Testing and Analysis

Testing Elastomers for Hyperelastic Material

Models in Finite Element Analysis
By Kurt Miller, Axel Products, Inc.
2.6

2.4
Introduction
2.2

2.0
The objective of the testing described herein
Engineering Stress (MPa)

1.8
is to define and to satisfy the input require-
1.6

1.4
Planar Tension ments of mathematical material models that
1.2
Biaxial Extension exist in structural, non-linear finite element
1.0 analysis software
0.8

0.6 The testing of elastomers for the purpose

0.4 of defining material models is often mis-
Simple Tension
0.2 understood. The appropriate experiments
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
are not yet clearly defined by national or
Engineering Strain
international standards organizations. This
difficulty derives from the complex math-
Figure 1, A Typical Final Data Set for Input into a Curve Fitter ematical models that are required to define
the nonlinear and the nearly incompressible
attributes of elastomers.

Most of these models are referred to as hyperelastic material models. It is beyond the scope of this article to discuss
the details of particular hyperelastic material models. However, most models share common test data input require-
ments. In general, stress and strain data sets developed by stretching the elastomer in several
modes of deformation are required and “fitted” to sufficiently define the variables in the
material models. A typical set of 3 stress strain curves appropriate for input into fitting
routines are shown are shown in Figure 1. Appropriate experimental loading sequences and
realistic strain levels are needed to capture the elastomer behavior that applies in the analysis.

Testing in Multiple Strain States

The modes of deformation each put the material into a particular state of strain. One objec-
tive of testing is to achieve “pure” states of strain such that the stress strain curve represents
the elastomer behavior only in the desired state.
Figure 2, Analysis of a
Tension Specimen
This testing is not failure oriented. The intention is to model the behavior of the material in
the working range of strain and stress.

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For incompressible elastomers, the basic
strain states are simple tension, pure shear
and simple compression. For experimental
reasons discussed further on, compression
is replaced by equal biaxial extension. For
slightly compressible situations or situations
where an elastomer is highly constrained, a
volumetric compression test may be needed
to determine the bulk behavior.

Simple Tension Strain State

Simple tension experiments are very popular
for elastomers. There are several standards
for the testing of elastomers in tension.
However, the experimental requirements for
analysis are somewhat different than most
standardized test methods. The most signif-
icant requirement is that in order to achieve Figure 3, A Tension Experiment using a Video Extensometer
a state of pure tensile strain, the specimen
be much longer in the direction of stretching than in the width and thickness dimensions. The objective is to create
an experiment where there is no lateral constraint to specimen thinning. One can perform finite element analysis on
the specimen geometry to determine the specimen length to width ratio (Figure 2)6. The results of this analysis will
show that the specimen needs to be at least 10 times longer than the width or thickness. Since the experiment is not
intended to fail the specimen, there is not a need to use a “dogbone” shape specimen. There is also not an absolute
specimen size requirement.

The length in this case refers to the specimen length between the instrument clamps. Specimen clamps create an
indeterminate state of stress and strain in the region surrounding the clamp in the process of gripping. Therefore,
the specimen straining must be measured on the specimen, but away from the clamp, where a pure tension strain
state is occurring. A non-contacting strain measuring device such as a video extensometer or laser extensometer is
required to achieve this (Figure 3).

Pure Shear Strain State

Figure 4, Analysis of a Pure Shear Specimen
The pure shear experiment used for analysis is not what most of us
would expect. The experiment appears at first glance to be nothing
more than a very wide tensile test. However, because the material is
nearly incompressible, a state of pure shear exists in the specimen at
a 45 degree angle to the stretching direction7. The most significant
aspect of the specimen is that it is much shorter in the direction of
stretching than the width. The objective is to create an experiment
where the specimen is perfectly constrained in the lateral direction
such that all specimen thinning occurs in the thickness direction.

Finite element analysis of the specimen geometry will show that

the specimen must be at least 10 times wider than the length in the
stretching direction (Figure 4)5. This experiment is very sensitive to
Figure 5, A Pure Shear Experiment Using a Laser this ratio. A non-contacting strain measuring device must be used
Extensometer

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to measure strain away from the clamp edges where the pure strain
state is occurring (Figure 5).

Simple Compression Strain State

The compression experiment is also a popular test for elastomers.

When testing for analysis, pure states of strain are desired and this
is especially difficult to achieve experimentally in compression.
Because there is friction between the test specimen and the instru-
ment platens, the specimen is not completely free to expand laterally
during compression. Even very small of friction coefficient levels
such as 0.1 between the specimen and the platen can cause substan- Figure 6, A Lubricated Compression Specimen Show-
tial shearing strains that alter the stress response to straining (Figure ing Lateral Constraining from Friction at the Surface
6). Often, the maximum shear strain exceeds the maximum com-
pression strain! Because the actual friction is not known, the data
cannot be corrected.

