hours online. Furthermore,
users who spend 7 - 9 hours online are 16% and 10 hours and above are 13%.
Hours spent
Frequency
Percentage
1 - 3 hours
74
37%
4 - 6 hours
68
34%
158
7 - 9 hours
32
16%
10 hours and up
26
13%
Purpose of using Social Network Sites

Most of the respondents use SNS to connect with their friends, getting a percentage of
71.5%, while academic related purpose comes in second with 65.5% and 23% for socializing with
other people. Furthermore, expressing thoughts & feelings got 18% and other related purpose is
4%. Respondents who have answered others in their questionnaire indicated: relaxation,
organizational work, news updates, monitoring, games, etc.
Purposes
Frequency
Percentage
Socializing w/ other people
116
58.0%
Connecting w/ friends
143
71.5%
Academic related
131
65.5%
Expressing thought & feelings
84
42.0%
Others
20
10.0%
Overall Trait Emotional Intelligence Profile of Respondents
GLOBAL SCORE
159

The global trait EI score provides your general emotional functioning. It is an index of the
self-perceived ability to understand, process, and utilize emotion-related information in your
everyday life. The global score of all the respondents is in the average level. Other people may
perceive themselves more emotionally developed than them, while others view themselves as less
emotionally developed. The score is based on their review of themselves and suggests that certain
events and environments may challenge their capacity to understand process and utilize emotional
information. Other times, they may cope easily and well. It is important to note that the Global
score is very broad in comparison to the Factor scores. Please refer to the Factor scales below for
more detail about certain aspects of your general emotional functioning.
Well-being factor
The scores on the Well-being factor shows how happy, positive and fulfilled a person is.
This factor has 3 facets which include Happiness, Optimism and Self-esteem.
Results shows that the overall score of the respondents were Above Average with 70%.
The score on the well-being factor suggests that the respondents are positive about things.
In general, you find it easy to take pleasure in life and tend to be optimistic about the future.
Totality of the respondents have high self-regard and feeling of worthiness, skilled and competent,
and they dont feel any doubts on their abilities and achievements. They are more able to respond
to difficult circumstances, to provide innovation, and engage with other people and the community;
as well as representing a highly effective way of bringing about good outcomes in many different
areas of their lives.
Self-control factor
The scores on the Self-control factor shows how well a person regulates external pressure,
stress and impulse control. This factor has 3 facets which includes Emotion Regulation, Impulse
Control and Stress Management. Results show that the overall score of the respondents were
Average with 59%.
The score on this factor suggests that overall, respondents have average self-control. Like
most people, they have a certain degree of control over their impulses and emotional reactions, but
there are times when they get unduly anxious, rash, or angry. Although they like thinking things
through, they occasionally take sudden, rushed decisions that you later regret. They may benefit
from developing new strategies to enhance their ability to control their thoughts, actions, and
feelings. For example, they could delay important decisions for a few days in order to avoid making
rash judgments.
Emotionality factor
The scores on the Emotionality factor evaluates ability to recognize emotional states in
others, express emotions and use these abilities to develop and sustain close relationship with
others. This factor has 4 facets which includes Empathy, Emotional Perception, Emotional
Expression and Relationships. Results shows that the overall score of the respondents were
Average with 65%.
160
The score on this factor suggests that respondents have average emotionality. From the
results shown, the emotionality factor is average. It is suggesting that the level of emotionality for
the respondents is perceived as neutral. There is no difficulty in the emotional meaning of everyday
situations which implies that they are more likely to be relaxed and their emotions are adaptable
to situations. This enables them to make an effort in understanding the situation and that they have
the ability to become more attached emotionally in scenarios in a minimal sense and not in a strong
and aggressive sense.
Sociability factor
The scores on the Sociability factor evaluates control over their impulsiveness and coping
with external pressures & stress. This factor has 3 facets which ypincludes Emotion Regulation,
Impulsiveness and Stress Management. Results shows that the overall score of the respondents
were Average with 61%.
The score on this factor suggests that respondentllaveragepsociability. The score on the
sociability factor suggestspp that the respondents are also in an average level where as they enjoy
a certain amount of socializing. In genpperal, the p may be a little assertive in situations and
somewhat hesitant in approaching people they do not know well. They may also be doubtful about
how to deal with people but have enough confidence in coping in a situation.
A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was computed to assess the
relationship between Trait EI and SNS usage. The finding suggests that there is no significant
relationship between Trait EI (M = 134.35 SD = 17.367) and SNS usage (M = 2.05 SD = 1.026),
therefore accepting the null hypothesis, where r = .067, n = 200, p = .344
DISCUSSION
With the article of Krishnaveni and Deepa, the positive outcome of SNS usage came out
as an average amount. The respondents saw that they were not overusing the social network but
they were using it for good reasons. The emotional experiences that they were experiencing, adding
to their emotional intelligence, gave them a way to control themselves with using the social
networking sites. This statement can be backed up by the article of Linley, Felus, et al. It sort of
added to the fact that they may have been avoiding the feelings or emotions they want to express.
Cherry, Fletcher and OSullivan gave an article regarding this. It may also correlate with the
feeling of loneliness because the usage was average overall. Yilmaz and Hamarta described it as a
feeling of suppressed emotions that resulted to the decreased or controlled usage of SNS.
Trait emotional intelligence from the results connects to the importance of personality and
usage of SNS. Nozaki and Koyasu connected the usage to the interpersonal behavior which SNS
facilitates to. It helps in adapting to situations in real life and decreases their expression of
emotions. The trait emotional intelligence is used a good framework in the things expressed in
SNS. It becomes a self-explanatory framework as said by Petrides and Furnham. The competence
161

as well, the socio-emotionality of the person describes also the usage in SNS, by Frederickon,
Petrides and Simmons.
With time management in academics, most students use SNS for school purposes, a sort of
unstructural social activity described by Shann. It also becomes a distraction to them because of
the frequently change in commitments. This was also described in the article of Shannahan and
Flaherty. And well, the most obvious is that the respondents obviously enjoy their usage without
faltering in their studies. Also described in the article of Kuan and Hsi. Yes, the usage is potentially
addictive. Meena, Mittai and Sonanki described this in an article that it is addictive but it still
depends upon the respondents. Results showed that it may be addictive but the respondents has
self-control in the matter. Giving them the advantage of choosing either to have an addictive
behavior or to be controlled and leveled in using social networking sites.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were made. Overall trait EI
of the respondents were on average level which concludes that there are certain events wherein it
could challenge their capacity to understand, process and utilize information. Well-being factor of
the respondents were above average which indicates that they are happy, optimistic and has
confidence and satisfaction in oneself, while self-control, emotionality and sociability all got an
average. They have a certain degree of control over their impulses and emotional reactions. Their
emotions are more relaxed and adaptable to situations and they enjoy a certain amount of
socializing. Most of the respondents spend time on SNS for about 1 - 3 hours a day and implied
that they use SNS to connect with their friends like chatting or getting the latest news about them.
The study also concluded that there is no significant relationship between EQ and SNS usage
among college students. Likewise, it has taken into consideration that there were several aspects
why the study has come up to this conclusion.
The researcher suggests for future researchers to gather more than 200 respondents and the
questionnaires to be equally distributed among different colleges and universities for better results
and outcome. It would be highly suggested if the research would be done on a pen-and-paper
manner rather than online because there were only a few people answering the questionnaire when
they were sent via Facebook chat. People tend to ignore surveys that are sent online rather than
questionnaires given in person. Also further studies that could be done would be if EQ plays a role
in self-disclosure of adolescence on the internet.
162

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164
Levels of Marital Commitment and Relationship

Quality among Couples
Vanessa C. Ocampo
Rodelando Ocampo
Abstract
This study focuses on levels of marital commitment and the relationship
quality among couples. A total of 200 participants or 100 couples were
gathered from a selected barangay in Bian through purposive sampling,
specifically snowball technique. Descriptive correlational research method
was operated in determining the relationship between levels of marital
commitment and relationship quality. Dimensions like emotional wellbeing
and supportiveness were measured. The results of the study suggest that both
levels of marital commitment and relationship quality exhibited a grand mean
of above average. The results from the study also suggest that there is a
significant and high correlation between the levels of marital commitment
and relationship quality among the respondents or couples. The correlational
coefficient value is at .735 at a significance level of 0.01. It was concluded
that high relationship quality can also predict high level of marital
commitment.
Quality of Relationships explains the good and bad of relationships, how well partners live
together, how they work on their differences and how happy they are of being together. Records
from the Office of the Solicitor General (OSG) showed that numerous marriage annulment and
nullity cases filed in Philippines has been steadily rising. Back in year 2002, a total of 5,250
couples sought to have their marriages annulled or nullified. A decade after, in the year 2012, there
is a total of 10,528 annulment cases that were brought to OSG. 2012s figure was almost double
the number of marriage dispute cases filed 10 years ago with an average of 28 couples seeking to
have their marriages declared null and void per day. The results just show that several marriages
dont work out for the long term compared to the prior years and there is a high probability of
an even higher rate of annulment and nullity percentage in the future.
Given the higher rate of annulment and nullity cases as the year progresses, it is important
to solve this problem in order to avoid separations and broken families or broken marriages. Also,
to further solidify relationships and maintain well being because good marriage is good for the
health and bad marriage may lead to depression according to Proulx et al., (2007).
Current trends in Relationship Quality according to Reynolds, Houlston and Coleman
(2014) focuses on these behavioural and interactional aspects of the relationship. Recent
165

researches about relationship quality deals with conflict within partners, communication in the
relationship, support within partners, opinions of couples in their partner and their relationship.
Studies of Umberson et al., (2005), Lavner & Bradbury (2010), Birditt et al., (2012) found out that
couples who are characterized by relatively high levels of satisfaction in the first few years of their
relationship see no decline in relationship quality over the years. Couples however who started
with low levels of relationship quality experience steeper and more rapid declines in satisfaction
as the year progresses. Similarly, in all these studies low levels of relationship quality and its ongoing decline predicted which couples who would seek divorce. Also, there are research that
highlighted importance of attitudes towards beliefs, Coleman (2011) presented a study
differentiated between couples where partners held a developmentalview of relationships and
non-developmental view. Developmental couples are more likely to begin conversations about
issues even if its uncomfortable for them, learn from difficult experiences, express dissatisfaction
and engage in constructive conflict while Non -developmental couples are those who avoided
confrontation by subjugating their own needs, resigning themselves to continuing their
dissatisfying relationship that also causes failing to resolve arguments.
This study aims to know if there is a relationship between marital commitment and the
relationship quality among couples. Also, to help and give information to the future generations
and suggest the dimensions of marital commitment and relationship quality used in this research
as a suggestion to strengthen their relationships and justify if it really works through the quality of
a relationship and levels of marital commitment of present married couples with the result of the
research. To sum everything, the study pursued to answer the following problems. (1) What is the
profile of the respondents level of Marital Commitment? (2) What is the profile of the
respondents level of Relationship Quality considering; a) Emotional Well-being and b)
Supportiveness (3) Is there a significant relationship between levels of marital commitment and
relationship quality?
Marital Commitment
Several researchers have noted that commitment is an important variable to consider in
studying marriage relationships. Marital commitment appears to be an important element in
sustaining marriages over a long period and also indicated as one of the most important
determinants in marital stability according to Lauer & Lauer (1987) as cited in the study of
Clements & Swensen (2000). Also, marital commitment is proven to be related to willingness to
sacrifice and permanence.
As mentioned in the study of Etcheverry & Le (2005), according to Van Lange, Agnew,
Harinck & Steemers (1997) willingness to sacrifice refers to foregoing ones own immediate selfinterests to promote the well-being of the partner or relationship and is positively associated with
marital commitment. Similarly, willingness to sacrifice represents a key element of relationship
maintenance. In situations when partners preferences do not correspond, sacrificing ones own
preferences for the sake of the partners preferred outcome (or the best outcome for the
relationship) benefits the relationship while at the same time demonstrating to a partner (and
perhaps the self) dedication and commitment to the relationship based on the study of Van Lange,
166

Rusbult, et al., (1997) as cited in the study of Etcheverry & Le (2005). Also, as quoted in the study
of Giblin (2011), Stanley (1998) further elaborated and organized the works of Van Lange and
company and introduced that dedication commitment (type of commitment) is an intrinsic desire
to not only continue in the relationship but also to improve it, to sacrifice for it, to invest in it, to
link personal goals to it and to seek the partners welfare, not simply ones. In the article of Nauert
(2012) it was stated that in the recent study of Bradbury and Karney (2012) Bradbury believes that
true commitment means that you are willing to take sacrifices to keep a relationship alive. The
challenge is that the commitment to taking active steps to maintain the relationship means that you
may not get your way in certain areas.
Commitment is about permanence. Commitment is most typically defined as feelings of

permanency that are found in attractions and constraints according to Dean & Spanier (1974),
Johnson, Caughlin & Huston (1999) and Leik & Leik (1977), which is all mentioned in the study
of Nelson, Kirk, Ane & Serres (2011). It is implied that the idea of the relationship should be
permanent and that a long lasting marriage involves following the rules and includes the lifeoriented vows such as as long as we both shall live. Haughey (1975) as quoted in the study of
Giblin (2011) found out that commitment is nourished by remembering, renewed with daily
intentionality and sustained by hope. In addition, as also mentioned in the study of Giblin (2011),
Stanley (1998) initiated that commitment entails taking a long term view of marriage, that is,
promising to be present across time. Wilcon and Nock (2006) also found out that women who
share with their husbands a strong commitment to lifelong marriage who, for instance, think
that marriage is a lifetime relationship and should never be ended except under extreme
circumstances are much more likely to report that they are happy in their marriages, and that
they are happy with the affection and understanding they receive from their husbands, compared
to women who do not have such a commitment to marriage. Shared commitment seems to generate
mutual trust and higher levels of emotional investment on the part of husbands both factors
which promote marital happiness among women.
Relationship Quality
In general, relationship quality, often termed marital quality in the research literature,
according to Spanier and Lewis (1980) explains the subjective evaluation of a married couples
relationship on a number of dimensions and evaluations.It is a frequently studied aspect of
relationships, however there is a little consensus around the definition of relationship quality
underpinning it according to Johnson (1995), Fincham & Beach (2010). Probably because of this
lack of consensus, relationship quality is often used interchangeably with terms such as
relationship happiness, relationship satisfaction and relationship adjustment, although these
concepts are not synonymous.
It was found out that marriage and similar close relationships are a key source of comfort
and support for many adults (Fincham & Beach, 2010; Kiecolt-Glaser & Newton, 2001; Proulx,
Helms, & Buehler, 2007). Support is proven to be included in the dimensions of Relationship
Quality. Supportiveness in relationship are one of the core aspects of healthy relationships which
are developed and strengthened over time, especially by overcoming difficulties according to
Reynolds, Houlston & Coleman (2014). Also, Cutrona and colleagues work (e.g., Cutrona,
167

Russell, & Gardner, (2005) initiated inter-partner support was operationalized as comprising four
types of support when one partner has had a bad day, is feeling down, or has a problem: emotional
support
(talking
and
listening
to
each
other,
holding
hands,
hugging,
letting ones partner know s/he understands), direct or indirect tangible support (direct
support: helping ones partner solve the problem or make the situation better; indirect
support: providing time or resources so that ones partner is better able to solve the problem himor herself, e.g., providing childcare), informational support (giving advice, providing ones partner
with information, helping ones partner think about a problem in a new way), and esteem support
(expressing confidence in the partners ability to handle things, telling ones partner s/he is not to
blame for a problem). In addition, how supportive partners are of one another can help explain
why some relationships succeed and others fail (Fincham, 2003). Having a supportive partner can
buffer the impact of stress on relationship satisfaction (Fincham & Beach, 2010). Support helps
couples to build trust and to interpret their partners behaviour in a positive light. For example, a
thoughtless comment is not perceived to be driven by a partners malice but by less harmful factors,
such as tiredness or a bad day. Researchers think that these positives protect the couple so that the
less supportive things they do and say do not have a lasting impact on their relationship happiness
(Bradbury & Karney, 2004).
Marital quality is an important aspect of family life that shapes peoples health and wellbeing. Greater marital quality is associated with less depression (Williams, 2003), better self- rated
health (Umberson, et al., 2006), less physical illness (Wickrama, et al., 1997), and other positive
outcomes (Ross, et al., 1990). In addition, there is a strong association between relationship quality
and depression that is proven through different studies and although evidence supports both
pathways, there is a stronger support for the theory that a poor quality relationship triggers or
exacerbates depression (e.g. see Proulx et al., 2007). For example, longitudinal studies have found
that marital dissatisfaction predicts increases in depressive symptoms over time (Mead, 2002); covaries with changes in depressive symptoms (Kurdek,1998; Karney 2001); and increases the
likelihood of a major depressive episode within a year (Beach, 2001). However, more recent
research has highlighted the importance of the good quality relationship between partners;
irrespective of marital status, for the health, life satisfaction, and well being of partners (Proulx et
al,. 2007; Coleman & Glenn, 2009; Robles et al., 2013) and their children (Cummings & Davies,
2010; Barrett et al., 2011; Reynolds et al, forthcoming). In other words, it is not being in a
relationship per se that confers health and well-being advantages, but it is the quality of the
relationship that matters.
SYNTHESIS
Marital commitment appears to be an important element in sustaining marriages over a

long period and also indicated as one of the most important determinants in marital stability
according to Lauer & Lauer (1987) and is proven to be related to willingness to sacrifice,
permanence and loyalty. In willingness to sacrifice, studies of Van Lange, Agnew, Harinck &
Steemers (1997) and Van Lange, Rusbult, et al., (1997) are all consistent in explaining that
willingness to sacrifice is about giving way to your partner and prioritizing what is best for your
partner that not only shows commitment to the relationship but also own dedication. In addition to
168

their works, Stanley (1998) expand their study by creating dedication commitment that explains
how a persons willingness to sacrifice must be continuous and developed not for themselves but
for their partners. In the recent study of Bradbury and Kurney (2012) Bradbury believes that true
commitment means that you are willing to take sacrifices to keep a relationship alive that is also
inclined with the prior studies. Meanwhile, for permanence, according to Dean & Spanier (1974),
Johnson, Caughlin & Huston (1999) and Leik & Leik (1977) commitment is simply a feeling of
permanency that started with attractions and constraints but Haughey (1975) and Stanley (1998)
dig deeper by explaining commitment as a promise of a long term relationship that needs to be
refreshed and developed by the help of two people in the relationship while study of Wilcon and
Nock (2006) found out that married couples are happy in their marriages when they have mutual
view of a lifetime marriage.
Relationship quality refers to how happy or satisfied an individual is in his or her

relationship and is proven to be associated with supportiveness and well-being. In supportiveness,
Fincham & Beach (2010), Kiecolt-Glaser & Newton (2001), Proulx, Helms, & Buehler (2007),
Reynolds, Houlston & Coleman (2014) elaborated what is the role of support in relationship
quality as one of the core aspects of healthy relationships while Fincham & Beach (2010), Fincham
(2003), Bradbury & Karney (2004) explained building trust and other factors that makes support
important relationship, then Cutrona, Russell, & Gardner (2005) organized support into 4 types;
emotional support, direct or indirect tangible support, informational support and esteem support.
Whereas, in well-being, Proulx et al., (2007), Mead (2002), Kurdek (1998), Karney (2001) and
Beach (2001) all founded the negative outcomes of low relationship quality. They considered that
poor relationship quality lowers the well-being of a person, triggers depression and possibly
worsen it, while on the contrary, Williams (2003), Umberson, et al., (2006), Wickrama, et al.,
(1997), Ross, et al., (1990) revealed that greater relationship quality is associated with less
depression, better self- rated health, less physical illness and other positive outcomes. In addition,
Proulx et al., (2007), Coleman & Glenn (2009), Robles et al., (2013) and Cummings & Davies
(2010), Barrett et al., (2011), Reynolds et al, (forthcoming) gathered more importance of good
quality relationship, which are; irrespective of marital status, for the health, life satisfaction and
well being of partners and their children.
The researcher wants to know if there is a relationship between levels of marital

commitment and relationship quality and if high level of relationship quality also mean high level
in marital commitment. Most importantly, if the findings of this study can be considered as a
suggestion for future generation if proven to be related.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
Descriptive correlational research design is the appropriate research method for this study.
The descriptive method was used to describe the current levels of marital commitment and
relationship quality among the respondents while the correlational method is also used in
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determining if the levels of marital commitment and relationship quality among couples are
associated with each other (Stangor, 2011).
Participant Description
The participants for this study are couples who are married for more than 5 years. The
married couples are living within Barangay Sto. Tomas Bian. Since the study is about couples,
their partners are also participants and individually they answered the questionnaires. The number
of the participants are 100 couples.
Sampling Procedure
The sampling procedure for this study is purposive sampling because the participants are
selected for a specific trait; the participants must be at least more than 5 years married to be subjects
of this study. Specifically, snowball sampling technique was used to gather more participants
through referrals. There should be an equal number of female and male participants.
Instrument Description
There are proposed revised scales for both variables. The revised scale for Relationship
Quality is from Quality Relationship Scales of Mary Banghart Therrien, LMSW and Amber
Lewandowski, BSW (2007) whereas for Marital Commitment variable the scale is revised from a
quiz found in a book of Ty Cohen which is the Secret to Setting Successful Goals (2006). Both
scales are checklists with same options Not True at all, Hardly True, Somewhat True, Mostly True
and Very True, same scoring that starts in summing all the answers and dividing it to the number
of items.
Quality of Relationship Scales is originally a complete packet of materials to measure the
quality of an adult-youth relationship but in this study it was revised to fit for the married
participants. The questionnaire examines five important qualities of the adult-youth relationship:
Communication, commitment, security, honesty, and respect. In the revised scale, the dimensions
are emotional well-being and supportiveness. Sum of the items 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 12, 13 and
14 divided by 9 measure emotional well-being while sum of the items 4, 7, 9, 10, 11 and 15
divided by 6 measures supportiveness. Cronbach's Alpha of Quality of Relationship Scale is .713
and was determined through pilot testing.
Meanwhile, the Marital Commitment Scale or revised Relationship Goal Setting Quiz
wants to implement that in order for a relationship to be satisfying those involved in it must set
clear goals for it and commit themselves into it. The quiz sets up examples of annual objectives
that can also motivate partners to successfully achieve it within the year. It also insists that
relationship goals should be developed to cover issues involved in the relationship, but they can
also cover any area of human behavior. The quiz is revised to fit the measurement needed which
is levels of marital commitment. Sum of the items 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19 divided
by 12 measures willingness to sacrifice while sum of the items 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15 and 20 divided
by 8 measures intent of permanence. Cronbach's Alpha of Marital commitment scale is .923 and
was also determined through pilot testing.
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In order to be certain about the reliability and validity of the revised scales, the researcher
conducted a Pilot Testing to 40 out of 100 couples of this study. In the actual study, the researcher
provided Information Sheets with the actual instruments. The Information Sheet includes the
nature of the study, its purpose, further instructions on answering the scale, ensured confidentiality
of their answers, contact information of the researcher in case of further inquiries and the future
presentation of the results of the study. The questionnaires were given to churches and barangays
to distribute to its members. The researcher also organized an online survey and is shared to people
who are known to be living in the City of Binan and are within the selected barangay. The data
shall be organized, analyzed and interpreted using applications like Microsoft Excel and SPSS.
The data are collected and processed based on the response given by the participants in the
scale. Microsoft Excel and SPSS were utilized to tabulate the levels of marital commitment and
relationship quality. Descriptive statistics such as mean, minimum, maximum and standard
deviation were used. Pearson-r was also applied in determining the correlation of levels of marital
commitment and relationship quality.
Data Analysis
The following numerical range and numerical description were used to interpret the mean
of every criterion in Relationship Quality and Levels of Marital Commitment (See Appendix).
Numerical Range
Description
0-1.00
Poor
1.01-2.00
Below Average
2.01-3.00
Average
3.01-4.00
Above Average
RESULTS
Respondents level of Marital Commitment and level of Relationship Quality
considering; Emotional Well-being and Supportiveness.
Table 1: Levels of Marital Commitment and Relationship Quality
171
Mean
Std. Deviation
Marital Commitment
200
3.14
.187
Relationship Quality:
200
3.12
.776
Emotional Wellbeing
200
3.00
.948
Supportiveness
200
3.29
.435
Table 1 demonstrates the number of respondents, means and standard deviations for levels
of marital commitment, relationship quality considering emotional well-being and supportiveness.
Marital commitment gained a mean value of 3.14 and a standard deviation of .187 suggests that
the couples have above average level of marital commitment while relationship quality achieved
a mean value of 3.12 and a standard deviation of .776 which explains that the couples are also in
the above average level. Relationship quality according to emotional well-being gained a mean
value of 3.00 and has a standard deviation of .948 which means that the couples are within the
average level whereas the obtained mean value of relationship quality according to supportiveness
is 3.29 and a standard deviation of .435 which describes an above average level for the couples.
Table 2. Marital Commitment and Relationship Quality
r-value Sig. p-value
Marital Commitment & Relationship Quality
.735**
.000
Marital Commitment & Emotional Well-being
.637**
.000
Marital Commitment & Supportiveness
.689**
.000
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 2 shows the correlational coefficient (as depicted by the r-value) and the significance
value. Results show that there is generally a high correlation between Marital Commitment and
Relationship Quality of the respondents as indicated by the correlation coefficient of .735 and a pvalue of .000. There is a moderate correlation between Marital Commitment and Emotional Wellbeing of the respondents as specified by the correlation coefficient of .637 and is significant at .01
level. Marital Commitment and Supportiveness of respondents also have a moderate correlation
which obtained a correlation coefficient of .689 and is also significant at .01 level.
DISCUSSION
Considering marital commitment, the results indicate that majority of the couples have an
above average level of marital commitment, meaning; this means that they are dedicated to their
marriage and is serious in handling and developing their relationship. Also, the respondents are
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willing to sacrifice in their relationship and view it as something long-term and permanent. Marital
commitment is a working process of developing, improving and sustaining relationships. Stanley
(1998) addressed that dedication commitment is a type of commitment which explains the need to
not only continue the relationship but also to improve it, sacrifice for it, to invest in it, to link
personal goals in it and to seek partners welfare more than own welfare and Bradbury (2012)
states that with the results of his study with Karney (2012) he believes that willingness to sacrifice
is essential for true commitment. Couples commit because they want their relationship to last.
Marital commitment is all about permanence, Haughey (1975) found out that commitment is
nourished by remembering, renewing and is sustained by hope while Wilcon and Nock (2006)
found that couples who share strong commitment to a lifelong marriage and shares the same vision
of permanence except under extreme circumstances report that they are happy with their marriages.
Generally, the respondents have an above average relationship quality which means that
majority of the respondents have a high evaluation of their relationship and have low chance of
annulment. Normally, people think and predict that the longer a couple is married the better their
relationship quality is, but the study did not put a limitation regarding the number of years that the
couples are married in order to be permitted to participate but only set that respondents must be
more than 5 years married.
In levels of relationship quality, there were two components considered in measuring the
couples relationship quality; emotional well being and supportiveness.
Relationship quality according to emotional well-being is interpreted as average, meaning
that majority of the respondents have chances of a high emotional well-being that causes good and
improved health and less risk of illness. Relationship emotional well-being is also an important
indicator of marital quality. Good relationships can benefit health of a person while bad
relationships can detriment the health of a person. Couples who have a high relationship quality
can improve and stabilize health of a person and their self-esteem but couples who have low
relationship quality have more chances of decreased emotional well-being that may cause certain
sickness like heart disease. Williams (2003), Umberson, et al., (2006), Wickrama, et al., (1997)
and Ross, et al., (1990) unanimously found out that high relationship quality is associated with
lesser chance of depression, being healthy and lesser risk of having physical illness and can cause
other more possible outcomes. In addition, Proulx et al., (2007), Coleman & Glenn (2009), Robles
et al., (2013), Cummings & Davies (2010), Barrett et al., (2011) and Reynolds et al, (forthcoming)
revealed more importance of good relationship quality like life satisfaction, health and well-being
of partners.
Meanwhile, results also implied that relationship quality according to supportiveness of the
respondents is also above average, which means that supportiveness is considered as one of the
main factors in couples having an above average relationship quality and further clarifies that
supportiveness is present and properly practiced in the relationship of the respondents.
Supportiveness plays a significant role in relationship quality among couples that also depicts the
strength or weakness of relationships according to Reynolds, Houlston & Coleman (2014)
corresponding the study of Schwarz, Trommsdorff, Albert and Mayer (2005) who found out that
imbalance in support had negative effects on the relationship quality. Part of being married to each
other, couples are expected to face everything together from happiness to challenges by helping
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and encouraging each other. Also, Fincham (2003) proved that supportiveness of couples towards
each other can help determine the success and failure of their relationship.
Considering the test of correlation between the main variables (Marital Commitment and
Relationship Quality) the findings show that there is a strong positive association between them.
Significance value implies that as the respondents marital commitment increases, their
relationship qualities commonly go behind. Regarding the test of correlation between (Marital
Commitment and Supportiveness) and between (Marital Commitment & Emotional Well-being)
results demonstrate that both correlations are moderately correlated. Significance value describes
that as the respondents' marital commitment increases, relationship quality variables such as
emotional well-being and supportiveness follows. Similarly in the study of Kelmer, Rhoades,
Stanley and Markman (2013), they compared long-distance romantic relationships to closeproximity romantic relationships in terms of relationship quality, commitment, and stability.
Individuals in long-distance relationships generally reported higher levels of relationship quality
on a number of relationship quality variables, as well as higher levels of dedication to their
relationships and lower levels of feeling trapped but were similar to individuals in close-proximity
relationships in terms of perceived and material constraints. Individuals in long-distance
relationships perceived a lower likelihood of breaking up with their partner at the initial time point.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study the following conclusions were made. As shown in table
1, high report of relationship quality are related significantly to an also high level of marital
commitment but high report of relationship quality according to supportiveness doesnt have an
equal high report of relationship quality according to emotional well-being. Majority of the couples
rated their levels of marital commitment and relationship quality to be both above average while
it was also proven that couples may have an above average relationship quality according to
supportiveness but doesnt necessarily result to an also above average relationship quality
according to emotional well-being. Therefore, findings represent that high level of relationship
quality can also predict high level of marital commitment but high level of relationship quality
according to supportiveness cant predict an equal high level of relationship quality according to
emotional well-being. The existence of levels of marital commitment and relationship quality in
couples has a strong relationship while relationship quality according to emotional well-being and
relationship quality according to supportiveness also exhibits moderate relationship with marital
commitment.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are based on the results of the study and conclusions
drawn: the researcher recommends to further develop the study in terms of adding more variables
to correlate with levels of marital commitment or levels of relationship quality and by considering
other factors that may also influence relationship quality. Future researchers are also suggested to
expand this study by getting more respondents from different places and execute the study by also
trying other scales or instruments and if possible researching about using different dimensions.
Others may also implement more studies that involve marital commitment for it to be further used
and to be able to develop new findings about it.
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Learning Diffculties Encountered In The Use Of Learning Management

