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    Uses and Misuses of Statistics

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    georgeloto12
    This document discusses how statistics can be both used and misused. It explains that while statistical techniques can be used to analyze and understand data, statistics can also be intentionally misrepresented to prove false claims, sell ineffective products, or manipulate people's emotions. Some ways statistics can be misused include using small, non-representative samples; selecting averages or data representations that bias results; implying connections between variables that may not exist; using misleading graphs; and asking biased questions in surveys. Care must be taken to properly evaluate statistical analysis and not assume conclusions are always valid or can be generalized.

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    Uses and Misuses of Statistics

    Uploaded by

    georgeloto12
    1K views3 pages
    This document discusses how statistics can be both used and misused. It explains that while statistical techniques can be used to analyze and understand data, statistics can also be intentionally misrepresented to prove false claims, sell ineffective products, or manipulate people's emotions. Some ways statistics can be misused include using small, non-representative samples; selecting averages or data representations that bias results; implying connections between variables that may not exist; using misleading graphs; and asking biased questions in surveys. Care must be taken to properly evaluate statistical analysis and not assume conclusions are always valid or can be generalized.

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    Uses and Misuses of Statistics

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    This document discusses how statistics can be both used and misused. It explains that while statistical techniques can be used to analyze and understand data, statistics can also be intentionally misrepresented to prove false claims, sell ineffective products, or manipulate people's emotions. Some ways statistics can be misused include using small, non-representative samples; selecting averages or data representations that bias results; implying connections between variables that may not exist; using misleading graphs; and asking biased questions in surveys. Care must be taken to properly evaluate statistical analysis and not assume conclusions are always valid or can be generalized.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as docx, pdf, or txt
    1K views3 pages

    Uses and Misuses of Statistics

    Uploaded by

    georgeloto12
    This document discusses how statistics can be both used and misused. It explains that while statistical techniques can be used to analyze and understand data, statistics can also be intentionally misrepresented to prove false claims, sell ineffective products, or manipulate people's emotions. Some ways statistics can be misused include using small, non-representative samples; selecting averages or data representations that bias results; implying connections between variables that may not exist; using misleading graphs; and asking biased questions in surveys. Care must be taken to properly evaluate statistical analysis and not assume conclusions are always valid or can be generalized.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as docx, pdf, or txt
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    The passage discusses how statistics can be both accurately used to describe data but also misused to misrepresent information or push agendas. Some key ways discussed are using small, non-representative samples or ambiguous averages.

    Some ways statistics can be misused according to the passage include using small, non-representative samples, ambiguous averages that can be selectively chosen, changing units to influence perception of data, implying connections that aren't proven, and using detached statistics without relevant comparisons.

    The passage explains how small sample sizes, convenience samples that don't represent the overall population, volunteer samples that have inherent biases, and only sampling specific demographics without justifying wider generalization can all affect how reliably statistics from those samples can be applied more broadly.

    Uses and Misuses of Statistics

    As explained previously, statistical techniques can be used to describe data, compare


    two
    or more data sets, determine if a relationship exists between variables, test hypotheses,
    and make estimates about population characteristics. However, there is another aspect
    of
    statistics, and that is the misuse of statistical techniques to sell products that dont work
    properly, to attempt to prove something true that is really not true, or to get our
    attention
    by using statistics to evoke fear, shock, and outrage.
    There are two sayings that have been around for a long time that illustrate this point:
    There are three types of lieslies, damn lies, and statistics.
    Figures dont lie, but liars figure.
    Objective
    Explain how statistics
    can be used and
    misused.