Equal Biaxial Strain State

For incompressible or nearly incompressible materials, equal biaxial

extension of a specimen creates a state of strain equivalent to pure
compression. Although the actual experiment is more complex
than the simple compression experiment, a pure state of strain can
be achieved which will result in a more accurate material model.
The equal biaxial strain state may be achieved by radial stretching a
circular disc. Finite element analysis of the specimen is required to
determine the appropriate geometry of the clamping points (Figure
7)4. Once again, a non-contacting strain measuring device must be
used such that strain is measured away from the clamp edges (Figure
8).
Figure 7, Analysis of a Biaxial Specimen
Volumetric Compression

Volumetric compression is an experiment where the compressibility

of the material is examined. In this experiment, a cylindrical speci-
men is constrained in a fixture and compressed (Figure 9). The
actual displacement during compression is very small and great care
must be taken to measure only the specimen compliance and not
the stiffness of the instrument itself. The initial slope of the result-
ing stress-strain function is the bulk modulus. This value is typi-
cally 2-3 orders of magnitude greater than the shear modulus for
elastomers.

Creating a Consistent Data Set

Although the experiments are performed separately and the strain Figure 8, A Biaxial Extension Experiment using a
Laser Extensometer (Out of the Image)
states are different, data from all of the individual experiments is
used as a set. This means that the specimens used for each of the
experiments must be of the same material. This may seem obvi-

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 ous but if the specimens are specially molded to accommodate the
differing instrument clamps for different experiments, it is possible
that the material processing parameters may cause material varia-
tions from test to test. While it is reasonable to assume that varia-
tion exists in the production environment and that we can never
really get the exact material properties every time, it is not accept-
able to have this same variation within the data set. The data rep-
resents a “snapshot” in time. If even slight variation exists between
experiments, a physically impossible material model may be devel-
oped in the analysis software. The best way to avoid this problem
is to cut specimens for simple tension, pure shear and equal biaxial
extension from the same slab of material.
Figure 9, A Volumetric Compression Fixture with
Specimens
The loading conditions, strain levels and straining rates should also
be developed considering the inter-relationship between tests.

Using Slow Cyclic Loadings to Create Stress Strain Curves

The structural properties of elastomers change significantly during the first several times that the material expe-
riences straining. This behavior is commonly referred to as the Mullin’s effect1. If an elastomer is loaded to a
particular strain level followed by complete unloading to zero stress several times, the change in structural prop-
erties from cycle to cycle as measured by the stress strain function will diminish. When the stress strain function
no longer changes significantly, the material may be considered to be stable for strain levels below that particular
strain maximum.

If the elastomer is then taken to a new higher strain maximum, the structural properties will again change
significantly. This behavior is documented throughout the literature.2 One example of this behavior is shown
in Figure 10 where a filled natural rubber is strained to 40% strain for 10 repetitions followed by straining to
100% for 10 repetitions. Another example is shown in Figures 11,12, and 13 where a thermoplastic elastomer
is strained to 20% strain for 10 repetitions followed by straining to 50% for 10 repetitions.

Observations

Several observations can be made regarding this behavior which are true to a varying degree for all elastomers.

1. The stress strain function for the 1st time an elastomer is strained is never again repeated. It is a unique
event.
2. The stress strain function does stabilize after between 3 and 20 repetitions for most elastomers.
3. The stress strain function will again change significantly if the material experiences strains greater than the
previous stabilized level. In general, the stress strain function is sensitive to the maximum strain ever experi-
enced.
4. The stress strain function of the material while increasing strain is different than the stress strain function of
the material while decreasing strain.
5. After the initial straining, the material does not return to zero strain at zero stress. There is some degree
of permanent deformation.

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Limitations of Hyperelastic Mate-
rial Models
Simple Tension

Most material models in commercially 3.0

available finite element analysis codes allow

2.5
the analyst to describe only a subset of the

Engineering Stress (MPa)

structural properties of elastomers. This 2.0
discussion revolves around hyperelastic
material models such as the Mooney-Rivlin 1.5

and Ogden formulations and relates to

1.0
those issues which effect testing.
0.5
1. The stress strain functions in the model
are stable. They do not change with repeti- 0.0

tive loading. The material model does not 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

differentiate between a 1st time strain and Engineering Strain

a 100th time straining of the part under
analysis.
2. There is no provision to alter the stress Figure 10, Cyclic Loading of Filled Natural Rubber

strain description in the material model

based on the maximum strains experienced.
3. The stress strain function is fully reversible so that increasing strains and decreasing strains use the same stress
strain function. Loading and unloading the part under analysis is the same.
4. The models treat the material as perfectly elastic meaning that there is no provision for permanent strain
deformation. Zero stress is always zero strain.

The Need for Judgement

Because the models use a simple reversible stress strain input, one must input a stress strain function that is relevant
to the to loading situation expected in the application. Naturally, this may be difficult because the very purpose of
the analysis is to learn about the stress strain condition in the part. However, there are a few guidelines that may be
considered.