Systems Among College Students.
Kryshnan Vergara
Fatima Bullecer
Abstract
This study focuses on the learning involvement and learning management
systems among college students. A total of 150 college students were
gathered. A quantitative research design accompanied with Likert-type
survey method was utilized in determining the significance levels between
the variables and their various levels. The results from this study suggest that
there is high significance (F value = 3.26, significant at 0.02) in the number
of subjects where LMS is used and has a significant effect on their
involvement with the LMS program. It reveals that 54.7% (n = 82) of the
respondents are using LMS in their 2-3 subjects in their curriculum, and only
6.7% (n = 10) of the respondents are using LMS in their subjects. In one of
the results of the study yields a weighted mean of 3.33 suggests that students
and instructors find LMS resourceful, and another 3.09 proves that LMS is
accessible at all times and lastly a weighted mean of 3.08 shows that LMS is
convenient for the students and the instructors.
Technology is one of the ways to make our job easier, as our technology advances, the
lesser the difficulty of our job will become. E-learning is one of the ways today to gain knowledge.
Electronic learning or E-learning is the use of internet technologies as a mode of learning or to
enhance the knowledge and performance of the student (Ruiz, Mintzer, & Leipzig, 2006). This
study will discuss a type of e-learning, which is LMS or Learning management system. This study
will discuss the use of Learning Management Systems among college students in Metro Manila.
But first, what is Learning Management System? Learning Management Systems (sometimes
called Course Management Systems) is a software system that helps the teachers or professors in
teaching or giving the required school-related information to their students and, according to
Machado and Tao (2007) they stated that. Learning Management System is a software application
designed with the specific intent of assisting instructors in meeting their pedagogical goals of
delivering learning content to students. LMS typically offer discussion forums, file sharing, and
management of assignments, lesson plans, syllabus and chat to communicate with the professor
and to the other students (Dalsgaard, 2007).
According to the survey conducted by Stockford (2008), 26 percent of those he surveyed
used e-learning, 49 percent had no interest in the application, and 25 percent intended to evaluate
purchasing it in the upcoming year. But after a year, he conducted again a survey and it shows that
39 percent of survey respondents use e-learning, but only 28 percent has no interest in it, and 27
179

percent intend to evaluate e-learning in the next year. According to Dolendo and Lisas (2012) they
stated that e-learning is now gaining more popularity in the academe these days. In the study made
by, Arimbutuyan, Kim, Song, and So (2007) they stated that E-learning is more popular in the
Philippines and University of the Philippines, UST, Ateneo de Manila University, and De La Salle
University spearheaded in incorporating E-learning into the Philippine educational system. With
these information, we could say that e-learning is really growing fast and its in the hands of the
students and professors on how they will cope up with it.
This study targets to explore the students experiences, issues, and difficulties of using LMS to
guide the professors and instructors to know what are their students common problems in using
their LMS. The researcher aims to answer these questions: What are the respondents experience
in using their LMS? What are the positive effects in using their LMS? What are the difficulties
they have encountered in using their LMS? What is the respondents opinion in e-learning? And
what is the effect of the usage of LMS in the respondents subjects in their learning involvement
in the Learning Management System?
This literature will discuss the current status of LMS, the connection of e-learning and
academic performance, advantages and disadvantages of using e-learning, e-learning as a
motivator in learning and technological changes affecting learning experience.
Current status of Learning Management Systems

Today, the usage of Learning Management Systems has improved, many universities
around the world have already implicated LMS in their curriculum. In the study of Almarashdeh,
Sahari, Mat Zin, and Alsmadi (2010), they stated that students, instructors, and administrators have
continued to employ the internet in their educational agendas and the use of e-learning and learning
management system has become a key role in their own practices. The rapid growth of the use of
the internet has not only help create an interest in new information and communication in higher
education but it also guided and affected the ways of people on how they teach and learn today.
(Almarashdeh, et. al., 2010; DaLacey & Leonard, 2002; Radcliffe, 2002). In the survey made by
University System of Georgia, 81.7% of their respondents (professors) are using LMS and those
remaining 18.3% stated that their reason why they are not using LMS is that they dont have
received any adequate training for it. LMS should be more adaptive and customizable in order to
help the users to apply LMS in their own practices, this is to support those users who have different
levels of computer skills. (Almarashdeh et. al., 2010)
E-learning or Electronic Learning and Academic performance
Electronic learning or E-learning is the use of internet technologies as a mode of learning
or to enhance the knowledge and performance of the student. (Ruiz, J.G., Mintzer, M. J., &
Leipzig, R. M., 2006). The great advantages of e-learning includes the efficiency of learning,
product utility, and time efficiency. According to (Ruiz, et. al., 2006) learners using multimedia
180

learning learned more efficiency and demonstrated better retention. Podcasts are an example of elearning, the study of Evans (2008) stated that podcasts as a source of learning is an efficient,
effective and might contribute to a reduction of the students anxiety. Students can use their
podcasts to record and replay the lectures of their professors multiple times so that they can
remember everything that their professor said. Podcasts may also have a significant effect in
enhancing the students learning abilities (Evans, 2008). But, according to Kubey, et. al. (2006),
although e-learning can be helpful, there are concerns that needs to be discussed, long usage of the
internet as a mode of learning may interfere the students academic achievement. Social
interactions and exposure to desirable cultural experiences. This shows that internet dependency
may lead to harmful effects that can interfere the students educational life. In the study of Kubey,
et. al. (2006) originally from Scherer (1997), he stated that excessive internet dependency is
problematic when it results in impaired bad grades and failure to accomplish responsibilities as a
student.
Advantages and disadvantages of online learning
Online learning has a major effect on the learning involvement of the student, it might be
positive or negative effect, and here it will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of online
learning. In the study of Clark and Everhart (2007) stated that the use of internet in learning can
produce higher grades, improve communication skills and improve study skills. Also, in the study
made by Cherif, et. al. (2011) stated that teachers are have a very important role in students using
LMSs. And by that, it can strengthen the relationship between the teacher and the student. The
disadvantage is that, using online technology as a learning tool may cause the students academic
downfall. Some students in California and Israel reported that computer knowledge is associated
with playing computer or interactive games rather than problem solving (Cherif, et. al., 2011; Baek
& Freehling, 2007; Nachmias, Mioduser, & Shemla, 2001). It may cause the student of having low
grades because of having a little knowledge about LMS. If the academic institution wants to use
LMSs, they must teach the system to the college students down to the early grades.
E-learning as a motivator in learning
In the study of Martens, et.al. (2004) stated that it is necessary to gain better knowledge of
the learning material to increase that are developed for motivation. There are many motivational
practices in e-learning for students, like for example, making an online community, and creating a
relevance relationship between the learner and the learning materials. According to Hodges (2004),
originally from Bonk (2002) it stated that relevance is by far the most reported successful
motivator. But without the motivational feedback, relevance wont become a better and successful
motivator. According to Dalsgaard (2006), he stated that, learning materials are considered
resources or tools which the students used to solve their problems. Until the students used these
resources, these resources are not learning materials.
Technological changes affecting the learning experience
According to Laurillard (2004), technological change can affect the learning experience of
the student in certain ways. Surely, we are in a modern world, technology is now an asset to us,
students in gathering the knowledge we need to have. Technology could really transform learning
181

experience into something exciting and efficient to the students, but it could also harm the learning
experience, because in reality, technology controls us. In the study of Shuta and Towle (2003) they
stated that technology has now the capacity to capitalize on the opportunities that is now available
to us. The LMS needs to catch up to the rapid technological advances to become more usable to
the future students that will use this (Cherif, et. al., 2011) The adaptation of the students is
important, because they are the key in improving LMSs or E-learning in the education world. Also,
the teachers must also learn to adapt in this technological changes. According to Kennedy (2005),
he stated that there is a need for teachers to learn the potential of the available technological tools
for the design of learning environments which can support students to engage actively in contentbased learning materials, tasks, and peer learners. Both student and teacher must adapt to this
technological advances to help their own educational practices and agendas to enhance
furthermore.
SYNTHESIS
Learning management systems today are used by universities around the world, but there
are some who are not used to it because they dont have enough training and orientation about it.
LMS should be more customizable and adaptable in order to help those who have low computer
skills to interact and use the LMS. According to Ruiz, et. al. (2006) the use of E-learning has an
advantage to the students like time efficiency, product utility and efficiency in learning, but Kubey,
et. al. (2006) originally from Scherer (1997), E-learning can become a disadvantage when the
student has a high-dependency on it, it can lead them to lower grades and poor performance in
class. E-learning can become a motivator to a student by having a relevant relationship with its
user, and according to Dalsgaard (2006), learning materials are not learning materials until the
students used it. Also, the feedback is important, without it, E-learning cannot become a motivator
to a student. Technological advances can really affect the learning ways of the student, in the study
of Shuta and Towle (2003), they stated that technology has now the capacity to control the learning
strategies in education, it is on the hands of the students to adopt into these changes. Teachers must
also cope up with this technological advancements to help their own educational environment to
develop. (Kennedy, 2005; Bain & McNaught, 1996).
With these literatures, the researcher aims to answer these questions: what are the
respondents experience in using their LMS? What are the positive effects in using their LMS?
What are the difficulties they have encountered in using their LMS? What is the respondents
opinion in e-learning? And what is the effect of the usage of LMS in the respondents subjects in
their learning involvement in the Learning Management System?
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The researcher decided that its best to use Quantitative research design accompanied by
Descriptive method specific to Surveying since this study will utilize a Likert type survey which
will be applied to the participants (students) whom had using LMS in their online course. The
182

outcome of the research will be explain per parts to further strengthen the accuracy of the data
gathered.
Participants
The participants of this study are 150 college students have experienced using their
schools learning management system. Purposive sampling is used to gather the participants that
are using LMS, this will determine if they are essential to the study.
Instrument
The researcher will utilize a self-made questionnaire that is consisted of 15 items and has
positive and negative statements. It is answerable by a 4-point Likert scale that is made of (4)
Strongly Agree, (3) Agree, (2) Disagree and (1) strongly Disagree. The validity of this instrument
was assessed through content validity, pre-testing and revising of the questionnaire.
Procedure
To inform the respondents about the nature of this study, the researcher will include a letter
to the survey to inform them about the survey that the researcher will conduct the confidentiality
is also acknowledge in the given letter. Then, the questionnaires will be given to the respondents
and the researcher will instruct them to answer it honestly. The researcher then will double-check
the survey given. The researcher then will tally the results of the whole survey and analyze the
data gathered through the whole survey using the SPSS version 17. Using this software, it will
help the researcher organize the gathered data in manner of descriptive statistics. Lastly, the
researcher will discuss the results after the data has been measured.
Data Analysis
For the data analysis, the researcher used SPSS v.17 to help organize the gathered data
from the survey in order to get the measures of central tendency and other statistical information
required and interpret it to get the significant information needed.
RESULTS
Table 1 shows the weighted mean, interpretation and the rank of each statement questions.
The table reveals that the general mean is agree which means that majority of the respondents
agreed to the statements in the survey. Statement no. 6 is ranked 1, with a weighted mean of 3.33,
It saves paper by providing a place for my instructors to put handouts online. This is followed
by Statement no. 1, Works when I needed to. with a weighted mean of 3.09. Tied for the third
place are statements no. 12 and 13, It makes it easy to share files among the group; It provides an
open discussion space in each of my subject/s. These statements has a weighted mean of 3.08.
Table 1 - Learning Management Scale
WEIGHTED
MEAN
DESCRIPTIVE STATEMENTS
183
RANK
INTERPRETATION
3.09
1. Works when I needed to.
2
agree
2. My data (grades, files, etc.) is secured.
3.07
agree
3. I can get library resources from it.
2.56
agree
13
4. Wont bog down when many people are using it.
2.37
disagree
14.5
5. Provides me with an online space to store my files.
2.90
agree
10
6. It saves paper by providing a place for my

instructors to put handouts online.
3.33
7. It makes it hard for other students to cheat on tests.
2.37
8. Enables me to attend synchronized discussions

about course materials.
2.88
9. Enables me to attend the fully online subject/s.
2.99
Agree
10. It lets me use video and audio files in my subject/s.
2.71
Agree
12
11. It gives me an access to edit and add files to.
2.95
Agree
12. It makes easy to share files among a group.
3.08
Agree
3.5
13. It provides an open discussion space in each of my

subject/s.
3.08
14. It provides me with an E-portfolio.
3.04
15. It provides tools for peer review of group projects.
2.98
1
agree
disagree
14.5
11
Agree
3.5
Agree
Agree
6
8
Agree
2.89
GRAND MEAN
Agree
Table 2 shows the frequency count and the percentage of the respondents usage of LMS
in their subjects. It reveals that 54.7% of the respondents are using LMS in their 2-3 subjects in
their curriculum, and only 6.7% of the respondents are using LMS in their subjects.
Table 2 - Frequency count and percentage of LMS users in their subjects
Description
Frequency
Percent
1 subject
40
26.7
2-3 aubj
82
54.7
4-5 subj
18
12.0
184
all subj
10
6.7
Total
150
100.0
Table 3 shows that using Two-way Analysis of Variance reveals that based on the F value
3.26, significant at 0.02, the number of subjects where LMS is used and has a significant effect on
their involvement with the LMS program.
Table 3
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: lms
Type III Sum of
Squares
Df
Mean
Square
Sig.
Corrected Model
1.217
.41
3.26
.02
Intercept
681.47
681.47
5481.15
.00
subj
1.22
.41
3.26
.02
Error
18.15
146
.12
Total
1275.08
150
19.37
149
Source
Corrected Total
a. R Squared = .063 (Adjusted R Squared = .044)
DISCUSSION
Positive effects and disadvantages of using Learning Management System
The results shows that the positive effects of using Learning Management System helps
the environment, since theres no need for the professors to print handouts and powerpoints for the
students to use in their studying. Also, the respondents answers reveal that their LMS really works
when they needed to and it is easier to share and upload their files safely, discuss and disperse
important academic and non-academic related topics anytime, attend online class, and gather data
for their research, and it is very practical for disabled and working students because of its
convenience. According to Richardson (2005) cited by Dalsgaard (2006), he stated that Students
will be able to follow each other's work and will have access to each other's networks of people
and references. Social networks also allow teachers to follow and potentially participate in the
work of students.
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The data reveals that the disadvantages of using Learning Management Systems is that the
students can easily cheat when they are answering their school works, because of the freedom it
offers to the students to search for answers online and to copy from each other. The researcher also
discovered that the students cant properly use their LMS when a lot of people are online, their
system crashes down, especially during their schools enrollment and since it is an online system,
the students cant access without an internet connection.
Students experiences and opinions on using Learning Management System
In the survey, it revealed that the students are experiencing less problems in their academic
involvement, because of the convenience they experience in using LMS. One student said that
Make-up classes can be held online whenever classes are suspended, i.e. typhoons. because of
this, the students can send or receive all of their requirements to or from their professors without
going to school. Also, the student-to-professor relationship will improve since they can discuss
their topics and suggestions to each other. But, some of the students revealed that they are
experiencing stress more often because of the deadlines of their requirements given by their
professors since the professors believe that the students can finish it before or on the deadline they
had given knowing the fact that the some of the students have no capacity to avail an internet
connection or a computer of their own. The survey reveals that most of the students wants to have
a good and stable connection for their schools LMS, because their main difficulty the capacity of
their system not to crash and to hold many users as possible.
Effect of the usage of Learning Management System in the students subjects in their learning
involvement in the LMS.
The data shows that there is a significant effect between the number of subjects where the
LMS is used and their involvement in LMS. The majority number of the subjects that the
respondents use LMS is 1-3 subjects, and only few of the respondents use LMS in all of their
subjects. This shows that using LMS can really help a student improve their status in their
academic purposes when it is used only in few subjects, because according to Dalsgaard (2006) he
stated that, E-learning can become a disadvantage when the student has a high-dependency on it,
it can lead them to lower grades and poor performance in class. E-learning can become a motivator
to a student by having a relevant relationship with its user.
Conclusion And Recommendation
This study focuses on the Learning Involvement and use of Learning Management Systems
among college students. A sample of 150 college students are using schools learning management
system. Results from the survey questionnaires suggest that students find elements of learning
management useful and convenient to their academic performance, as shown in Table 1. Students
also used learning management system in 1 to 3 of their subjects, as shown in Table 2. There is a
high significant effect on between students and their involvement with the LMS program in their
subjects, as shown in Table 3. Their learning involvement includes students experiences and
opinions in learning management system, on which, students aim to have a stable connection for
their institutions LMS for the efficiency of their academic performance and school facilities.
Moreover, the study also suggests that their learning involvement has a significant relationship
186

with the number of subjects that Learning Management System is used. The possibility of high
dependency in e-learning can cause a disadvantage to the user in terms of academic performance.
The researcher recommends to explore the other learning styles of the students that
involves e-Learning, how LMS can create an impact on their academic achievements and their
grades. The researcher also recommends to future undergraduates to gather qualitative data in this
topic to describe the nature of the students perception regarding Learning Management System.
187

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189
Relationship of Attention Span and Internet Dependency among Rizal

Experimental Station and Pilot School of Cottage Industries Students
Shanice C. Guevarra
Fatima Bullecer
Abstract
This study focuses on the correlation of internet dependency of a student to
their attention span through Internet Dependency Inventory (IDI) and
Attention Span Inventory (ASI). A total of 100 high school students were
gathered for the first survey. Tallying the scores and multiplying it by 10 was
used to identify the students level of Internet dependency and Attention
while Pearson rs Correlation was used for correlating the two
variables. Results showed that those who have the high level of Internet
Dependency had high level of Attention.
Technology is now mans best friend. Once a simple tool to assist people on finishing their
difficult tasks on time has now become the tool that was used by everyone for their everyday tasks.
Technology is like a tree, it grows & constantly improving, slowly changing into different shapes,
sizes and functions every minute and every eras in the world, either a life saving object, a life
satisfying object or even destructive object. At the end of the day, people would shrug its flaws
and say that its normal because people naturally evolve and so does the objects that were
supposed to aid humanity and lead us to progress, but little do they know that such objects can
manipulate a persons mind and alter a persons day to day tasks that could either lead to something
positive or not.
People nowadays spent their time trying to do a simple task in their lives by depending on
technology to do it for them. People usually use technology as a way to make their jobs easier to
handle. One of those helpful technologies is the computer & the internet, a cyber world full of
possibilities and answers that a person needs for their every question and every task in their lives.
However, people are getting dependent minute by minute on technologies such as the internet
when it comes to their tasks & most of those people who needed that type of technology are mostly
the students. According to the study conducted by Wakefield Research and e-text seller
CourseSmart, most college students rely on technology to get by in the classroom. The results of
the study, which had a 500-student sample size, showed that 73% of students said they would not
be able to study without some form of technology. Furthermore, 38% said they could not go more
than 10 minutes without checking their laptops, smartphones, tablets or e-readers. Usually students
seek help from the internet because of school work & many of them become satisfied on their task
as well as having their self efficacy increase because the internet gave them both productiveness
and entertainment that a book cannot. But due to the increasing Social Networking sites and other
distractors that can get from the internet; it also drastically affects the students academic task
while online.
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Not only Western countries have issues regarding internet dependence but also in other nonWestern countries as well such as the Philippines. Philippines has been nicknamed as the social
networking capital of the world with 93.9% of the countrys population used internet to visit
social networking sites, preferably Facebook and Twitter. Ruel S. De Vera (2011), a contributor
of Philippine Daily Inquirer, has stated in his post that in 2010 population, an estimated 30 million
Filipinos, or some 34 percent, are online, and the number continues to swell. TNS Digital Life
2012 showed that 45 percent of Filipino respondents connected to the Internet compared to 36
percent who listened to radio, 12 percent who read newspapers, and 4 percent magazines.
comScore said the Philippines has the highest social networking usage in the Asia-Pacificregion
with more than 90% of its entire Web population visiting a social networking site during the month
of February 2010, followed by Australia (89.6% penetration) and Indonesia (88.6% penetration).
The reason why Filipinos used internet in a daily basis is because it serves as a quick portal to their
family, friends, entertainment and information.
Technology is a very helpful and productive buddy to aid you in your task and it advances
as part of modern society that cannot be easily taken away from daily part of everyones lives.
Ironically, some parts of technology could also decrease a persons productivity by means of
distraction. Most of these are students who are having difficulties on keeping their attention on
their school work because of the distractors in the internet despite that internet has become one of
the major aids in the field of education.
The study aims at the following questions: (1) what is the attention span of the respondents?
(2) What is the internet dependency of the respondents? (3) Is there a significant relationship
between attention span and internet dependency?
The objective of this research is to provide information regarding the attention span among
internet dependent people especially students.
Attention Span
In the last ten years, ( Judd, 2013; Rosen, Carrier, Cheever, 2013; Paul, Baker, Cochran,
2012; Sana, Weston, Cepeda, 2013; Colom, Molina, Shih, Santacreu, 2010; Kirschner, Karpinski,
2010, Rosen, 2013.) have been focusing on attention span and how internet affects our attention
span during school days and school work. Majority of the study stated that online procrastination
was caused by multitasking during academic task through online that causes the students to get
distracted and thus lowering their attention span towards their work. Judd (2013) who conducted
a survey on 1249 students & stated that sessions including Facebook typically contained shorter
duration tasks and were significantly more likely to include multitasking behavior thus reducing
the focused behavior of the user. Rosen, Carrier, Cheever (2013) made an observation on 263
students & found out that students couldnt resist texting or using social media causing their ontask behavior to decline & only 65% of the time were used on school work. Those who preferred
to task-switch had more distractors and were more off-task. Those who accessed Facebook while
studying had lower grade point averages. Those who used study strategies were more likely to stay
on task. Paul, Baker, Cochran (2012) conducted a survey on business students & stated that people
191

who spent more on Online Social Networking or OSN was found to be heavily influenced by the
attention span of the students, theyve determined that the higher the attention span on important
things, the lower users spent time on OSN. Sana, Weston, Cepeda (2013) has conducted an
experiment on 44 participants & has found out that Learners who multitasked during class had
reduced comprehension of lecture material. Colum, Molina, Shih, Santacreu ( 2010) has
conducted both survey and experimental on 302 applicant & confirmed that the Intelligence and
working memory capacity ( WMC ) are both related to multitasking, but only WMC predicts
multitasking when their simultaneous relationship is considered. Krischner, Karpinski (2010)
made an exploratory survey study among the students and received the results that Facebook users
reported having lower GPAs and spend fewer hours per week studying than nonusers due to the
fact that the students put their attention more on Facebook than their school work.
Internet dependency
In the last ten years, several studies ( Biddix, Chung, Park, 2011; Thatcher, Wretschko,
Fridjhon. 2007; Lin, Tsai, 2003; Yang, Tung, 2007; Nalwa, Anand, 2004) have been focusing on
internet dependency and how it affects school related task performance. Majority of the results
stated that internet dependent students were predicted to have problematic internet use due to
spending a lot more time on non academic related task while doing their homework online. Biddix,
Chung, Park (2011) made a semantic network analysis on 282 college students & got their results,
stated that students esp. internet dependent ones would head to the computer lab first for the
homework rather than doing it with books. Thatcher, Wretschko, Fridjhon (2007) conducted the
PIUQ (Problematic internet use questionnaire and the OCS (Online Cognition Scale) on 1399
internet users & received the results, stated that online procrastination is associated with
problematic internet use that can be seen in both dependent and non dependent users. This causes
multitasking and the risk of lowering their attention span towards their work. Lin, Tsai (2003)
conducted a survey on 753 Taiwanese students & confirmed that dependents spent their time
online than non independents that causes negative internet influence on their day to day task
including their homework. Yang, Tung (2007) conducted a diagnostic questionnaire on 1708
Taiwanese high school students then confirmed that internet dependents perceived the internet
have more negative influences on daily task such as school work and housework. Nalwa, Anand
(2004) conducted the DOCS ( Davis Online Cognition Scale ) & UCLA loneliness scale on 100
students from India & stated that dependents delayed work to spent their time online & when they
do school work through the net, they would get distracted on things that are non school related.
SYNTHESIS
On internet dependence,( Biddix, Chung, Park, 2011; Thatcher, Wretschko, Fridjhon. 2007;
Lin, Tsai, 2003; Yang, Tung, 2007; Nalwa, Anand, 2004) had all common results, stating that
internet dependents would spent their time doing something non-related academic work more than
academic work that leads to procrastination & multitasking that affects attention span.
On attention span, the majority of the studies who possess this variable had a positive result
that reduction of the attention span of a user affects their task performance. ( Judd, 2013; Rosen,
Carrier, Cheever, 2013; Paul, Baker, Cochran, 2012; Sana, Weston, Cepeda, 2013; Colom, Molina,
Shih, Santacreu, 2010; Kirschner, Karpinski, 2010, Rosen, 2013 ) Had all common results stated
192

that people procrastinate by multitasking, shifting from their task to non-task related factors that
reduce their attention span on their priority task. Most of those factors are OSN or Online Social
Networking. One common belief is that the typical students attention span is about 10 to 15
minutes long. This belief has been reinforced in numerous books and articles on teaching.
However, Wilson and Korn (2007) found no evidence to support this belief. Wilson and Korn
found that most were based on remarkably imprecise studies of attention.
All of the variables have been neatly categorized to see which side takes the majority of the
results. It was shown in the internet dependent variable that technology, specifically the internet,
lowers the students attention span on their task and therefore resulting to multitasking. Most of
the subjects that were involved in most related review literatures were range from high school to
college students due to the fact that adolescents used internet for both productive and leisure
activities, thus making the adolescents the most prone to internet dependency. In the attention span,
it is shown that users, specifically the students, get distracted from OSNs and would usually do
multitasking that would lead to shifting their attention on non task related things.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
Descriptive Correlational Research design was used in the study because it is to create a
snapshot of the current state of affairs while assessing the relationships between and among two
or more variables (Stangor, C. 2011) The researcher is trying to find any correlation between the
students internet dependency, which is an increasing current issue in the midst of ongoing
development of modern technology, and their attention span towards their academic work. It was
done through a survey in order to measure the levels of internet dependency and attention span.
Participant description
The participants were high school students from RESPSCI School in Las Pinas within the
age range of 13 to 20 because the respondents who answered the survey were 13 to 20 years old.
In the 1st survey, which is the IDI, the needed number of sample was 100 respondents. There were
no specific high school year/level in order to get participants. Any student from 13 years old to 20
years old high school students from RESPSCI can participate.
Instruments
There are two scales used in this research, the Internet Dependency Inventory or IDI and
Attention Span Inventory or ASI. Both scales were self made. The 1st scale measures the level of
Internet Dependence of a person in terms of school-related task and using internet as the aiding
tool for that task. The 2nd scale measures the levels of Attention in terms of doing a specific task.
Both of the inventories are 4 point likert scale with 1 as Never, 2 as Sometimes, 3 as Often and 4
as Always. 1 and 2 are considered as lowest while 3 and 4 were considered as highest. The
questionnaires are for students and their academic related tasks only.
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The first scale is a 10-item 4 point likert scale with all items positively responds to the levels
of Internet Dependency of a student. Since majority of the study regarding Internet dependence
are focus more on students, the questionnaire was designed to know how much dependent the
students are when it comes to using internet for their aid in academic-related task. One of the
questions in the scale are: Its easy to learn from the internet than in books, I rely on the
internet for my daily academic task, I spend more time in the internet than in books when I
have an academic task.
The second scale is a 10 item 4 point likert scale with all items positively responds to the
levels of Attention of a student. Since majority of study regarding Attention Span focus on the
multitasking of the people while doing their tasks that is said to reduce the concentration towards
their task and reduce the quality of their work. The questionnaire focuses on how much people are
distracted while doing their task. One of the questions in the scale are: I visit other websites
while doing my assignment, I catch myself daydreaming while at work, I do both unrelated
and related academic task (multitasking).
The Attention Span Inventory does not measure the length of the attention span of the
respondent but rather measures the level of the attention of the person if whether the persons
attention is easily distracted/diverted from his/her priority work while using the internet. The
higher the answers in the ASI the lower their attention span.
The scoring of both scales was done in MS Excel by tallying the answers of each participant
to obtain each total score and multiply it by 10, thus creating levels for each inventory depending
on the range of scores. The scores were ranged from No Level (1-10), Low (11-20), Moderate (2130) and High (31-40).
In order to find the correlation of the two variables, Pearson rs Correlation is done in SPSS.
Pilot testing
The researcher had conducted the pilot testing among 20 high school students ( 10 female
and 10 male ) partially from Rizal Experimental Station and Pilot School for Cottage Industries or
RESPSCI Las Pinas extension and the rest of the 20 is from random sampling on any random
High school students in Las Pinas city so that the researcher will be able to get the reliability and
the validity of the said tests. The researcher had found that both test are valid and reliable as it was
above the .7 average of Cronbach alpha by using SPSS. The validation was confirmed by Sir
Rodelando Ocampo.
Procedure
First the researcher had conducted the self made inventories, which are the internet
dependency inventory (IDI) to a sample of 100 random high school students to measure their
internet dependency. Once it was finished, the researcher tallied the scores in MS Excel and
multiply it by 10 to find which students have high, moderate, low and very low of internet
dependency. Same procedure was done on the Attention span Inventory (ASI).
194
After that, in order to correlate the two variables, the researcher used the Pearson rs
Correlation in order to find if there is any significant correlation between the two.
Data Analysis
All tabulated scores from the different scales were analyzed using Excel while Pearson rs
Correlation was done in SPSS.
RESULTS
Attention Span Inventory
Level of Attention
High
(Prone
to
Male
Percentage
(%)
Female
Percentage
(%)
Total
3.38%
7.33%
11
18.6%
12.2%
16
0%
2.44%
13
21.98%
21.97%
22
diversion)
Moderate
(Moderately prone)
Low (Barely to none

prone)
Total:
This table shows the internet dependent students levels of attention and how many they are
according to the levels. The number of the population (N) of the boys is 13 with a score range from
27 to 31 while girls are only 9, in terms of population, and has a score range of 20 to 31. The scores
were ranged from No dependency (1-10), Low (11-20), Moderate (21-30) and High (31-40). Only
2 male students got a high level with both scores of 31, 11 male students got a moderate level with
a score range of 27-30 and there are no male student who has a low. Only 3 female students got a
high level with a score 31, 5 female students got moderate level with a score range of 21-30 and
only 1 female student got a low level with a score of 20.
Internet Dependency Inventory
Level of Internet
Dependency
Male
High
13
Percentage
(%)
22.4%
Female
9
195
Percentage
(%)
Total
21.4%
22

Moderate
45
77.6%
29
69.0%
74
Low
0%
9.52%
Total:
58
100%
42
99.92%
100
This table shows the students levels of internet dependency and how many they are according
to the levels. The number of the population (N) of the boys is 58 with a score range from 20 to 35
while girls are 42, in terms of population, and has a score range of 20 to 32. The scores were ranged
from No dependency (1-10), Low (11-20), Moderate (21-30) and High (31-40). Only 13 male
students got a high level of internet dependency with a score range of 31-35, 45 male students got
a moderate level of internet dependency with a score range of 21-30. There are no male students
that are low in internet dependency. Meanwhile in female students, only 9 got a high level of
dependency with a score range of 31-32, 29 female students got moderate level with a score range
of 21-30 and 4 female student got a low dependency who evenly got scores of 17 and 20. Those
who got high level of internet dependency were proceed to take the ASI or Attention Span
Inventory to know how much are they distracted on non-related academic work websites.
Pearson rs Correlation
Correlations
A.S
Pearson Correlation
A.S
Sig. (2-tailed)
.408
.059
I.D
I.D
22
22
Pearson Correlation
.408
Sig. (2-tailed)
.059
22
22
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).