    7
    Just because we read or hear the results of a research study or an opinion poll in the
    media, this does not mean that these results are reliable or that they can be applied to
    any
    and all situations. For example, reporters sometimes leave out critical details such as
    the
    size of the sample used or how the research subjects were selected. Without this
    information,
    you cannot properly evaluate the research and properly interpret the conclusions
    of the study or survey.
    It is the purpose of this section to show some ways that statistics can be misused. You
    should not infer that all research studies and surveys are suspect, but that there are
    many
    factors to consider when making decisions based on the results of research studies and
    surveys. Here are some ways that statistics can be misrepresented.
    Suspect Samples
    The first thing to consider is the sample that was used in the research study. Sometimes
    researchers use very small samples to obtain information. Several years ago,
    advertisements
    contained such statements as Three out of four doctors surveyed recommend
    brand such and such. If only 4 doctors were surveyed, the results could have been
    obtained by chance alone; however, if 100 doctors were surveyed, the results might be
    quite different.
    Not only is it important to have a sample size that is large enough, but also it is
    necessary to see how the subjects in the sample were selected. Studies using
    volunteers
    sometimes have a built-in bias. Volunteers generally do not represent the population at
    large. Sometimes they are recruited from a particular socioeconomic background, and
    sometimes unemployed people volunteer for research studies to get a stipend. Studies
    that require the subjects to spend several days or weeks in an environment other than
    their home or workplace automatically exclude people who are employed and cannot
    take time away from work. Sometimes only college students or retirees are used in
    studies. In the past, many studies have used only men, but have attempted to
    generalize
    the results to both men and women. Opinion polls that require a person to phone

    or mail in a response most often are not representative of the population in general,
    since only those with strong feelings for or against the issue usually call or respond
    by mail.
    Another type of sample that may not be representative is the convenience sample.
    Educational studies sometimes use students in intact classrooms since it is convenient.
    Quite often, the students in these classrooms do not represent the student population of
    the entire school district.
    When results are interpreted from studies using small samples, convenience samples,
    or volunteer samples, care should be used in generalizing the results to the entire
    population.
    Ambiguous Averages
    In Chapter 3, you will learn that there are four commonly used measures that are
    loosely
    called averages. They are the mean, median, mode, and midrange. For the same data
    set,
    these averages can differ markedly. People who know this can, without lying, select the
    one measure of average that lends the most evidence to support their position.
    Changing the Subject
    Another type of statistical distortion can occur when different values are used to
    represent
    the same data. For example, one political candidate who is running for reelection
    Section 15 Uses and Misuses of Statistics 17

    117

    might say, During my administration, expenditures increased a mere 3%. His


    opponent,
    who is trying to unseat him, might say, During my opponents administration,
    expenditures have increased a whopping $6,000,000. Here both figures are correct;
    however, expressing a 3% increase as $6,000,000 makes it sound like a very large
    increase. Here again, ask yourself, Which measure better represents the data?
    Detached Statistics
    A claim that uses a detached statistic is one in which no comparison is made. For
    example,
    you may hear a claim such as Our brand of crackers has one-third fewer calories.
    Here, no comparison is made. One-third fewer calories than what? Another example is a
    claim that uses a detached statistic such as Brand A aspirin works four times faster.
    Four times faster than what? When you see statements such as this, always ask
    yourself,
    Compared to what?
    Implied Connections
    Many claims attempt to imply connections between variables that may not actually
    exist.
    For example, consider the following statement: Eating fish may help to reduce your
    cholesterol. Notice the words may help. There is no guarantee that eating fish will
    definitely
    help you reduce your cholesterol.
    Studies suggest that using our exercise machine will reduce your weight. Here the
    word suggest is used; and again, there is no guarantee that you will lose weight by
    using
    the exercise machine advertised.
    Another claim might say, Taking calcium will lower blood pressure in some
    people. Note the word some is used. You may not be included in the group of some
    people. Be careful when you draw conclusions from claims that use words such as may,
    in some people, and might help.

    Misleading Graphs
    Statistical graphs give a visual representation of data that enables viewers to analyze
    and
    interpret data more easily than by simply looking at numbers. In Chapter 2, you will see
    how some graphs are used to represent data. However, if graphs are drawn
    inappropriately,
    they can misrepresent the data and lead the reader to draw false conclusions. The
    misuse of graphs is also explained in Chapter 2.
    Faulty Survey Questions
    When analyzing the results of a survey using questionnaires, you should be sure that
    the questions are properly written since the way questions are phrased can often
    influence
    the way people answer them. For example, the responses to a question such as
    Do you feel that the North Huntingdon School District should build a new football
    stadium? might be answered differently than a question such as Do you favor
    increasing
    school taxes so that the North Huntingdon School District can build a new football
    stadium? Each question asks something a little different, and the responses could be
    radically different. When you read and interpret the results obtained from questionnaire
    surveys, watch out for some of these common mistakes made in the writing of the
    survey questions.
    In Chapter 14, you will find some common ways that survey questions could be
    misinterpreted by those responding and could therefore result in incorrect conclusions.

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