keywords in sound

david novak + mat t sak akeeny [editors]

keywords
in sound

david novak and matt sakakeeny, editors

duke university press Durham and London 2015
© 2015 Duke University Press
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States
of America on acid-free paper ∞
Designed by Amy Ruth Buchanan
Typeset in Quadraat
by Westchester Book Group

Library of Congress Cataloging-

in-Publication Data
Keywords in sound / David Novak and
Matt Sakakeeny, eds.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
isbn 978-0-8223-5903-6 (hardcover : alk. paper)
isbn 978-0-8223-5889-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)
isbn 978-0-8223-7549-4 (e-book)
1. Sound—Terminology. I. Novak, David, 1969–
II. Sakakeeny, Matt, 1971–
qc225.15.k499 2015
152.1'5—dc23
2014041994

Cover art: Lissajous curves created by Mark McCombs.

 contents
introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . David Novak and Matt Sakakeeny, 1
[1] acoustemology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steven Feld, 12
[2] acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Benjamin Steege, 22
[3] body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deborah Kapchan, 33
[4] deafness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mara Mills, 45
[5] echo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mark M. Smith, 55
[6] hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jonathan Sterne, 65
[7] image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . John Mowitt, 78
[8] language . . . . . . . . . . . .David Samuels and Thomas Porcello, 87
[9] listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tom Rice, 99
[10] music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Matt Sakakeeny, 112
[11] noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David Novak, 125
[12] phonography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Patrick Feaster, 139
[13] radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Daniel Fisher, 151
[14] religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charles Hirschkind, 165
[15] resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Veit Erlmann, 175
[16] silence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ana María Ochoa Gautier, 183
[17] space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Andrew J. Eisenberg, 193
[18] synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tara Rodgers, 208
[19] transduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stefan Helmreich, 222
[20] voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Amanda Weidman, 232
contributors, 247 index, 253
David Novak and Matt Sakakeeny

introduction

Sound is vibration that is perceived and becomes known through its ma-
teriality. Metaphors for sound construct perceptual conditions of hearing
and shape the territories and boundaries of sound in social life. Sound
resides in this feedback loop of materiality and metaphor, infusing words
with a diverse spectrum of meanings and interpretations. To engage
sound as the interrelation of materiality and metaphor is to show how
deeply the apparently separate fields of perception and discourse are en-
twined in everyday experiences and understandings of sound, and how
far they extend across physical, philosophical, and cultural contexts.
The oed defines sound strictly as matter, “that which is or may be
heard; the external object of audition, or the property of bodies by which
this is produced.” The physical forms of sound—as impulses that move
particles of air and travel through bodies and objects—provide the fun-
damental ground for hearing, listening, and feeling, which in turn enable
common structures of communication and social development, as well
as elemental survival skills. The raw “stuff ” of sound is the tangible basis
of music, speech, embodiment, and spatial orientation, and a substan-
tive object of scientific experimentation and technological mediation. We
analyze language with phonemes, we locate ourselves in spaces through
reverberation, we distribute sound and capture it as sound waves on vinyl
or magnetic tape, or as binary codes in digital compression formats, and
we feel it in our bodies and vibrate sympathetically.
But the conceptual fields used to define sound—for example, silence,
hearing, or voice—circulate not as passive descriptions of sonic phenom-
ena but as ideas that inform experience. Metaphors “have the power to
define reality,” as Lakoff and Johnson influentially argued, “through a co-
herent network of entailments that highlight some features of reality and
hide others” (1980: 157). To “hear” a person is to recognize their subjec-
tivity, just as to “have a voice” suggests more than the ability to speak or
sing, but also a manifestation of internal character, even essential human
consciousness. Sound, then, is a substance of the world as well as a basic
part of how people frame their knowledge about the world.
This book is a conceptual lexicon of specific keywords that cut across
the material and metaphorical lives of sound. A lexicon is not just a cata-
log of language but a vocabulary that is actualized in use. The keywords
here have been chosen for their prevalence and significance in both schol-
arship and in everyday perceptions of sound. Contributors approach their
keywords differently, but each begins by addressing the etymology or se-
mantic range of his or her keyword and then goes on to reveal how these
terms develop conceptual grammars and organize social, cultural, and
political discourses of sound. To reexamine these words is, first, to invoke
them as artifacts of rich and diverse histories of thought, and second, to
attend to the existential and even mundane presence of sound in every-
day life.
In this, and in many other ways, we take inspiration from Raymond Wil-
liams, whose Keywords (1985) remains the central reference for students of
culture, literature, materialism, and more. Williams’s taxonomy does not
end with description and classification; he integrates the historical mean-
ings that cluster around a particular term into a relational field of inter-
pretation. We can see the utility of this approach in his famous reading of
the term “culture,” which he distinguishes as one of the most complicated
words in the English language. “Culture” is a noun of process for tending
of natural growth, even as this process is linked to the material product
of animal and plant husbandry; “culture” becomes an independent noun
that, in turn, indicates a separate kind of matter yet to be “cultivated.”
These practical and material meanings extend into metaphors of social
cultivation that reinforce a progressive linear history of “civilization.” This
universal model of human culture was pluralized and rematerialized in the
Romantic separation between multiple national and traditional cultures
(such as “folk-culture”) and “high cultural” productions of music, theater,
art, and education (symbolic forms that could now be capitalized as “Cul-
ture”). Williams shows how these simultaneous meanings of “culture”—
as a human developmental process, as a way of life for a particular people,
and as a set of artistic works and practices—cannot be usefully clarified in
distinction from one another. Despite producing discrete and sometimes
radically incommensurable interpretations, “it is the range and overlap of
meanings that is significant” (Williams 1985: 91).1