This table shows that the Pearson correlation value of both variables is .408 where both
variables have strong positive correlation, meaning students who are highly internet dependent are
also prone in getting easily distracted when it comes to non-related academic work sites while
doing their homework with the help of the internet. The Significant value of both variables is .059,
which is equal to .05, meaning the increase and decrease of one variable (Internet dependency)
may affect the other variable (Attention Span) as well.
Discussion
Internet Dependence and Attention Span
196

As it was shown in the Pearson rs Correlation table, both variables have strong positive
correlation. Majority of the students who have the high and moderate level in Internet Dependency
were found to have the most 3s (which is Often) and 4s (which is Always) in the 4 point likert
scale of Attention Span Inventory which is considered to be a proof enough that people who are
dependent on the internet had the tendency to procrastinate and get distracted (Lin, Tsai. 2003)
and (Nalwa, Anand. 2004). It means that those who are dependent in the internet for their daily
academic task were also easily distracted towards the non-related academic factors within the
internet since internet is uncontrollably the place of all facts and funs (Yang, Tung. 2007) that
keeps our mind in a more relaxing and enjoyable state that most of the participants cannot resist
Rosen, Carrier, Cheever (2013). The participants also stated that their inability to keep their focus
towards their work would result to poor quality of their output as well as having low grades
(Krischner, Karpinski. 2010). From ASI results, the participants are prone to multitasking that
affected their output and the time spent towards their task. (Thatcher, Wretschko, Fridjhon.
2007)
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were made: Internet
Dependency is correlated with the students decreasing of attention span on their academic work.
The more students are depending on the internet for academic work, the more they are prone at
getting distracted from their work because of non-related academic work websites such as
Youtube, Facebook, Tumblr, Twitter etc. Since both variables are also statistically significant, it
may suggest that increasing and decreasing of the levels of internet dependency may affect the
levels of attention of a person as well.
The researcher recommends that it needs more research and further study regarding this
topic. The researcher also suggests that the study needs more exploration in a society that isnt
Western-centered such as here in the Philippines.
197

REFERENCES
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online. The internet and higher education. (Volume 14, Issue 3, pp.175-182).
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and internet procrastination. Computers in human behavior. (Volume 24, Issue 5, pp.22362254)
S. Lin, C. Tsai. (2003). Sensation seeking and internet dependence of Taiwanese high school
adolescents. Computers in human behavior. (Volume 18, Issue 4, pp. 411-426)
S. Yang, C. Tung. (2007). Comparison of Internet addicts & non-addicts in Taiwanese high school.
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(Volume 70, pp. 194-202)
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task-switching while studying. Computers in Human behavior. (Volume 29, Issue 3, pp. 948-958)
J. Paul, H. Baker, J. Cochran (2012). Effects of online social networking on student academic
performance. Computers in human behavior. (Volume 28, Issue 6, pp. 2117- 2127).
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users and nearby peers. Computer and education. (Volume 62, pp 24-31)
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198

ABS-CBN news (2010). Filipino internet users most engaged in social media: survey. Retrieved
on April 20, 2010 from http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/lifestyle/04/08/10/filipino-internetusers-most-engaged-social-media-surv
199
Effectiveness of Expressive Writing and Instrumental Music in Reducing

Stress among Children Experiencing Role Reversal
Crizelda Angeli B. Nicolas
Rodelando Ocampo
Abstract
This study focuses on reducing the stress of children experiencing Role
reversal through expressive writing and instrumental music. A total of 30
participants (n=30) were gathered for the experiment using the combined
purposive random sampling. A Quasi-experimental design was used to
determine whether the said intervention has taken effect on the participants.
Results showed that there is a significant difference between the pretest and
posttest results of both control (n=15) and experimental group (n=15),
however, results of the experimental group have a huge difference compared
to the control group. Findings also showed that expressive writing and
instrumental music is effective in reducing stress among children
experiencing Role reversal.
Stress is part of our lives, from family to work and in our relationships; stress is simply a
fact of human nature. The American Psychological Association (APA, 2010) states that, stress is
becoming a public health crisis, such that a part of this stress is coming both from work and
family. Lantz, House, Mero and Williams (2005) added that adolescents and adults who
experience stress, can be prone to many emotional and health problems.
A research about Asians by Chao and Tseng (2003) showed stress, together with family,
education, work achievement and religion have a great influence in their lifestyle. In Japan, stress
in overworking (also known as Karoshi) results in brain, heart diseases, and can also lead into
committing suicide (Iwasaki, Takahashi, and Nakata, 2006). Academic stress have also a great
impact on the lives of Asians, which arises from family and others expectations (Huan, See, Ang
and Wan Har, 2008). In the Philippines, stressful life events is correlated to higher rates of violence
and Drug abuse among Filipinos (Baker, Hishinuma, Chang and Nixon,2010) and job related
stress can hugely affect a persons health (Castro, Gee and Takeuchi, 2008). Family is also a main
source of stress, because Filipinos are more family oriented compared to other countries;
relatives always offer a helping hand, working abroad for the sake of their family which in effect
children take responsibilities at an early age, making their lives stressful because of its obligations.
This Role Reversal function in particular is an experience that brings about stress among children
of OFW (Reyes, 2008). He further added that, it is a common experience by the eldest child in the
family and it involves taking on their OFW parents responsibilities, like household chores and
taking care of their younger siblings, which in effect interferes with their academic tasks and
leisure activities. Worst among the aspects of role reversal is the erratic adjustments made when
200

the OFW parent comes home, wherein they go back to being a child again; a situation that test
their flexibility with regards to taking responsibility.
With OFW workers increasing every year (as of September 2013, the estimated number of
OFW workers are 2.3 million), so does the left behind children. It is important that stress coming
from Role Reversal and how it can be reduced should be addressed, since stress can lead to poor
health outcomes (Lantz, House, Mero and Williams, 2005) and poor performance (Lepine and
Podsakoff).
Current trends in Role reversal mentioned in the study of Reyes (2008) showed that,
children took on their OFW parents responsibilities and have difficulties in adjustment when their
OFW parent comes home. Additionally, children face household works such as taking care of their
younger siblings when their parents go abroad (Karlsson and Ruuth, 2012; and Maruja and Asis,
2003) and these children stopped from going to school because of too much responsibilities in
their home (Asis and Marave,2013). Trends in reducing stress have also been addressed in the
studies of Keen (2008) and Campbell, Conell and Beegle (2007), music is proven to be helpful in
reducing stress while for the studies of Gortner (2006) and Slatcher and Baker (2006) shows that,
expressive writing have many health benefits. The study of Baike and Wilheim (2005) shows that
writing about stressful events can improve ones health, and can also reduce stress.
To aid the individuals who were always confronted by stressful experiences brought about
by role reversal, the current study aimed to know whether a combination of an instrumental music
and expressive writing is an effective intervention in reducing stress among individuals who
experiences Role reversal. To address the research objective, the study answered the following
questions. (1) What is the control and experimental groups level of stress considering the pretest
and posttest results? (2) Is there any significant difference between the control and experimental
groups pretest and posttest results? (3) Is there a significant difference between the control groups
level of stress considering the pretest and posttest result (4) is there a significant difference between
the experimental groups level of stress considering their pretest and posttest result?
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE.

Expressive writing
A study done by Burton and King (2004), showed that writing positive experiences leads
to an enhanced positive mood and other psychological benefits. For Slatcher and Baker (2006),
after conducting an experiment on 86 dating couples, participants who wrote about their
relationship were more likely to still be dating their romantic partners, and that expressive writing
has a great contribution in relationship stability. In the study of Baike and Wilheim (2005), writing
about traumatic, stressful, or emotional events have been found to improve ones health. For the
study of Gortner (2006), expressive writing can reduce depression symptoms.
Instrumental music.
Labbe, Schmidt and Babin (2007) stated that, listening to classical music and self selected
music can reduce stress; an argument supported by the study of Lee (2011) which shows that, slow
instrumental music may improve behavior, time on task, speed of problem completion, and/or
201

increase accuracy in reading and math. Additionally, results of the study conducted by Chan,
Wong and Thayala (2011) shows that, piano and jazz instrumental music can reduce depressive
and stress symptoms, while the study of Fitzpatrick (2006) indicates that, instrumental music
increases ones performance in test. The study of Schlaug, Norton, Overy and Winner (2005) on
the other hand found that, instrumental music training in children results in long term enhancement
of visual-spatial and mathematical performance.
Music, in general appears to have many Psychological benefits. According to a study made
by Campbell, Conell and Beegle (2007), Music has positive emotional benefits while for the study
of Maratos, Gold, Wang and Crawford (2008), music therapy can reduce depression. Keen (2008)
also stated in his study that music have proven to be useful in reaching the child facilitating self
expression and projecting personal thoughts and feelings into a discussion which can reduce stress.
Moreover, he added that music also reduce tension and anxiety.
Stress
Based on the results of the study made by Lantz, House, Mero and Williams (2005),
exposure to stress and negative life events is related to poor health outcomes, while the study of
Lepine and Podsakoff (2005) states that, hindrance stressors in life has a negative effect on ones
performance.
Turner and Avison (2003) mentioned in their study that status differences in exposure to
stress vary considerably by the measure of stress that is employed while for the study of Gager,
Sanchez and Demaris (2009), states that parents work and family stress are one of the factors that
elevate childrens houseworks. The results of the study made by Caspi, Sugden, Moffit, Taylor,
Craig and Harrington (2003), found that a functional polymorphism in the promoter region of the
serotonin transporter gene moderate the influence of stressful life events on depression.
Role reversal
According to the study made by Reyes (2008) ,some of the typical problems faced by the
children are : Role reversal or when children took on adult responsibilities of their overseas parent
at a young age and having difficulties in adjusting when their OFW parent comes home, they are
back to being the child figure. This is also same for the study of Karlsson and Ruuth (2012), the
children also have difficulties in facing new responsibilities, such as household chores and taking
care of their younger siblings. Cortes (2011) mentioned in her study that female children of migrant
mothers face household work, while the male children in market work.
Maruja and Asis (2003) stated that left behind children are perceived to bear the brunt of
the social costs of migration. Left behind children bear the role of the overseas parent, and the
eldest child (especially females) face household works. Asis and Marave(2013) also supports this
study; the children stopped going to school because of too much responsibilities in their homes;
taking care of their siblings, facing market work with the present parent and other home errands.
202

SYNTHESIS
Role reversal has been known to be one of the stressors experienced by left behind children in the
following studies (Reyes, 2008; Karlsson and Ruuth, 2012; Cortes, 2011, Maruja and Asis, 2003
and Asis and Marave, 2013), however, no intervention is performed to reduce its stress experienced
by the left behind children.
Studies mentioned in music (Campbell, Conell and Beegle,2007 ; Maratos, Gold, Wang
and Crawford,2008; Labbe, Schmidt and Babin,2007; Lee,2011; Chan,Wong and Thayala,2011;
Fitzpatrick,2006; Schlaug, Norton, Overy and Winner,2005 and Keen,2008) focused only on
instrumental music and its effect on stress, while the studies of Burton and King (2004), Slatcher
and Baker (2006), Baike and Wilheim (2005) and Gortner(2006), only focused on expressive
writing, without music.
There must be a study or an intervention that will have the combination of instrumental
music and expressive writing as a helpful intervention in reducing stress among children of OFW
workers who experience role reversal.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
Quasi- experimental design is the appropriate research method for this study. The Quasi
experimental design is used to determine whether the intervention (instrumental music and
expressive writing) has taken the intended effect on the participants, while the quantitative method
was used for the statistical survey and interpretation of results.
Participants
A total of 70 respondents were gathered for the survey within Molino, Bacoor Cavite. The
respondents were children of OFW workers, with either a father or a mother working abroad, ages
14-17 and the eldest child in their family. A purposive sampling technique was conducted to gather
the needed respondents for the study.
For the experiment, 30 respondents were chosen out of the 70 who took the survey. The
criteria of choosing were based on the results of their survey.
Instruments
DASS-21: Depression, Anxiety and Stress scale.
This study only used a stress scale; Depression Anxiety Stress Scale 21, the shortened
version of the original DASS 42 items (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). It is designed to assess
Depression, Anxiety and Stress; difficulty relaxing, nervous arousal, and being easily
upset/agitated, irritable/over-reactive and impatient. The scales are divided into three subscales,
which are: Depression, Anxiety, and Stress scale. The DASS-21 has 7 items per scale (21 over
all). The DASS-21 was found to be reliable, indicating a good internal consistency in each
203

subscale. Its last revision was July 2013, which is appropriate for individuals ages14 and above
(Psychology Foundation of Australia, 2002). Using a 4-point likert scale from 0 (Did not apply
to me at all) to 3 (Applied to me very much, or most of the time), DASS-21 gained a Cronbach
alpha of 0.82; while the DASS-21 subscales obtained the following Cronbachs alphas: .92 for
depression, .90 for stress and .86 for anxiety (Vignola & Tucci, 2013).
For the survey, the whole DASS-21(see appendix) would be administered, and for the
experiment (the pretest and post test) only the stress scale would be used. A survey of stress and
wellbeing in Australia used the DASS-21 stress scale as one of its measures (Casey, 2013), and a
subscale (either Depression, Anxiety or Stress) can be also administered as long as it is used in
research, both clinical and non-clinical samples (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). DASS-21 is
scored by summing the scores for each scale (the study only focused on the stress scale) and
multiplied the total by two in order to be equal in the scoring of the original DASS, which is
composed of 42 items.
Additional Family Questionnaire. The additional family questionnaire (see appendix) is
composed of 9 items, with two scales: Family and Role reversal. Its Cronbach Alpha is .714. Items
on this questionnaire were rated on a Likert type scale, from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly
agree). This instrument is used to identify if the stress from DASS-21 comes from role reversal.
The family scale consists of 4 items while the role reversal scale consists of 5. It is scored by
summing each scale and the participant who has the highest score in role reversal than the family
scale would be the one to join the experiment, or the one who have the same total for each scale.
Procedures
The study conducted first the survey with the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS -21)
and additional family questionnaire .Its purpose was to measure the stress experienced by the
participant in their family and if that stress came from role reversal. After the survey, a sample of
30 participants who has the highest or moderate level of stress on Role reversal were chosen for
the experiment. Parental consent of the chosen participants were also given, after explaining to
them the procedures of the experiment. Letter of permission was also given to the President of
Homeowners Association in a subdivision in Molino, to use one of the function rooms in the
clubhouse where the experiment was conducted.
The 30 participants were divided randomly into two groups (15 participants for each
group), one for experimental and one for control. The intervention happened in 3 Saturdays (for
both groups), and the activity lasted only for 30 minutes.
For the experimental group, the intervention took place in a closed air-conditioned room,
to avoid extraneous variables (outside noise, heat, etc). Before the activity, DASS-21 stress scale
was given to them for the pre test.
After they filled out their DASS-21, the following directions were given to the participants:
Only your ball pen and the paper given to you would be on your desk, and gadgets must be turned
off. For 3 sessions, write about your thoughts and feelings about the most stressful things you had
204

experienced with your family for 30 minutes. The experience that you will write may be currently
happening or in the past. Your writing will be kept completely confidential. Dont worry about
your spelling, sentence structure or grammar.
After the instructions were given, the intervention began. While they were writing, a
random instrumental music (consists of jazz, classical and slow) was played in the background
using an mp4 and a loud speaker for 30 minutes. For the post test, DASS-21 stress scale was given
to them again after the intervention, to see if the said experiment was effective.
For the control group, DASS-21 stress scale was also given to them for the pre test. The
experiment also took in the same place and same time as the experimental group, however, no
music or writing were given them; instead they just stayed in the room and did nothing for 30
minutes. After the activity, DASS-21 stress scale was given to them, for the post test.
After the experiment in both groups, data of the experiment were collected, and the essays
were kept confidential. The data in the pretest and posttest were used in data analysis and results.
Data Analysis
The study used an Independent Sample T-test for the interpretation and analysis of the data
gathered to compare the stress level of the experimental group and the control group, and if the
intervention had taken effect on the participants. Microsoft Excel is used in encoding the results,
and SPSS for the Descriptive Statistics (mean and standard deviation) and T- test.
RESULTS
Participants level of stress: Pretest and Posttest results. The data presented by Table 1
below showed the participants level of stress before and after the intervention, based on the
DASS-21 stress scale (see appendix).
Table 1 Level of Stress: Pretest Posttest
N
Mean
SD
Control group
15
1.7048
.20616
Experimental group
15
1.5967
.14497
Control group
15
1.5905
.12828
Experimental group
15
1.0602
.14669
Pr Pretest
Po Posttest
With a sample of n=15, the pretest mean of the control group has a mean average of
1.7048 with a standard deviation of .20616, which falls on the mild to moderate level of stress,
205

while the pretest mean of the experimental group has a mean average of 1.5967 with a standard
deviation of .14497, which also implies a mild to moderate level of stress; signifying that both
group are at similar ground .
The posttest mean of the control group has a mean average of 1.5905 with a standard
deviation of .14497, which still shows a mild to moderate level of stress. On the other hand, the
posttest mean of the experimental group has a mean average of 1.0602 with a standard deviation
of .14669, which has an interpretation of normal level of stress; lower than that of the control
group.
Difference between the control and experimental group: Pretest and Posttest results.
Presented below by Table 2 is the comparative test of mean difference between the control and
experimental groups in terms of their pretest and posttest scores.
Table 2: Difference between control and experimental groups pre-test and posttest
Group: Control and Experimental
Pretest
Posttest
df
1.660
28
.108
.10800
28
.000
.53033
10.537
Sig. (2-tailed)
Mean difference
Table 2 presents a mean difference of .10800, considering the control and experimental
groups pretest results with a t-value of 1.660, and a p-value of .108. The results imply that the
mean difference of level of stress between the control and experimental groups pre-test is not
significant, because .108 is greater than 0.05 (significance level). Results showed that there is no
significant difference between the control and experimental groups pre-test result, which means
that there is homogeneity in the level of stress among participants in the control and experimental
group is the same during the pretest period.
Further, Table 2 also shows a mean difference of .53033, considering the control and
experimental groups post test results with a t-value of 10.537, and a p-value of .000. The results
imply that the mean difference of level of stress between control and experimental groups post
test scores is significant at 0.00 level, which indicates that there is a significant difference
between the control and experimental groups post test scores. It was also evident in the results
that the level of stress of the participants in the experimental group has decreased significantly
compared to the control group (see also tables 4 and 5).
Control Groups comparative result in terms of the pretest and posttest results. Table
3 below shows the difference between the control groups level of stress during their pretest
and posttest results.
206
Table 3 Mean Difference: Control Group
Pair 1
Mean pretest- Mean posttest
x diff.
Std. Devtn
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
.11429
.14820
2.987
14
.010
Table 3 presents a mean difference of 0.11429, considering the pre-test and post test results with
a t-value of 2.987, and a p-value of 0.10. These results imply that the mean difference between the
participants level of stress considering the two period of stress assessments was significant at 0.01
level. It indicates that there is a significant difference between the pre-test and post test results
of the control group, which means that there was a decline in the level of stress of the participants
after the experiment.
Experimental Groups comparative result in terms of the pretest and posttest results. Table
4 below shows the difference between the experimental groups level of stress during their
pretest and posttest results.
Mean Difference: Experimental group
Pair 2
Mean pretest- Mean post test
x diff.
Std. Devtn
df
Sig.(2-tailed)
.53653
.10856
19.142
14
.000
Table 4 shows the value of the mean difference is .53653 based on their pre-test and post test
scores with a t-value of 19.142, and a p-value of .000. The scores imply that the mean difference
between the participants levels of stress considering the two period of stress assessments was
significant at 0.00 level. The result indicates that there is a significant difference between the
pre-test and post -test results of the experimental group, which means that the stress of the
participants decreased after the intervention.
DISCUSSION
Pretest results shows that both control and experimental group have the same level of stress
(mild to moderate), implying that both groups were stressed in the same manner before the
intervention. Moreover, the post test results indicate that both groups level of stress decreased
after the span of the intervention; the experimental groups level of stress was reduced to the
normal level (the lowest as interpreted by DASS 21), while the control groups level of stress
was still within the mild to moderate level of stress.
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Based on the pre test scores, it shows that there is no significant difference between the the
control and experimental group, which means that there is homegeneity among the level of stress
of the participants and that they are stressed in the same manner before the intervention happened.
For the post test, there is a significant difference between the mean scores of the control and
experimental group, because the level of stress of the experimental group is lower compared to the
control group. One reason for this is because, the experimental group received the intervention
while the control group did not.
In the control groups level of stress, it shows that there was a significant difference
between the pre-test and post test scores of the control group even though no intervention had been
performed on them; however it could be noticed that the difference is not that high compared to
the experimental group. One reason would be, the control group is not fully controlled. Although
they are instructed to do nothing for 30 minutes, majority of the participants took out their
smartphones and began playing with them, some are texting. The rest either took a nap or had a
small conversation with another participant. It can be inferred that smartphones is the reason why
2 to 3 participants of the control group out of 15 had a decline in their level of stress. A study by
Dennis and Toole (2014) supports this, smartphone apps such as games is an effective way to
reduce anxiety and stress. For those who took a nap, Brindle and Conklin (2012) suggested that
taking a nap can lead to positive cardiovascular system, thus calming the nerves of the person.
It was evident in the experimental groups level of stress during the two periods that the
intervention has taken effect on the participants, because there was a significant difference between
the pre-test and post test scores, and the level of stress is reduced on a normal level after the
intervention. One reason for this would be; instrumental music and expressive writing are both
performed, knowing that in the past studies, these two variables (individually applied) were known
to reduce stress and other negative symptoms. Music is known to be a helpful therapy among
clinical settings in reducing depression (Maratos, Gold, Wang and Crawford,2008) and music is
known to be a helpful instrument in projecting someones thoughts that can reduce stress (
Keen,2008).Instrumental music, such as piano and jazz, can reduce stress symptoms(Chan, Wong
and Thayala,2011) and classical instrumental music is also known to relax the mind, which could
be a helpful therapy among individuals (Labbe, Schmidt and Babin,2007). Writing about stressful
events is also a helpful coping mechanism, since it helps you come to terms with them, thus
reducing the impact of these stressors to your health (Baike and Wilheim, 2005). Another reason
would be potential extraneous variables such as heat and noise is avoided for the success of the
intervention.
Conclusion and Recommendation
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were made: Instrumental
music and Expressive writing is effective in reducing stress among children experiencing role
reversal. Results also showed that the stress of the participants who have experienced the
intervention have decreased significantly because, indicating that, instrumental music and
expressive writing combined can effectively reduce stress. It was also shown in the findings that
the control groups level of stress is reduced, because of circumstances that the experimenter did
not controlled.
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The researcher recommends the following (1) the control group must be totally
controlled, meaning the participants must follow the instruction not to do anything for 30 minutes.
A suggested way here is that participants must not bring anything while taking the experiment so
no distractions would happen (smartphones, other gadgets, etc) and they must not take a nap nor
talk to someone inside the room (2) Instrumental music and expressive writing must be applied
separately for the experiment; like for example, for the first 15 minutes only instrumental music
would be applied, then the next 15 minutes would be expressive writing only. In this way it can be
defined what really caused the decline of the level of stress among the participants (3) Future
researchers on this study should also gather participants outside Molino, Bacoor Cavite and
perform other intervention ( art, etc) or other types of music aside from instrumental in order to
help the children relax from the stress they experience due to Role reversal (4) It is also suggested
that future researchers should use the other scales in the DASS-21 (Depression and anxiety) or
combining all the scales. Furthermore, the researcher also recommends this study to be used in
therapies for children of OFW workers experiencing Role reversal.
209

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Effectiveness of Gawad Kalinga SAGIP and Childrens

Aggressive Behavior
Edsha Xyra Magbanua
Juli-ann Alonso
Abstract
This study focuses on the aggressive behavior of the SAGIP members and
SAGIP non-members. It also wants to determine the effectiveness of Gawad
Kalinga SAGIP program. A total of 30 participants (15= SAGIP members;
15= SAGIP non-members) from a Gawad Kalinga site in Cavite were
gathered. Quasi experimental research method was used in determining the
effectiveness of the said program. Findings reveal that the aggressive
behavior of the SAGIP non-members decreased after joining the SAGIP
program; hence the Gawad Kalinga SAGIP program is effective. Based on
the findings, the aggressive behavior of SAGIP members differ from the
SAGIP non-members.
There have been a considerable number of aggression definitions advanced over the years
(Parrott & Giancola, 2007). One of the more recent definitions put forward by a number of theorists
is any behaviour directed toward another individual that is carried out with the immediate intent
to cause harm [and that] the perpetrator must believe that the behaviour will harm the target and
that the target is motivated to avoid the behaviour (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). This definition
does not include either accidental harm or harm with a prosocial intent. Nor does it specify the
exact form of the harm, as such covering indirect forms of aggression where the harm will be
psychological rather than physical.
Developmental psychology will use the term aggression, whereas psychiatry tends to
employ conduct disorder, and sociology uses delinquency. The term aggression will be used
and is intended to refer to a behaviour that is aimed at harming or injuring another person or
persons (Dodge, Coie, & Lynam, 2006; Parke & Slaby, 1983). Aggression is a normal and highly
frequent behavior in developing children. Healthy aspects of aggression facilitate competence in
social assertiveness, competition in games, and success in meeting daily challenges. Infants can
recognize facial configurations associated with the expression of anger in adults at 3 months of
age. It is clear that frequent exposure to aggressive people may involve any individual in aggressive
episodes, and the presence of aggressive models increases the likelihood of imitation. Aspects of
personality, such as impulsiveness, hostility and fearfulness, may act as moderators of aggressive
behaviour (Felson & Tedeschi 1993)
Gawad Kalinga aims to help children from depressed areas like Manila, Caloocan, Quezon
City and Pasay City to restore in dignity as children of God, whose minds, spirit, and dreams are
213

fulfilled. Gawad Kalinga programs such as SAGIP and SIBOL serves as a venue to restore the
dignity of pre-teen children (aged 7-13 years) especially they are in the stage where in. Children
at this stage can be helped through reversing their wrong values and bad habits. To heal their pain
and brokenness and alleviate their anger against their families and society. Children in slum areas
need to be motivated for them succeed in their dreams. And Gawad Kalinga helps this children to
develop their skills and talents.
Children living in Gawad Kalinga once belonged to those youths doing wrong deeds. These
children are those who are aggressive enough to have the potential to harm other people someday
especially when they are not given the opportunity to change. They were known for having
aggressive and violent behavior. Presently, the path of being scoundrels and criminals are already
laid before them in their lifestyle. But as impressionable children, the process can be reversed. And
the SAGIP program aims to give these children their new identity, a new sense of dignity and a
new perspective of life and a new hope. Giving them alternative peer group for them to build
healthy relationships having the same values and ideals. These program also helps motivate them
to live a life with a purpose and to reach their goal of becoming productive individuals. The
children are young enough to learn new values about life, respect for property and honesty. These
children, if they become criminals will eventually victimize even people outside their community.
Helping them change is not only for their benefit but also for the safety and protection of those
who help them from outside through SAGIP. With the SAGIP program's early intervention, these
young and future criminals who eventually victimize even people outside their community will be
transformed into productive individuals of society.
Living with persistent poverty is toxic for one's psychological health. Gawad Kalinga
together with the Catholic community Couples for Christ held a Youth Camp for gang members
and juvenile delinquents somewhere in Caloocan, known for having the largest slum area in the
Philippines. Originally formed to help youth gang members and juvenile delinquents, Gawad
Kalinga has evolved to include volunteers that build sturdy homes, coordinate with local
governments for disaster relief plans, and educate people about starting businesses. As Gawad
Kalinga communities expand and hopes to help more delinquent youth to nurture and develop
through an age-specific, values-based program that helps them reach their fullest potential.
Childrens physical aggression is often used as the flagship of the anti-social-delinquent-conduct
disorder. The juvenile delinquents are perceived to be a physical threat. Family factors such as
parental supervision, the way parents discipline a child particularly harsh punishment, parental
conflict, parental neglect or abuse and the quality of parent-child relationship may have an
influence. Through the use of longitudinal analyses in a low income community sample of 98
families, analyses showed that poverty related stress was directly related to anxious and aggressive
symptoms and social problems and contributing to worsening symptoms for delinquency and
attention problems. The high parent ratings of youth aggressiveness were related to high
disturbance in the home and to youths' positive opinions of delinquent peers. Developmentally,
this suggests that in adolescence both the peer group and home influences are important in shaping
different aspects of the youths' aggressive and delinquent behaviors.
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Gawad Kalinga has grown to be a movement of nation-building because it dared to hope
amidst an environment of cynicism. In a country known for its corruption and its poverty, Gawad
Kalinga is awakening and inspiring heroism in people beaten down by disasters of history, politics
and natural calamities. Poverty is most debilitating to the men who are reduced to living like
animals (becoming predators) when they are dehumanized and stripped of their natural male
nobility. Men, by their very nature, are meant to be hunters and protectors of their families and,
most especially in the Philippines, men are expected by society to be the providers. Caught in the
cycle of poverty and being unable to deliver as he is expected to, Filipino men lose motivation to
be productive members of society and instead turn towards vices of drinking, gambling,
mendicancy and some, even turn to a life of violence to regain their primacy over society. That is
why GKs attack to poverty is quite revolutionary. It does not address poverty through a purely
financial solution. It addresses poverty through aggression, both forms of aggression are equally
hostile. The results of pre-school studies indicate that girls display higher levels of relational
aggression than boys, and the gender difference is well established by middle childhood. Onset
and developmental trajectories are different between boys and girls. Although boys exhibit more
physical aggression in early childhood, which decreases over time, girls display the opposite
pattern, with low levels of aggression during early childhood only to peak much later (Moretti and
Odgers, 2002).
Since, aggressive behavior can be measured in several different ways, the researcher chose
to study the effectiveness of Gawad Kalinga programs (e.g., GK SIBOL, SAGIP) as a standard in
determining the aggressive behavior of a child. The present study aims to examine the
effectiveness of the Gawad Kalinga programs in reducing childrens aggression. Specifically, the
study aims to answer the following questions:
1.) Is the aggression level of the members of GK SAGIP members differ from the non members?
2.) Is there significant difference in aggression level of non members before and after joining the
Gawad Kalinga Sagip and Sibol Program?
3.) Is Gawad Kalinga SAGIP Program effective?
If the Gawad Kalinga SAGIP program is effective, awareness about programs like these
whose aim is to nurture children's new found hope shall be made known to the community.
Likewise, it is also important to educate the parents about their participation in the program. If
otherwise ineffective, the Gawad Kalinga officials shall be notified about the said result so that
other means of improving the program shall be made. Respectively, the need to ask help from
volunteers as well as from the government is recommended so that the execution to achieve the
goals set for the program be more successful.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Gender differences
Boys and men are much more likely to carry a weapon than a female, but don't assume that
only men act violently. Recent studies suggest that college (not high school) women are more
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likely than men to kick, push, bite, and slap in anger, especially when they are jealous. Hostile,
aggressive young people tend to come from broken, angry, violent homes.
When gender specific forms of aggression are considered, there is evidence to suggest that
girls are as aggressive as boys (Moretti and Odgers, 2002). Girls tend to engage in relational
aggression while males tend to display covert
Living in violent neighborhood
Children living in violent neighborhoods are aptly described as children living in urban
war zones (Garbarino et al., 1991). They face a two-fold problem; these children lack prosocial
adult role models to guide them and they do not have the opportunity to develop internalized selfcontrol through developmentally appropriate play. Absence of competent, involved caregivers to
provide supervision induces some children to create their own pseudo community and acquire
protection elsewhere through antisocial groups.
Community violence is shown to affect the violent behavior of preschoolers in a differential
manner. Those who witness violence seem to show internalized symptoms while those children
who were victimized by violence exhibit externalizing behaviors (Guerra et al., 2003; Shahnifar
et al., 2000).
It appears that childrens' aggressive behaviour stems from different factors. It can be
traced to learners' family backgrounds, community, and school and value systems. If the child is
unstable due to the factors indicated above, he/she may suddenly display deviant behaviour, which
tends to be emotionally disturbed and exhibits destructive tendencies. Theories of aggression
suggest that aggression is acquired through a process of trial and error, instructing, and observation
of models. The aggressive behaviour is affected by reinforcement, the past experiences of the
person, the social environment or social milieu, and ones personality (Felson & Tedeschi
1993:125)
Finally, Loeber and Hay (1994) found that non-deviant peers both rejected children who
showed early signs of conduct problems, and attributed aggressive meanings to the normal
behaviors of deviant children. Targeted children also saw aggressive motives in others. Gradually,
these targeted children became involved in deviant peer groups themselves. This landmark study
illustrated how a childs peer group can contribute to the stability of aggression over development.
Aggression in Children
Aggression refers to any behavior intended to cause harm or pain. Aggression can be either
physical or verbal, and behavior is classified as aggression even if it does not actually succeed in
causing harm or pain. Behavior that accidentally causes harm or pain is not aggression. Aggression
is a term with many meanings and multifactorial causes, composed of intertwined innate elements,
environmental factors, and learning. It is not absolutely negative; it can also have positive
psychological functions for the individual and for society, though usually there are better
alternatives. Research suggests that physical aggression may be related to difficulty during school
transitions, yet no studies to date have examined the role of relational aggression in these
216

transitions. However, high levels of relational aggression, when not combined with physical
aggression, were related to more positive transitions to in the children domains assessed. Research
found that maltreated children were more likely than non-maltreated children to be aggressive,
with findings suggesting that physically abused children were at heightened risk for reactive
aggression. Maltreated children also evidenced attention deficits, and subclinical or
nonpathological dissociation was more likely among children who had experienced physical or
sexual abuse. A history of abuse also predicted emotion dysregulation, affective lability/negativity,
and socially inappropriate emotion expressions. This emotion dysregulation, fostered by poor
attention modulation, was a mechanism of the effects of maltreatment on reactive aggression
(Shields & Cicchetti. 2010). There are three factors that were hypothesized to increase risk for
aggression among urban children: economic disadvantage, stressful events, and individual beliefs.
Findings showed that stress and beliefs contributed significantly to the synchronous prediction of
aggression (Guerra, Rowell, Tolan, and Van Acker & Eron. 2011)
Another study has demonstrated an association between trait aggression and hostile
attribution bias, or the tendency to interpret others actions as hostile, yet little research has been
devoted to exploring its role in subtypes of aggression. We used hypothetical vignettes to explore
hostile attribution bias in impulsive aggressors, premeditated aggressors, and non-aggressive
controls. (Helfritz-Sinville & Stanford. 2010)
Gawad Kalinga Community