1. If the focus of the analysis is to examine the first time straining of an elastomeric part, then use the first time
stress strain curves from material tests. This might be the case when examining the stresses experienced when install-
ing a part for the first time.
2. If the focus of the analysis is to understand the typical structural condition of a part in service, use stress strain
curves derived by cycling a material until it is stable and extracting the stabilized increasing strain curve.
3. If the focus of the analysis is to understand the unloading performance of a part in service by examining the
minimum stress conditions, extract a stabilized decreasing strain curve.
4. Perform experiments at strain levels that are reasonable for the application. Large strains that greatly exceed
those that the part will experience will alter the material properties such that they are unrealistic for the application
of interest.
Stabilize the material at 2 or more different levels to cover a broader range of performance and to measure just how
sensitive the structural properties are to maximum strain levels.

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 Stress Relaxation
1.2
Slow cyclic loadings alone may not be suf-
1.0 ficient to characterize an elastomer. If an
Engineering Stress (MPa)

elastomer is stretched to a particular strain

0.8 and held, the stress in the elastomer will
decrease over time3. This decrease in stress
0.6
over time is referred to as stress relaxation.
This reduction in stress can be a signifi-
0.4
cant fraction of the initial stress. For many
elastomers, the normalized shape of the
0.2
stress-time function is relatively insensitive
to the absolute strain level and to the strain
state. This behavior, viscoelastic behavior,
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 is typically modeled separately from the
Engineering Strain hyperelastic behavior.
Figure 11, 1st Loading of a Thermoplastic Elastomer
A simple loading experiment where the a
specimen is stretched to a set strain and
allowed to relax may be performed to provide sufficient data to model this behavior. The material data is typically
fitted using a Proney Series expansion. The accuracy with which this may be fitted is sensitive to the number of
decades of time data. This means that the relaxation data from .1 second to 1 second is as valuable to the fit as the
relaxation data from 1 second to 10 seconds and so on. As such, proper data collection early in the experiment can
provide several decades of time data without running the experiment over several days.

There are many other loading patterns used to develop stress strain curves for input into the fitting routines of
analysis software. Sets of relaxation curves may be used to create stabilized data sets, dynamic vibrations may be
superimposed on relaxation data8 and all of the loading patterns above can be performed across a broad range of
temperatures.
1.2
Data Reduction Considerations
1.0
The stress strain experimental data may
Engineering Stress (MPa)

need to be modified for input into curve

0.8
fitters. Most curve fitters use engineering
0.6
strain and engineering stress input files. If
the first time stress strain curves are used,
0.4
the data reduction is straightforward. The
only modification might be to reduce the
0.2 number of data points so the curve fitter
can handle the data set.
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
If a stabilized loading is going to be used,
Engineering Strain
then several steps are needed. First, a
piece of the data needs to be cut from a
Figure 12, Multiple Strain Cycles of a Thermoplastic Elastomer larger data set. In addition to reducing
the number of data points in the data set,
corrections need to be made because the stress strain “slice” has a nonzero initial strain. The strain zero needs to be
shifted, the strain needs to be corrected for a new larger starting gage length and the stress needs to be modified for a
new cross sectional area.
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Summary

Physical testing of elastomers for the purpose of fitting material models in finite element analysis requires experi-
ments in multiple states of strain under carefully considered loading conditions. The material models themselves
have limitations and these limitations must also be considered. Fortunately, the actual shapes of the test specimens
can be examined and verified using analysis.

References:

1. Mullins, L. “Softening of Rubber by

Deformation,” Rubber Chemistry and 1.2

Technology, Vol. 42, pp. 339-362, 1969.

1.0

Engineering Stress (MPa)

2. Gent, A.N., Engineering with Rubber,
0.8
Oxford University Press, New York, NY,
1992.
0.6

3. Ferry, J.D. Viscoelastic Properties of Poly- 0.4

mers (2nd Ed.), John Wiley & Sons, New
York, NY, 1970. 0.2

4. Day, J. “A Method for Equibiaxial 0.0

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Stretching of Elastomeric Sheets”, HKS
Michigan Update Seminar and Users’ Meet- Engineering Strain

ing, Novi, Michigan, November 16, 1999.

Figure 13, Multiple Strain Cycles of a Thermoplastic Elastomer at 2 Maximum Strain
Levels
5. Wolf, D. and Miller, K. “Experimental
Elastomer Analysis”, Presented at a meeting of the Rubber Division, American Chemical Society, Orlando, Florida,
September 21-24, 1999.

6. Dalrymple, T., Experimental Elastomer Analysis Course Notes, Ann Arbor, Michigan, January, 1998.

7. Timoshenko, S.P. Theory of Elasticity (3rd Ed.), McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1970.

8. K N Morman, Jr., and J C Nagtegaal, Finite Element Analysis of Sinusoidal Small-Amplitude Vibrations in
Deformed Viscoelastic Solids. Part I. Theoretical Development, International Journal for Numerical Methods in
Engineering, Vol. 19, pp.1079-1103 (1983)

For more information, visit www.axelproducts.com.

Axel Products provides physical testing services for engineers and analysts. The focus is
on the characterization of nonlinear materials such as elastomers and plastics.

Axel Products, Inc.

2255 S Industrial
Ann Arbor MI 48104
Tel: 734 994 8308
Fax: 734 994 8309
[email protected]