2 David Novak and Matt Sakakeeny

 Williams was interested in the many possibilities not only for defining
culture but also for studying culture, and his work was foundational to
the field of cultural studies, which did not exist as such when Williams
published his seminal Culture and Society in 1958. Keywords provided a point
of intersection and a unifying discourse for scholars applying various re-
search methods to diverse topics under the banner of cultural studies.
While Keywords in Sound is a different book, from a different time, for an
interdisciplinary field that is already relatively established, Williams of-
fers us a model for taking up a topic so vast and familiar (“sound”) and
situating it within and against a field that is necessarily narrower and
more fragmented (“sound studies”). As with “culture,” the links between
terms of sonic discourse and their conceptual genealogies require critical
interrogation. We have adopted the keyword format in an attempt to di-
rectly lay out the foundational terms of debate and map the shared ground
of sound studies.2
The intellectual histories within each keyword are entwined in ways
that destabilize and denaturalize sound as a distinct object of research.
For example, after articulating together the terms silence, deafness,
noise, and echo, it becomes apparent that attempts to define them as the
negation of sound or mere artifacts of sound “itself ” are narrowly limited.
In both silence and deafness, the presumed absence of sound is shown
to be the impetus for a host of sound-oriented developments, including
new forms of composition (e.g. John Cage’s 4'33"), communication (e.g.
lip-reading, braille, sign language), technology (e.g. Bell’s telephone,
the audiometer, the hearing aid), and metaphysical theories of acoustic
multinaturalism. Noise was repeatedly reconceptualized through the In-
dustrial Revolution and the growth of urban centers, and noise continues
to mean very different things for audio engineers, city and country resi-
dents, and avant-garde composers; for animals, birds, and insects; and
for recording machines and networks of transmission. In their attempts
to reanimate the past, historians have devised methodologies for excavat-
ing echoes that are never fully retrievable, piecing together traces from
decontextualized sound recordings or, more commonly, working in silent
archives of textual description. Far from being constructed against noises,
echoes, and silences, the domain of sound is constituted by them.
The entries in this book draw on an enormous variety of approaches to
the study of sound, each of which carries its own conceptual genealogy.
But their referential fields are not self-contained, and each keyword links