Gawad Kalingas Child and Youth Development program or CYD seeks to provide a
values-based early childhood education for young children in GK communities. The youth are
also helped by developing their potentials through a values-based formation program. Through the
arts, sports and other technical and academic skills trainings, values are taught to every child in
the community. Child and Youth Development program includes sub-programs for children and
youth ages 3 to 25 years old: GK SIBOL (sibol meaning to grow) serves children ages 3 to 6
years old. It is a community-based pre-school program which envisions each child be imbued with
positive Filipino values and be academically prepared for formal schooling. Classes are held in a
Sibol school located in each GK community. GK SAGIP (sagip meaning to save) is an acronym
for Sagipin Ang Galing Isip at Pangarap ng mga Kabataan (save the talents, minds & dreams of
the youth). It caters to children ages 7 to 13 years old and seeks to nurture the new found hope and
dreams of the youth through weekly values formation activities that promote the values of love for
God, country, family & fellowmen. The GK Child & Youth Development (CYD) program also
helps the youth by various values formation activities, technical & academic skills trainings, arts
& crafts, and sports. GK SipaG (sipag meaning diligence) is a special project under GK CYD
that seeks to develop underprivileged children through football/soccer
Parental use of Physical Punishment
Different studies have established that theres an evidence to recommend retaining physical
punishment in the parental repertoire of discipline. Research on the long-term effects of physical
punishment are consistent, and overwhelmingly negative over a wide variety of child development
217

outcomes. The use of physical punishment has been associated with many negative social
outcomes, including aggression, disruptive behaviour in school, and lack of acceptance by peers,
crime and delinquency. Childrens cognitive and intellectual development are also adversely
affected by parental use of physical punishment. Physical punishment is linked to insecure
attachment and poorer relationships between children and parents, and to a variety of mental health
problems, such as anxiety, depression and suicidal ideation. The overall goals of family discipline
for most families are for children to internalise the values and attitudes that will lead to appropriate
behaviour, rather than relying on external monitoring and control. Research suggests that the use
of physical punishment does the reverse, and inhibits the development of moral internalisation.
Childrens own aggression is predicted by harsh, coercive forms of parenting and by a lack of
warmth, acceptance, and positive responsiveness. Cultural contexts shape parents and childrens
aggression, in large part by providing a context in which aggression is condoned or condemned.
Social Determinants: Frustration, Provocation and Heightened Arousal

This widespread belief in the importance of frustration as a cause of aggression stems, at
least in part from the famous frustration-aggression hypothesis (Dollard et al., 1939). This made
two sweeping assertions: (1) Frustration always leads to some form of aggression, and (2)
aggression always stems from frustration. This means that frustrated people always engage in some
type of aggression and all acts of aggression.
Heightened arousal can enhance aggression in response to provocation, frustration and
other factors. A compelling explanation is offered by excitation transfer theory (Zillmann, 1983;
1988). This theory suggests that because physiological arousal tends to dissipate slowly over time,
a portion of such arousal may persist as a person moves from one situation to another. Excitation
theory further suggests that such effects are most likely to occur when the people involved are
relatively unaware of the presence of residual arousal-- a common occurrence because small
elevations in arousal are difficult to notice (Zillmann, 1994). It also suggests that such effects are
likely to occur when the people involved recognize their residual arousal but attribute it to events
occurring in the present situation (Taylor, Helgeson, Reed, & Skokan, 1991).
Major world religions agree in suggesting that, when provoked by another person, they
should "turn the other cheek"; in other words, the most appropriate way to respond to being
annoyed or irritated is to do their best to ignore this treatment. Research findings indicate that
physical or verbal provocation from others is one of the strongest causes of human aggression.
Existing evidence suggests that condescension- expressions of arrogance or disdain on the part of
others are powerful (Harris, 1993). Harsh and unjustified criticism, especially criticism that attacks
us rather than our behavior, is another form of provocation, and when exposed to it, most people
find it difficult to avoid getting angry and retaliating some manner (Baron, 1993b). Teasing refers
to the provoking statements that call attention to the target's flaws and imperfections. It is common
in social interactions. If it is attributed to hostile motives- desire to hurt or embarrass the recipient-
218

it can serve as an important source of provocation (Campos, Keltner, Beck, Gonzaga & John,
2007).
SYNTHESIS
Aggression may be accompanied by strong emotions, particularly anger. It is associated
with being impulsive, unplanned, overt, or uncontrolled. Harming the other person is the goal.
Males are historically believed to be generally more physically aggressive than females, although
females are more likely to use relational and other forms of aggression. No single pathway is
sufficient to explain the development of aggressive behavior, nor is there a single prototype of an
aggressive preschooler. New research findings reveal that the critical window for intervention
should be in early years (Tremblay et al., 2004). There are still many unanswered questions. Why
are some children resilient? Which pathway to aggression has the most impact and which is most
predictive? Aggression may have a genetic component, and similarly, the environment in which
an infant/preschooler is raised may influence the development of aggressive tendencies.
Researchers today are emphasizing the interplay between genetics, the environment and
developmental influences. Caution must nevertheless be exercised in making simplistic statements
about genetic and environmental causes when explaining the origins of aggression (Rutter, 2002).
The eight pathways reviewed are related to the early routes of aggression in infants and
preschoolers. This is by no means an exhaustive list of factors related to the origins of aggression
in early years. However, it does provide us with an opportunity to offer programs for prevention
and intervention that will preserve the uniqueness of the child.
METHODOLOGY
This chapter includes the studys research design, participants, sampling instrument and
procedure.
Research Design
The researcher used quasi experimental design, since the researcher wants to know the
causal impact of an intervention on its target population. This type of research design allowed the
researcher to control the assignment to the treatment condition. This required a pretest and posttest
for a treated and comparison group. It's identical to the Analysis of Covariance design except that
the groups are not created through random assignment. The single group of participants was
measured on the dependent variable both before and after the manipulation of the independent
variable. The parents of GK SAGIP members and non-members were given a test of their
aggressive behavior. This was the pretest. Then, a week later, those non members joined the GK
SAGIP program. After four sessions, the parents were given another test of their childs aggressive
behavior. The substantive question here is whether the children's aggressive behavior change after
being a member of the said GK program.
Participants/Sampling
219
To gather accurate data, the researcher used purposive sampling. Where in the population
is 30 (15= SAGIP members, 15= SAGIP non-members) from Gawad Kalinga. The participants of
this study were 30 male and female children ranging from ages 7-13. As long as they're living in
Gawad Kalinga either non member or member of SAGIP. Regardless of whether or not they go to
school. There was no specific gender requirement for the study, it is both for the boys and the girls.
Purposive sampling method was used by choosing subject based on particular characteristic. Since
Gawad Kalinga is a low income community and the researcher knows some of the Gawad Kalinga
coordinators this led to the present study being conducted in Gawad Kalinga site in the province
of Cavite and on a purposive sample of children. Children living in the selected site participated
in this study. They were purposively selected because they meet the said characteristics. Children
who turned incomplete questionnaires, were excluded from the analyses due to incomplete data.
The researcher was interested in learning more about the children from Gawad Kalinga sites in
Cavite.
Instruments
The parents of the children who were chosen in this study accomplished a survey
questionnaire to evaluate their childrens aggressive behavior. They were asked to answer
questions regarding their childs aggression in school and their house. Interview and survey
method were the research instruments used for data gathering. There was questionnaire given to
gather the selected demographic data on participants. The questionnaire was used to answer the
research problems of this study. This captured whether or not the SAGIP non-members aggressive
behavior changed after joining the program. It also determines of the aggressive behavior of the
SAGIP members differs from the non-members.
Aggression Scale
The Children's Scale of Hostility and Aggression: Reactive/Proactive (C-SHARP) by
Farmer and Aman (200) surveys the severity of aggressive and hostile behaviors (Problem Scale)
in addition to their proactive or reactive qualities (the Provocation Scale). Factor analysis yielded
a 5-factor solution: I. Verbal Aggression (12 items), II. Bullying (12 items), III. Covert Aggression
(11 items), IV. Hostility (9 items), and V. Physical Aggression (8 items). Coefficient alpha ranged
from moderate (0.74, Physical Aggression) to high (0.92, Verbal Aggression). General validity
was supported by expected differences between age and gender groups. Preliminary normative
data were presented. The C-SHARP appears to be a promising tool for assessing aggression and
hostility in children. It is known for its Interrater reliability was very high for the Problem Scale,
which characterizes type of aggression. Reliability was lower but largely acceptable for the
Provocation Scale, which assesses motivation. Validity of the Problem Scale was supported by
expected differences in children with autism, Down syndrome, comorbid disruptive behavior
disorders (DBDs) and ADHD. The Provocation Scale, which categorizes behavior as proactive or
reactive, showed expected differences in children with DBD, but was less effective in those with
ADHD. The C-SHARP appears to have fundamentally sound psychometric characteristics,
although more research is needed.
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Procedure
All parents in the chosen study setting were approached through their community leaders.
These community leaders were elected from within their community itself and are held in respect
in their community, making them appropriate to "win" the interest of the subjects to join the
program of the study. The researcher asked these leaders to visit the study population and invite
them to attend the interview to be held in their multi purpose hall three days prior to the actual
commencement of the study.
The researcher asked help from the Youth for Christ. Five members of (5) Youth for Christ
took part in the data gathering process, the researcher briefed them regarding the nature of the
study. They were instructed on how to present the questionnaires. Since, the researcher was not
sure of the educational attainment of the parents in Gawad Kalinga, the researcher asked help from
her high school Filipino teacher to translate the questionnaire in Tagalog so that it will be easy for
them to understand and answer the questions. And to test whether the Tagalog translation is
correct, the researcher asked help from her high school English teacher to translate the Tagalog
questions to English. This helped the researcher check the accuracy of the Tagalog translation.
When the parents arrived at their multi purpose hall in which the study was conducted,
their names and address were written in their registration desk. They were guided to the hall to
their names and this was done to assist ease of data collection as the respondent has to be accurately
identified as the same person. They were informed that the nature of the study and confidentiality
of answers will be maintained. The questionnaires were given and after answering those
questionnaires, other data (residing in the household or was deceased). The researcher expected
that the administration of the instrument package will took about one and one-and-half to two
hours. When the data collection was completed, the respondents were thanked and served with
snack and refreshments.
The parents of SAGIP member and non members were asked to answer the aggression
scale. After one week, the researcher asked the SAGIP non members to join the session. The
session were twice a week and it lasted for two weeks so there were a total of four sessions. After
conducting the four sessions, a day after the final session, the researcher asked the parents of the
SAGIP members and non members to answer another test of their childs aggressive behavior. The
substantive questions here is whether the SAGIP non members' aggressive behavior changed after
joining the session.
Data Analysis
The researcher used paired sample t-test because the researcher wanted to determine
whether there was a significant difference between the average values of the same measurement
made under two different conditions. The test was based on the paired differences between these
two values. Relevant literatures were also be used to support the gathered findings and come up
with preliminary ideas regarding the research problem. This study used statistical methods starting
221

with the data collected. The researcher was required to use software such as Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences or the SPSS.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Based on the results gathered, with the help of SPSS version 20, the data has been computed in a
manner of descriptive statistics. The results of the data which is consists of 30 participants (15=
SAGIP; 15 non-SAGIP) is tabulated and it is shown in multiple tables.
Table 1 Results of the paired sample t-test for C SHARP between the pretest and posttest for
Physical Aggression of SAGIP non members.
_________________________________________________________________________
Physical Aggression Mean
SD
t
df
p
Interpretation
(SAGIP
value
non-members
n=15)
_________________________________________________________________________
Pre test
1.8327 .64985 7.460
14
.000
Significant
Difference
Post test
.3347 .40543
6.749
14
.000
Significant
Difference
__________________________________________________________________________
*Significant if p value is <0.05
Table 1 illustrates the paired T-test done to compare the aggressive behavior levels of the
SAGIP non members before and after joining the SAGIP program. In the pretest scores, the t value
is 7.460 and the p value is .000 , which is less than p value of 0.05. The findings suggest that there
is significant difference between the aggressive levels before and after joining the program,
implying that they had different aggressive level before and after the intervention was provided.
Meanwhile, in the posttest scores, the t value is 6.749 and the p value is .000, which is less than
0.05. This indicates that there was a significant difference in the aggressive levels of the SAGIP
non members (before and after joining SAGIP program). This implies that the SAGIP program is
effective in reducing the aggressive behavior of SAGIP nonmembers. Therefore, the decision is to
accept the alternative hypothesis, which is:
H1: There is a significant difference in the non-SAGIP members aggressive behavior after
joining the SAGIP program.
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Table 2 Paired Sample T-test of SAGIP members and non-members Verbal Aggression before
and after attending SAGIP program
___________________________________________________________________________
Verbal
SAGIP
SAGIPnon
df
p
Interpretation
Aggression members
members
Mean
SD
Mean SD
______________________________________________________________________________
Pre test
1.47
2.588
1.8327
.64985
14
.000
Post test
1.27
2.120
.3347
.40543
14
.000
Significant
Difference
Significant
Difference
_____________________________________________________________________________
Significant if p value is <0.05
Table 2 illustrates the paired T-test done to compare two groups on their aggressive
behavior levels. In the pretest, the mean of the scores in the verbal aggression of the non SAGIP
members is 1.47 while the score of the SAGIP members if 1.8327 with the p value is .000, which
is less than p value of 0.05. The SAGIP non members 0.3627 higher than the SAGIP members
verbal aggression level. The findings suggest that there is significant difference between the
aggressive levels of the two groups, implying that both groups had different aggressive level before
the intervention was provided. This indicates that there was a significant difference in the
aggressive levels of the SAGIP members and non members. Correspondingly, this identifies that
the SAGIP program was successful in reducing the children aggressive behavior.
DISCUSSION
According to the responses of the participants, the aggressive level of SAGIP-non members
decreased after joining the SAGIP program, therefore; the Gawad Kalinga (GK) program is
effective. This outcome was fully supported by the "Social Cognitive Theory" presented by Albert
Bandura, which explains that behavior change occur depending on factors such as environment,
people and behavior with these three factors constantly influencing each one. The SAGIP nonmembers once lived within an area with never-ending poverty. At their very young age, they are
already aware of violence happening around them. Being in such environment made them grew
having wrong values and bad habits. Being with scoundrels and criminals were already part of
their lifestyle. They are too aggressive to have the ability to hurt the people around them. Further
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development in social cognitive theory posits that learning will most likely occur if there is a close
identification between the observer and the model and if the observer also has a good deal of selfefficacy. When they started interacting with the SAGIP members their behavior gradually
changed. They became less aggressive since theyve been with disciplined children when they
joined Gawad Kalinga SAGIP program, this gave them activities that promote love for God,
country, family and fellowmen. The program they went for four sessions made them develop their
potentials through a values-based formation program. They used the arts, sports and other technical
and academic skills trainings that are taught to every child in the community.
Since people living in Gawad Kalinga have limited economic resources, they have the
higher risk for maltreating their children. The Cornell University (2014) study shows, poverty is a
strong risk factor in abuse and neglect cases. According to a research made by Grace Onchwari
and Jared Keengwe (2011) maltreated children were more likely than non-maltreated children to
be aggressive, with findings suggesting that physically abused children were at heightened risk for
reactive aggression. According to Garbarino et al., 1991, there are both direct and indirect effects
of disturbed family dynamics on aggression. Parental characteristics are connected to a child's
behavior and to the promotion of a child's healthy development. Child related factors include
difficult temperament, irritability, anxious attachment and extrinsic motivation. Such factors
include non responsive parenting, difficulty in parenting, inability to control the child, or the use
of coercive control, harsh discipline or shame and humiliation. These factors result in the
disengagement of the dyad, with resultant bi-directional developmental sequences (Shaw et al.,
2000a).
Poverty hinders them from doing what they really want, some of them were unable to attend
school because they have to scavenge for food or work very early in life to help their families.
They become too tired or sickly and most often cannot afford to receive quality education. They
were deprived of their right to learn to read and write, they are also not aware of the right values
that will equip them for a better life. Frustration caused by their insecurities consist of their need
for protection, need for affection, need for material things and their desire to study. It is also the
outcome of harsh punishment, rejection or helplessness. They get frustrated when they do not get
what they want or what they expect. According to the frustration-aggression hypothesis, (Dollard
et al., 1939) aggressive behavior is pushed from drives (external events) such as frustration.
Poverty prevents them from getting what they desire. Frustration serve as a powerful determinant
of aggression (Folger & Baron, 1996).
A compelling explanation was offered by the excitation transfer theory (Zillmann, 1994)
which suggests that arousal occurring in one situation can persist and intensify emotional reactions
in later, unrelated situations. There is an arousal produced by the frustration brought by their desire
for education or by the physical punishment made by their parents which intensified the feelings
of annoyance stemming from simple teasing made by their peers or playmates. And these teasing
is very common in children at this age (7-13), they are very active and playful that they like paying
attention to individual's flaws and imperfections or they just like to simply annoy. It is found that
the SAGIP non-members receive some form of aggression from others and they tend to reciprocate
returning as much aggression they receive. Based on the research made by Campo et al., 2007, the
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more individuals attribute teasing to hostile motives, the more likely they are to respond
aggressively.
These children (SAGIP non-members) are not born with a large array of aggressive
behavior, they acquire these in the same way that they acquire other forms of social behavior;
through direct experience or by observing the behavior of others (Anderson, 2004). This also
showed that their past experience and the cultures they live in made them possess such behavior.
Different factors such as family background, community, and school and value system caused
children's aggressive behavior. SAGIP non members were unstable due to these factors that they
displayed deviant behavior (Gasa, 2009). Their parents' occupational status, educational
attainment and their family structure also played a big role on their social behavior. Based on the
social learning perspective (Bandura, 1997), the SAGIP non-members aggress in a certain situation
depending on factors like the person's past experience, the social milieu, their personality and
attitudes and values that shaped their thoughts concerning the appropriateness and potential effects
of their aggressive behavior
Finding suggests that the Gawad Kalinga (GK) SAGIP program is effective, it is also
shown that the GK SAGIP program helped the SAGIP non-members decreased their aggressive
level after they joined the said program. Also it show that the aggressive level of SAGIP nonmembers differ from the existing SAGIP members.
In closing and incorporating the data from the findings of the study, the researcher has
come up with the following recommendations:
Focusing on the need of the children in Gawad Kalinga setting and specifying their
aggressive behavior will help their families, friends, school and the Gawad Kalinga itself to nurture
and develop the young through an age-specific, values-based program that helps them reach their
fullest potential that will ensure that the Gawad Kalinga programs are effective.
The GK Child and Youth Coordinator suggested that it is best to utilize the GK program.
This does not only cover giving money or donations but rather being a volunteer teacher that can
be an instrument to help them fight poverty. They said that it will be helpful if students especially
the Psychology majors will start to volunteer themselves by providing unpaid help, teaching the
SAGIP children.
Children voiced that theres still a need for improvement for the SAGIP and other GK
programs. They asked for additional enjoyable and interesting activities and equipments that will
enhance their talents.
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The researcher has come up with the recommendation that the Gawad Kalinga officials
should persuade the SAGIP non-members to become part of it and become an active member. As
for the existing members, continue to be a member, actively participate in every activities and
guide the new members to become a better person. The researcher recommends that future
researches to include not only the children from SAGIP but the SIBOL and SIGA that are also part
of the GK Child and Youth programs. The researcher also suggests for those who plan to conduct
future research with regards to Gawad Kalinga (GK) to focus not only to childrens aggressive
behavior but as well as to other kind of behavior.
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228
Predictors of Attitude towards Fixed Partner Selection

Among Chinoy Young Adults
Kathleen Milca H. Marinas
Eva A. Castronuevo
Abstract
This study focuses on the predictors that affects the attitude of Chinoy young
adults toward fixed partner selection (Arranged Marriage). A total of 150
respondents among 182 fourth year college students were gathered for this
study. Descriptive Survey method was used to identify the predictors of the
dependent variable. Results showed that religion and educational background
cannot individually predict views on arranged marriage, with F values of
1.256, not significant at 0.292 and 1.317 not significant at 0.253. But religion
and educational background combined together, they are highly significant
predictor of the attitude towards arranged marriage. While family
conservatism can predict the views of the respondents on arranged marriage
with the Beta coefficient of 0.488 is significant at 0.00. Results also showed
that Chinoys doesnt have a definite answer when it comes to family
conservatism and their attitude towards arranged marriage remains neutral as
well.
Being exposed to different cultures plays an integral role to a persons understanding about
partner selection from different perspectives. These perspectives contributes to the attitude of a
person from selecting a romantic partner.
According to Erik Erikson, when an adolescent surpasses the stage of identity and role
formation, he could move on to the next stage, At the start of this next stage, identity vs. role
confusion is coming to an end, though it still lingers at the foundation of the stage (Erikson, 1950).
Young adults still has this urge to blend their similar identities with friends. They want to fit in.
Erikson also believes that an individual is isolated because of intimacy issues, they tend to be
afraid to be rejected and turned down by their partners. But once he/she is ready to fuse his/her
identity to others, He/ she is ready for intimacy; the capability to commit to concrete affiliations
and partnerships.
According to the Philippine National Statistic Office as of May 2010 released in November
19 2012, there are a total of 177,365 foreign citizens in the Philippines. The largest foreign in the
country came from United States of America 29,595 persons, and the second largest came from
China 28,750 persons. Since there are a lot of Chinese living in the Philippines (second largest
foreign population), and some of these people can easily adapt to the Philippines own culture,
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mainly in choosing a romantic partner (Chua, 2004). The researcher would like to know 1.)What
are the attitude of Fil-Chi young adults towards the strong beliefs in arranged marriage? 2.) What
are the predictors related to the attitude of young adults towards fixed partner selection? 3.) Do
religion, family conservatism, and the type of school their in during high school relate to their
attitude towards arranged marriage? Because according to the researcher's further readings about
Filipino-Chinese and arranged marriage, for Filipino-Chinese community, the tradition of purity
of Chinese blood is still valued. The last bastion of tradition of the Chinoys that will fight to death
is preservation of its pure Chinese blood (which similarly leads to the popularity of exclusive
Filipino-Chinese schools). Currently, it is still taboo for a Filipino-Chinese to marry someone
who is not Chinese.(Tan, 2008). And in the researchers own experience as a chinoy young adult,
the researcher is interested on how the people act towards the Chinese tradition of arranged
marriage, The researcher is also interested on what causes these attitude, whether it is negative or
positive, towards arranged marriage.
Since the study is about young adults or late teenage years, specifically in the generation
of today, the benefit of the study is for the researcher to know the attitudes of Filipino-Chinese
young adults today, in fixed mate selection and the predictors that brought out that attitude towards
selecting a romantic partner.
In the last ten years, several studies have been explored dealing with partner selection.
Young Adult and partner selection
In the study of Collins (2003), involvement, partner selection, relationship content, quality,
and cognitive and emotional processes are features of romantic relationships that are important in
adolescents relationships. Majority of the age group of 18 years and above consider themselves
involved in a special romantic relationship.
Similarly, several researchers (Henry, Helm and Cruz, 2011) studied about the traits to be
considered by college students in choosing a partner. Henry, Helm and Cruz conducted a study
wherein they wanted to compare their current study to the past researches 1939-2011. The study
was conducted through an online survey given to psychology students. 63.7% of the students are
females and 36.3 are males.Their ethnicity are distributed as well. The survey includes the traits
which the participants should rank. And the study concludes that from 1939 until 2011, men place
a higher value on women with good looks, good health and housekeeping. While women place a
higher value on men that are good providers and have high goals and aspirations.
Kuttler and Greca (2004) found out through giving out questionnaires to 446 girls age 15
to 19 years old, that people would rather date best friends than to date other people. Results indicate
that as age increases, the need to find a romantic partner increases. Kuttler and Greca also conclude
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that close relationships are better than romantic relationships and that peer relationships help
structure behavior in mate selection and dating.
Filipino-Chinese
On the other hand Chu (2013) discusses the importance of knowing the Chinese lineage
among people living in the Philippines. In Chus own experience, he encountered individuals who
is claiming that they came from a Chinese ancestry, and thus made him researched on what are the
different sources, and methods to be considered in order to help reconstitute ones Chinese
ancestry. In Chus research, oral sources may become very handy when it comes to ascerting ones
name and especially the surname. But in the case of the Philippines, it is difficult to know the
origin of the surname, since the Spanish colonial times required Chinese individual to acquire
Spanish name. Textual sources are May also be used, like baptismal records, newspaper article
and so forth according to Chu. And related to Chinese individuals who lives in the Philippines,
According to Chua (2004) there are different 4 subgroups, each of them differs in their
attitude and behavior towards their own Chinese culture and the Filipino tradition. First are the
mainlanders who usually said to have "uncivilized" behavior and aggressive (irritating)
personalities. These people are highly adaptable and resourceful to manage a strong foothold on
Pinoy economy. Second are the traditionalists, they represent the majority of Chinoys, they value
and stick to their old tradition. Third are the half breeds, they are Chinoys with Filipino blood. And
the last are the silent scions.
Family Conservativism and Liberalism
Jensen (2006) studied about the difference between liberal and conservative conceptions
of family. Issues such as abortion and divorce, liberal and conservative families differ not only on
evaluations (i.e., whether a behavior is regarded as right or wrong) but also in their reasoning (i.e.,
explanations for why a behavior is right or wrong). Jensen found out that conservative families
tend to reason out through Ethic of Divinity. Conservative families invoke concepts such as
Virtue of Holiness and Gods Authority over everything. While liberal families reason out through
Ethic of Autonomy which speaks about individual rights.
Arrange Marriage
According to the study (Rubio, 2014), there is a continuous decline of having an arrange
marriage throughout many parts around the world during the past years. Parents usually make
marriage arrangements for their children to have an access to and provides insurance to both
parents and children, mainly for financial stability. However, it reduces the persons potential
income, compared to the case in which she or he has the option to move geographically, and might
have a lucrative occupation or a spouse with higher earnings. In Rubios study, she predicted by
theoretical framework that arranged marriages disappear when the net benefits of the insurance
arrangement decrease. (Fricke, Chang, & Yang, 1994) In China, arranged marriages, sometimes
231

called blind marriages the norm before mid 20th century. A marriage was a negotiation and
decision between parents and other older members of two families. The boy and girl, were typically
told to get married, without a right to consent, even if they had never met with each other until the
wedding day
Religion
According to (Ali, Liu, and Humedian, 2004), arranged marriage are common among Arab
and South Asian immigrants including the Islam community. Muslim practice arranged marriage
as part of their tradition. Muslims are expected to marry other Muslims and will often marry within
their ethnic groups because of shared sociopolitical histories and cultural similarities that extend
beyond religious commonality. Indonesia and China follow a strong Buddhist religion that
advocates arranged marriages. Buddha did not provide any specific rules regarding marriage, but
did express the ways to a happy marriage. Financial benefit determines other arranged marriages
in Buddhism.
Educational Background
The reasons why arranged marriage has broken down in some part in the East is that women
and men became more equal as schools became co-ed and women entered the workplace. As
women and men interacted on equal terms, they had a more equal relationship. Second, children
became less dependent on families as the corporate/industrial sector became stronger and offered
those jobs and chance to move away from home. Thirdly, women discovered their sexuality and
sharing a good healthy romantic/sexual relationship with your spouse became crucial to the
marriage (Trivedi, 2014).
SYNTHESIS
There have been a lot of studies conducted that are related to mate selection. Collins (2003)
studied about the age wherein an individual is involved in a romantic relationship. Henry, Helm
and Cruz (2011) studied the traits to consider in partner selection. Kuttler and Greca (2004)
concluded that friendship is good as a basis towards forming a good romantic relationship.
In choosing a partner it is good to consider things that would help a relationship to work
out. Studies above showed that involving in a romantic relationship must be done at the right age
and consider the traits of the opposite sex if it matches your criteria and if both parties are
compatible.
Chu (2013) studied about knowing the Chinese roots of an individual living in the
Philippines. And Chua (2004) discussed different subgroups of Filipino Chinese in the Philippines
and which of them embraced Filipino culture.
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While, Rubio (2014) studied about the reason why arrange marriage all over the world are
continuously decreasing. And found out that it is because of low mobility leads to the
disappearance of marital arrangements. Fricke, Chang, & Yang, (1994) during mid 20th century,
arranged marriage in China became the norm.
Islam community follows arranged marriage tradition but in Buddhist, they usually leaned
on financial benefits not that arranged marriage is required by Buddah (Ali, Liu, and Humedian,
2004).
What is missing in the previous studies with regards to partner selection is what are the
attitudes of the modern Filipino-Chinese young adults toward fixed partner selection? What are
the predictors that made Chinoy young adults to have this kind of attitude on fixed partner
selection?
METHODOLOGY
Methods used in the study were briefly described from research design to data analysis.
Research Design
Descriptive Survey method would be useful as a design for this research because the
researcher would like to find out in one sample of Chinoy population at one particular time their
self-report data on what they believe to be true or, perhaps what they think we want to hear about
their attitudes towards arranged marriage/ fixed partner selection caused by either conservative or
liberal conceptions within the family and their demographics. Through survey, these Chinoy young
adults can respond to the given questions with assurance that their responses will be anonymous.
Participant and Sampling Description
The participants were Filipino-Chinese college undergraduate students from (Changkai
Shek College). The participants should be single in order for this research to be valid. Fourth year
level college undergraduate students would be used in these research, because majority of young
adults fall at this level. In spite of having a required year level, there should be equal number of
both male and female participants. 150 participants were needed (Slovins Formula). The
researcher used purposive sampling since the researcher have to get participants that are chinoys
and in the age bracket of a young adult.
Instrument
There are two scales used in this research.These scales were all constructed by the
researcher. The scales measure the attitudes of young adults towards arranged marriage and the
liberal and conservative concept of the family. The scale also includes their demographic
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backgrounds like educational background: type of school (co-ed, all boys or all girls school) and,
religion.
The first scale is an 8-item scale that was designed to measure the attitude of young adults
toward arranged marriage and was revised from Marriage Attitudes Scale (MAS) Braaten & Rosn
(1998). The items were pre-tested on young adults with similar characteristics of the respondents.
Since most Chinoys in the Philippines, the traditionalist, still follows their strict traditions (Chua,
2004). And these young Chinoys may have different attitudes regarding fixed marriage, whether
they have a positive or negative response over the concept of arranged marriage. Example items
included were It is better for young adults if their parents choose their partner I believe
arranged marriage last longer than love marriage I rebel when my parents decides whom I
should marry.
The second scale is a 10 item scale that measures family conservatism which the results of
the scale may be the predictors why these chinoy young adults have these certain attitude towards
selecting a future partner and their attitude towards arranged marriage. This scale shows either
they belong to a conservative family or liberal family orientation. The scale includes items such
as: My mother observes how i dress, My parents doesnt allow me to hang out with friends
at night, I should be home at the time that my parents allotted to me, I should ask my
parents permission before going out with my friends, I should always be open to my
parents, I always have a curfew when I go out with friends, my parents wont allow me to
commute by myself. I would tally the scores through spss by frequency and percentage.
Pilot Testing
The researcher conducted a pilot testing from the sample population of 20 young adults
that were qualified in the study. This was done in order to test the validity and reliability of the test
constructed by the researcher.
Procedure
The researcher conducted two surveys each to 150 chinoy young adults participants from
one of the Chinese schools in Manila mid-end of July 2014. The researcher informed the target
participants to conduct a survey. After the participants have approved the procedures, the scales
were given to them. The participants are asked to answer two questionnaire, an 8-item
questionnaire and a 10-item questionnaire (Appendix B). Participants respond to each item using
a 5 point scale, being 5 as strongly agree and 1 as strongly disagree. The participants have to put a
mark that corresponds to their answer. Then, the researcher double checked the questionnaires that
were given back by the participants. The researcher then tallied the results of the survey and
analyzed the data that were gathered through the surveys given. Confidentiality of the information
gathered most especially of their names were assured to the participants.
The surveys on attitude towards arranged marriage and family conservatism were
conducted through a structured and standardized close ended questionnaire the main purpose of
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the survey is to estimate, with significant precision, the percentage of population that has a specific
attribute by collecting data from a small portion of the total population.
Data Analysis
To analyze the result, dataset were keyed in into SPSS (Statistical Product and Services
Solutions). The SPSS result showed the Correlation of family conservatism to the Attitude towards
arranged marriage, the reliability factor analysis. Reliability in quantitative data refers to the
consistency of collected data. Chi square is used for the relationship between religions, educational
background: type of school and attitude towards arranged marriage. While linear regression is used
for family conservatism and attitude towards arranged marriage. Two Way ANOVA is used for
analyzing predictors
The response rate was 100%. The response aimed to know and identify the predictors of
Chinoy young adults on having either positive or negative attitude towards arranged marriage.
RESULTS
Descriptive Statistics
Table 1. Means and Cronbach Alpha of attitude towards arranged marriage and family
conservatism
x
Attitude towards arranged marriage 2.80 .886

Family Conservatism
2.61 .851
Table 1. Showed the Means and Internal Consistency of Coefficients (alpha) for Attitude
towards Arranged Marriage and Family Conservatism. The total mean of the attitude of young
adults on arranged marriage is 2.80, with an interpretation that they have a neutral attitude on
arranged marriage. The following are the top 3 statements which contribute much to the grand
mean: Statement 8: I give the responsibility of arranging my marriage to my parents. Statement
1: It is better for young adults if their parents choose their partner; and statement 2: I believe
arranged marriage last longer than love marriage. (See Appendix A)
The grand mean of the levels of Chinoy young adults family conservatism is 2.61 with an
interpretation that they either agree or disagree when it comes to having a conservative family.
The top three statements which highly contributed the mean are statements 10, 7 and 2. These are:
My parents wont allow me to commute by myself, my parents doesnt allow me to hang out
with friends at night and my mother observes how I dress.(see Appendix A).
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Table 2. Cross Tabulation of Religion and Attitude towards Arranged Marriage
Religion
of Attitude
82.974a
Siginificance
0.418
Phi Coefficient
0.744
150
Attitude towards Arranged Marriage and Religion

In analyzing arranged marriage and religion as part of the hypothesis, table 2 showed that
there is no relationship between the two as evidenced by the Chi Square value of 82.97, not
significant at 0.418 and a Phi Coefficient of 0.744 not significant at 0.418. Clearly, the views on
arranged marriage have nothing to do with whatever religious affiliation the respondents belong.
Table 3. Correlation between Attitude and Family Conservatism
Family Conservatism
R of Attitude
.488
Significance
.000
150
Attitude towards Arranged Marriage and Family Conservatism

In table 3, the second hypothesis that predicted in the study is that Family Conservatism
would be associated with the attitude of Chinoy young adults towards Arranged Marriage.The R
values of 0.488 or 48.8% is explained by the variance. In the table under ANOVA (see appendix
A), the F value of 46.365 is also significant at 0.00, which further shows the appropriateness of
the model for regression analysis.
Table 4. Cross Tabulation of Educational Background and Attitude towards Arranged Marriage
Educational background
of Attitude
28.829
236
Siginificance
.369
Phi Coefficient
.441
150
Attitude towards Arrange Marriage and Educational Background (type of school)

Coeducational School or CoEd School refers to having male and female students being
taught together in the same school rather than separately. Exclusive School refers to a school that
caters either exclusively for girls only or exclusively for boys.The Chi Square value of 28.83 is
not significant at 0.36; same with the Phi Coefficient of 0.441, not significant at 0.369. Again, it
can be seen that the respondents educational background has nothing to do with their views on
arranged marriage.
Table 5. Levenes Test of Equality of Error Variances
F
1.711
df1 df2
Sig
7 140 .111
Table 5 showed the compatibility of the data on arranged marriage and religion/educational
background, the F value of 1.711 not significant at 0.111. So, 0.111 is greater than 0.05.
Table 6.Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Source
Sum of Squares
Mean Square
Sig
Intercept
168.698
168.698
236.143
.000
Religion
2.692
.897
1.256
.292
.941
.941
1.317
.253
4.539
1.513
2.118
.101
educbkgrnd
religion * educbkgrnd
Combined together, with the intercept value of 236.143, significant at 0.00, this means that
religion and educational background can significant predict views on arranged
marriage. However, as seen in Chi Square previously and the F values of 1.256, not significant at
0.292 and 1.317 not significant at 0.253, religion and educational background cannot individually
predict views on arranged marriage.
237

DISCUSSION
Attitude of Chinoy young adults towards arranged marriage.
Based on the results in table 1. By using Descriptive Statistics, two scores comprised by
two variables, Family Conservatism and Attitude towards Arranged Marriage, showed that they
both have the grand mean with an interpretation of having neutral responses. As regards to Family
Conservatism, the respondents might feel that their parents are inconsistent when it comes to being
conservative with their children. Supporting Jensens study on family conservatism and liberalism
(2006), the study proves that familys orientation affects an individuals evaluation and reasoning,
by the results of having neutral response on family conservatism affect Chinoys neutral attitude
towards arranged marriage. Neutral response of the respondents towards their attitude on arranged
marriage may vary through different predictors which is the focus of the study.
Predictors related to the attitude of young adults towards fixed partner selection.
The study hypothesized as seen in table 4 with the Chi Square value of 28.83 is not
significant at 0.36; same with the Phi Coefficient of 0.441, not significant at 0.369, that being in
either Co educational Chinese school or an exclusive for girls or for boys Chinese school does not
affect the attitude of a Chinoy young adult towards arranged marriage. Table 6 also showed that
there is no relationship between the type of school of young adults were before they enter college
and their view on arranged marriage with F values of 1.256, not significant at 0.292. According
to Tan (2008), the last generation of Filipino Chinese community wants to preserve their purity of
Chinese blood by establishing exclusive Chinese schools, thus may lead to marrying a Chinese
individual to sustain the Chinese lineage. This differ with the results given by the study, because
the type of school alone cant surely predict their views and attitude towards partner selection
without considering other predictors to support this orientation.
Religious affiliation has no relationship to the attitude of a Chinoy young adult towards
arranged marriage as evidence in table 2 by the Chi Square value of 82.97, not significant at 0.418
and a Phi Coefficient of 0.744 not significant at 0.418.According to Ali, Liu, and Humedian,
(2004), only Islam religion follows the strict tradition of arranged marriage, and the research
doesnt have a muslim respondent (see Appendix C). The results cant directly affect their past
research regarding religion and arranged marriage. But the goodness of the research found out that
through the evidence of intercept value of 236.143, significant at 0.00, religion and educational
background taken together is a significant predictor of attitude towards arranged marriage. These
two independent variable will only affect the dependent variable if they were taken as one.
Another hypothesis showed with Beta coefficient of 0.488 is significant at 0.00, that family
conservatism can predict the views of the respondents on arranged marriage. This explains the
relationship of similar neutral response of the respondents towards their personal thought about
family conservatism and that resulted on having an unsure response towards arranged marriage.
238

Based on the findings of the study, Chinoy young adults nowadays, are silent about their
attitude on arranged marriage. One predictor is that they have an unsure response on being in a
conservative family or not. In interpreting these responses, inconsistency of the parents decision
on being conservative to their children might be the reason behind these young adults thoughts.
Family Conservatism is a reliable predictor of Chinoy young adults attitude towards
arranged marriage. While religion itself is not a good predictor of ones attitude. The research also
conclude that the type of school the respondents were before they enter college, whether they came
from an exclusive girls school or exclusive boys school or they came from a Co educational school
with mix genders, is not a good predictor of having a certain attitude towards arranged marriage.
But if religion and educational background are combined, the interception of both independent
variables highly affect the dependent variable.
These predictors (Religion, Family Conservatism and Educational Background) might help
develop Tans (2008) study on Chinese blood preservation. According to Tan (2008), the last
bastion of tradition of the Chinoys that will fight to death is preservation of its pure Chinese blood,
and he also quoted that Currently, it is still a taboo for a Filipino-chinese to marry someone who
is not Chinese. In that statement, the researcher recommend to make a study regarding the
correlation of the predictors (Religion, Educational Background, and Family Conservatism) to
Chinese blood preservation. Future researchers could also make a study about the correlation of
Chinoy young adults attitude towards arranged marriage to preservation of Chinese lineage.
239

REFERENCES
Ali, S., Liu, w., & Humedian, M. (2004). Islam 101: Understanding the Religion and Therapy
Implications. The American Psychological Association, 35, 635-642.
Chu, R. (2013). Reconstituting histories of Filipino families with Chinese ancestry: Methodology,
Sources and Relevance. Kritika Kultura, 1-29.
Chua,
A. (2004, August 6). Exploring the chinoy subculture.

http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/index.php?showtopic=14360
Retrieved
from
Collins, A. (2003). More than myth: The developmental significance of romantic relationships
during adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 13(1), 1-24.
Fricke, Chang, and Yang. (1994). Historical and Ethnographic Perspectives on the Chinese family.
Social Change and the Family in Taiwan. Arland Thornton and Lin, Hui-Sheng. Chicago
and London, the University of Chicago Press: 22-48
Greca, A., & Kuttler, A. (2004). Linkages among adolescent girls romantic relationships, best
friendships, and peer networks. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 395414.
Henry, J., Helm, H., & Cruz, N. (2011). Mate selection: Gender and generational differences.
North American Journal of Psychology, 15, 1, 63-70.
Jensen, L. (2006). Liberal and Conservative Conceptions of Family: A CulturalDevelopmental
Study. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 16(4), 253269
Rubio, G. (2014 February). How Love Conquered Marriage: Theory and Evidence on the
Disappearance of Arranged Marriages, University of California, Los Angeles.
Tan, C (2008, June 25). Essay: Filipino-Chinese Marriage Practices. Retrieved from
http://charles-tan.blogspot.com/2008/06/essay-filipino-chinese-marriage.html
Trivedi, I. (2014, September 11). Why Arranged Marriage is dying. Retrieved from
http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india-in-love/why-arranged-marriage-is-dying/
240
Factors of Self-concept and Lewins Leadership Styles

Tricia B. Querubin
Rodelando Ocampo
Abstract
The study explored the possibility of an existing relationship between the
self-concept of leadership position holders in a certain banking institution in
Pampanga and their respective leadership styles according to Lewins theory.
The study further aimed to identify which among the components of selfconcept serve as predictors of the authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire
leadership styles. Total enumeration was used. Hence, the 40 leadership
position holders in the banking institution located in Pampanga were all
selected to participate as respondents of the study. Descriptive correlational
research was utilized to analyze the degree of the relationship between selfconcept and Lewins identified leadership styles and determine which
variables under self-concept can predict a leadership style. The findings
revealed that self-concept in general can predict leadership style but the
degree of relationship varies on each style.
Leadership has always remained puzzling to many others. Through the decades, more
studies about leadership has come to light. Up until now, there is no universal definition for
leadership, let alone a comprehensive theory regarding Leadership style. Early researchers started
in the trait theory and now modern researchers are exploring the biological components of
leadership.
According to Chamorro-Premuzic (2007) literature in leadership is eclectic and less
empirical than other individual difference concepts. The different schools of thought about
leadership suggest that it is related with Psychology. Many researchers have attempted to explain
the relationship between leadership and the different concepts of Psychology and the results of
such studies have come to considerable levels of disagreement. Despite the disagreements, Avolio,
Walumbwa, and Weber (2009) suggested that further research regarding the relationship between
leadership and self-concept will contribute to our understanding of how leaders and followers
develop. According to a study done by the American Productivity & Quality Center (APQC) this
2014, only 21% of the respondents believed that the leadership practices in their organization are
effective while almost 80% indicated that existing corporate challenges may require a change in
the leadership style.
An issue regarding Leadership is the faulty notion that the leader alone is responsible for
the success of the organization. According to Trina Soske and Jay A. Conger of the Harvard
Business review (2010), companies are investing a lot of money trying to focus on leadership
development programs but the investment falls short because the programs are focused on the
241

individual alone. The leader cannot accomplish goals and challenges alone. As stated Leadership
is distributed and change now requires a collective sense and a coordinated set of actions. Aside
from that, John T. Williams of Demand Media, (2014) stated additional concerns regarding
Leadership including attitude issues, communications concerns and attitude issues. An article by
Leigh Richards of Demand Media, (2014) further elaborated the issues stated by Williams (2014).
The Center for Creative leadership specified 6 common leadership challenges across 7 countries.
According to the article of Eckert, Gentry, Stawiski, and Zhao (2014) the common challenges are
as follows: Developing Managerial Effectiveness, Inspiring others, developing employees, leading
a team, guiding change, and Managing Internal Stakeholders and Politics.
In the end, a solid formula for effective leadership is yet to be identified through various
studies with approaches ranging from studying a leaders personal characteristics to the followers
responses to various leadership stimuli. Lussier & Achua (2010) stated that the best leadership
style is yet to be identified. Currently, there are many researches that address how leadership styles
affect follower behavior in various environments. There are similar studies in terms of framework
like Effects of Job Experience, Career Stage, and Hierarchy on Leadership Style by Giri and
Santra (2010) that explored the effects of job experience, career stage, and hierarchy to leadership
style. In congruence with what Daft (2008) stated that self-concept greatly affects leadership, the
researcher decided that it is important to look deeper into the relationship of self-concept and
leadership. However, there is an evident lack in terms of studies that tackle such relationship.
This study, therefore, aims to answer the following research questions:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
2.
a.
b.
c.
1. What is the respondents Self-concept in terms of the following:

Likeability
Task Accomplishment
Power
Vulnerability
Giftedness
Morality
What is the respondents Leadership style considering the following components;
Authoritarian
Democratic
Laissez Faire?
3.
Is there any significant relationship between the respondents Self-concept and their
Leadership style?
4.
Which particular factors of Self-Concept best predict the respondents Leadership
style; in terms of its components?
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Self-Concept
Self-concept is a part of ones individuality. Daft (2008) defines it as the collection of
attitudes a person has about himself. The perception a person conceives towards himself differs
from another. Some researches claim that self-concept greatly affects leadership. As Daft (2008)
stated, a positive self-concept is key to successful and effective leadership. As such, it is important
for a leader to define and construct his self-concept simply because he is a social being.
Furthermore, Lussier and Achua (2012) said that the perceived self-concept of a leader develops
into different leadership styles. Furthermore, a managers personality traits and attitudes directly
affect his behavior. Such behavior then translates into certain leadership styles as illustrated by
Kurt Lewins study at the University of Iowa. Lussier and Achua further suggest that a managers
behavioral treatment of employees determine the followers behavior and performance.
According to Weiten, Dunn, & Hammer (2012) self-concept is a set of beliefs about one's
own nature, distinctive qualities, and typical behavior. Ones self-concept is his mental picture of
himself. It is a collection of self-perceptions.
The study about self-concept can date back to the time of Greek Philosophy. Since then, a
multitude of studies were made along with the conception of various theories regarding selfconcept. It is noticeable that the literature of self-concept can be divided into two: Content based
Self-Concept and Structure based Self-Concept.
In accordance with the paragraph above, Hogg (2003) stated that the personal or
independent self is defined in terms of unique characteristics that distinguish the individual from
others. The collective self represents an extension of the self to include others, and denotes the
degree to which one defines oneself in collective terms, sees the self as similar to other members
of the collective, ascribes group-defining characteristics to the self, and takes the collective's
interests to heart.
McConell & Strain (2007) stated that the initial work regarding self-concept content
adopted a guiding metaphor that ones self-concept is a vessel filled by the ongoing accumulation
of ones life experience. Likewise, According to Oyserman & Markus, (1998) as stated by Leary
& Tangney (2011) self-concepts are cognitive structures that can include content, attitudes, or
evaluative judgments and are used to make sense of the world, focus attention on ones goals, and
protect ones sense of worth. Thus, if the self is an I that thinks and a me that is the content of
those thoughts, one important part of this me content involves mental concepts or ideas of who
one is, was and will become. These mental concepts are the content of self-concept. There are a
lot of factors considered as the contents of self-concept. Researches that centered about selfesteem, the effects of social interaction and Five-Factor Model are only a few examples.
Today, many psychologists agree that self-concept is not only based on the content but also
on the structure. As stated by Leary & Tangney (2011), people may organize and structure their
self-concepts around some domains that others commonly use to make sense of them.
243

According to Elosua and Jos Muiz (2010), the theoretical model of self-concept most
widely accepted among specialists is that proposed by Shavelson (Marsh, Byrne, & Shavelson,
1988; Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, 1976), who defines it as a multidimensional construct in
which four dimensions can be distinguished: academic, emotional, social, and physical selfconcept. Even before Shavelsons proposal was accepted, Carl Rogers indicated that even though
the Self changes, it always retains this patterned, integrated, organized quality (Cervone & Pervin,
2014). It advocates the idea of Self-concept as a structure of concepts.
According to Leary & Tangney (2011), Self-concepts also differ in how they are structured.
Researchers have documented differences in which content domains are organized together, in
complexity, in how positive and negative information is stored, and in the likelihood that strategies
for action are linked to self-goals. Furthermore, Tuttle and Tuttle (2004), Harter (1990), Jarvinen
& Nicholls (1996) Larsen & Buss (2008), and Baumrind (1991) agree that the knowledge of the
self does not happen all at once. It develops over years, starting in infancy, accelerating in
adolescence, and reaching completion in old age. Finally, Ayub (2010) stated that self-concept
changes in structure as well as in content like their achievements, socialization, exposure to the
outside world, opinions of others, and family support during the transition from childhood into
adolescence.
The factors of self-concept that are being measured are: likability which is the quality of
interpersonal accessibility and the capacity to foster pleasant and enjoyable relations with others.;
morality which refer to qualities universally valued as good and virtuous; task accomplishment or
the ability to complete tasks efficiently and capably; giftedness which is natural aptitude and talent;
power or the ability to influence others effectively; and vulnerability which refers to selfcriticalness and inability to perform under pressure. The latter four are also referred to as the
aspects of agentic behavior.
Leader and Leadership
The central figure of Leadership research is the leader. According to Slocum & Hellriegel,
(2007) a leader is a person who exhibits the key attributes of leadership-ideas, vision, values,
influencing others, and making tough decisions. Aligning it into the essentialist view, leaders are
people who are able to think and act creatively in non-routine situations and who set out to
influence the actions, beliefs and feelings of others. While according to the contextualists view, a
leader is not a person who leads others but a person who is spontaneously followed by others
before he or she is even aware of it. (Arvinen-Mundo & Perkins, 2013)
The study of Leadership has been going on since the start of the 20th century. One of the
earliest definition of Leadership is the ability to impress the will of the leader on those led and
induce obedience, respect, loyalty, and cooperation. (Moore, 1927, p. 124). Since leadership is
complex, and because it is studied in different ways that need diverse definitions, there has not
been any universal definition of leadership. (Lussier & Achua, 2010) For the sake of the research
paper, the definition of leadership according to Griffin & Moorhead (2014) will be used:
Leadership is both a process and property. As a process, leadership involves the use of
non-coercive influence. As a property, leadership is the set of characteristics attributed to someone
who is perceived to use influence successfully.
244

In association with that definition, Arvinen-Mundo & Perkins (2013) divided the
leadership theories into two categories: Essentialism and Contextualism. As stated by them,
Essentialists document idealized and universal personality traits and situations and match the
individual leaders orientation with certain organizational situations. It is a natural effect and social
scientists must search leaderships ideal character. For contextualists, leadership is shaped by
individual, (local) conditions, circumstances, time, and variations of human experience. The
emergent nature of leadership is emphasized, rather than specific behaviours demonstrated by the
leader. Much like self-concept, researchers argue whether leadership is a property or a process.
Despite all the attention given to leadership and its acknowledged importance, it remains a
black box, or unexplainable concept to many researchers. It is known to exist and to have a
tremendous influence on human performance, but its inner workings and specific dimensions
cannot be precisely spelled out. (Luthans, 2005)
Lewins Leadership Styles
A shift from the use of trait leadership paradigm to the behavioural leadership theory first
occurred around the 1940s. In Vandeveer & Menefees (2010) words The transition from what
leaders seem to be to what leaders do opened the door to the study of behavioural approach. One
of the catalysts for the behavioral approach was the work of Kurt Lewin. According to Lussier &
Achua, (2010) the behavioural leadership theory has greatly contributed to leadership research.
However, the goal of finding one best leadership style is yet to be attained
During the shift from trait to behavioural leadership theory, a study was conducted by Kurt
Lewin along with his associates Ronald Lippitt and Ralph K. White at the University of Iowa.
Their study proposed 3 leadership styles namely the authoritarian, democratic and laissez faire
style. In authoritarian leadership style, the leader directs his employees on what, when, why, &
how to do a certain task and does not encourage communication among group members. In
democratic leadership style, the leader encourages the group to participate and give inputs
regarding decisions and discussions. In laissez-faire leadership style, the leader has the handsoff attitude and lets the group manage themselves.
Authoritarian Leadership. In authoritarian leadership style, the leader directs his
employees on what, when, why, & how to do a certain task and does not encourage communication
among group members. In democratic leadership style, the leader encourages the group to
participate and give inputs regarding decisions and discussions. In laissez-faire leadership style,
the leader has the hands-off attitude and lets the group manage themselves. According to
Luthans (2005), productivity was not directly examined because Lewin and his associates focused
on the patterns of aggressive behaviour. But basing from their study, they found out that the
members of the authoritarian leader reacted either aggressively or apathetically towards the
frustration caused by their leader. In line with this statement, Northouse (2012) stated that
Authoritarian leaders give direction and clarity to peoples work and accomplish more in a shorter
period. On the negative side, it fosters dependence, submissiveness, and loss of individuality. The
above authors are in agreement that authoritarian leadership may create discontent, hostility and
even aggression.
Laissez-faire Leadership. Luthans (2005) stated that the laissez-faire leadership had the
greatest number of aggressive acts. In agreement with this statement, Northouse (2012) indicated
245

that laissez-faire leadership is the least productive because people are directionless and at a loss to
know what to do, they tend to do nothing. Without a sense of purpose and direction, group
members have difficulty finding meaning in their work; they become unmotivated and
disheartened.
Democratic Leadership. Lewin himself stated that democratic leadership yielded the most
productive outcomes. In accordance with this, Northouse (2012) stated that the democratic
leadership results in greater group member satisfaction, commitment and cohesiveness.
Friendliness, mutual praise, and group mindedness is present within the group and members are
more motivated and creative. While according to Luthans (2005), democratically led group fell in
between authoritarian and laissez-faire leadership styles. It produced fairly satisfactory results. In
contrast, Robbins & Coulter (2007) stated that no specific style was consistently better for
producing better performance but employees were more satisfied under a democratic leader than
an authoritarian leader.
Lewins study was not considered reliable by many researchers but that particular study
initiated the start of the Behavioral theory which contributed important concepts to other
researchers. Luthans (2005) asserted that the Iowa studies are too often automatically discounted
or at least marginalized because they were experimentally crude. Drawing generalizations from
Lewins study is perilous because of the following reasons: the subjects were preadolescent boys
that are a long way from adults working in a complex, modern organization and the variables were
not controlled. Nevertheless, these leadership studies have important historical significance. They
were the first to analyse leadership from the standpoint of scientific methodology, and more
important they showed that different styles of leadership can produce different, complex reactions
from the same or similar groups.
Self-concept and Leadership Styles
Daft (2008) said in his book entitled The Leadership Experience that values help
determine the set of attitudes possessed by a leader towards himself and towards his followers.
Such set of attitudes towards ones self is also referred to as self-concept. Basically, a leader with
positive self-concept is more effective in any situation in comparison to leaders with negative selfconcept. Furthermore, leaders with positive self-concept have high self-esteem whereas leaders
with negative self-concept have low self-esteem. According to Duperval (2008), leadership is as
much about skills as it is about emotions. It is easy to learn the notions that can help make a person
an effective leader but knowing and applying such are two different things. Duperval also stated
that leadership is affected not so much by what a person does not know but by what he is unwilling
to do. The unwillingness to do things is often caused by the lack of self-esteem which roots from
a negative self-concept.
Ferrer (2012) stated in her study that emotional intelligence has been found to significantly
and positively affect self-concept. On another note, Burbach (2004), as cited by Syndell (2008),
examined the effect of emotional intelligence as a predictor of leadership style with the moderating
effects of leaders cognitive styles and internal vs. external self-concept on the relationship
between emotional intelligence and leadership style. Burbach found out in his study that emotional
intelligence and leadership style have significant predictive relationship. His results further
showed a significant predictor relationship between emotional intelligence and the laissez-faire
246

leadership style. Putting the two studies premises together, it can be said that self-concept may
also serve as a predictor of leadership style.
SYNTHESIS
The various authors cited in this review have agreed that self-concept affects ones sense
of worth and helps focus a persons attention on goals even though their factors of self-considered
they have identified varied based on their perspectives. Much attention has been given to the study
of leadership. However, its relationship to various concepts in psychology like self-concept
remains a puzzle to most researchers. Different studies have tackled different views and involved
varying parameters about self-concept and leadership. However, these studies have been done
independently from each other. There are some studies that studied other derivatives or influencers
of self-concept like emotional intelligence and its relationship with leadership styles. But, there is
an evident lack in the direct association of self-concept and leadership styles. Some authors have
also suggested that studying the relationship of the said variables will contribute to understanding
how leaders and followers develop and have recommended it as an area for further study. The
researcher, through this review of related literature, seeks to fill in that mentioned gap by
attempting to correlate directly the notion of self-concept and leadership styles.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The research utilized the descriptive correlation design to analyse the strength of the relationships
between self-concept variables and leadership style variables. It was used to relate the different
aspects of self-concept as potential predictors of a managers leadership style according to Lewins
theory.
Participant Description
The participants of the study are all members of a banking institution in Pampanga. The
respondents belong to lower and middle management positions in the said institution. The group
is composed of both male and female respondents, with ages ranging from 25-55 years old.
Sampling Procedure
Total enumeration was used by the researcher for this study primarily because the banking
institution in Pampanga that was contacted by the researcher was composed of 40 leadership
position holders. As such, the entire population of leadership position holders were selected to
participate as respondents of the study regardless of age, hierarchy in leadership, or gender.
Data Gathering
247

Instruments
There were two questionnaires used for the purpose of this study. The first one is the Six-Factor
Self-Concept Scale for adults (SFSCS). The SFSCS was developed by Dr. Jane Stake at the
University of Missouri, St. Louis. The scale is a multidimensional measure of adult self-concept
that was designed to have broad applicability across life settings, roles, and activities. It is a 36item test with 6 subscales: Likability, Morality, Task Accomplishment, Giftedness, Power, and
Vulnerability.
The last test is the Leadership Style questionnaires test derived from the book Introduction to
Leadership: Concepts and Practice 2nd edition by Peter G. Northouse. According to the said book,
the questionnaire is designed to measure three common styles of leadership: authoritarian,
democratic, and laissez-faire. It is made up of 18 items with a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (=
strongly disagree) to 5 (= strongly agree).