introduction 3
to the others in ways that disrupt linear histories of inquiry. Identifying
a keyword such as noise does not mean that there is something discrete
out there in the world that is containable within the term itself, or that it
could be conceived as a category without reference to its opposites (i.e.,
silence, music, order, meaning). In illuminating specific keywords, then,
our intention is not to produce a centralized frame of reference or a ca-
nonical list of conceptual terms. Instead, we elucidate the philosophical
debates and core problems in the historical development of studies of
sound, both during and prior to their reconfiguration under the banner
of sound studies.
Words for sound can also interanimate one another. In positioning
two keywords with such radically different legacies as transduction and
acoustemology into a relationship of complementarity, the conceptual
whole becomes greater than the sum of its referential parts. Proceeding
through a social critique of science and technology, Stefan Helmreich
wonders if the utility of transduction as the material transformation of
energy reaches a limit in the sonic ecologies of the rainforest, where Ste-
ven Feld developed his theory of acoustemology, a phenomenological ap-
proach to sound as a way of knowing. And yet virtually every aspect of
Feld’s research required processes of transduction—from the listening
practices adopted by the Kaluli to navigate the soundscape of birds and
waterfalls to the microphones used to capture those sounds for the re-
cording Voices of the Rainforest, to the headphones and loudspeakers that
allow a distant listener to access and interpret representations of this
world of sound. In juxtaposing two very different keywords, our hope is
that the reader will not only recognize them each as constituent elements
of sound studies but also reconsider how the integration of such discrep-
ancies and overlaps might allow for the emergence of new concepts of
sound.
Following from this logic, we do not include a separate entry for
“sound.” Instead, this über-keyword emerges as a semiotic web, woven
by the complementarities and tensions of its entanglements in different
intellectual histories. Sound has been conceptualized as a material unit of
scientific measurement subject to experimentation and manipulation
as acoustic data. Sound can also be conceived through its resonance in
space as a nonsemantic, nonexpressive environmental context. On the other
hand sound is analyzed as a purely semantic object of language that dis-
tinguishes humans from other animals, and then again as the perceptual

4 David Novak and Matt Sakakeeny

ground for subjectivities formed through feeling, embodiment, and the
reception of listening. The central reference point of sound binds to-
gether these disparate approaches, even as they break its meanings down
and partition its effects into different subareas. But sound studies cannot
become an interdisciplinary field by insisting on a holistic object that can
hold together across these historical gaps and ruptures. Instead, scholars
can expand sound studies by knowing and saying more about what we
mean when we reference sound, and becoming more reflexive about how
its meanings are positioned within a range of interpretations.
As editors, our own perspective derives in part from our affiliations
with music and anthropology. The differences between these approaches
are instructive for considering their interventions in sound studies: the
former represents a legacy of historical systems of sonic production and
analysis, and the latter an emergent program of social constructivism that
reframes sound as an object of culture and human agency. There are, of
course, points of overlap and intersection between these and many other
disciplines, yet each has developed unique lines of inquiry in the develop-
ment of sound studies.
Historically, music has stood as the most distinct object in studies of
sound, partly because it elicits a heightened attention to sound and a wide-
spread recognition of its characteristics, and partly because it represents
a robust and established literature about sound, touching on its creative
organization and social valuation. Along with speech, the study of music
subsumed the study of sound until the Scientific Revolution, resulting in
the first attempts to scientize sound in relation to the “harmony of the
spheres,” to entextualize sound as graphical notation, and to philosophize
sound as an aesthetic art form. Having congealed over centuries, the the-
matic frames of music studies—style and repertoire, aesthetic apprecia-
tion and biography, along with the proprietary tools used to formally ana-
lyze musical texts—have been productively questioned in sound studies.
For example, recent work by David Suisman and Susan Strasser (2009),
Mark Katz (2010), Jonathan Sterne (2012), and others has foregrounded the
technological production and social consumption of music, revealing how
these processes of mediation have conditioned reception, aurality, and the
creative agency of listening. Collections edited by Georgina Born (2013),
Michael Bull (2013), and Sumanth Gopinath and Jason Stanyek (2014)
demonstrate how music in spatial environments is subject to interpreta-
tions that extend far beyond music as it has been socially constructed as