The researcher sent a letter of request to the Vice President of the company to ask for their approval
in conducting a survey on their employees. When the letter has been processed and the company
granted their approval, the researcher sent the questionnaires along with instructions on how to
distribute and administer the test to the Vice President.
The questionnaires were distributed to the participants according to the discretion of the Vice
President. The respondents received the stapled set of questionnaires along with its respective
instructions and the researchers assurance of information confidentiality. The participants
received the following questionnaires: The Leadership Style questionnaire and Six-Factor SelfConcept Scale for adults (SFSCS).
Participants also provided the necessary information required by the researcher. Although they
were stapled, the participants are not expected to answer the questionnaires in order.
When all of the questionnaires had been answered, they were delivered back to the researcher.
The researcher then scored the test according to the instruction of the respective tests. The data
was encoded into the SPSS program.
Data Analysis
Scoring Guide
Before analyzing the data gathered using the SPSS program, the researcher recorded the
responses on the questionnaires using the following scoring guides:
Six-Factor Self-Concept Scale for adults (SFSCS)
Likeability items questions # 1, 8, 15, 23, 28, 34
Task Accomplishment items questions # 2, 9, 14, 20, 27, 33
248

Power items questions # 3, 7, 12, 17, 22, 29, 35
Vulnerability items questions # 4, 10, 16, 19, 25, 31
Giftedness items questions # 5, 13, 24, 30, 36
Morality items questions # 6, 11, 18, 21, 26, 32
The respondents rated themselves as follows:
1 Never true
2 Usually not true
3 Sometimes but infrequently true
4 Occasionally true
5 Often true
6 Usually true
7 Always true
The scores for each self-concept aspect were then added.
Scoring Interpretation
Numerical Range
Description
0-1.40
very low range
1.41-2.80
low range
2.81-4.20
moderate range
4.20-5.60
high range
5.61-7
very high range
Leadership Style Questionnaire

Scoring Procedure
1. Sum the responses on items 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, and 16 (authoritarian leadership).
2. Sum the responses on items 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, and 17 (democratic leadership).
3. Sum the responses on items 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18 (laissez-faire leadership).
249

Scoring Interpretation
Numerical Range
Description
610
very low range
1115
low range
1620
moderate range
21-25
high range
2630
very high range
Analysis Tools
The researcher made use of the regression analysis tool through the SPSS program to analyze the
relationship between the aspects of self-concept and the three leadership styles according to
Lewins theory. Regression analysis was also used to determine which among the self-concept
aspects can serve as predictors of a managers leadership style. Mean was also used to determine
the average self-concept score of the sample and then analyzed holistically using the regression
approach to be able to determine whether or not the self-concept score as a whole can predict the
leadership style of the respondents.
RESULTS
The respondents self-concept. Table 1 exhibits the general self-concept of the
respondents in terms of self-concepts six aspects (Likeability, Task Accomplishment, Power,
Vulnerability, and Giftedness & Morality)
Table 1 Respondents Self-concept
Model
Mean
Standard Deviation
5.3820
.42098
Likeability
6.0250
.66515
Task accomplishment
6.0250
.51410
40 5.0000
.86267
3.8666
1.05889
Self-concept
Power
Vulnerability
250
Giftedness
5.0550
.82149
Morality
6.3208
.41586
Table 1 shows the number of respondents, means and standard deviations of Self-concept
and its sub scales. The self concept as a whole, gained a mean of 5.38 and a standard deviation of
0.42. In general, it suggests that the respondents have a positive, high self-concept. Specifically,
the respondents gained a mean of 6.0250 in both Likeability and Task Accomplishment aspect,
with a standard deviation of 0.66 and 0.51 respectively. The means indicate that the respondents
scores are very high. The score in Power falls is high with a mean of 5.00 and a standard deviation
of 0.86. Vulnerability on the other hand, is moderate with a mean of 3.86 and a standard deviation
of 1.05. Giftedness gained a mean of 5.06 and standard deviation of 0.82 indicating that the scores
falls are also high. Lastly, Morality, with a mean of 6.32 and a standard deviation of 0.42 is
interpreted as very high.
The respondents Leadership style. Table 2 displays the three domains of Leadership
style (Authoritarian, Democratic, & Laissez-Faire)
Table 2 Leadership Style
N
Authoritarian
Democratic
Laissez-Faire
Mean Standard Deviation

18.83
2.85
40 24.23
2.27
18.53
2.45
Table 2 showed the mean and standard deviation values of the 3 leadership styles.
Authoritarian leadership style has a mean of 18.83 and a standard deviation of 2.85. On the other
hand, democratic leadership style is at a high range with a mean of 24.23 and a standard deviation
of 2.27. Finally, the laissez-faire leadership style with a mean of 18.53 and a standard deviation of
2.45. These results provide an implication that the respondents exhibited moderate usage of
Authoritarian and Laissez-Faire Leadership style and demonstrated high usage of Democratic
Leadership style.
The respondents Self-concept and Leadership style. Table 3 reveals the correlation of
Self-concept in general and the three domains of Leadership style (Authoritarian, Democratic, &
Laissez-Faire)
Table 3 Correlation of Self-concept and Leadership style
251
Self-concept
Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
Leadership style
.119
.464
Authoritarian
.326
0.040
-.315*
0.047
.167
3.02
Democratic
Laissez-Faire
40
Table 3 shows that generally, self-concept and leadership style are not correlated.
Nevertheless, the table illustrates that there is a significant relationship with self-concept and
particular leadership styles, specifically with authoritarian and democratic leadership style. This
interpretation was implied by the r-values and p-values gained: Authoritarian leadership style with
a Pearson correlation of .326 means that there is a moderate positive relationship between the
variables. This suggests that as self concept values increase, a moderate increase also occurs on
the authoritarian leadership tendencies. The p-value of 0.040 implies the significance of the
existing relationship Democratic leadership style gained a correlation coefficient of -.315 which
means that there is a moderate negative relationship between the variables. The data shows that as
self concept values increase, a moderate decrease in the democratic leadership style tendency
occurs. The p-value of 0.047 shows that the relationship is also significant. On the other hand, the
results on the laissez-faire leadership style, which has an r-value of .167 suggests that there is
negligible relationship between the variables. The p-value of 0.302 also suggests that the
relationship is insignificant.
Regression Analysis
In order to identify which aspects of self-concept serve as predictors of authoritarian, democratic,
and laissez-faire leadership styles, regression analysis was used.
Self-concept aspects and Authoritarian Leadership Style. Table 4 presents the specific
aspects of self-concept that predicts Authoritarian Leadership style
Table 4 Self-concept Aspects and Authoritarian Leadership Style
Model
Standardized Coefficients p-value

Beta
Self-concept
Likeability
252
0.33
.04
0.23
0.12
Task accomplishment
0.30
0.16
Power
0.38
0.02
Vulnerability
0.30
0.04
Giftedness
-0.30
0.04
Morality
-0.38
0.03
Table 4 illustrates that authoritarian leadership style can be predicted by some aspects of
self-concept namely Power, Vulnerability, Giftedness and Morality. Power which has a beta
coefficient of 0.38 is significant at 0.02. Since the beta value for likeability is positive, it means
that the higher likeability values relate to higher tendencies of developing the authoritarian
leadership style. Vulnerability, with a beta coefficient of 0.30 is also significant at 0.04. Using the
beta value, it can be stated that higher task accomplishment leads to the development of
authoritarian leadership style. Giftedness has a beta coefficient of -0.30 and is significant at 0.04
as well. Its beta value suggests that higher giftedness values relate to lower tendencies of
developing the authoritarian leadership style. Lastly, Morality, with a beta coefficient of -0.38 is
also significant at 0.03. The negative beta value illustrates that higher morality lowers the tendency
of being an authoritarian leader.
Using the overall self-concept scores of the respondents, the beta score of 0.33 which is significant
at 0.04 suggests that self-concept as a whole can predict the leaders authoritarian tendency. The
beta value means that higher self-concept values translate to higher tendencies of being an
authoritarian leader.
Self-concept aspects and Democratic Leadership Style. Table 4 presents the specific
aspects of self-concept that predicts Democratic Leadership style
Table 5 Self-concept Aspects and Democratic Leadership Style
Model

Beta
Self-concept
-0.32
.05
Likeability
-0.03
0.89
Task accomplishment
-0.22
0.41
Power
0.05
0.82
Vulnerability
-0.21
0.25
Giftedness
-0.06
0.75
253
Morality
-0.05
0.84
Table 5 shows that, likeability, task accomplishment, vulnerability, giftedness, and

morality all have negative beta values. This means that these factors are inversely associated with
the development of the democratic leadership style. Power has a positive beta value which means
that higher power concept leads to higher chances of developing the democratic leadership style.
However, the relationship of each factor under self-concept to the democratic leadership style is
insignificant.
On the other hand, the beta value of -0.32 was found to be significant at 0.05. However, the
negative beta coefficient suggests that higher self-concept translates to lower tendencies of
developing the democratic leadership style.
Self-concept aspects and Laissez-faire Leadership Style. Table 4 presents the specific
aspects of self-concept that predicts Laissez-faire Leadership style
Table 6 Self-concept Aspects and Laissez-faire Leadership Style
Model

Beta
Self-concept
0.17
0.30
Likeability
.12
.54
Task accomplishment
.17
.52
Power
.17
.41
Vulnerability
-.12
.51
Giftedness
.02
.90
Morality
-.10
.66
Table 6 demonstrates that laissez-faire leadership style cannot be predicted by any of the
self-concept aspects.Based on the beta coefficients, the beta score of self-concept of 0.17 is not
significant at 0.30. Therefore, the respondents self-concept score as a whole cannot predict the
laissez-faire leadership style.
DISCUSSION
Based on the results presented above, there is no significant relationship between self-concept and
leadership styles in general. But, there is a significant relationship between Authoritarian and
Democratic Leadership style and Self-concept. This may be attributed to the environment that the
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respondents have within a banking institution. Normally, followers are not given too much free
hand in this line of work. As such, the environment may not be suitable for the development of the
laissez-faire leadership style. The respondents also belong to the high range of democratic
leadership and moderate range of authoritarian and laissez-faire leadership style. This means that
the respondents are more inclined towards using the democratic leadership style in their workplace.
With respect to the relationship that manifested between self-concept and the authoritarian
leadership style, it can be stated that higher self-concept leads to higher tendencies of developing
the authoritarian leadership style. This coincides with the common knowledge that authoritarian
leaders give direction and clarity to peoples work and accomplish more in a shorter period. As
such, these leaders need to trust their judgment more often and this can only be possible when a
person has high regard for his intuition and self worth. However, not all of the self-concept aspects
can serve as predictors of the authoritarian leadership style. Only power, vulnerability, giftedness,
and morality are the aspects of self-concept than can predict the authoritarian leadership style. On
another note, giftedness and morality are inversely related to the authoritarian leadership style.
This may be due to the notion that authoritarian leaders stick with organizational policies and
systems and does not require much gifted skills in conceptualizing and planning. This may also be
due to the fact that most of the respondents are from the lower and middle management which are
positions that do not require too much conceptualizing.
On the other hand, the over-all self-concept scores of the respondents can also predict the
democratic leadership style. However, self-concept as a whole is inversely related to democratic
leadership. This means that the higher the leaders self-concept is, the less inclined the leader
becomes toward being democratic. This may be due to the idea that democratic leaders depend on
their followers in accomplishing tasks and that democratic leaders encourage his members to
participate in the decision-making process. As such, value is distributed among the members and
the leader unlike with the authoritarian leadership style where it is central to the leader. On a peraspect basis, there is no visible relationship between self-concept and leadership style.
Finally, there is no relationship between the over-all self-concept of the respondents and the
laissez-faire leadership style. The individual aspects of self-concept also cannot predict the said
leadership style. This is in contrast with the inference earlier made by the researcher based on the
findings of Burbach (2004) combined with the statement of Ferrer (2012) that self-concept may
serve as a predictor of leadership style, particularly the laissez-faire.
Conclusion
In general, the respondents have a positive, high self-concept. Specifically, there are 5 aspects of
self-concept which has a high range of score namely, likeability, task accomplishment, giftedness,
and power. Vulnerability on the other hand, is only at moderate level. Finally, the score on morality
is interpreted as very high. Based on the results, the respondents are highly inclined to democratic
leadership. They are also inclined to authoritarian and laissez-faire leadership style but only to an
average level. As a whole, Self-concept is not correlated with Leadership style.
However, specific leadership styles, particularly the authoritarian and democratic leadership styles
have a significant relationship with self-concept. It is indicated that higher self-concept leads to
higher tendencies of developing the authoritarian leadership style. Nevertheless, not all of the selfconcept aspects can serve as predictors of the authoritarian leadership style. Only power,
255

vulnerability, giftedness, and morality are the aspects of self-concept than can predict the
authoritarian leadership style. On the other hand, Self-concept as a whole is inversely related to
democratic leadership. This means that the higher the leaders self-concept is, the less inclined the
leader becomes toward being democratic. On a per-aspect basis, there is no visible relationship
between self-concept and leadership style.
Finally, there is no relationship between the over-all self-concept of the respondents and the
laissez-faire leadership style. The individual aspects of self-concept also cannot predict the said
leadership style. Over-all, self-concept can be used as a predictor of leadership style, particularly,
the authoritarian and democratic leadership styles. Aside from the respondents inclination toward
the said leadership styles, it can be assumed that they are more appropriate to utilize than laissezfaire leadership style. The latter leadership style may not be suitable to the nature of work required
by a banking institution.
Recommendations
With the above mentioned conclusions, the researcher therefore recommends the following:
1. The results of the study can be used by HR managers of banking institutions, alongside
other screening tools to predict a lower to middle management applicants style of
leadership because the study was conducted only among lower and middle managers of a
banking institution.
2. Due to the geographic limitation of the study, it being conducted only in Pampanga, further
research is recommended to be conducted using a wider geographical scope.
3. Since the study was conducted in a banking institution setting, the researcher recommends
that other industries may also be explored using the same research design for comparison
purposes.
4. The same study may be conducted in the higher levels of management for verification and
comparison purposes because they were not included in this study.
256

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259
Peer Pressure and Parenting Style as a Predictor of Pasaway

Sam Huevas
Juli-ann Alonso
Abstract
This study focuses on peer pressure and parenting styles as a predictor of
being pasaway of students of San Beda College Alabang aged 18 years old
up to 20 years old. A total of 180 respondents were gathered from San Beda
College Alabang. Correlational Research Method was used in determining
the relationships between the variables. The results from the study showed
that the significant value between peer pressure and pasaway is .000 (p<0.01)
while the significant value of parenting style and pasaway is .006 (p<0.01)
and both variables are correlationally significant at the 0.01 level. The results
also showed that parenting style is more significant as a predictor of pasaway
than peer pressure because the significant value of parenting style is 0.006
(p<0.01).
Peer conformity, sometimes referred to as peer pressure, occurs when individuals choose
to adopt the attitudes or behaviors of others because of real or imagined pressure. Peer pressure is
giving in to what your peers are doing just to be accepted by them or to feel that you belong to a
certain group. Peer pressure can either be positive or negative depending on how the teen accept
the pressure given to him by his peers. Positive peer pressure can help develop the skills of the
teens in socializing with other people, it can also help the teen have big circle of friends that can
encourage and give advice to one another when someone needed one and it also helps the teen to
have new experiences and also in positive peer pressure adolescents choose friends who have
characteristics or talents that they admire, which motivates them to achieve and act as their friends
act. Friends encourage adolescents to study hard at school and can also help them think more
creatively while negative peer pressure can impair good judgement, make risk-taking decisions
and it can also make the teen staying away from their family when they are against the things you
and your peers are doing. In negative peer pressure across a variety of cultural settings, adolescents
tend to be friends with those who are most like them. In fact, sociodemographic characteristics are
usually the strongest predictors of friendship formation. Different types of peer groups have unique
capacities to encourage negative or positive behaviors in their members. Adolescent misconduct
most often occurs in groups even though families help their children these teens still tend to spend
more time with their peers because they are more accepting with the actions, feelings and thoughts
they have while searching for a identity because they have the same age and way of thinking during
those time.
According to Diana Baumrind there are different types of parenting styles and these are
authoritative, permissive, authoritarian, and uninvolved. Permissive parents are deeply in touch
with their overwhelming affection for their children, which is no small thing. Uninvolved parenting
260

emphasizes learning through experience: you dont shelter your children from the lessons that
naturally happen from their mistakes. Authoritarian parents do not accept the notion that the home
is a democracy with the loudest voices winning. Old-fashioned rules help your children understand
where they stand, what they are allowed to do, and what is expected of them. Authoritative parents
have been found to have the most effective parenting style in all sorts of ways: academic, social
emotional, and behavioral. Like authoritarian parents, the authoritative parents expect a lot from
their children, but also they expect even more from their own behavior. They are willing to say,
"No," or lay down the line, but they are careful to remain calm, kind, and patient about empathizing
with the childs perspective. Negative parenting includes behaviors such as abuse, neglect, over
control, and harsh punishment.
Originally, "Pasaway" is not a Tagalog/Filipino word. It is a word in Ilonggo (dialect in
Iloilo and Bacolod Cities in the central part of the Philippines called Visaya).
Through word of mouth and media exposure, this was picked up by celebrities and is now
part of the "street talk" in the Tagalog speaking regions, particularly in Metro Manila.
Basically, Pasaway means a stubborn person; a trouble-maker; hard-headed, or
sometimes naughty. While it was first used as a derisive comment, it has now been accepted as a
light hearted word or a joke, to mean "you are an attention getter" or somebody seeking attention;
or someone that could not be stopped in doing naughty things.
Peer pressure and Parenting Style are both predictors of "Pasaway". The objective of this
study is to find out whether peer pressure is more effective than parenting style in predicting
"pasaway".The study aims to sought or provide answers to these following questions: (1) what is
the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of age? (2) What is the level of pasaway
among the respondents? (3) What is the level of peer pressure among the respondents? (4) What
are the different parenting style of Baumrind that the respondents have experienced? (5) Is there
a significant relationship between peer pressure and pasaway among the respondents? (6) Is
there a significant relationship between parenting style and pasaway among the respondents?
(7)Which among peer pressure and parenting style is more effective in predicting "'pasaway"?
Peer Pressure
For the past two years, different studies (Weaver, Cheong, MacKinnon & Pentz, 2011;
McKay & Cole, 2012; Chan & Chan, 2013; Allen, Chango, Szwedo, Schad & Marston, 2012;
Prinstein, Brechwald & Cohen, 2011) have explored in susceptibility to peer pressure by
adolescent. In the study of Weaver, Cheong, MacKinnon & Pentz (2011), they used 680
adolescents as the participants and the result showed that general peer norms in seventh grade and
middle school growth in alcohol use norms among close friends was predictive of a greater
propensity to consume alcohol in ninth grade among White adolescents. In the study of McKay &
Cole (2012), they used 11-16 year old schoolchildren in Northern Ireland as the participants and
261

the results showed that increasing levels of drinking, assessed by a composite measure are
associated with the social risk factors assessed, namely greater susceptibility to peer pressure, less
conformity and lower levels of desire for peer popularity. In the study of Chan & Chan (2013),
they used 500 Hong Kong secondary school students as the participants and the results showed
that mothers behavioral control and psychological control predicted adolescents susceptibility to
the pressure in negative and positive directions respectively. In the study of Allen, Chango,
Szwedo, Schad & Marston (2012), they used 157 adolescents as the participants and the results
showed the importance of both internal factors (e.g., autonomy and relatedness struggles) and
external factors (e.g., social status of friends) in explaining why vulnerability to peer influence
processes may be much greater for some adolescents than others. In the study of Prinstein,
Brechwald & Cohen (2011), they used 36 adolescent boys as the participants and the results
showed that only among adolescents with high levels of susceptibility to high-status peers was a
significant longitudinal association revealed between their best friends baseline deviant behavior
and adolescents own deviant behavior 18 months later.
Parenting Styles
For the past eight years, there are different studies (Aunola & Nurmi,2005; Milevsky,
Schlechter, Netter & Keehn, 2007; Spera, 2005; Lansford, Criss, Pettit, Dodge & Bates, 2010;
Smith & Farrington, 2004; Narusyte, Andershed, Neiderhiser & Lichtenstein, 2007) about the
parenting styles of parents in their children. In the study of Smith & Farrington (2004) they
used 411 Inner London males (Generation 2, or G2), their female partners, their parents (G1) and
their children (G3) and the result showed parental conflict and authoritarian parenting were
similarly related to early childhood conduct problems in two successive generations. In the study
of Aunola & Nurmi (2005) they used a total of 196 children (aged 56 years) were followed up
six times from kindergarten to the second grade to measure their problem behaviors and the results
showed that a high level of psychological control exercised by mothers combined with high
affection predicted increases in the levels of both internal and external problem behaviors among
children. Behavioral control exercised by mothers decreased children's external problem behavior
but only when combined with a low level of psychological control. In the study of Spera (2005) it
indicates that authoritative parenting styles are often associated with higher levels of student
achievement, although these ndings are not consistent across culture, ethnicity, and
socioeconomic status. In the study of Milevsky et al. (2007) they used 272 students in grades 9
and 11 from a public high school in a metropolitan area of the Northeastern US. The results showed
that authoritative mothering was found to relate to higher self-esteem and life-satisfaction and to
lower depression. Paternal parenting styles was also related to psychological adjustment, however,
although the advantage of authoritative mothering over permissive mothering was evident for all
outcomes assessed, for paternal styles the advantage was less dened and only evident for
depression.In the study of Narusyte et al. (2007) they used 1,314 twin pairs followed from age 13
14 to 1617 and the result showed that approximately half of the genetic contribution to the
association between parental criticism and delinquency was explained by early adolescent
aggression. It suggests that aggression in children evokes negative parenting, which in turn
influences adolescent antisocial behavior. In the study of Lansford et al. (2010) they used 362
parents in the summer preceding the adolescents entry into Grade 6 and the results showed that
having low-quality peer relationships and having peers perceived to be highly antisocial further
262

amplified the association between unilateral parental decision making and adolescent externalizing
behavior problems.
SYNTHESIS
Peer pressure is giving in to what your peers are doing just to be accepted by them or to
feel that you belong to a certain group. In this study the researcher found out that there a two ways
where a person acquire or give in to peer pressure and these are socializing with them and selecting
the possible peers a person want. In socializing with other people or your peer you intend to
conform in what they do even though it is new for you or there will be a consequence either good
or bad from the action that you have done as long as you did what they do or say to you for you to
feel welcome and accepted by the group. In selecting your peers where you feel like you belong,
welcome and accepted by them you intend to be influenced by what they are doing so in selecting
your peers you should think thoroughly and think wisely so that there wont be a problem in the
future. For example, if most of your peers are drinking alcohol you tend to be influenced by also
drinking alcohol when they invite you to join them because you dont want to be left out or to feel
alone when you dont join them. In peer pressure most findings found that the person is more
susceptible in peer pressure if the person and her peers are close friends and if they both have
related or same struggles and problems in life because if they are close friends the person will have
a hard time to reject an invitation from her close friend because she thinks that it will make them
feel sad or it will hurt their feelings and if they have the same problems or struggles in life it will
be a great factor on why she will conform because she thinks that they are thinking the same ideas
and thoughts at that time because of their same problems or struggles.
Parenting style is a psychological construct representing standard strategies that parents
use in their child rearing. Also the researcher found in study of Aunola & Nurmi (2005) that a
high level of psychological control exercised by mothers combined with high affection predicted
increases in the levels of both internal and external problem behaviors among children and in the
study of Milevsky et al. (2007) authoritative type of parenting style by mothers was found to relate
to higher self-esteem and life-satisfaction and to lower depression. In one study it suggests that
aggression in children evokes negative parenting, which in turn influences adolescent antisocial
behavior.
The researcher wants to study whether peer pressure is more effective that parenting style
in predicting pasaway.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The purpose of this study is to know whether peer pressure is more effective than parenting
style in predicting "pasaway". The researcher used Descriptive Correlational Method to describe
the different levels of pasaway, levels of peer pressure and different parenting styles. In addition,
to relate the level of pasaway of the respondents with the level of peer pressure and different
parenting style the researcher used regression statistics.
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A total of 180 students who are ages 18 to 20 years old who are studying in San Beda
College Alabang was used as participants. There is no specific course needed to be a participant
of this study. A total of 36.1% of the participants were from 18 years old (n=65), 35% of the
participants were from 19 years old (n=63) and lastly 28.9% of the participants were from 20 years
old (n=52). In choosing the participants, the researcher used purposive sampling in gathering data
and informations needed for the study. The researcher have the criteria of age bracket that the
respondent should be from 18 to 20 years old and should be pasaway which means that any person
that have those criterias have equal chances of being chosen as a participant for the study with the
criteria.
Instrument
The students answered three different kinds of questionnaires to know the level of their
peer pressure using the Peer Pressure Test, Measure of Parental Style to know the different
parenting style that the student experienced while growing up. All these questionnaires undergo
pilot testing with 10 people who are not part of the participants.
"Pasaway". (See Appendix A). A self made questionnaire that measure the level of
pasaway of the respondents. It is composed of 30 statements that can be answered in a scale from
1-4. 1 as Never, 2 as Sometimes, 3 as Frequently and 4 as Always. The scoring starts with counting
how many answered Never and Sometimes then sums it up that corresponds to having low level
of pasaway then count how many answered Frequently and Always then sums it up that
corresponds to having high level of pasaway. If the sum is equal to both then the level of pasaway
is moderate.
Measure of Parental Style (MOPS). The MOPS is developed by Black Dog Institute (see
Appendix B). It is a self-assessment tool used to measure perceived parenting styles that the
researcher modified across the following four styles: Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive and
Uninvolved. It is composed of 30 statements where 15 statements is about mother and the other
15 statements is about the father. These questions were answered on the scale of 1-4, with 4 being
extremely true and 1 being not true at all. The scoring starts by summing the scores of the
responses to items in each of the three categories to produce a total score for each category. There
is no cut-off score; the total score for each category provides a dimensional measure showing the
degree to which that parental style was experienced by an individual.
Peer Pressure. (See Appendix C) The Peer Pressure Items (Santor et al., 2000) was used
to measure the level of peer pressure that a person one has experienced. The peer pressure test is
composed of 10 questions. The total yes responses from the peer pressure reflects the level of
peer pressure that the person experienced.
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Procedure
The researcher seek permission from the respondents to answer some questionnaires. Prior
to their answering of the questionnaire researcher will discuss and give small introduction about
the research. After giving a brief background about the study the researcher will now administer
the first questionnaire which is Peer Pressure Inventory followed by Measure of Parental Style and
lastly the instrument that the research made.
The participant will be given ample time to answer each questionnaire so that they can
concentrate well with the questions and answer them as honest as possible. The researcher doesnt
need to pressure the participant in answering the questionnaires so that the participant will not joke
around their answers and also they will not panic and just answer without really reading the
statements. The researcher just need to wait for them to finish answering each questionnaires.
When the participant is done answering all the questionnaires the researcher will check
each questionnaires if they answered all the items and no items is leaved blank. After the researcher
is done checking all the questionnaires the researcher will now say thank you to the participant for
their time and cooperation.
The researcher will also say to the participant that the answers and results of the
questionnaires will remain anonymous and confidential and will only be used for the research only.
If the participant like to know the result of his questionnaires the researcher is willing to tell him
after the researcher checked it and after the research is done.
Data Analysis
The researcher used Pearson r to get the correlation between the three variables. After
getting the result the researcher will then interpret the data whether the variables are related to one
another. The researcher also used Regression Analysis in determining whether the dependent
variable which is pasaway have a significant relationship between the two independent variables
which are peer pressure and parenting style. Microsoft Excel and SPSS (Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences) software were used in computing the datas.
Results and Discussion
Demographics
Table 1. Demographic Profile of the Respondents in terms of Age
Age
Frequency Percentage %
18 years old
65
36.1 %
19 years old
63
35 %
265
20 years old
52
28.9 %
The total number of participants gathered is 180 participants from the age group of 18 years
old up to 20 years old. All of the participants are studying from San Beda College Alabang. The
mean age of the participants were 18.93 with a standard deviation of .805. In Figure 1 it shows
that 36.1% (65) were 18 years old, 35% (63) were 19 years old and 28.9% (52) were 20 years old.
Pasaway
The data presented below shows the respondents level of pasaway after answering the
questionnaire that will measure their level of pasaway.
Table 2. Level of pasaway
Level of Pasaway
Percent
High
38
21.11%
Moderate
12
6.67%
Low
130
72.22%
Total
180
100%
Out of 180 participants there are 130 (72.22%) participants who have low level of pasaway
and there are 38 (21.11%) participants who have high level of pasaway.
Parenting Style
Measure of Parental Style questionnaire allowed the researcher to identify what
kind of parenting style does the participants perceived during their first 16 years about the
behaviour of their mother and father towards them.
Table 3. Different Parenting Styles experienced by the respondents
Age
Authoritaria
n
Authoritati
ve
Permissiv
e
Uninvolve
d
18
years old
610
203
116
381
19
years old
597
188
146
386
266
20
years old
453
146
95
188
Tot
1660
537
357
955
al
There are different kinds of parenting styles that a parent can use in guiding and teaching
their children while growing up. The researcher used the Baumrind Parenting Styles and these are
Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive and Uninvolved Parenting Styles. Measure of Parental
Style (MOPS) is a test that measure the parenting styles and after gathering all the data the result
in Table 2 showed that most of the participants asked to answer the test have experienced
Authoritarian Parenting Style from their parents from the first 16 years of their lives. Parents who
used Authoritarian Parenting Style with their child have a negative effect on the behaviour of the
child because they want their strict rules to be followed unconditionally by their child. It was
negative in a way that the child will act somehow aggressive every time they are outside of the
house because the child doesnt have any freedom when they are at home with their parents. The
child can also have conduct problems and be rebellious towards their parents to show their
dissatisfaction on what is going with their life at the moment or as an outlet of what they are feeling
because they often use punishment rather than discipline with their child but not willing or able to
explain the reason behind their strict rules. It is supported by the study of Smith and Farrington
(2004) where they said in their study that parental conflict and authoritarian parenting were
similarly related to early childhood conduct problems in two successive generations.
Peer Pressure
Peer Pressure test was used by the researcher to measure the level of peer pressure that the
respondents have experienced in their lives
Table 4. Level of peer pressure
Level of Peer Pressure
Percent
High
32
17.78%
Moderate
12
6.67%
Low
136
75.55%
180
100%
Total
Peer pressure is when individuals choose to adopt the attitudes or behaviors of other people
because of real or imagined pressure. It is also giving in to what your peers are doing just to be
accepted by them or to feel that you belong to a certain group. The researcher wanted to know the
level of peer pressure of the respondents that is why the researcher used the modified Peer Pressure
test to measure the level of peer pressure of each respondents. The results showed that out of 180
267

participants there are 136 (75.55%) participants who have low level of peer pressure and 32
(17.78%) participants have high level of peer pressure. There are a lot of factors to consider why
people give in to peer pressure it can be internal factor like autonomy, attitude, beliefs, core values
and relatedness struggles or external factors like social status of friends and media. These factors
help the individual to think whether they want give in or not with the peer pressure that they are
experiencing. It is supported in the the study of Chan and Chan (2013) where they said that
mother's behavioral and psychological control predicted adolescents' susceptibility to the pressure
in negative and positive directions respectively and also in the study of Allen et al., (2012) where
they said that the importance of both internal factors and external factors in explaining why
vulnerability to peer influence processes may be much greater for some adolescents than others.
Peer Pressure and Pasaway
Table 5. Correlational Values between peer pressure and pasaway
pasaway
Pasaway
peerpressure
-.461**
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
N
peerpressure Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
180
180
-.461**
.000
180
180
**.Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