introduction 5
an autonomous art form. As another indicator, the Special Interest Group
for Sound Studies formed within the Society for Ethnomusicology in 2009
to represent an increasing interest in sound and aurality.
But if sound studies has presented specific challenges to the field of
music studies and offered productive paths forward, the repositioning
of “music” within the domain of “sound” has sometimes minimized or
obscured the vastly different histories of these terminological concepts.
Music studies predates sound studies by two millennia yet maintains an
amorphous presence in the new order. The more we follow the trail of
sound studies, the more often we bump into things that had always been
called music, walking like a ghost through the gleaming hallways of the
house that sound built. “Sound” often denotes acoustic phenomena and
aspects of production and reception that register outside the realm of
“music” or displace its objects and cultural histories into an apparently
broader rubric. But does the term “sound” always accurately frame the par-
ticularities of soundscapes, media circulations, techniques of listening and
epistemologies of aurality, even when the practices in question are widely
recognized as musical and the sounds consistently heard and described as
music? The generalizability of sound, in its most imprecise uses, can side-
step the effects of institutional histories and the structuring influence of
entrenched debates. While we are not endorsing doctrinaire approaches,
the risk of ignoring the historical particularity of sonic categories is the
misrecognition of sound’s specific cultural formations.
In anthropology, the deeply coconstitutive relationship of sound and
culture has long been apprehended—from Franz Boas’s pioneering lin-
guistic study of “sound-blindness” (1889) to the homology of myth and
music that runs throughout Claude Levi-Strauss’s The Raw and the Cooked
(1973)—but not recognized as a distinct subject of study until the end of
the twentieth century. Feld first described his work as an “anthropology of
sound” in the 1980s through his fieldwork in the Bosavi rainforest, which
launched and helped organize the field around methodologies that bring
the phenomenological and environmental emplacements of sounding and
listening into ethnographic research (Feld 1996, 2012 [1982]). Studies of
language and voice, space and place, the body and the senses, music and
expressive culture, and other topics now consistently put sound at the center
of analysis. This turn is further reflected in recent institutional projects, in-
cluding a critical overview in the Annual Review of Anthropology (Samuels et al.
2010), a pair of issues dedicated to sound in Anthropology News (vol. 51, issues

6 David Novak and Matt Sakakeeny

9 and 10), and the establishment of a Music and Sound Interest Group in
the American Anthropological Association in 2009.
Anthropology’s signal contribution is the application of ethnographic
methodologies and theories in everyday experiences of sound and listen-
ing. Ethnography offers sound studies an ear into the expressive, embod-
ied, and participatory relationships with sound as it unfolds into power-
ful articulations of particular selves, publics, and transcultural identities
(Erlmann 2004). Fieldwork in multitrack recording studios, for example,
has shown how technologies of sound production can reveal conflicting
language ideologies among musicians and engineers (Porcello 2004),
stage a sonic “Nativeness” in powwow recordings (Scales 2012), or rep-
resent “the sound of Africa” as a transformative mix of different “tracks”
of cultural mediation (Meintjes 2003). Ethnographies have also begun
to develop sound studies’ potential to address comparative global per-
spectives of cultural difference. Contributors to this book bring an an-
thropological concern with social constructions of power and agency
to bear on playback singers in Indian popular cinema, Islamic listening
publics, Aboriginal radio broadcasters, and day laborers making noise in
an Osakan tent city.
But despite the interdisciplinary breadth of sound studies, the field
as a whole has remained deeply committed to Western intellectual lin-
eages and histories. As one example, of the dozens of books about sound
published by mit Press—a leader in science and technology studies, phi-
losophies of aesthetics, and cognition—none is principally invested in
non-Western perspectives or subjects. Sound studies has often reinforced
Western ideals of a normative subject, placed within a common context of
hearing and listening. Presumptions of universality have also led schol-
ars to treat sounds as stable objects that have predictable, often techno-
logically determined, effects on a generalized perceptual consciousness,
which might even be reduced to an entire “human condition.” This bias
is detectable in the work of sound studies’ de facto founder, R. Murray
Schafer (1977), who did not explicitly recognize the constitutive differ-
ences that participate in the “soundscape” as a multivalent field of sounds
with divergent social identities, individual creativities and affordances,
biodiversities and differing abilities.
However, increasing attention to sound in cultural studies, communi-
cation, literary criticism, and media studies has deepened understand-
ings of the role sound plays in formations of social difference. A recent