As seen in Table 5, the significance of correlation is .000 where the model is
acceptable at a 99% confidence interval. Correlational values show a negative value of -.461 which
represents a correlation between peer pressure and pasaway. Negative correlation value means that
as the values of one of the variable increases, the values of the second variable decreases or it can
be that as the value of one the variables decreases, the value of the other variable increases.
Parenting Style and Pasaway
Table 6. Correlational values between parenting style and pasaway
268
Pasaway
pasaway
parentalstyle
.189*
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
.011
N
parentalstyle Pearson Correlation
180
180
.189*
Sig. (2-tailed)
.011
180
180
*.Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

As seen in Table 6, the significance of correlation is .011 where the model is acceptable at a 95%
confidence interval. Correlational values show a positive value of .189 which represents a
correlation between parenting style and pasaway. Positive correlation value means that as the
values of one of the variable increases, the values of the second variable also increases or it can be
that as the value of one of the variables decreases, the value of the other variable also decreases.
Peer Pressure and Parenting Style and Pasaway
Table 7. Anova table for the goodness of fit
ANOVA
Model
1
Sum of Squares
Regression
df
Mean Square
3024.670
1512.335
Residual
10956.058
177
61.899
Total
13980.728
179
a. Dependent Variable: pasaway

b. Predictors: (Constant), parentalstyle, peerpressure
269
Sig.
24.432
.000b

Table 8. Coefficient table for estimated coefficient values
Coefficients
Mod
el
Unstandardiz
ed
Coefficients
Standardiz
ed
Coefficien
ts
Sig
.
20.28
2
.00
0
Std.
Erro
r
Beta
(Constant)
97.480
4.80
6
peerpressu
re
-.769
.120
-.442
6.389
.00
0
parentalsty
le
.042
.043
.067
.965
.33
6
a. Dependent Variable: pasaway

As seen in Table 6, the goodness of fit of the regression is at a value of .000 (p<0.05) where this
suggest that the model is a good fit of the data. As seen in Table 7, the coefficient estimate of peer
pressure is less than 0.05 because the value is .000 (p<0.05) while the coefficient estimate of
parental style is greater than 0.05 because the value is .336 (p>0.05) which suggest that peer
pressure is statistically significant to the prediction of "pasaway" while parental style does not.
Conclusion And Recommendation
Based on the findings of the study there were conclusions made by the researcher. The
research answered the question that the researcher wanted to know in the study that all three
variables are correlated with one another. The focus of the research is whether peer pressure is
more effective than parenting style in predicting "pasaway". Peer pressure have the value of .000
(p<0.05) while parenting style have the value of .336 (p>0.05) which mean that among peer
pressure and parenting style, peer pressure is more effective in predicting pasaway because most
of the time the child is with their peers which mean that the influence and behavior of their peers
are adapted by the child. According to Allen et al., (2012) the importance of both internal and
external factors in explaining why vulnerability to peer influence processes may be much greater
for some adolescents than others which means that when the child have the same struggles in life
with their peers and their peers have high social status they tend to conform even though the action
can be regarded as "pasaway".
270

The researcher recommends that future researchers should get more respondents from other
schools to compare the results to know if there are other variables that may affect the outcome of
the study. The researcher also recommends that future researchers should include other factors that
may influence the level of pasaway of the individual.
271

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274
Soccer Intervention as Instrument to Enhance Adolescents Health

And Social Standing from Smoking
Justin Kevin Lee
Juli-ann L. Alonso
Abstract
This study focuses on the effect of soccer intervention in enhancing the
smoking adolescents' health and social standing. The aim of this study was to
test the efficacy of playing soccer to increase their confidence, enhance their
physical health and social standing. A total of thirty participants were
gathered from the two major colleges of Oriental Mindoro. A QuasiExperimental method was used to observe the effect on the behavior of the
dependent variables (treatment participants) from the behavior of the
independent variable (control participants). The result of the study suggested
that there is a significant correlation between participants who were
monitored during their exercise drills and participants who administered the
exercises without supervision and in their own volition with a Correlation
value of 0.7951 at a significance of 0.2647 (p<0.40) where the data can be
accepted at a 95% confidence level. Findings also suggested that there is an
extremely significant correlation between physical health and improving
level of self-confidence with a Correlational value of 0.0001 at a significance
of 10.5569 (p<3.67) where the data could be accepted at 95% confidence
level.
The issue of smoking has been a perennial problem that humanity was not able to get rid
of until now. There is not a single country in the world that is completely free of smoking. Adults
and young people alike are alarmingly becoming drawn to the habit. The fact that smoking can
result to chronic illnesses or even death did not prevent them from incorporating it as part of their
routine. The number of adolescent smokers even doubled over time. Smoking affects all subsets
of adolescents. Their reasons for smoking depend on the following factors: psychological, social
and cultural.
Adolescents who started smoking due to peer pressure and other social factors fall under
the thirteen to fourteen years old age bracket. Most of them are not aware of the possible risks in
which they are exposing themselves into. Short-term adolescent smokers are likely to experience
respiratory and nonrespiratory effects as well as nicotine addiction. On the other hand, long- term
adolescent smokers are more likely to develop the habit through adulthood. In the study done by
Escobedo, LG (1993), students who play at least one sport are 40% less likely to be regular
smokers and 50% less likely to be heavy smokers. Regular and heavy smoking decreases
substantially by an increase in time and effort given to playing a sport.
275

According to Philip Morris internal report (1973), lower class earners smoke more than
the upper class earners. It has been observed that people belonging to the lower class view smoking
as a coping mechanism to combat poverty. This claim supports the assumption that many from the
lower class suffer from poor physical health. Moreover, the relationship between smoking and
health may be attributed not only to smoking per se but also to social class differences.
Over the years, there had been attempts to curb the numbers of young smokers. One popular
approach is sports intervention which is believed to be an aid to smoking cessation. Soccer, for
example, can help the youth to arrest their nicotine dependency.
Soccer or football is a popular sport among adolescents and is being played in most
countries. It involves eleven players on each side who normally use their legs, head and torso to
pass the ball and score a ball. The mechanics of the game require players to do sprinting, slow or
fast running and sometimes standing around.
Soccer is very easy to learn and it is ideal for people of all ages. The game can be very
beneficial to ones physical and cardiovascular health. It also lowers the body fat and improves
muscle tone. Strength, flexibility and endurance can be achieved through constant playing. The
regular shifting from walking to running or sprinting can do wonders for the body.
Aside from the physical health benefits soccer also teaches coordination, self-discipline,
teamwork and sharing. It is an ideal sport to help adolescents to refrain from smoking. Joining the
program will not only give them fun but it can also increase their confidence levels and social
standing.
There had been several school intervention approaches during the last forty years. As early
as the 1960s, The information Deficit Model was used to prevent teenagers from smoking. An
information campaign about the adverse effects of cigarettes was launched but it was ineffective
in discouraging young people to smoke. In the 1970s, The Affective Education Model was
applied in the hope of developing stronger intrapersonal resources and social competence. This
was done due to the complex set of personal factors related to smoking such as the quality of childparent relationship, social status and levels of self-esteem to peers, school and community. By the
1980s, The Public Health Model was developed with the goal of strengthening the non-smokers
resistance to the smokers invitation by teaching them skills to turn down the social pressure to
smoke.
Thus, this study tries to justify the positive effect of playing soccer on the improvement of
the participants health and social standing. It will try to give light to the following questions: (1.)
what are the participants health and social status during the pretest and current health and social
standing during the post test? (2.) Is there any significant difference between the control and
experimental groups pretest and posttest results? (3.) Does playing soccer yield a significant effect
on the participants physical, mental and social states considering its pretest and posttest results?
(4.) How effective is the soccer intervention on the adolescent smoking cessation?
276

Family as an important social influence
In the last ten years, several studies regarding adolescent smoking in family have been
explored. Family is an important social influence; few associations among family characteristics
and adolescent smoking have been examined. (Shakib, 2009) consisting of 3629 7th grade
adolescents. Studies show that girls are less like than boys to report smoking and are more likely
to report positive family relationship and having parents with negative attitudes toward them
smoking. Positive family relationships and age were strongly associated with smoking for both
genders.
During the industrial revolution, cigarettes became popularized in which it fostered yet
another unparalleled increased in growth. This remained so until the scientific revelations in the
mid-1900s. Nowadays, with the growing concern, worldwide countries unite to fight and attempt
to protect their people from the harms of smoking. They spend budget to employ media awareness
of negative effect to one's body and as well to people around them. Each country also ordained
laws and regulations, and apply other methods, such as additional extra tax above the cigarette
regular selling price to discourage people from smoking. Because of that, in the recent years, the
rate of smoker has declined to a certain degrees in those countries.
According to the study of the World Health Organization (2006), survey of 2,606 child-parent
pairs, children between 9-12 years of age were more likely at risk of smoking when their parents
restricted them from watching R-rated movies and consistently monitoring what movies their
children watched. In U.S alone, almost 47% adolescent try smoking by the time they are in 9th
grade and 90% adult smokers began before they were 18 years old.
Kegler & McCormick (2002) conducted a study whether which family might influence
adolescent smoking. 132 focus groups were conducted with African American, American Indian,
and Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and White youth. Similarities across race/ethnicity were
evident in the content of antismoking messages and the feeling among youth that they would get
in trouble with their parents if caught smoking. They concluded that African American and
Asian/Pacific Islander youth appeared more concerned about their parents thinking less of them if
they smoked than were youth from other racial/ethnic groups. White and American Indian youth
were more likely to discuss that their parents felt it was their own decision as to whether or not to
smoke than were the other groups.
Thus, smoking is not only affecting family but as well affecting the economy of a country.
"Cigarette use kills more than 5 million people per year. It is highly responsible for 1 in 10 adult
deaths." This is increasingly becoming a top major factor to the public health care for treating
cigarette-related diseases. Users are also less productive due to increase sickened and those who
die prematurely deprive their families of much needed income. One of the greater risk factor is
mortality. Smoking is a single most preventable cause of death wherein 11% of deaths were caused
from Ischaemic heart disease - the world's leading killer are attributed to cigarette use. More than
70% from lung, trachea and bronchus cancers, if this continues, it will kill more than 8 million
277

people per year by 2030. Up of half of the world's more than 1 billion smokers will die prematurely
of a cigarette-related disease.
Social standing
In the study done by Marmot (2010), it indicated that smoking has become the central to any
strategy to tackle the health inequalities as smoking accounts around half of the difference in life
expectancy between the lowest and highest income groups. There have been two to three times
smoking-related death on low-income groups comparing to higher income groups.
Christine L. Paul (2010) supported Marmot study by indicating a strong socio-economic
steepness of smoking prevalence that existed in number of countries which has persisted over the
time. Australia having the highest rate of 26% comparing to 13% for those in the higher socioeconomic position, it is indicated that differential exposure to smoking are derived from the social
and physical environment.
Many studies show that in the poorest households in some low-middle income countries,
more than 10% of the total household expenditure is on cigarette. This shows that these families
have less money to spend on such basic items as food, education and health care. Addition to the
direct effects, it also leads to increased health-care lost and contributes to higher malnutrition and
illiteracy rates, since money that can be allocated for food and education is spent of smoking. This
causes exacerbating poverty and hindering economic development to be fully recognized.
Sport intervention for smoking and exercise to enhance physical health
Wang & Etter (2004) has open enrollment of smokers via links and search engines with
voluntary follow-up for an Internet-based expert system in French and English. Wang & Etter's
paper describes the users and return rates of an effective intervention for smoking cessation that
has gone online. They conducted a survey which involves 18,361 people from 112 countries used
the program. By comparing the distribution of smokers in the general population in seven main
countries, smokers in the action stage (11%) were overrepresented among online program users.
Among the 3591 returnees in the study period (20%), they observed a median time to return of
132.5 days. One of the strongest predictors of return was stage of change with smokers in the
action stage being most likely to return (28%) and those in the precontemplation stage least likely
(14%). They concluded that the reach of an online public health intervention can be impressive in
geographical and numerical terms. Although the quality of behavioral data collected was high, the
utility of this medium for science should be refined.
According to Taylor & Faulkner (2008) taking regular exercise may help people give up
smoking by moderating nicotine withdrawal and cravings, and by helping to manage weight gain.
They conducted an experiment to determine whether exercise-based interventions alone or
combined with a smoking cessation program are more effective than a smoking cessation
intervention alone. They identified 13 trials, six of which had fewer than 25 people in each
treatment arm. They varied in the timing and intensity of the smoking cessation and exercise
programs. Three studies showed significantly higher abstinence rates in a physically active group
278

versus a control group at end of treatment. One of these studies also showed a significant benefit
for exercise versus control on abstinence at the three-month follow up and a benefit for exercise
of borderline significance (P = 0.05) at the 12-month follow up. One study showed significantly
higher abstinence rates for the exercise group versus a control group at the three-month follow up
but not at the end of treatment or 12-month follow up. The other studies showed no significant
effect for exercise on abstinence. They concluded that only one of the 13 trials offered evidence
for exercise aiding smoking cessation at a 12-month follow up. All the other trials were too small
to exclude reliably an effect of intervention, or included an exercise intervention which was
insufficiently intense to achieve the desired level of exercise. Trials are needed with larger sample
sizes, sufficiently intense interventions, equal contact control conditions, measures of exercise
adherence and change in physical activity in both exercise and comparison groups.
Another study by Taylor & Faulkner (2006) is the effects of a single session of exercise on
cigarette cravings, withdrawal symptoms and smoking behavior. The method that they use is a
systematic search and critical appraisal of all 14 relevant studies. Results showed that all 12 studies
that compared a bout of exercise with a passive condition reported a positive effect on cigarette
cravings, withdrawal symptoms and smoking behavior and the other two studies that compared
two intensities of exercise revealed no differences in outcomes. They concluded that relatively
small doses of exercise should be recommended as an aid to managing cigarette cravings and
withdrawal symptoms. Further research to understand the mechanisms involved, such as stress
reduction or neurobiological mechanisms, could lead to development of more effective and
practical methods to reduce withdrawal phenomena.
Thus, CDC Guidelines for School and Community Programs (1996) to promote Lifelong
Physical Activity among Young People, provided schools with health programs to promote healthy
behavior. The study shows regular moderate physical activity results in many health benefits such
as: it improves cardio respiratory endurance, flexibility, muscular strength which is very important
for a soccer athlete. It also reduces obesity; which is also one of the alarming problems for
adolescents nowadays that shorten their lifespan; and alleviate depression and anxiety.
Therefore, according to The International Consensus Conference on Physical Activity
Guidelines for Adolescents, it recommends that all adolescents should be physically active nearly
every day and to take part in playing games, sports, work, recreation, physical education and
exercise for at least 20 minutes, three times per week.
SYNTHESIS
Adolescent smoking has been gradually increasing the concern when earlier studies
showed as early as 7th grade, they are incline to be smoking when parents shows negative attitudes
toward their bad habit. This is evident on study made by Shakib (2009). Most young adolescents
are often curious to try anything that is forbidden for them. The more the parents impose do and
don't rules to them, the more they become eager to find out why. Is it wrong to have stricter rules
towards habitual tendencies like smoking? Parents were meant to impose these rules as it will
guide these youngsters to mold as responsible adolescent. As adolescent stage is the most critical
and yet challenging stage, they are open to try anything that comes their way without full
knowledge of it effects towards them. In the other hand, it is also examined that parents who
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engage in other smoking-related behaviors reinforce adolescent smoking. According to studies,
adolescents who hear parents speak favorably about smoking or parents who express positive
attitudes toward smoking are more likely to smoke at early age. The quality of relationship in
family is another important factor to consider as determinant of smoking. Smoking can harm kids
and parents although there are tasks to take immediate actions to halt this bad habit thus, should
be more creative to take effective actions and measures to prevent their adolescent kids to
overcome the confusing stage of curiosity to anything. Parent should create a well bounded
relationship and open communication with their children but at the same time laying down the
grounds that smoking is not acceptable. Therefore, parents should have open communication with
their children but at the same time having boundaries and imposing disciplinary role by setting
rules of what is dos and donts. Parents should be fully involved about their childrens affairs and
knowing their childrens friends, activities and how they are doing could be more create a better
parent and child relationship.
As having bound to do and don't rules, according to Kegler & McCormick (2002), when a
child was caught by parents smoking. Often children tend to be more secretive of their learned
habit as fear that if they get caught by their parents, they will think less about him/her. Most
children given punishment for being caught smoking would think that they parents are irrational
and do not love them but only being strict towards them. It is suggested that parents who caught
their adolescent children smoking should be calm and discuss openly the situation. Try to find out
where your child got the cigarettes, but although there is a probability she/he will not tell you, let
her/ him know you are concern about her betterment. Having open communications and letting
your adolescent children be fully aware of the reasons why smoking isnt a good idea, it will help
your child to have positive outlook and without damaging the relationship between parent and
child.
The social standing of the smoking adolescent family is a major factor as it indicates based
on their lifestyle and how they handle the challenges they encounter daily. According to Marmot
(2010), most of the low income families tend to smoke to relieve their stress. Health inequalities
are also eminent to persist between socioeconomic groups. Health behaviors are related to the
social determinants which affected the health.
Socio-economic standing is related to age or gender which is differentiated by the
following as shown on the study made by Christine L. Paul (2010) Power was explained that
younger people are more accepting to smoking restrictions rather than older people as they view
these restrictions as removal of the personal right. Men and women in older groups also think that
it is cool or sophisticated to smoke to be accepted in social standing. However, women tend to
smoke thinking that it might help to reduce their weight. Peer pressure was indicated by this study
to have strong influence on men. Men smoke more heavily when they are with their friend rather
than by themselves. Males suggested that social situations with their friends prompted them to
smoke more regardless of age. However, younger low socio-economic adolescent especially for
women social gathering are often made up environment conducive to smoking. They find
enjoyment getting together and smoking with their group. But the high young socio-economic
adolescents are highly conscious of social taboos about smoking. Therefore, with the difference
on the social standing, smoking is either very comfortable or very uncomfortable.
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Thus, Wang & Etter (2004) sport interventions to smoking will be highly beneficial to
avoid these adolescent to continue in damaging their own health. With the increasing number of
adolescent smokers, this is no longer considered just a bad habit but alarming cause of one nation's
increasing yearly death from smoking related diseases. Adolescent period is considered the more
anxious and confused stage in a person life. In this stage they tend to face social challenges and
much peer pressure. It is here in this stage where a young adult without fully knowing the effect
of a habit gained from friends will seem feel necessary to acquire to be accepted in a group. If
these adolescent could turn their energy and mind into sports, they will become more mindful that
a single stick smoke in a day constitutes to one day of one's life. It may not sound scary but too
long time chain of puffing a cigarette could doom their future.
Therefore, combining CDC Guidelines for School and Community Programs (1996) and
Kelin Colberg (1995) contributed his submission of Youth Risk Behavior Survey to the Consensus
Conference on Physical Activity Guidelines for Adolescents; it is believed that any sport requires
speed and endurance to stay longer in the game, and this needs stronger lungs. A sport also trains
not physically but mentally as well to be competitive in their chosen field. The adrenalin acquired
by a person from sports will keep one to strive to become the best and win every game. Although
children and adolescents are viewed to be more physically active than adults, current finding shows
that many young people do not engage in moderate or vigorous physical activity due to they are
glued in with social networking or playing computer games, that it is becoming alarming nowadays
that physical activities among boys and girls tend to decline steadily. If an adolescent could gain
more interest in sports rather than what technologies offers nowadays, it is far much better to have
a healthy body with a healthy mind which is a sure factor for winning any game in life and in
sports.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The study used a Quasi-Experimental approach with emphasis on the experimental results.
The experimental approach was used to interpret and analyze the theories from the collected related
studies. It focused on two forms: a pre- post- test study with the control group (participants with
no intervention program) and a pre- post- test study with the treatment group (participants playing
soccer as an intervention program). The study involving the two groups supported the claim that
soccer, as an intervention program, does have a positive effect on the mental and physical states
of the participants belonging to the treatment group. The participants were selected through
purposive sampling since the target population is (1.) the willingness to quit smoking (2.) the
number of years as a smoker (3.) the body weight / breathing interval conditions (4.) the social
standing and (5.) the level of confidence.
Participants
A total of 72 (N=72) self-confessed smokers attended the initial gathering facilitated by the
researchers. These students responded to the invitation to the soccer summer program as an aid to
smoking cessation which was posted on their schools bulletin board. The participants were from
the two major schools in Oriental Mindoro: The Divine Word College of Calapan City and The
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Mindoro State of Agriculture and Technology. Fifty percent of the participants were eighteen year
olds second year college students. Thirty-three percent belong to the seventeen years old age range.
The remaining seventeen percent were sixteen years old (fourth year high school to second year
college students).
However, a total of thirty participants from the two colleges (N=30) expressed their
willingness to join the soccer program in order to improve their health and social standing. The
criteria used to categorize the participants for the two groups were based on the following metrics:
(1.) the willingness to quit smoking (2.) the number of years as a smoker (3.) the body weight /
breathing interval conditions (4.) the social standing and (5.) the level of confidence.
There were fifteen participants (N=15) from the Divine Word College of Calapan City
wherein forty percent (n=6) were female and sixty percent (n=9) were male. Another fifteen
participants came from The Mindoro State of Agriculture and Technology. Twenty percent (n=3)
of the population were female and eighty percent (n=12) were male.
Instruments
A Smoking Status Questionnaire was used to ascertain the current smoking status of both
groups. The creation of the strict measures was patterned after the outline made by the World
Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control with its emphasis on the physical
and economical effects of adolescent smoking to both person and country. The worldwide concern
on the issue of smoking related diseases is highly alarming as it is becoming one of the leading
causes of early deaths.
The Contemplation Ladder (Biener & Abrams, 1991; Herzog, Abrams, Emmons & Linnam,
2000) was used as a predictor for smoking cessation. The primary dependent variables (N=15)
were continuously measured for their motivation to quit smoking and their health improvement.
Motivations were classified into two categories: (1) no thoughts of quitting the habit of smoking
and (2) taking action to quit smoking. The participants circled the number of the ladder that best
indicates where they are in terms of thinking about quitting smoking. This was administered
immediately one month after the intervention program.
A mind tool application with a set of questionnaires were administered to participants of both
groups from pretest to posttest to determine the Level of Confidence. The measurement table of
Calculation of the Confidence Interval, Biometric Technology Inc., 2011 was used as a percentage
determinant of each participants confidence level.
A Questionnaire for smoking urges (QSU) was administered to both groups on weekly
sessions to determine their level of smoking urges with emphasis on the treatment group
participants as determinant to the improvement of the soccer program which can be a tool to refrain
from smoking. The said questionnaire was designed in an Agree-Disagree form. It comprised of
ten questions wherein five items covered the need to smoke for relief and another five covered the
positive desire to smoke for reward.
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Pretesting questionnaires and interviews were distributed and made to obtain the participants
personal details. These were also used as basis for the start of the study. The post testing result was
also collected and analyzed in order to determine the efficacy of soccer intervention program and
the ability to meet the goal of the study.
Procedures
The researcher organized an event to the participating schools to introduce the nature and
goal of the study. Interviews to the participating school guidance counselors were conducted to
collect information regarding the academic performances of student participants. Details about the
soccer intervention plan were coordinated to school soccer coaches. The researchers initiated the
introduction of the research program on May 20, 2013 by visiting two main colleges in Oriental
Mindoro: The Divine Word College of Calapan City and The Mindoro State of Agriculture and
Technology. Both colleges offer summer sports program to students who are interested to be part
of the summer sports activities. Since the Divine Word College of Calapan City is located in the
middle of the city, the soccer program was held on its vicinity.
A meeting with the colleges respective sports coordinators and guidance counselors about
the nature and purpose of the Soccer Intervention Program for Young Adult Smokers were done
by the researchers. The criteria for the inclusion of the participants and the method of administering
the assessments and interventions were thoroughly discussed to them. The sports coordinators and
the researchers worked together throughout the intervention program.
The researcher deemed it necessary to obtain permission before the participants
involvement in the program. During the first meeting (pre-test), each participant was briefed and
requested to fill out a Consent Form which was duly signed by a parent or guardian. Participants
belonging to the treatment group were given careful attention. Demographics were obtained by
asking participants to fill out Personal Information Sheets. Participants from the treatment group
were categorized using the following criteria: (1.) age when they started to smoke (priority were
given to those whose started young) (2.) number of years as a smoker (3-5 years) (3.) health status
(overweight/underweight) (4.) levels of confidence (passive, unsociable, negative thinker).
The soccer intervention program was conducted within a three-month period completing
the seventy- two hours (3 days a week and 2 hours per session) timetable. The attendance and
performance of participants in the treatment group were taken into account for analysis and
summarization of the final post-testing result. Development on body weights, breathing intervals
and levels of confidence were taken into account in periods of twenty minutes, twelve hours, two
to four weeks and monthly basis until the final stage of the posttest assessment.
The Control Group were not included in the soccer intervention but were given information
about proper diet and simple exercise drills which they can administer by themselves at their own
time and will. They were also requested to go back every two weeks to update the status of their
body weights, breathing intervals and levels of confidence.
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Finally, the result of the differences between the Control group and the Treatment group
was established by a chart comparison.
Data Gathering
The researchers coordinated with the guidance counselors and sports coordinators from the
two major schools in Oriental Mindoro for the inclusion of soccer in their summer sports activity
with the main purpose of helping adolescent smokers to improve their health and encouraging
them to quit smoking. To assess the smoking dependency level of these students, the researcher
requested the attendees on the introductory meeting to fill out a Smoking Status Questionnaire
(See Appendix E). After reviewing all the answers from the attendees, the researcher screened out
potential candidates who will be included in the study. A separate meeting for the thirty selected
participants was held. They were requested to fill out a Consent Form (See Appendix A). For the
selected participants of the soccer intervention program, the researchers requested each of them to
fill out a Personal Background Form (See Appendix B) to evaluate the determinants and history
of their smoking condition. The researchers used the Contemplation ladder in determining the
confidence level of participants from the treatment group in terms of taking actions to quit smoking
(See Appendix C). A QSU (See Appendix E) was used to evaluate the level of cravings of the
participants. The weekly interview sessions were used as basis in analyzing the effectiveness of
the program on the treatment participants.
To compare the effectiveness of the treatment group and control group for soccer intervention,
the researcher used the T-test to determine the hypothesis of the two groups by test statistic. It
further tried to prove if the two groups data are significantly different from each other.
The Control Group and the Treatment group underwent pre-testing for their physical, mental
and social conditions. The group comparability before the soccer intervention program represented
the characteristic of participants in each group before the intervention with the Treatment Group.
Both groups were also tested in the posttest for physical, mental and social aspects. The posttest and group comparability represented the characteristics and effects of the soccer intervention
after its administration to the Treatment Group participants as well as to the current standing of
the Control Group participants without engagement to the intervention program.
Pre Test (Assessment)
The Intervention program started with the pre testing by arranging separate meetings with the
participants of Treatment Group and Control Group. Each participants physical attributes such as
health attributes, demographic background, smoking behavior and attitude, and social standing
were accounted for. At the first day of the sports actual training, both groups were requested to
participate to do basic soccer warm up routine to access their physical strength, body condition
and individual interview about their social background to determine their psychological
perception.
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Demographic result:
1. From ages 16 years old to 18 years old (see graph 1 )

2. From 1st year to 3rd year college levels
GRAPH 1 Participants Demographic Age
3.
4.
70% male and 30% female (See graph 2)

80% mostly men were regular smoker
GRAPH 2 Participants Age Range

Smoking behavior and attitude result:
1.
Starting age majority are 14 yrs. Old (See Graph 3)
2.
Mostly influenced by peer groups (See Graph 4)
3.
Major
reason
is
to
reduce
stress
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(See
Graph
5)
GRAPH 3 Smoking Behavior Starting Age of Smoking
GRAPH 4 Participants Determinants for Smoking
GRAPH 5 Participants Reason for Smoking
Health and Social Standing Result:
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1. Although the participants were aware of the harmful effects of smoking, adolescents are still
engaging to this habit
2. Soccer is a popular sport among the participants regardless of gender.
3. Majority thinks that soccer could help one to quit smoking and improve their health and social
standing which is set by positive outlook in life.
Following are the summary of the above pretest analysis:
1. Shortness of breath after 5 minutes runs.
2. Easily get tired and feeling exhausted after the full hour of the program.
3. Low self-esteem, poor self-confidence
4. Poor skin condition that makes them look older than their age
5. Majority were overweight/underweight compared to the standard weight based on their age and
height.
Majority of the participants started to smoke due to peer pressure and stress. Social
acceptance among peers is a highly motivated source of young adult smokers. Most of these
participants came from middle - earning families and parents who have reached college education
but got married below the age of twenty-two. By doing casual conversations with the participants,
the researchers found out that most of their parents time is allotted to work in order to provide
their everyday needs. Most of the Treatment Group participants started smoking at their early
teens either by curiosity or peer pressure. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
stated that teen smoking is a serious problem. Based on the survey conducted by the researcher
among the participants of both groups, eighty percent started smoking in their early high school at
some point. The younger one starts smoking the more one is likely to carry the same habit and
behavior into adulthood.
Smoking can set a pattern later in life. From the interviews conducted by researchers among the
participants, they said that during their teens, they had thoughts of quitting the habit, but more than
sixty percent of them are still regular smokers and some are even smoking more than they used to.
These indicate that these young adults are prone to serious health problems sooner or later.
Common symptoms found among the participants initial physical check-up were:
1. Faster than average heart rate
2. Underweight or overweight than standard expected for their age, height and weight
3. Disturbed sleep patterns which were observed and noted by parents who were briefed at the start
of the intervention program.
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5. Slowed reflexes and flexibility
6. Lower back pain
The participants' social and personal background were also taken into consideration to
assess the external influences which had caused the participants' inclination towards smoking, this
was done by one on one interview by the researcher. The following external factors was derived
from the initial interview:
1. Peer pressure
2. One of the parents is a smoker
3. Social acceptance
4. Less of parental guidance
Participants Demographic Background

During the first two weeks under the Soccer Intervention Program (12 hours), participants
from the Treatment Group with reduced number of cigarettes smoked, showed positive thinking,
and improved breathing and improved heart rate. They also developed better perception on how to
handle everyday issues and situations.
The researchers also observed that female participants from the Treatment Group were
more determined and focused on quitting on their nicotine dependency at the beginning but two
weeks after, the boys started exhibiting the same response. Because of this, the concept of the
intervention program was no longer a stressful physical activity for the participants but an
instrument in forging new alliances and in building happiness.
The Control Group Participants with the absence of any soccer intervention to cease their
smoking habit, showed no changes in their physical and mental states after two weeks. Symptoms
found in the initial pre-testing stage were still dominant. Without the authority figures reminding
them to quit smoking, participants did as they please and took the goal of the program lightly. As
a result, forty percent of the participants have increased the number of cigarettes they smoke per
day, posing more risks on their physical health.
Posttest Analysis
In reference to the participants perception of the interventions, both Treatment Group and
Control Group were given a post-test analysis. At the post-test, all participants were requested to
rate the effectiveness of the Soccer Intervention Program (0= not at all to 10=extremely effective)
on their physical and psychological recovery.
As part of the posttest, participants were asked to list the positive self-statements they
thought were effective from the Soccer Intervention. The participants replied with the following
statements:
1. I can do it. I can beat the odds and quit smoking sooner.
2. Day by day I feel the positive effect of sports to my body and my mind.
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3. I give my best to each soccer session.
4. I will continue engaging in sports to keep me physically strong and mentally positive.
5. It made me feel better and healthy.
6. It encourages me to play sport as a form of exercise to keep me fit.
7. I gained self-confidence and realized that all things are possible if I set my heart and my mind
to it.
RESULT
Upon the arrival of the participants, the researchers, together with the two participating
school sports coordinator, obtained informed consent from the participants. The goal of using
soccer as an intervention to prevent adolescent smoking and improve health conditions was
thoroughly discussed. Each participant was also asked the same question: "Remember, your
participation is completely voluntary, are you sure you would like to participate?" This was taken
into consideration for the selection of participants for the Treatment Group. The goal of this
strategy was to foster an appearance of choice and allow participants to feel that they are making
the decision.
According to the result of the pretest there was no significant difference between the treatment
group and control group.
At the last week of the intervention program, a posttest analysis of all thirty participants was
conducted. The researchers made a comparison of their heart rates, blood pressures, breathing,
reflexes and psychological analysis by interviewing all participants with the same set of questions.
According to the result, it showed significant difference between the two groups.
The comparison yielded the following results:
Findings from the selected participants of the Treatment Group (See Table 1):
1. After 20 minutes of doing soccer warm- up exercises, the heart rate and blood pressure dropped.
2. After 12 hours of playing soccer, the breathing became healthy at 22/min.
3. After 2 to 4 weeks, blood circulation improved and lung functions increased. The participants
Became more approachable not only to their team members but also to their circle of friends.
Also,
They were noticeably coming ahead of time to do warm- ups.
4. after 1 month to 1/2 month, the participants experienced lesser coughing and fewer shortness of
breath.
They were also able to gain new friends whom they encouraged to be involved in soccer.
They taught and exchange views with one another on how to improve their playing techniques.
Some parents also became active supporters of their kids participation to the program and constant
companion during practice.
5. After 2 months and above, participants have weight increases, toned muscles, faster reflexes
and improved skin conditions. They have become confident and positive about themselves than
the first time they were interviewed by the researchers.
6. after 2 1/2 months participants exhibited positive outlook and inspired attitude toward
their friends and family members. Parents who were involved in their child's participation to the
Soccer Intervention Program were happy that their childs time is being spent on something
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beneficial to the development of mind and body. Most of the participants were also able to resolve
what they want after finishing school.
TABLE 1
Findings from selected participants of the Control Group (See Table 2):
1. Meeting after two weeks, the heart rate and blood pressure were still above normal. Reading
was on the average 125/90 and the pulse rate was 95 to 100.
2. Meeting after four weeks, the breathing level was at 32/min., blood pressure are the same 125/90
and pulse rate was at a 97.
3. Meeting after six weeks, breathing showed improvement at 29/min., blood pressure was at
120/90, and pulse rate was at a 95.
4. The participants body weight showed that 85% lost weight as they increased in the number of
cigarettes smoked per day. This was due to the fact that their summer vacation were mostly spent
with friends rather than at home.
5. All participants looked worn-down with dry skins. Their reflexes were the same as shown on
the initial
Analysis.
6. During the interview about their two-month-activity, the participants gave more weight to the
enjoyment they can get with friends than the improvement on their physical health. They have
demonstrated reservations to talk about how they feel about family or friends. When asked about
how they see themselves in five years time, 50% barely have a clear idea of what they want to
do, 30% stated many things about what they want to achieve but nothing pertained to a clear goal
and 20% said that they will go wherever fate leads them to.
However, pre-selected participants undergo regular briefing every two weeks, showed little
foresight of what they want to do after college. They also demonstrated difficulties in expressing
their thoughts and interacting with others.
TABLE 2
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Among the participants of the Control Group, women showed lesser effects of smoking.
They were actually inspired by the stories shared by the participants from the Treatment Group.
On the last two weeks of the intervention program, all participants were requested for a group
interview. It was done in a casual environment. Participants from both Treatment Group and
Control Group had the chance to talk and to share stories.
Most of the participants from the Treatment Group were proactive in approaching and
starting a conversation with the other group. They had shown more confidence and more eagerness
in relating their experiences. The pleasure that they acquired from playing soccer made them
oblivious of the fact that it is part of the program. They came on time, did the warm- ups and
played a healthy game.
DISCUSSION
The researcher reviewed the studies evaluating the efficacy of the intervention by
comparing the pre-test result with the posttest result. Sufficient evidence showed that self-help
has little effect when offered without any person to person intervention. This was apparent on the
post-analysis of the participants from the Control Group.
Comparing the results of the pretest and the post test, treatment participants showed
encouraging relative effect of soccer intervention towards improving their health and social
standing as well as promising capacity to quit smoking permanently. The Treatment Participants
results on body weight showed a Correlation value of 0.7951 at a significance of 0.2647 (p<0.40)
while the Control Participants result showed a Correlation value of 0.6910 at a significance of
0.4058 (p<5.45). It was aimed at reducing their weight (overweight) or gaining their weight
(underweight). The absence of a regular exercise routine slowed or even made the Control Groups
development worst. In terms of the participants breathing results, the Treatment Group yielded a
Correlation value of 0.8101 at a significance of 0.2449 (p<0.27) while Control Group had a
Correlational value of 0.1120 at significance of 1.6960 (p<6.34). Treatment participants with
regular warming exercise adding up to playing the sports shows improvement on their breathing
intervals which also helped their lungs to be healthy. The major result was eminent on the level of
confidence between these groups. The Treatment Group has an ideal 0.0001 Correlation value at
a significance of 10.5569 (p<3.67), while the Control Group has a Correlational value of 0.0174
at significance level of 2.27228(p<1.36). The Treatment Participants attitude has developed from
being shy and passive to being approachable and cooperative. They have become confident of
what they can do.
It also indicated that counseling is effective for the five percent of the participants
belonging to the Control Group who were tried for a brief, slight and individual intervention. The
question of whether they will require intense counseling or less intensive intervention can only be
resolved if the participant is willing to undergo intervention for smoking cessation. The findings
from this selected group yielded mixed results. Increased abstinence from smoking for a period of
two weeks showed little effects. Thus, the result of the brief intervention is insufficient to overturn
recommendation to do brief individual counseling. At the beginning of the intervention program,
participants from the Treatment Group have turned to eating candies or gum to substitute their
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nicotine cravings. It is a common and important aid in smoking cessation. Although nicotine gum
is available, the scarcity on finances limited their access to it. Settling for the usual gums and
candies have helped these participants to overcome their cigarette cravings during the first few
weeks of the intervention. The cravings diminished over time.
The findings of the Treatment Group yielded encouraging results. It provided initial
support for the efficacy of the intervention program and promoted more encouragement towards
becoming nicotine free.
The idea of quitting from smoking and focusing on playing soccer will result to physical
health and to positive outlook of the participants. The positive changes within them can persuade
more people to do the same.
Conclusion
Earlier studies showed that there had been several smoking interventions done for high
school and college students. It had been designed to curb the alarming increase in the number of
young adult smokers. The current study tried to experiment by using soccer as an intervention.
Overall, the findings were encouraging, at least with regard to female smokers from the Control
Group. One out of every six outcome interviews showed positive attitudes toward post- treatment.
Participants manifested willingness to change. They were eager to do exercise drills not because
they were being observed but solely out of their own volition.
Previous studies showed that exercise helps a person to have a healthy body and healthy
mind. This was also observed on the participants from the Treatment Group. Week by week
interviews with them manifested better focus on life goals. There was also an indication of an
increase in self-worth.
During the pre-test interview, majority of the thirty participants lack faith in what they can
do. Their hesitations stemmed from fear of their friends reaction and from fear of not being able
to perform well. The pressure to do better was glaring. Most of the parents from the Treatment
Group who encouraged their children to join the program stated that their children displayed better
attitudes at home. They were no longer easily agitated when asked about who were they with or
what they have done during the day. Some exhibited eagerness to help out in doing household
chores. Confidence and positivity were also noted.
The adolescent stage is critical. It is where confusion and motivational patterns are formed.
The young people often experience difficulties in grasping the concept of physical and mental
changes. This makes them vulnerable to smoking. They smoke for the very same reasons as adults
do: to lose weight, to cope with stress, to combat boredom or as a social habit. Smoking
motivations are often patterned after adult behaviours. It is therefore crucial that adolescent
relationships with significant people (e.g. parents, friends and relatives) are built in love,
understanding, acceptance and proper guidance.
The participants who took part in the intervention are more likely to achieve smoking
abstinence at the end of the program as they had shown greater interest in continuing the sport.
The soccer intervention also promoted the spirit of team work since the participants displayed
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unity and concern to each other. In addition, there has been changes in their participation ability,
self-motivation, self-confidence and physical attributes. With the provision of a more intensive
smoking cessation programmes, the intervention effects may have been more pronounced.
Altered smoking perceptions started manifesting after the intervention. Participants
became aware of the harmful effects of smoking (e.g. difficulty in breathing, lack of focus and
negative attitude). Positive changes in their social skills were also noted. There was ease in their
interaction process and a relaxed atmosphere when sharing positive ideas. Most of them were able
to establish long-term goals. Although the time is relatively brief, intervention session was made
possible. The length and number of smoking intervention sessions have been found to be positively
associated with the intervention outcome. Stronger effects could be eminent on longer periods with
a more intensive single approach program.
Casual interviews with all participants showed that the social and the psychological part of
the intervention program may also lead to greater behavioral changes. For example, asking student
smokers to seek counseling in school or to talk to non-smokers will not help them arrest their
nicotine dependency but will only reinforce it even more. The mere action of asking them to do so
will put them in a social stigma. Thus, this situation can trigger negative reactions. A longitudinal
design is also needed to test if changes in the intermediate variables produce long-term effects.
Recommendation
In respect to the limitations mentioned above, the researcher relied on self reported
measures of smoking behaviors. Although the primary focus of the researcher was on motivational
changes, the measurement of follow-ups generated results indicating that the success or failure of
the intervention program is dependent on the participants parents and friends level of awareness
on the adverse effects of smoking.
Should this experimental intervention be used for future reference, as rule of thumb,
researchers should ensure the protection of the participants from emotional harm during the
recruitment process. Participants should never feel like they are law offenders. In addition, prepare
the smokers from possible rejection from their circle of friends. Deciding to quit smoking may
indicate criticism of their friends beliefs and personalities.
Nicotine dependency has been a recurring problem and a global concern. A lot of studies
and interventions were administered to aid in smoking cessation but it has not been successful in
totally making every nation smoke-free. Quitting is difficult because of a lot of factors. Peer
pressure, for one, greatly contributes to adolescent smoking. The need to conform in order to be in
a particular social circle stimulates one to try cigarettes. But advertisements, movies and social
media are the biggest culprits why teens smoke. Women smoking in advertisements appear
glamorous and sophisticated. In the movies, actors and actresses whom young adolescents look up
to create an impression that cigarette is as natural as breathing. The social media paints a cool and
powerful image of people of all shapes and sizes holding out or puffing a cigarette. Indeed, the
struggle against smoking seemed insurmountable.
293
The researchers think that the first step in resolving the problem boils down to educating
everyone. Effective awareness should start from understanding how nicotine addiction or
dependency works. If every school official, parent, friend and student council member genuinely
understand how nicotine addiction or dependency starts and the horrors it can create into
someones life then everything will fall into place.
Awareness issue should come from a strong support system comprising of parents, friends,
teachers and student council. Student councils have every possible power to launch a really good
campaign on antismoking. With the use of social networking sites the campaign could even grow
stronger.
Educating the smoker to choose his/her circle of friends is also very important. The student
council officials can hold a strong peer support group in school. In addition, organizing activities
that promote self- improvement can also help. Testimonials from ex-smokers about their struggles
to break free from the habit can have a big impact.
School officials and student council should also coordinate with store owners operating near
the school premises. No store should sell or advertise cigarettes. Even simple advertisements on
posters can stimulate one to smoke.
Thus, identifying the elements of intervention and providing subjective experimental program
are also encouraged for future researches. Since the goal of this study only focuses on helping
participants to overcome their smoking habit, future work centered on the gender-moderated
relationship between current condition and their readiness to quit smoking is required to rule out
claims that interventions only work for a specific gender: women. The present study revealed that
young adult participants are reactive and malleable to secondary prevention efforts and to
experimental interventions in particular.
294

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Young Adult Development. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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Taylor, AH, Ussher, MH, Faulkner, G (2007). The acute effects of exercise on cigarette cravings,
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296
Distribution of Information: Reducing Mental Health Stigma

Of People with Suicidal Behavior Tendencies
Jose Antonio Remigio Da Silva
Eva A. Castronuevo
Abstract
This study is about using the Distribution of Information
Intervention to reduce the mental health stigma of people with
suicidal behavioral disorder. The study is quasi-experimental and its
goal was to reduce the mental health stigma while using the
Distribution of Information Intervention. The researcher wanted to
know if there was a significant difference between Pre-Test and
Post-Test results of two groups. The study used Attitude towards
Mental Health Problems scale made by Gilbert et al. (2004) which
also measured the level of mental health stigma towards suicidal
behavior disorder. Twenty participants aged 18-27 were randomly
selected, 10 received the video Distribution of Information
Intervention and the other 10 received the Leaflet Distribution of
Information Intervention. The participants had a mild level of
mental health stigma and was reduced to low level. The intervention
was proven to work and was effective in reducing the mental health
stigma of suicidal behavior disorder.
In Asia mental health stigmas are prevalent in most cultures in the continent according to
Ng (1996). Some countries have severe mental health stigma while most countries are just
prevalent. The study was broad and didnt include much details in the Philippines.
Brown (2004) reviewed 21 interventions regarding the reduction of the HIV/AIDS stigma.
Most of the intervention found in her study dealt with the distribution of information, counselling,
coping skill acquisition and contact, I will consider them to be the 4 types of interventions.
Information was done with the use of leaflets, media advertisements, and classroom-type factual
presentation. Counselling was done one-on-one and group sessions. Coping skill acquisition was
done with role-play, master imagery, reframing and relaxing techniques, group desensitization and
scripting. Finally contact was done with live testimonials.
On the other hand, Thornicroft (2008) reviewed a series of candidate interventions that can
be identified into different levels, such as workplace, local, national and international. In this study
he only showed the actions that could done on the local and national level.
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Combining their studies would help me explore the problem on the stigmatization of
Filipinos with mental illnesses. The intervention would be putted up in a live quasi experimental
design to see if its effective in a non working environment and working environment.
What is the level of mental health stigma of the respondents in terms of their pre-test results
and their post-test results?
Is there a significant difference in the pre-test results between the Video Intervention Group
and Leaflet Intervention Group? Is there a significant difference in the post-test results between
the Video Intervention Group and Leaflet Intervention Group?
Is there a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test results of the Video
Intervention Group? Is there a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test results of
the Leaflet Intervention Group?
Distribution of Information
Stigma is a common human reaction to disease. Throughout history many diseases have
carried considerable stigma, including leprosy, tuberculosis, cancer, mental illness, and many
STDs. HIV/AIDS is only the latest disease to be stigmatized.
Brown (2004) papers reviews 21 interventions that have explicitly attempted to decrease
AIDS stigma both in the developed and developing countries and 9 studies that aim to decrease
stigma related with other diseases. The studies selected met stringent evaluation criteria in order
to draw common lessons for future development of interventions to combat stigma. Her paper
assesses published and reported studies through comparison of audiences, types of interventions,
and methods used to measure change.
Target audiences include both those living with or suspected of living with a disease and
perpetrators of stigma. All interventions reviewed target subgroups within these broad categories.
Types of programs include: general information-based programs, contact with affected groups,
coping skills acquisition, and counseling approaches. A limited number of scales and indices were
used as indicators of change in AIDS stigma.
Browns paper showed 4 studies using Distribution of Information alone and overall these
studies found positive effects (i.e., increased tolerance of PLHA or People living HIV/AIDS) in
comparison to control groups, if there was one. However, where more than one approach was
tested there was no difference between intervention groups.
On the other hand, Thornicroft (2008) reviewed a series of candidate interventions that can
be identified into different levels, such as workplace, local, national and international. In this study
he only showed the actions that could done on the local and national level
Mental Health
298
Judd (2006) showed that more women seek the help of professionals for psychological
problems rather than men similar to the study of Rickwood (2005) except he focused more on the
implications of the youth seeking help from mental health professionals for problems. In contrast
of Rickwoods study, the study of Lustig (2004) said more research is needed for the applications
of these implications. Despite the year difference between the study of Rickwood and Lustig,
Lustig was able to relate the study on efficiency and cultural relevance.
The study of Pins (2008), Kaas (2003), and Kitchener (2006) mentioned that contact and
open communication would do better for the patients or anybody who has mental illnesses.
Mobwray (2007) studied that possibilities of mental illnesses usually happens before postsecondary education, Happell (2003) contrasted the study saying that the possibilities could even
after post-secondary education.
Jacob (2007) surveyed 191 countries and has concluded that the limited resources of
available for mental health care had led to poor delivery of services and to suffering and disability
in people with mental disorders supporting the study made by Miller (2010) and Saraceno (2007)
stating that stressors should be the priority of developing mental health and the implementation of
mental health policies respectively.
The study of Eisenberg (2007), proved that even in an environment with access to free
psychotherapy and basic health services, like universities, most students or even professionals with
disorders have not received treatment. On the contrary, the study of Hunt (2009) said the schools,
colleges and universities are a promising venue for treatment. But it was not revealed why students
do not receive the treatment even though they have free and easy access to the service. Patel (2007)
revealed that a large portion of the youth carry the burden of having mental disorders.
Stigmatization
Stigma came from the Latin word Stigmat which means mark or brand. Stigma is a set of
negative and often unfair beliefs that a society or a group of people have about something. In
Psychology this is often referred to as Mental Health Stigma and can divided into two distinct
types Social Stigma and Perceived stigma or Self-Stigma.
Social Stigma is characterized by prejudicial attitudes and discriminating behaviour
directed towards individuals with mental health problems as a result of the psychiatric label they
have been given. Perceived stigma or Self-Stigma is the internalizing by the mental health sufferer
of their perceptions of discrimination and perceived stigma can significantly affects feelings of
shame and lead to poorer treatment outcomes.
The study explores if the interventions found in the studies of Thornicroft (2008), Brown
(2004), would work on Filipinos and at the same time be able to educate a very very small
population about the effects of Mental Health Stigma
Schulze (2003) was able to give different dimensions of Stigma, namely interpersonal
interaction, the public image of mental illness, structural discrimination, and access to social roles.
With her four dimensions further studies can made using each dimension. With the studies of
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Hartwell (2004) and Wong (2006) they were able to show that people who have mental difficulties
or illness have the tendency to receive less attention in society.
According to the three studies of Corrigan (2003, 2004[2],) he developed implications that
will remove the mental health stigma in order for people to receive the proper treatment in society.
The studies of Chung (2004), Major (2006), Cluver (2007), Clement (2009) showed that
different social aspects involved in the stigmatization of people who are diagnosed with mental
illnesses. Social problems such as bullying and poverty have heightened effects on psychological
illnesses.
Phalen (2003) on the other hand, revealed that genetics had the strongest and most
consistent effects on a set of related beliefs about the mental illnesses, but the study does not
directly indicate the stigma.
The studies of Link (2004) and Alexander (2004) showed that stigmatization was
understudied. They mentioned that they further research is needed for clarification. Alexander also
mentioned that different contact types can reduce stigmatizing attitudes.
With study of Thornicroft (2008) the strongest evidence to reduce stigma pertains to direct
contact with people. The study included actions that will reduce the stigma on a local level and
national level. His study included 7 actions to support people with mental illness and 17 actions to
support people with mental illness in a working environment.
Synthesis
As mentioned earlier, studies regarding mental health stigma or mental health
discrimination is much understudied. Among the studies only two that dealt with the possible
solutions to stigma while most of the other studies focused on the root cause and its effect on
people.
The studies regarding mental health are a mix of places to receive proper treatment and
how mental health in general could be treatment. The specific disorder that the research is
undertaking is about suicidal behavioural disorder. It has been known that depression is a major
factor in suicide attempts
The missing area that can be studied with the stigmatizations and mental health care is the
different classification or types of stigma that people adhere to or ignore. Why do we ignore them
and give them less treatment? Is lack of education regarding mental health the source of our
ignorance to people with mental disorders? Also if there are interventions which among them could
possibly reduce the stigma. Another important thing the researcher believes is missing is the
diversity of interventions to reduce the stigma. One study mentioned specific actions that will
reduce stigma but are they applicable for all types of mental illness? If the interventions are proven
to be effective how long will it last?
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If the interventions are proven to effective in the previous studies the mental health stigma
should not be able to yield more studies if mental health organizations used the studies well and
possible eliminating the mental health stigma in the world, ensuring that the families of those who
are victims of mental health stigma.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
The research design that the researcher used in the study was a quasi-experimental single
group design. A quasi-experiment is a sort of experiment. Specifically, a quasi-experiment is a
study that includes a manipulated independent variable but lacks important controls (e.g., random
assignment), or a study that lacks a manipulated independent variable but includes important
controls. So a quasi-experiment has some features of a well conducted experiment but not others.
The participants in the study focused on young Filipino adults aged 18-27 who lives or
works around with somebody who has suicidal behavior tendencies. The duration of how long they
worked with or know the person with suicidal behavior tendencies varies. There would be a total
of 20 participants, 10 of which received the leaflet intervention and 10 others received the video
intervention. The sample participants would be selected at random.
Instruments
Scale
The Attitude towards Mental Health Problems scale or ATMHP used in the study was made
by Gilbert (2007) Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 10, 127-141. The scale has 35 items divided
into 5 sections and has likert type format. This was be administered before and after the
intervention. Before the scale was administered, the participants were informed that word mental
health problems in the scale would mean suicidal behavior disorder for the experiment.
Interventions
The intervention that the researcher will be using will be Distribution of Information.
Distribution of information would range from seminars, leaflets and media advertisements. The
specific type of Distribution of Information that the study will use are leaflets and media
advertisements.
Leaflets are a small or flat sheet of printed paper that usually contains information
regarding a certain topic and can be even used for advertisement and is intended for free
distribution. The leaflet used in the study would contain facts about the effects of stigma to people
with mental health problems.
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The media advertisements are composed of graphics posted in various places. The most
common usage of media advertisements are in the form of social media website such as facebook
and twitter.
Both the leaflet and the media advertisement will contain information regarding the effect
of the mental health stigma to people. The information will consist of the facts and trivias regarding
the effects of stigma to people.
Data gathering
Scale
In order to start conducting the experiment, the stigma must first be measured. the modified
Attitude Towards Mental Health Problems or ATMHP scale will be used. The scale consists of a
35 item 4 point Likert scale, it was completed by Gilbert, P., Bhundia, R Mitra, R., McEwan, K.,
Irons, C. & Sanghera, J. (2007).
SCORING
Simply sum the items for each part of the scale
DESCRIPTION
Attitudes towards Mental Health Problems
They devised the ATMHP as a 35-item scale to tap different aspects of shame in
relationship to a suicidal behavior disorder. Previous research (Gilbert et al., 2004) had illuminated
a number of shame concerns in Asian women. These related to community attitudes, family
attitudes, and self-attitudes. Some of these are forms of external shame where a person becomes
focused on how others may view them (Gilbert, 1998, 2002). In addition, this scale explores
personal shame-focused attitudes for a mental health problem. As noted above, the concept of
reflected shame and Izzat that is, one can bring shame to others (e.g. to ones family), and others
can bring shame to the self is a salient concern for some people and items were constructed to
tap this. Thus the scale is divided into five sections.
Section 1 is divided into two sub-sections. 1. A persons perception of how their
community sees suicidal behavior tendencies (items 14), and 2. A persons perception of how
their family perceives suicidal behavior tendencies (items 58).
Section 2 is also split up into two sub-sections. 1. A persons perception of how their
community would see them if they had a suicidal behavior disorder (items 913), and 2. A persons
perception of how their family would see them if they had a suicidal behavior tendencies (items
1418).
Section 3 focuses on internal shame and the negative self-evaluation of having a suicidal
behavior tendencies (items 1923).
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Section 4 focuses on reflected shame and beliefs about how ones family would be seen if
one had a suicidal behavior tendencies (items 2430).
Section 5 looks at fears of reflected shame on self, associated with a close relative having
a suicidal behavior tendencies (items 3135). All items are scored on a 4-point Likert scale ranging
from Do not agree at all=0 to completely agree=3.
Interventions
The combined intervention that the researcher used consisted of the Distribution of
Information by Brown (2004) and the local level of Thornicroft (2008).
The leaflets were handed out to 10 participants in each location. The other 5 were grouped
in the social media website facebook and they only received media advertisements in video
regarding the mental health stigma.
The intervention would be used to measure short term change. Once the interventions have
been executed or given, the researcher will have to go back after a month to see if any change has
occurred.
Data analysis
Once the data have been gathered the researcher followed the instructions given by the
scale to measure the stigma. The instructions are as follows, sum the scores for each part of the
test. The scores of the participants in each section was averaged and the means of each section
were also used for a T-Test and the measurement of their stigma.
There will be 4 T-Test in all: (1) T-Test to measure the significant difference between the
pre-test results of the Video Intervention Group and Leaflet Intervention Group, (2) T-Test to
measure the significant difference between the post-test results between the Video Intervention
Group and Leaflet Intervention Group, (3) T-Test to measure the significant difference between
the pre-test and post-test results of the Video Intervention Group, and (4) T-Test to measure the
significant difference between the pre-test and post-test results of the Leaflet Intervention Group.
RESULTS
Table 1 consists of the totals scores each participants. Table 2, 3, 4 shows the T-Test
computation results.
Table 1: Raw scores of the participants
Raw scores (mean)
Pre-test video intervention group
Attitude Towards Mental Health Problems - 1.74

External Shame - 1.82
Internal Shame - 1.68
303
Reflected Shame 1 - 1.66

TOTAL = 1.74
Post-test video intervention group

TOTAL = 1.30
Pre-test leaflet intervention group

TOTAL = 1.66
Post-test leaflet intervention group

TOTAL = 1.42
Table 2 shows the level of stigma in both the video intervention group and leaflet intervention
group.
Pre-test Video Intervention Group
1.74 = 2
Pre-test Leaflet Intervention Group
1.66 = 2
Post-test Video Intervention Group
1.30 = 1
Post-test Leaflet Intervention Group
1.42 = 1
The scores on this table represent the grand mean of the means of each section scored by the
participants. In order to properly give a level of stigma the researchers rounded them off and gave
the level based on the instruction given by the scale. Wherein 0 = Do not agree at all; 1 = Agree a
little; 2 = Mostly agree; 3 = Completely Agree. Meaning that 2 has a mild level of mental health
stigma and 1 has low level of mental health stigma.
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Table 3 Paired sample T-Test result of Pre-test and Post-test of the Video and Leaflet Intervention
Group
Ha = There is a significant difference between the Pre-test Video intervention group and Leaflet intervention group.
Ho = There is no significant difference between the Pre-test Video intervention group and Leaflet intervention group.
Ha = There is a significant difference between the Post-test Video intervention group and Leaflet intervention group.
Ho = There is no significant difference between the Post-test Video intervention group and Leaflet intervention group.
Decision: Accept both Null Hypothesis
Table 4: One sample T-Test results of the Video Intervention Group

Ha = There is a significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test of the Video intervention group.
Ho = There is no significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test of the Video intervention group.
Decision: Reject Null Hypothesis
Table 5: One sample T-Test results of the Leaflet Intervention Group

Ha = There is a significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test of the Leaflet intervention group.
Ho = There is no significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test of the Leaflet intervention group.
305
Decision: Reject Null Hypothesis

DISCUSSION
Initially the participants had mild level of mental health stigma and the level was reduced
to low level which proved that the intervention did work.
With the paired sample T-Test of both the pre-test and post-test of the Video Intervention
Group there is no significant difference and therefore we accept the null hypothesis of both. The
null hypothesis are stated as There is no significant difference between the Pre-test Video
intervention group and Leaflet intervention group and There is no significant difference between
the Post-test Video intervention group and Leaflet intervention group. Therefore the participants
were equally distributed among the groups.
With the one sample T-Test of the Video Intervention Group and the Leaflet Intervention
Group there is a significant difference and therefore we reject the null hypothesis of both. The
alternate hypothesis are stated as There is a significant difference between the Pre-test and Posttest of the Video Intervention Group and There is a significant difference between the Pre-test
and Post-test of the Leaflet Intervention Group. Therefore the Distribution of Information
intervention particularly video intervention and leaflet intervention are effective in reducing the
mental health stigma of suicidal behavior disorder.
The effectiveness of the study supports Brown (2004) whose review of 21 interventions
proved to be effective overall. Among the 21 interventions reviewed by brown, 4 of which were
Distribution of Information and those 4 were proven to be effective as well.
Conclusion
Although the interventions work and are able to reduce mental health stigma of people
towards those who as suicidal behavior disorder, it has only a little effect in 1 month observation
period.
Based on the T-Test results, there is no significant difference between the Pre-Test of the
Video Intervention Group and the Leaflet Intervention Group. There is also no significant
difference between the Post-Test of the Video Intervention Group and the Leaflet Intervention
Group.
Between the Pre-Test and Post-Test of the Leaflet Intervention Group there is a
significant difference, the same goes with the Pre-Test and Post-Test of the Video intervention
Group.
Further recommendation for this kind of study is see to effect of the Distribution of
Information intervention on a longer observation period. Future researchers may try different kinds
of intervention with a different observation period. They could also research about another
particular disorder rather than suicidal behavioral disorder.
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About the Editors

Savipra Alexandrio De Jesus Gorospe
A resolute, perceptive, and conscientious BA Psychology alumnus.
Can build insight on information from psychological assessments
and project into training opportunities; crusader of learning and
development, with excellent analytical, interpersonal, and
presentation skills; seeking further training and experience in
training & development and optimizing peoples performance in the
workplace while furthering his career towards being a Licensed
Psychometrician and as a future I/O Psychologist.
Chennie Alyssa B. Regala

Is a diligent, highly motivated and has a keen sense of responsibility
alumna of BA Psychology in San Beda College Alabang. Has been
a consistent deans lister during her academic term; always willing
to learn with iniative and fully devote herself to designated schemes;
has the ability to resolve interpersonal conflicts and creates positive
learning environment. She is in her quest of enhancing her formal
education and gain more application learning about Psychology to
become a Professional and Licensed Psychometrician.
Renzen Pauline Martinez

A responsible person who engage in different activities and an
alumna of BA Psychology in San Beda College Alabang. She was an
active member of the Peer Facilitators Guild, an organization created
as an extension of the Guidance Office, and became its president in
her third year then became its fourth year level representative in her
senior year. Always ready to help other people for their own personal
growth and create fun new experiences that can help others. She is
searching for other experiences and training to broaden her
knowledge about Psychology while working her way to her desired
career as a Licensed Psychometrician and an HR in a company
311
San Beda College Alabang

Alabang Hills Village, Muntinlupa City
Tel. Nos.: (02) 772-2357 (02) 842-3508 loc. 211
College of Arts & Sciences

Edited by:
Paul V. Hilario, Ph.D.
College of Arts and Sciences Dean
Savipra Alexandrio DJ. Gorospe
Volume 1 Editor-In-Chief
Chennie Regala
Renzen Pauline Martinez
Cover Page Art Designed by:

Kryshnan Vergara
Jan Paula Minas
312

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THE BEDAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2015 | VOLUME I

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