introduction 7
edition of differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies collected multiple
perspectives on the poetics of sonic identity, as mediated through lit-
erature, film, and audio technologies, with the intention of questioning
“(sonic) objectivity itself ” (Chow and Steintrager 2011: 2). Also in 2011,
American Quarterly divided the issue “Sound Clash: Listening to American
Studies” (Keeling and Kun 2011) into three subsections relating to various
forms of difference (“Sound Technologies and Subjectivities,” “Sounding
Race, Ethnicity, and Gender,” and “Sound, Citizenship, and the Public
Sphere”). The Social Text issue “The Politics of Recorded Sound” (Stadler
2010) gathered essays on topics ranging from ethnographic recordings of
Nuyorican communities to audio reenactments of lynchings. Several con-
tributors to these texts also participate in this book, where they and others
address power relations that have subtended the possibilities of hearing
and voicing, stigmatized disability, and subjugated different auralities.
While many keyword entries productively reference sonic identities
linked to socially constructed categories of gender, race, ethnicity, reli-
gion, disability, citizenship, and personhood, our project does not explic-
itly foreground these modalities of social difference. Rather, in curating a
conceptual lexicon for a particular field, we have kept sound at the center
of analysis, arriving at other points from the terminologies of sound, and
not the reverse. While we hope Keywords in Sound will become a critical
reference for sound studies, it is not an encyclopedia that represents every
sector of sound studies or includes every approach to the study of sound.
Important and growing areas of sound research—such as archaeoacous-
tics, ecomusicology, and the rise of multinaturalism through interspecies
studies of sound—are only gestured to at points. And while the physical
sciences feature prominently in many of the keyword entries as points of
cultural and historical inquiry, the fields of cognition, psychology, and
brain science receive scant mention. No doubt this is partly due to the
difficulty of bridging gaps between the physical and social sciences, but
it is also a result of our admitted skepticism toward studies that assume a
universal human subject without a full accounting of social, cultural, and
historical context.
It goes without saying that many possible keywords are absent for more
pragmatic reasons. Some, such as media, are folded into other terms (e.g.
phonography) or addressed from multiple perspectives by individual con-
tributors across different keyword entries. Others, such as senses, would
have ideally been included and were not only because of practical limita-

8 David Novak and Matt Sakakeeny

tions. We were not able to suitably address sound art, a field that has ex-
ploded in creative activity of every kind, from an efflorescence of theoreti-
cal and historical writing to the establishment of pedagogy in art schools
such as the Department of Sound at the Art Institute of Chicago and to
the sound installations that have become a norm at underground galleries
and major museums, including MoMA and the Whitney.3 Other possibili-
ties will undoubtedly arise in “retuning the world” of sound studies; we
hope that this project will play a generative role in the ongoing recogni-
tion of its conceptual categories.
Broadly speaking, our criteria for inclusion gave less weight to the spe-
cific words themselves than to their intellectual connections with the con-
tributors who wrote about them. We invited each of the authors to take up
a key concept that could serve as a nexus for multiple reference points in
critical discourse. Going beyond summaries of existing thought, we en-
couraged them to push further in creative elaborations of their keywords
from within their own work—often a focused analytical example, drawn
from ethnographic, historical, or philosophical research that has the po-
tential to challenge existing discourses and suggest possibilities for fur-
ther inquiry.
Any intellectual engagement with sound will necessarily reshape its
material significances and extend its metaphorical lives in particular
ways. Just as Williams’s writings about culture informed the critiques of
“writing culture” that followed his publication, we submit these keywords
as reflexive considerations of past writings about sound, as elaborations
on the broad conceptualizations of sound in everyday life, and as entry
points for future debate.

Notes
We thank all twenty authors for their patience in the back-and-forth (and sometimes
round-and-round) loops of feedback in the editorial process. We also thank Ken Wis-
soker and the team at Duke University Press, as well as the anonymous reviewers
who gave suggestions on the progress of the book. Finally, thanks to Peter Bloom,
Steven Feld, and Jonathan Sterne for their helpful advice on earlier versions of this
introduction.

1. Williams also laid the groundwork for more recent reference works that similarly
inspired us, including Words in Motion, edited by Carol Gluck and Anna Tsing (2009), Critical
Terms for Media Studies, edited by W. J. T. Mitchell and Mark Hansen (2010), and Key Terms
in Language and Culture, edited by Alessandro Duranti (2001), along with Jean-Francois

introduction 9
Augoyarde’s and Henry Torge’s Sonic Experience: A Guide to Everyday Sounds (2006), which
describes the experiential conditions and phenomenological effects of sound.
2. The chapters of this book are referred to throughout as “entries,” and are cross-
referenced throughout the book by title.
3. Recent studies of sound art include Cox and Warner (2004), Demers (2010), Kahn
(1999, 2013), Kelley (2011), Kim- Cohen (2009), LaBelle (2006), Licht (2007), Lucier
(2012), Rodgers (2010), and Voeglin (2010).

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York: Oxford University Press.

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